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Craft
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For other uses, see Craft (disambiguation) and The Craft (disambiguation).
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Bagh Print Traditional hand block print craft in India
Woodworking being done in a workshop
Shoes are repaired by a skilled shoemaker, here he evaluates a pair of shoes with a customer watching
A craft or trade is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and knowledge of skilled work. In a historical sense, particularly the Middle Ages and earlier, the term is usually applied to people occupied in small-scale production of goods, or their maintenance, for example by tinkers. The traditional term craftsman is nowadays often replaced by artisan and rarely by craftsperson (craftspeople).
Historically, the more specialized crafts with high value products tended to concentrate in urban centers and formed guilds. The skill required by their professions and the need to be permanently involved in the exchange of goods often demanded a generally higher level of education, and craftsmen were usually in a more privileged position than the peasantry in societal hierarchy. The households of craftsmen were not as self-sufficient as those of people engaged in agricultural work and therefore had to rely on the exchange of goods. Some crafts, especially in areas such as pottery, woodworking, and the various stages of textile production, could be practiced on a part-time basis by those also working in agriculture, and often formed part of village life.
Once an apprentice of a craft had finished his apprenticeship, he would become a journeyman searching for a place to set up his own shop and make a living. After he set up his own shop, he could then call himself a master of his craft.
This system of a stepwise approach to mastery of a craft, which includes the obtainment of a certain amount of education and the learning of skills, has survived in some countries of the world until today. But crafts have undergone deep structural changes during and since the end of the Industrial Revolution. The mass production of goods by large-scale industry has limited crafts to market segments in which industry's modes of functioning or its mass-produced goods would not or cannot satisfy the preferences of potential buyers. Moreover, as an outcome of these changes, craftspeople today increasingly make use of semi-finished components or materials and adapt these to their customers' requirements or demands and, if necessary, to the environments of their customers. Thus, they participate in a certain division of labour between industry and craft.
Contents
1 Classification
1.1 Handicraft
1.2 The Arts and Crafts Movement
1.3 Studio crafts
1.4 Craft fairs
1.5 Tradesperson
2 See also
2.1 Communities
3 References
4 External links
Classification[edit]
Main article: Outline of crafts
There are three aspects to human creativity - Art, Crafts, and Science. Roughly determined, art relies upon intuitive sensing, vision and expression, crafts upon sophisticated technique and science upon knowledge.
Street handicraft: here a skilled metalsmith in Agra, India sits between scooters in a commercial area making careful observations in the practice of his trade
Handicraft[edit]
Main article: Handicraft
Handicraft is the "traditional" main sector of the crafts, it is a type of work where useful and decorative devices are made completely by hand or by using only simple tools. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods. The individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicraft goods. Handicraft goods are made with craft production processes.
The beginning of crafts in areas like the Ottoman Empire involved the governing bodies requiring members of the city who were skilled at creating goods to open shops in the center of town. These people slowly stopped acting as subsistence farmers (who created goods in their own homes to trade with neighbors) and began to represent what we think of a "craftsman" today.[1]
In recent years, crafts and craftspeople have slowly been gaining momentum as a subject of academic study. Stephanie Bunn was an artist before she became an anthropologist, and she went on to develop an academic interest on the process of craft - arguing that what happens to an object before it becomes a 'product' is an area worthy of study. [2]
Mexican craft.
The Arts and Crafts Movement[edit]
Main article: Arts and Crafts Movement
Japanese potter at his wheel (1914)
The term crafts is often used to describe the family of artistic practices within the family decorative arts that traditionally are defined by their relationship to functional or utilitarian products (such as sculptural forms in the vessel tradition) or by their use of such natural media as wood, clay, ceramics, glass, textiles, and metal.
Studio crafts[edit]
Main article: Studio craft
Crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in small groups are often referred to as studio craft. Studio craft includes studio pottery, metal work, weaving, wood turning, paper and other forms of wood working, glass blowing, and glass art.
Craft fairs[edit]
A craft fair is an organized event to display and sell crafts. There are craft shops where such goods are sold and craft communities, such as Craftster, where expertise is shared.
Tradesperson[edit]
Main article: Tradesperson
A tradesperson is a skilled manual worker in a particular trade or craft. Economically and socially, a tradesperson's status is considered between a laborer and a professional, with a high degree of both practical and theoretical knowledge of their trade. In cultures where professional careers are highly prized, there can be a shortage of skilled manual workers, leading to lucrative niche markets in the trades.
See also[edit]
Apprentice
Apprenticeship
Artisan
Arts and crafts
Arts and Crafts movement
Craft production
Decorative art
Guild
Japanese craft
Journeyman
Master craftsman
Otium
Profession
Semiprofession
Vocation
Bagh prints
Communities[edit]
American Craft Council
Japan Kōgei Association
Street Artists Program of San Francisco
Pike Place Market
Chamber of Commerce
Craft Northern Ireland
Crafts Association of British Columbia
General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen of the City of New York
Etsy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Suraiya., Faroqhi, (2014-01-01). Artisans of Empire : Crafts and Craftspeople Under the Ottomans. I.B. Tauris. p. 119. ISBN 9780857710628. OCLC 956646181.
Jump up ^ Ingold, Tim (2011). Redrawing Anthropology: Materials, Movements, Lines. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 21–22.
External links[edit]
Look up craft in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Media related to Crafts at Wikimedia Commons
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text:
Literary genre
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A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or even (as in the case of fiction) length. The distinctions between genres and categories are flexible and loosely defined, often with subgroups.
The most general genres in literature are (in loose chronological order) epic, tragedy,[1] comedy, and creative nonfiction.[citation needed] They can all be in the form of prose or poetry. Additionally, a genre such as satire, allegory or pastoral might appear in any of the above, not only as a subgenre (see below), but as a mixture of genres. Finally, they are defined by the general cultural movement of the historical period in which they were composed.
Genre should not be confused with age categories, by which literature may be classified as either adult, young adult, or children's. They also must not be confused with format, such as graphic novel or picture book.
Contents
1 Genres
2 Major forms
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links
Genres[edit]
Further information: List of writing genres
William Shakespeare's statue
Just as in painting, there are different types: the landscape, the still life, the portrait; there are different types of literary works. These types tend to share specific characteristics. Genres describe those works which share specific conventions.[2]
Genres are often divided into subgenres. Literature is divided into the classic three forms of Ancient Greece, poetry, drama, and prose. Poetry may then be subdivided into the genres of lyric, epic, and dramatic. The lyric includes all the shorter forms of poetry, e.g., song, ode, ballad, elegy, sonnet.[2] Dramatic poetry might include comedy, tragedy, melodrama, and mixtures like tragicomedy.
The standard division of drama into tragedy and comedy derives from Greek drama.[2] This parsing into subgenres can continue: comedy has its own subgenres, including, for example, comedy of manners, sentimental comedy, burlesque comedy, and satirical comedy.
Often, the criteria used to divide up works into genres are not consistent, and may change constantly, and be subject of argument, change and challenge by both authors and critics. However, even a very loose term like fiction ("literature created from the imagination, not presented as fact, though it may be based on a true story or situation") is not universally applied to all fictitious literature, but instead is typically restricted to the use for novel, short story, and novella, but not fables, and is also usually a prose text. Types of fiction genres are science fiction, fantasy, historical fiction, realistic fiction and mysteries.
Semi-fiction spans stories that include a substantial amount of non-fiction. It may be the retelling of a true story with only the names changed. The other way around, semi-fiction may also involve fictional events with a semi-fictional character, such as Jerry Seinfeld.
Genres may easily be confused with literary techniques, but, though only loosely defined, they are not the same; examples are parody, frame story, constrained writing, stream of consciousness.
Major forms[edit]
Poem (sonnets, haiku, limerick)
Prose (notebook, novel, novella, short story)
See also[edit]
Genre fiction
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Bakhtin 1983, p. 3.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Genres", A Guide to the Study of Literature: A Companion Text for Core Studies 6, Landmarks of Literature, English Department, Brooklyn College
References[edit]
Bakhtin, Mikhail M. (1983). "Epic and Novel". In Holquist, Michael. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-71527-7.
Derrida, Jacques; Ronell, Avital (Autumn 1980). "On Narrative: The Law of Genre" (PDF). Critical Inquiry. The University of Chicago Press. 7 (1): 55–81. doi:10.1086/448088.
Dorst, John D. (Oct–Dec 1983). "Neck-Riddle as a Dialogue off Genres: Applying Bakhtin's Genre Theory". Journal of American Folklore. 96 (382): 413–433. JSTOR 540982.
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List of U.S. federal prisons
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: Federal Bureau of Prisons
The seal of the Federal Bureau of Prisons, the agency that manages U.S. federal prisons
The Federal Bureau of Prisons classifies prisons into several categories:
United States Penitentiaries
Federal correctional institutions
Private correctional institutions
Federal prison camps
Administrative facilities
Federal correctional complexes[1]
This list does not include military prisons, state prisons, jails, or prisons operated under contract with local governments. It also does not include detention centers and facilities and processing centers run by Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 List of federal prisons
1.1 United States Penitentiaries
1.2 Federal correctional institutions
1.3 Private correctional institutions
1.4 Federal prison camps
1.5 Administrative facilities
2 See also
3 References
List of federal prisons[edit]
United States Penitentiaries[edit]
Most United States Penitentiaries (USPs) are high-security facilities, which have highly secured perimeters with walls or reinforced fences, multiple and single-occupant cell housing, the highest staff-to-inmate ratio, and close control of inmate movement. The most notable facility in the federal prison system is Florence ADX, the federal supermax prison in Florence, Colorado, which holds inmates who are considered the most dangerous and in need of the tightest controls. USP Atlanta, USP Leavenworth, USP Lompoc, and USP Marion are medium-security facilities. USP Hazelton is in the process of adding a medium-security facility to its existing high-security unit. USP Marion contains a highly restrictive Communication Management Unit, which holds inmates under stricter controls. Many USPs include minimum-security satellite camps on the same property and under the same administration as the higher-security unit(s).
† Includes female inmates
Name
Location
Administrative United States Penitentiary, Thomson Illinois
United States Penitentiary, Allenwood Pennsylvania
United States Penitentiary, Atlanta Georgia
United States Penitentiary, Atwater California
United States Penitentiary, Big Sandy Kentucky
United States Penitentiary, Beaumont Texas
United States Penitentiary, Canaan Pennsylvania
United States Penitentiary, Coleman† Florida
United States Penitentiary, Florence ADX Colorado
United States Penitentiary, Florence High Colorado
United States Penitentiary, Hazelton† West Virginia
United States Penitentiary, Lee Virginia
United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth Kansas
United States Penitentiary, Lewisburg Pennsylvania
United States Penitentiary, Lompoc California
United States Penitentiary, Marion Illinois
United States Penitentiary, McCreary Kentucky
United States Penitentiary, Pollock Louisiana
United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute Indiana
United States Penitentiary, Tucson Arizona
United States Penitentiary, Victorville California
Federal correctional institutions[edit]
Federal correctional institutions (FCIs) are medium- and low-security facilities, which have strengthened perimeters (often double fences with electronic detection systems), mostly cell-type housing, a wide variety of work and treatment programs, and a higher staff-to-inmate ratio and greater internal controls than low-security FCIs. FCI Terre Haute contains a more restrictive section designated as a Communication Management Unit for inmates considered high-security risks.[1]
† Includes female inmates
†† Female-only facility
Name
Location
Federal Correctional Institution, Aliceville†† Alabama
Federal Correctional Institution, Allenwood Pennsylvania
Federal Correctional Institution, Ashland Kentucky
Federal Correctional Institution, Bastrop Texas
Federal Correctional Institution, Beckley West Virginia
Federal Correctional Institution, Beaumont Texas
Federal Correctional Institution, Bennettsville South Carolina
Federal Correctional Institution, Berlin New Hampshire
Federal Correctional Institution, Big Spring Texas
Federal Correctional Complex, Butner North Carolina
Federal Correctional Institution, Coleman Florida
Federal Correctional Institution, Cumberland Maryland
Federal Correctional Institution, Danbury† Connecticut
Federal Correctional Institution, Dublin†† California
Federal Correctional Institution, Edgefield South Carolina
Federal Correctional Institution, Elkton Ohio
Federal Correctional Institution, El Reno Oklahoma
Federal Correctional Institution, Englewood Colorado
Federal Correctional Institution, Estill South Carolina
Federal Correctional Institution, Fairton New Jersey
Federal Correctional Institution, Florence Colorado
Federal Correctional Institution, Forrest City Arkansas
Federal Correctional Institution, Fort Dix New Jersey
Federal Correctional Institution, Fort Worth Texas
Federal Correctional Institution, Gilmer West Virginia
Federal Correctional Institution, Greenville† Illinois
Federal Correctional Institution, Hazelton† West Virginia
Federal Correctional Institution, Herlong California
Federal Correctional Institution, Jesup Georgia
Federal Correctional Institution, La Tuna Texas
Federal Correctional Institution, Lompoc California
Federal Correctional Institution, Loretto Pennsylvania
Federal Correctional Institution, Manchester Kentucky
Federal Correctional Institution, Marianna† Florida
Federal Correctional Institution, McDowell West Virginia
Federal Correctional Institution, McKean Pennsylvania
Federal Correctional Institution, Memphis Tennessee
Federal Correctional Institution, Mendota California
Federal Correctional Institution, Miami Florida
Federal Correctional Institution, Milan Michigan
Federal Correctional Institution, Morgantown West Virginia
Federal Correctional Institution, Oakdale Louisiana
Federal Correctional Institution, Otisville New York
Federal Correctional Institution, Oxford Wisconsin
Federal Correctional Institution, Pekin Illinois
Federal Correctional Institution, Petersburg Virginia
Federal Correctional Institution, Phoenix† Arizona
Federal Correctional Institution, Pollock Louisiana
Federal Correctional Institution, Ray Brook New York
Federal Correctional Institution, Safford Arizona
Federal Correctional Institution, Sandstone Minnesota
Federal Correctional Institution, Schuylkill Pennsylvania
Federal Correctional Institution, Seagoville Texas
Federal Correctional Institution, Sheridan Oregon
Federal Correctional Institution, Talladega Alabama
Federal Correctional Institution, Tallahassee†† Florida
Federal Correctional Institution, Terminal Island California
Federal Correctional Institution, Terre Haute Indiana
Federal Correctional Institution, Texarkana Texas
Federal Correctional Institution, Three Rivers Texas
Federal Correctional Institution, Tucson† Arizona
Federal Correctional Institution, Victorville† California
Federal Correctional Institution, Waseca†† Minnesota
Federal Correctional Institution, Williamsburg South Carolina
Federal Correctional Institution, Yazoo City Mississippi
Private correctional institutions[edit]
In August 2016, Justice Department officials announced that the FBOP would be phasing out its use of contracted facilities, on the grounds that private prisons provide less safe and less effective services with no substantial cost savings. The agency expects to allow current contracts on its thirteen remaining private facilities to expire.[3] Those facilities are:
Name
Location
Operator
Adams County Correctional Center Natchez, Mississippi CoreCivic
Big Spring Correctional Center Big Spring, Texas GEO Group
Cibola County Correctional Center Milan, New Mexico CoreCivic
D. Ray James Correctional Institution Folkston, Georgia GEO Group
Eden Detention Center Eden, Texas CoreCivic
Giles W. Dalby Correctional Institution Post, Texas Management and Training Corporation
Great Plains Correctional Institution Hinton, Oklahoma GEO Group
McRae Correctional Institution McRae-Helena, Georgia CoreCivic
Moshannon Valley Correctional Center Philipsburg, Centre County, Pennsylvania GEO Group
Reeves I & II Correctional Institution Pecos, Texas GEO Group
Reeves III Correctional Institution Pecos, Texas GEO Group
Rivers Correctional Institution Winton, North Carolina GEO Group
Taft Correctional Institution Taft, California Management and Training Corporation
Federal prison camps[edit]
Federal prison camps (FPCs) are minimum-security facilities, which have dormitory housing, a relatively low staff-to-inmate ratio, and limited or no perimeter fencing. These institutions are work- and program-oriented. Many are located adjacent to larger institutions or on military bases, where inmates help serve the labor needs of the larger institution or base.[1]
†† Female-only facility
Name
Location
Federal Prison Camp, Alderson†† West Virginia
Federal Prison Camp, Bryan†† Texas
Federal Prison Camp, Duluth Minnesota
Federal Prison Camp, Englewood Colorado
Federal Prison Camp, Florence Colorado
Federal Prison Camp, Montgomery Alabama
Federal Prison Camp, Pensacola Florida
Federal Prison Camp, Yankton South Dakota
Administrative facilities[edit]
Administrative facilities are institutions with special missions, such as the detention of pretrial offenders; the treatment of inmates with serious or chronic medical problems; or the containment of extremely dangerous, violent, or escape-prone inmates. Administrative facilities include Metropolitan Correctional Centers (MCCs), Metropolitan Detention Centers (MDCs), Federal Detention Centers (FDCs), and Federal Medical Centers (FMCs), as well as the Federal Transfer Center (FTC), the Medical Center for Federal Prisoners (MCFP), and the Administrative-Maximum (ADX) U.S. Penitentiary. Administrative facilities, except the ADX, are capable of holding inmates in all security categories.[1]
† Includes female inmates
†† Female-only facility
Name
Location
Federal Detention Center, Honolulu† Hawaii
Federal Detention Center, Houston† Texas
Federal Detention Center, Miami† Florida
Federal Detention Center, Oakdale† Louisiana
Federal Detention Center, Philadelphia† Pennsylvania
Federal Detention Center, SeaTac† Washington
Federal Medical Center, Butner North Carolina
Federal Medical Center, Carswell†† Texas
Federal Medical Center, Devens Massachusetts
Federal Medical Center, Lexington Kentucky
Federal Medical Center, Rochester Minnesota
US Medical Center for Federal Prisoners, Springfield Missouri
Federal Transfer Center, Oklahoma City† Oklahoma
Metropolitan Correctional Center, Chicago† Illinois
Metropolitan Correctional Center, New York† New York
Metropolitan Correctional Center, San Diego† California
Metropolitan Detention Center, Brooklyn† New York
Metropolitan Detention Center, Guaynabo† Puerto Rico
Metropolitan Detention Center, Los Angeles† California
See also[edit]
Criminal justice portal
Government of the United States portal
Prisons portal
Federal Bureau of Prisons
Incarceration in the United States
List of detention sites in the United States
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Prison Types & General Information". Federal Bureau of Prisons. Archived from the original on 2012-09-15.
Jump up ^ "Immigration Detention Facilities". Immigration and Customs Enforcement. April 13, 2010.
Jump up ^ Zapotosky, Matt (18 Aug 2016). "Justice Department says it will end use of private prisons". Washington Post. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
[show]
v
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Federal Bureau of Prisons
Administrative
Facilities
MDC Brooklyn
FMC Butner
FMC Carswell
MCC Chicago
FMC Devens
MDC Guaynabo
FDC Honolulu
FDC Houston
FMC Lexington
MDC Los Angeles
Metropolitan Detention Centers
FDC Miami
MCC New York
FDC Oakdale
FTC Oklahoma City
FDC Philadelphia
FMC Rochester
MCC San Diego
FDC SeaTac
United States Medical Center for Federal Prisoners
Correctional
Complexes
Allenwood
Beaumont
Butner
Coleman
Florence
Forrest City
Lompoc
Oakdale
Petersburg
Pollock
Terre Haute
Tucson
Victorville
Yazoo City
Correctional
Institutions
Aliceville
Allenwood
Ashland
Bastrop
Beaumont
Beckley
Bennettsville
Berlin
Big Spring
Butner
Coleman
Cumberland
Danbury
Dublin
Edgefield
El Reno
Elkton
Englewood
Estill
Fairton
Florence
Forrest City
Fort Dix
Fort Worth
Gilmer
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Hazelton
Herlong
Jesup
La Tuna
Lompoc
Loretto
Manchester
Marianna
McDowell
McKean
Memphis
Mendota
Miami
Milan
Morgantown
Oakdale
Otisville
Oxford
Pekin
Petersburg
Phoenix
Pollock
Ray Brook
Safford
Sandstone
Schuylkill
Seagoville
Sheridan
Talladega
Tallahassee
Terminal Island
Terre Haute
Texarkana
Three Rivers
Tucson
Victorville
Waseca
Williamsburg
Yazoo City
Penitentiaries
Alcatraz
Allenwood
Atlanta
Atwater
Beaumont
Big Sandy
Canaan
Coleman
ADX Florence
Florence High
Hazelton
Leavenworth
Lee
Lewisburg
Lompoc
Marion
McCreary
McNeil Island Corrections Center
Pollock
Terre Haute
Tucson
Victorville
Prison Camps
Alderson
Bryan
Duluth
Eglin
Montgomery
Nellis
Pensacola
Yankton
Private Facilities
Adams County
Big Spring
Cibola County
D. Ray James
Eden
Giles W. Dalby
Great Plains
McRae
Moshannon Valley
Reeves County
Rivers
Taft
Related
List of U.S. federal prisons
Federal Bureau of Prisons Program Statement
Lopez v. Davis
National Institute of Corrections
Special Operations Response Team
[show]
v
t
e
Incarceration of adults in the United States
This template pertains only to agencies that handle sentenced felons (with sentences over 1-2 years). In many states, pre-trial detainees, persons convicted of misdemeanors, and persons sentenced under state law to fewer than one year are held in county jails instead of state prisons.
Federal Bureau of Prisons
List of U.S. federal prisons
Federal Prison Industries
State correction agencies
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
District of Colombia
Felons: Federal Bureau of Prisons, Misdemeanants: District of Columbia DOC
Insular areas
American Samoa
Guam
Northern Mariana Islands
Puerto Rico
U.S. Virgin Islands
Military prisons
List of U.S. military prisons
Guantanamo Bay
State prisons
List of U.S. state prisons
See also
Immigration detention in the United States
Category
Commons
United States portal
Prisons portal
[show]
v
t
e
Incarceration of juveniles in the United States
Federal Bureau of Prisons
List of U.S. federal prisons
Corrections by U.S. state
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
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Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
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Montana
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Nevada
New Hampshire
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New Mexico
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North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Federal District
Department of Youth Rehabilitation Services
Insular Areas
Guam
Puerto Rico
U.S. Virgin Islands
Military facilities
Guantanamo Bay
Category
Commons
United States portal
Prisons portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_U.S._federal_prisons&oldid=823580068"
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Federal prisons in the United States
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The Fellowship of the Ring
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see The Fellowship of the Ring (disambiguation).
The Fellowship of the Ring
First edition
Author
J. R. R. Tolkien
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
Series
The Lord of the Rings
Subject
Tolkien's legendarium
Genre
Fantasy
Set in
Middle-earth
Publisher
George Allen & Unwin[1]
Publication date
29 July 1954
Pages
423 (first edition)
OCLC
12228601
Dewey Decimal
823.912
LC Class
PR6039.032 L67 1954, vol.1
Preceded by
The Hobbit
Followed by
The Two Towers
The Fellowship of the Ring is the first of three volumes of the epic[2] novel The Lord of the Rings by the English author J. R. R. Tolkien. It is followed by The Two Towers and The Return of the King. It takes place in the fictional universe of Middle-earth. It was originally published on 29 July 1954 in the United Kingdom.
The volume consists of a foreword, in which the author discusses his writing of The Lord of the Rings, a prologue titled "Concerning Hobbits, and other matters", and the main narrative in Book I and Book II.
Contents
1 Title and publication
2 Plot summary
2.1 Book I: The Ring Sets Out
2.2 Book II: The Ring Goes South
3 Members of the Company of the Ring
4 Critical reception
5 See also
6 Editions
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Title and publication[edit]
Tolkien envisioned The Lord of the Rings as a single volume work divided into six sections he called "books" along with extensive appendices. The original publisher made the decision to split the work into three parts. It was also the publisher's decision to place the fifth and sixth books and the appendices into one volume under the title The Return of the King, in reference to Aragorn's assumption of the throne of Gondor. Tolkien indicated he would have preferred The War of the Ring as a title, as it gave away less of the story.[3]
Before the decision to publish The Lord of the Rings in three volumes was made, Tolkien had hoped to publish the novel in one volume, possibly also combined with The Silmarillion.[n 1] However, he had proposed titles for the individual six sections. Of the two books that comprise what became The Fellowship of the Ring the first was to be called The First Journey or The Ring Sets Out. The name of the second was The Journey of the Nine Companions or The Ring Goes South. The titles The Ring Sets Out and The Ring Goes South were used in the Millennium edition.
The title The Fellowship of the Ring refers to the group of chief protagonists.
Plot summary[edit]
See also: The Lord of the Rings § Plot summary
The Prologue is meant partly to help people who have not read The Hobbit to understand the events of that book. It also contains other background information to set the stage for the novel.
Book I: The Ring Sets Out[edit]
The first chapter in the book begins in a light vein, following the tone of The Hobbit. Bilbo Baggins celebrates his 111th (or eleventy-first, as it is called in Hobbiton) birthday on the same day, 22 September, that his younger cousin and adopted heir Frodo Baggins celebrates his coming of age at thirty-three. At the birthday party, Bilbo departs from the Shire, the land of the Hobbits, for what he calls a permanent holiday. Bilbo does so by using the magic ring (that he had found on his journey) to disappear and is aided by Gandalf the Wizard with a flash and puff of smoke, leading many in the Shire to believe he has gone mad. He leaves Frodo his remaining belongings, including his home, Bag End, and the Ring. It becomes apparent that Bilbo has been strained over the past several years, and he is at first unwilling to give up the Ring, which concerns Gandalf. Eventually, he gives up the Ring and appears to be relieved of a huge burden. Gandalf leaves on his own business, warning Frodo to keep the Ring secret.
Over the next seventeen years, Gandalf periodically pays short visits to Bag End. One spring night, he arrives to enlighten Frodo about Bilbo's ring; it is the One Ring of Sauron the Dark Lord. He proves this by flinging the Ring into the fireplace, the heat of which causes the Ring to display Elf-writing in the language of Mordor. Sauron had forged the Ring to subdue and rule Middle-earth, but in the War of the Last Alliance, he had been defeated by Gil-galad the Elven King and Elendil, High King of Arnor and Gondor, though they themselves perished in the deed. Isildur, Elendil's son, cut the Ring from Sauron's finger. Sauron was overthrown, but the Ring itself was not destroyed as it should have been, for Isildur kept it for himself. Isildur was slain soon afterwards in the Battle of the Gladden Fields, and the Ring was lost in Great River Anduin. Thousands of years later, it was found by the hobbit Déagol; but Déagol was thereupon murdered by his friend Sméagol, who wanted the Ring for himself. Sméagol took the Ring and kept it for hundreds of years, and under its influence he became a wretched creature named Gollum. The Ring was found by Bilbo Baggins, as told in The Hobbit, and Bilbo left it behind for Frodo. Frodo wonders why Bilbo did not kill the creature when he had the chance, but Gandalf reminds him that Bilbo's pity saved him in the end and did not make him like Gollum.
Gandalf tells how Sauron has risen again and has returned to his stronghold in Mordor and is bending all his power toward the hunting of the Ring. Gandalf speaks of the evil powers of the Ring and its ability to influence the bearer and those near him if it is worn for too long. Gandalf warns Frodo that the Ring is no longer safe in the Shire. He has learned through his investigations that Gollum had gone to Mordor, where he was captured and tortured until he revealed to Sauron that the Ring was in the keeping of a hobbit named Baggins from the Shire. Gandalf hopes Frodo can reach the elf-haven Rivendell, east of the Shire, where he believes Frodo and the Ring will be safe from Sauron, and where the Ring's fate can be decided. Samwise Gamgee, Frodo's gardener and friend, is discovered eavesdropping on the conversation. Out of loyalty to his master, Sam agrees to accompany Frodo on his journey.
Over the summer, Frodo makes plans to leave his home at Bag End, under the pretence that he is moving to the eastern end of the Shire (Buckland) to retire. Helping with the plans are Frodo's friends Sam, Peregrin Took (Pippin for short), Meriadoc Brandybuck (Merry), and Fredegar Bolger (Fatty), though Frodo does not tell them of the Ring or of his intention to leave the Shire. At midsummer, Gandalf leaves on pressing business, but promises to return before Frodo leaves.
Frodo's birthday and the date of his departure approach, but Gandalf does not appear, so Frodo decides to leave without him. Black Riders pursue Frodo's party. These turn out to be Nazgûl or Ringwraiths, "the most terrible servants of the Dark Lord" (men who have been corrupted by Sauron through the Nine Rings), who are searching for "Baggins" and the Ring. One of the Riders comes to the door of Sam's father, the Gaffer, the very evening before they depart. With the help of some elves led by Gildor and a hobbit named Farmer Maggot, the hobbits cross the Brandywine River and reach Crickhollow on the eastern border of the Shire. There Merry, Pippin, and Fatty reveal that they know of the Ring and of Frodo's plan to leave the Shire. Merry and Pippin decide to join Frodo and Sam, while Fatty stays behind as a decoy.
In hopes of eluding the Nazgûl, the hobbits travel through the Old Forest. There the group fall asleep by a willow-tree and wake up to realize that its roots are trying to strangle them, but luckily Tom Bombadil comes to their aid. They then go to the house of Bombadil and meet his wife Goldberry. There they discover that the Ring has no power over Bombadil—he does not disappear while wearing it and can see Frodo even after he has vanished from his friends' sight. In the evening, Frodo has a dream about Gandalf standing on the pinnacle of a tower and then a vision of a rain curtain in front of a ship on which he is sailing. They then leave Bombadil's only to be captured by a barrow wight in the Barrow-downs, but they again escape with help from Tom and finally reach the gate of the village of Bree.
In Bree, the hobbits go to The Prancing Pony Inn, where Barliman Butterbur is the owner. Frodo goes by the name of "Underhill" rather than Baggins. While visiting with other hobbits and men from Bree, Frodo makes eye contact with a mysterious-looking man in the corner. The man then warns Frodo that Pippin is close to revealing who the hobbits really are, so Frodo begins to recite a poem that earns the applause of everyone in the inn. When he recites it a second time, Frodo gets carried away and falls off the table and accidentally lets the Ring slip on his finger causing him to disappear. The incident causes a major commotion, and several rough-looking men leave the inn. Frodo reappears and said that he slipped away out of embarrassment, but few buy the explanation. The hobbits then retire from the common room only to find that they have been followed by the mysterious man, who goes by the name Strider, a Ranger. He claims to be a friend of Gandalf and warns that the Nazgûl are after them and only he can guide them to Rivendell. Frodo doubts Strider until Butterbur comes in with a note from Gandalf to Frodo left some time earlier. Gandalf says to trust Strider and ask him his real name. Without even being asked, Strider reveals his name as Aragorn son of Arathorn and is the heir of Isildur in the North. Merry then comes in and says he was waylaid by the Nazgûl. Strider has them spend the night in another room.
The Nazgûl then attack both the house at Crickhollow and the inn at Bree but do not find Frodo in either spot. The next morning, Frodo learns that their riding ponies have been driven off by the Nazgûl and their allies. They manage to secure one beast from one of the Nazgûl collaborators, Bill Ferny, one of the men of Bree. Curious because of all the events, the whole town turns out to see them off. The hobbits and Strider make their way cross-country, through the Midgewater Marshes, to the hill of Weathertop, where they spot five of the Nazgûl on the road below. They then see evidence of a major fire fight and a stone that might indicate Gandalf got there ahead of them.
That night, five of the Nazgûl attack the travellers. Frodo yields to the temptation and puts on the Ring, and see the Nazgûl in their full form. He attempts to attack them, but the chief of the Nazgûl stabs Frodo in the shoulder with a cursed knife before Aragorn drives them off with torches. A splinter of the blade remains within the wound, causing Frodo to fall very ill as they travel to Rivendell. Aragorn warns them that, unless treated soon, Frodo will become a wraith like the Nazgûl himself. As the travellers near their destination, they meet Glorfindel, an elf-lord from Rivendell, who helps them reach the River Bruinen near Rivendell. But the Nazgûl, all nine now gathered together, ambush the party at the Ford of Bruinen. Glorfindel's horse outruns the pursuers and carries Frodo across the Ford. As the Nazgûl attempt to follow, a giant wave commanded by Elrond, the lord of Rivendell, sweeps them away and Frodo collapses.
Book II: The Ring Goes South[edit]
Book II opens in Rivendell at the house of Elrond. Frodo is healed by Elrond and discovers that Bilbo has been residing there. Bilbo asks to see the Ring again, but Frodo resists because of the Ring's power, which leads Bilbo to understand at last. Frodo also meets many notable figures, including Glóin—one of the dwarves who accompanied Bilbo on his journey to the Lonely Mountain—and Legolas, Prince of the Silvan Elves of Mirkwood. Frodo learns about the remaining dwarves, including Balin, Ori, and Óin who had not been heard from in some time.
Elrond convenes a Council, attended by Gandalf, Bilbo, Frodo, Aragorn and many others, including Boromir, son of Denethor, the Steward of Gondor. Glóin explains that Balin had led an expedition to reclaim the old dwarf kingdom of Moria, but they had not heard from him in years. Furthermore, Glóin tells the group that the Nazgûl had come to Dale and the Lonely Mountain looking for Bilbo and the Ring. Legolas then tells the council that Gollum had escaped from his captivity with the Elves and was also abroad and hunting for the Ring. Boromir then stands and relates the details of a dream he and his brother Faramir both received, telling them to seek "the Sword That Was Broken" and "Isildur's Bane" in Rivendell. Elrond then has Frodo bring out the Ring, which is revealed as "Isildur's Bane".
Gandalf explains that he had gone to Isengard, where the wizard Saruman, the chief of all wizards in Middle-earth, dwells, to seek help and counsel. However, Saruman had turned against them, desiring the Ring for himself. Saruman imprisoned Gandalf in his tower, Orthanc, rightly suspecting that Gandalf knew where the Ring was. Gandalf, however, did not yield and managed to escape from Orthanc. He learns that Saruman is not yet in Sauron's service, and is mustering his own force of Orcs.
As the Council of Elrond concludes, a plan is hatched to cast the One Ring into the fires of Mount Doom in Mordor, which will destroy the Ring and end Sauron's power for good. Boromir objects and argues for using the Ring to overcome Sauron and relieve Gondor, but Elrond says that the Ring cannot be used for good because of its intrinsic evil and its corrupting power even on those with the best intentions. Frodo offers to undertake this dangerous quest, and is thus chosen to be the Ring-bearer.
Frodo sets forth from Rivendell with eight companions: two Men, Aragorn and Boromir; Legolas; Gandalf; Gimli the Dwarf, the son of Glóin; and Frodo's three Hobbit companions. These Nine Walkers (called the Fellowship or, more properly, the Company of the Ring) are chosen to represent all the free races of Middle-earth and as a balance to the Nazgûl. They are also accompanied by Bill the Pony, whom Aragorn and the Hobbits acquired in Bree as a pack horse.
The Fellowship attempt to cross the Misty Mountains is foiled by heavy snow, and then they are attacked by a host of Wargs that have moved west of the Mountains to hunt for the Ring. Thus, they are forced to take a path under the mountains, through the mines of Moria, the ancient dwarf kingdom. There, they discover that Balin, Ori, and Óin were all killed by Orcs and other evil creatures that thwarted their attempt to retake Moria. Those same orcs then attack the travellers, and during the battle that ensues, Gandalf encounters a Balrog of Morgoth, an ancient demon of fire and shadow. Gandalf challenges the Balrog, but both fall into an abyss.
The remaining eight members of the Fellowship escape from Moria and head toward the elf-haven of Lothlórien, where they are given gifts from the rulers Celeborn and Galadriel that in many cases prove useful later during the Quest.
After leaving Lothlórien the Fellowship reach Amon Hen. There Frodo tries to decide the future course of the Fellowship. Boromir succumbs to the Ring's corruptive influence and tries to take it for himself, and Frodo ends up putting on the Ring to escape from Boromir. While the rest of the Fellowship scatters to hunt for Frodo, Frodo decides the Fellowship has to be broken, and he must depart secretly for Mordor alone to prevent the rest of his companions from becoming enslaved by the influence of the Ring. Sam insists on coming along, however, and they set off together to Mordor. The Fellowship is thus broken.
Members of the Company of the Ring[edit]
See also: List of Middle-earth characters
The Company was formed at Rivendell in late T.A. 3018 following the Council of Elrond. It was decided that it should be a relatively small group; the number was set at nine to symbolically oppose the nine Nazgûl. In order of announcement the members of the Fellowship, also known as the Nine Walkers, were:
Member
Race
Age[n 2]
Frodo Baggins Hobbit 50 Adopted heir of Bilbo and the Ring-bearer.
Samwise "Sam" Gamgee Hobbit 38 Frodo's gardener; becomes Frodo's companion on the quest.
Gandalf the Grey Istari primeval Wizard who leads the Fellowship until the Bridge of Khazad-dûm in Moria, where he falls in combat with a Balrog.
Legolas Elf 500+[4] Son of Thranduil, king of the Silvan Elves of Mirkwood. He came to inform Elrond of the escape of Gollum.
Gimli Dwarf 139 Son of Glóin. He came to Rivendell from the Lonely Mountain with his father to seek advice on the disappearance of Balin, and to warn Bilbo that Sauron's agents are seeking him.
Aragorn "Strider" Man 87 Chief Ranger of the North and heir of Isildur and Elendil; he had accompanied the hobbits from Bree to Rivendell.
Boromir Man 40 Son and heir of Denethor II, Steward of Gondor. He came to Rivendell seeking the meaning of a prophetic dream.
Meriadoc "Merry" Brandybuck Hobbit 36 Son and heir of the Master of Buckland, cousin to both Pippin and Frodo. He is particularly close to Pippin.
Peregrin "Pippin" Took Hobbit 28 Son and heir of the Thain in Tookland, he is the youngest member of the group and cousin to both Merry and Frodo.
The Company's pony, Bill, is described as a "member" of the group[5], but is never numbered among the nine.
In The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien speaks more often of "the Company" of the Ring rather than "the Fellowship", as reflected in the page references in Robert Foster's The Complete Guide to Middle-earth. The Jackson film adaptions have resulted in "the Fellowship" becoming the more familiar, if less correct term. The titles given by Tolkien himself to key parts of The Lord of the Rings are also doubtless influential: the first volume is entitled The Fellowship of the Ring, and its last chapter is 'The Breaking of the Fellowship'.
Critical reception[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2010)
The poet W.H. Auden wrote a positive review in The New York Times, praising the excitement and saying "Tolkien's invention is unflagging, and, on the primitive level of wanting to know what happens next, The Fellowship of the Ring is at least as good as The Thirty-Nine Steps."[6] However, he noted that the light humour in the beginning was "not Tolkien's forte".[7] It was also favourably reviewed by nature writer Loren Eiseley. Literary critic Edmund Wilson titled his unflattering review Oo, those awful Orcs.[8]
See also[edit]
Middle-earth portal
J.R.R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1978 animated film)
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001 live-action film)
The Lord of the Rings in theater – Two adaptations that have important musical elements, but the producers do not consider these to be standard "stage musicals".
The History of The Lord of the Rings – a collection of material from early drafts of Lord of the Rings.
Editions[edit]
Some editions are listed below. A more complete list, including non-English editions, may be found at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database.[9]
ISBN 0-345-24032-4 (paperback, 1974)
ISBN 0-618-00222-7 (paperback, 1999)
ISBN 0-345-33970-3 (paperback, 2001)
ISBN 0-618-34625-2 (paperback, 2003)
ISBN 0-618-57494-8 (paperback, 2005)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The negotiations between Tolkien and Allen & Unwin over the publication of The Lord of the Rings and the possibility of including The Silmarillion (which was still incomplete) are covered passim in the entries for 1950 through 1952 in the Chronology of The J.R.R. Tolkien Companion and Guide by Scull and Hammond (p. 355–393). Several of Tolkien's letters in The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien, edited by Humphrey Carpenter, touch on this matter, notably Letters 123, 124 (in which Tolkien explicitly desires to have the works published together), 125, 126, 131, and 133.
Jump up ^ At the time of the Fellowship's formation. N.B.: all of the Fellowship (possibly except Boromir) were from races or sub-races who had lifespans much longer than ordinary humans.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Fellowship of the Ring". Between the Covers. Retrieved 2 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Jane Chance. Tolkien' Art: A Mythology for England.
Jump up ^ Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (1981), The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, #140, ISBN 0-395-31555-7
Jump up ^ J. R. R. Tolkien (1954), The Two Towers, George Allen & Unwin, 2nd edition (1966), book 3 ch.6 p.111; ISBN 0 04 823046 4.
Jump up ^ J. R. R. Tolkien (1954), The Fellowship of the Ring, 2nd edition (1966), George Allen & Unwin, book 2 ch. 3 p. 293; ISBN 0 04 823045 6
Jump up ^ Auden, W.H. (31 October 1954). "The Hero Is a Hobbit". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Auden, W.H. (22 January 1956). "At the end of the Quest, Victory". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Edmund (14 April 1956), "Oo, Those awful Orcs!: A review of The Fellowship of the Ring", The Nation.
Jump up ^ "Title: The Fellowship of the Ring". Internet Speculative Fiction Database. Archived from the original on 30 September 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Fellowship of the Ring
Detailed summary and analysis of The Fellowship of the Ring
Detailed summary and analysis of characters, themes, and symbols of The Fellowship of the Ring
The Fellowship of the Ring at the Internet Book List
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Songs for the Philologists (1936)
The Hobbit (1937)
Leaf by Niggle (1947)
The Lay of Aotrou and Itroun (1945/2016)
Farmer Giles of Ham (1949)
The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son (1953)
The Lord of the Rings:
The Fellowship of the Ring (1954)
The Two Towers (1954)
The Return of the King (1955)
The Adventures of Tom Bombadil (1962)
Tree and Leaf (1964)
The Tolkien Reader (1966)
The Road Goes Ever On (1967)
Smith of Wootton Major (1967)
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Tales from the Perilous Realm (1997)
Roverandom (1998)
The Children of Húrin (2007)
The History of The Hobbit (2007)
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The Fall of Arthur (2013)
The Story of Kullervo (2015)
Beren and Lúthien (2017)
The Fall of Gondolin (2018)
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Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (Middle English text, 1925)
The Devil's Coach Horses (1925)
Ancrene Wisse and Hali Meiðhad (1929)
Sigelwara Land (1932–34)
Chaucer as a Philologist: The Reeve's Tale (1934)
Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics (1936)
On Fairy-Stories (1939)
On Translating Beowulf (1940)
Sir Orfeo (1944)
Ancrene Wisse (1962)
English and Welsh (1963)
Jerusalem Bible (as translator and lexicographer, 1966)
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Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, and Sir Orfeo (Modern English translations, 1975)
Finn and Hengest (1982)
The Monsters and the Critics, and Other Essays (1983)
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Beowulf: A Translation and Commentary with Sellic Spell (2014)
A Secret Vice (1983/2016)
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Bored of the Rings (1969)
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Fellowship! (2005)
Lord of the Rings (2006)
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The Lord of the Rings (1979)
Hordes of the Things (1980)
The Lord of the Rings (1981)
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