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Diamondback terrapin
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Diamondback terrapin
Photographed in the wild
Conservation status

Near Threatened (IUCN 2.3) [1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Family: Emydidae
Subfamily: Deirochelyinae
Genus: Malaclemys
Gray, 1844 [2]
Species: M. terrapin
Binomial name
Malaclemys terrapin
(Schoepff, 1793) [2]
Synonyms[3][4]
List[show]
Malaclemys terrapin terrapin
Testudo terrapin Schoepff, 1793
Testudo concentrica Shaw, 1802
Testudo ocellata Link, 1807
Testudo concentrata Kuhl, 1820 (ex errore)
Emys concentrica Gray, 1831 (Duméril & Bibron, 1830[3])
Testudo concentrica var polita Gray, 1831
Emys terrapin Holbrook, 1842
Emys macrocephalus Gray,1844
Malaclemys concentrica Gray, 1844 (1863[3])
Emys macrocephala LeConte,1854
Emys terrapene LeConte,1856 (ex errore)
Clemmys terrapin Strauch, 1862
Malaclemmys concentrica Gray, 1870
Malacoclemmys terrapen Boulenger, 1889 (ex errore)
Malaclemys centrata concentrica Cochran, 1932[3]
Malaclemys terrapin Bangs, 1896
Malaclemmys centrata concentrica Hay, 1904
Malaclemys terrapin terrapin Lindholm, 1929
Malaclemys terrapene Stephens & Wiens, 2003
Malaclemys terrapin centrata
Testudo centrata Latreille, 1801
Emys centrata Schweigger, 1812
Emys concentrica var livida Gray, 1831
Clemmys (Clemmys) centrata Fitzinger, 1835
Malaclemmys centrata Lönnberg, 1894
Malaclemmys terrapin centrata Mittleman, 1944
Malaclemys terrapin centrata Mittleman, 1945
Malaclemys terrapin centra Highfield, 1996 (ex errore)
Malaclemys terrapin littoralis
Malaclemmys littoralis Hay, 1904
Malaclemys centrata littoralis Siebenrock, 1909
Malaclemys pileata littoralis Stejneger & Barbour, 1917
Malaclemys terrapin littoralis Lindholm, 1929
Malaclemys terrapin macrospilota
Malaclemmys macrospilota Hay, 1904
Malaclemys centrata macrospilota Siebenrock, 1909
Malaclemys pileata macrospilota Stejneger & Barbour, 1917
Malaclemys terrapin macrospilota Lindholm, 1929
Malaclemys terrapin pileata
Emys pileata Wied, 1865
Malaclemmys pileata Hay, 1904
Malaclemys centrata pileata Siebenrock, 1909
Malaclemys pileata pileata Stejneger & Barbour, 1917
Malaclemys terrapin pileata Lindholm, 1929
Malaclemys terrapin rhizophorarum
Malaclemys tuberculifera Gray, 1844 (nomen oblitum)
Malaclemmys littoralis rhizophorarum Fowler, 1906 (nomen protectum)
Malaclemmys terrapin rhizophorarum Carr, 1946
Malaclemys terrapin rhizophorarum Carr, 1952
Malaclemys terrapin rhizophararum Anderson, 1985 (ex errore)
Malaclemys terrapin tequesta
Malaclemys terrapin tequesta Schwartz, 1955
The diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin) or simply terrapin, is a species of turtle native to the brackish coastal tidal marshes of the eastern and southern United States, and in Bermuda.[5] It belongs to the monotypic genus, Malaclemys. It has one of the largest ranges of all turtles in North America, stretching as far south as the Florida Keys and as far north as Cape Cod.[6]
The name "terrapin" is derived from the Algonquian word torope.[7] It applies to Malaclemys terrapin in both British English and American English. The name originally was used by early European settlers in North America to describe these brackish-water turtles that inhabited neither freshwater habitats nor the sea. It retains this primary meaning in American English.[7] In British English, however, other semi-aquatic turtle species, such as the red-eared slider, might be called a terrapin[citation needed].
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Adaptations to their environment
1.2 Subspecies
2 Distribution and habitat
3 Life cycle
3.1 Reproduction
3.2 Seasonal activities
4 Diet
5 Conservation
5.1 Status
5.2 Conservation status
5.3 Threats
6 Relationship with humans
6.1 History as a delicacy
6.2 Use as a symbol
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Description[edit]
The diamond pattern of the turtle's back
Adult female
The common name refers to the diamond pattern on top of its shell (carapace), but the overall pattern and coloration vary greatly. The shell is usually wider at the back than in the front, and from above its appears wedge-shaped. The shell coloring can vary from brown to grey, and its body color can be grey, brown, yellow, or white. All have a unique pattern of wiggly, black markings or spots on their body and head. The diamondback terrapin has large webbed feet.[8] The species is sexually dimorphic in that the males grow to approximately 13 cm (5.1 in), while the females grow to an average of around 19 cm (7.5 in), though they are capable of growing larger. The largest female on record was just over 23 cm (9.1 in) in length. Specimens from regions that are consistently warmer in temperature tend to be larger than those from cooler, more northern areas.[9] Male diamondback terrapins weigh 300 g (11 oz) on average, while females weigh around 500 g (18 oz).[10] The largest females can weigh up to 1,000 g (35 oz).[11]
Adaptations to their environment[edit]
Terrapins look much like their freshwater relatives, but are well adapted to the near shore marine environment. They have several adaptations that allow them to survive in varying salinities. They can live in full strength salt water for extended periods of time[12] and their skin is largely impermeable to salt. Terrapins have lachrymal salt glands,[13][14] not present in their relatives, which are used primarily when the turtle is dehydrated. They can distinguish between drinking water of different salinities.[15] Terrapins also exhibit unusual and sophisticated behavior to obtain fresh water, including drinking the freshwater surface layer that can accumulate on top of salt water during rainfall and raising their heads into the air with mouths open to catch falling rain drops.[15][16]
Terrapins are strong swimmers. They have strongly webbed hind feet, but not flippers as do sea turtles. Like their relatives (Graptemys), they have strong jaws for crushing shells of prey, such as clams and snails. This is especially true of females, who have larger and more muscular jaws than males.[17]
Subspecies[edit]
Seven subspecies are recognized including the nominate race.
M. t. centrata (Latreille, 1801) – Carolina diamondback terrapin (Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina)[2]
M. t. littoralis (Hay, 1904) – Texas diamondback terrapin (Texas)[2]
M. t. macrospilota (Hay, 1904) – Ornate diamondback terrapin (Florida) [2]
M. t. pileata (Wied, 1865) – Mississippi diamondback terrapin (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas)[2]
M. t. rhizophorarum Fowler, 1906 – Mangrove diamondback terrapin (Florida)[2]
M. t. tequesta Schwartz, 1955 – Eastern Florida diamondback terrapin (Florida)[2]
M. t. terrapin (Schoepff, 1793) – Northern diamondback terrapin (Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia)[18][19]
The isolated Bermudan population, which arrived on its own (and was not introduced by humans), has not been officially assigned to a subspecies, but based on mtDNA it is closely related to the population from the Carolinas.[5]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
Diamondback terrapins live in the very narrow strip of coastal habitats on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, from as far north as Cape Cod, Massachusetts to the southern tip of Florida and around the Gulf Coast to Texas. In most of their range terrapins live in Spartina marshes that are flooded at high tide, but in Florida they also live in mangrove swamps.[20] This turtle can survive in freshwater as well as full-strength ocean water but adults prefer intermediate salinities. They have no competition from other turtles, although snapping turtles do occasionally make use of salty marshes.[21] It is unclear why terrapins do not inhabit the upper reaches of rivers within their range, as in captivity they tolerate fresh water. It is possible they are limited by the distribution of their prey.[22] Terrapins live quite close to shore, unlike sea turtles, which wander far out to sea; however, a population of terrapins on Bermuda has been determined to be self-established (not introduced by humans).[5] Terrapins tend to live in the same areas for most or all of their lives, and do not make long distance migrations.[23][24][25]
Life cycle[edit]
Adult diamondback terrapins mate in the early spring, and clutches of 4-22[26] eggs are laid in sand dunes in the early summer. They hatch in late summer or early fall. Maturity in males is reached in 2–3 years at around 4.5 inches (110 mm) in length; it takes longer for females: 6–7 years (8–10 years for northern diamondback terrapins) at a length of around 6.75 inches (171 mm).
Reproduction[edit]
Like all reptiles, terrapin fertilization occurs internally. Courtship has been seen in May and June, and is similar to that of the closely related red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta).[27] Female terrapins can mate with multiple males and store sperm for years,[28] resulting in some clutches of eggs with more than one father.
Like many turtles, terrapin have temperature dependent sex determination, meaning that the sex of hatchlings is the result of incubation temperature. Females can lay up to three clutches of eggs/year in the wild,[29] and up to five clutches/year in captivity.[30] It is not known how often they may skip reproduction, so true clutch frequency is unknown.
Females may wander considerable distances on land before nesting. Nests are usually laid in sand dunes or scrub vegetation near the ocean[31] in June and July, but nesting may start as early as late April in Florida.[32] Females will quickly abandon a nest attempt if they are disturbed while nesting. Clutch sizes vary latitudinally, with average clutch sizes as low as 5.8/eggs/clutch in southern Florida[33] to 10.9 in New York.[29] After covering the nest, terrapins quickly return to the ocean and do not return except to nest again.
The eggs usually hatch in 60–85 days, depending on the temperature and the depth of the nest. Hatchlings usually emerge from the nest in August and September, but may overwinter in the nest after hatching.[34] Hatchlings sometimes stay on land in the nesting areas in both fall and spring and they may remain terrestrial for much or all of the winter in some places.[32][35] Hatchling terrapins are freeze tolerant,[34] which may facilitate overwintering on land. Hatchlings have lower salt tolerance than adults and Gibbons et al.[23] provided strong evidence that one- and two-year-old terrapins use different habitats than do old individuals.
Growth rates, age of maturity, and maximum age are not well known for terrapins in the wild, but males reach sexual maturity before females because of their smaller adult size. In females at least, sexual maturity is dependent on size rather than age.[36] Estimations of age based on counts of growth rings on the shell are as yet untested, so it is not clear how to determine the ages of wild terrapins.
Seasonal activities[edit]
Because nesting is the only terrapin activity that occurs on land, most other aspects of terrapin behavior are poorly known. Limited data suggest that terrapins hibernate in the colder months in most of their range, in the mud of creeks and marshes.[37]
Diet[edit]
Diamondback terrapin diets are not generally well studied, and almost all work on diets has been done in the southeastern part of their range. They eat shrimp, clams, crabs, mussels and other marine invertebrates,[24] especially periwinkle snails.[38] At high densities they may eat enough invertebrates to have ecosystem-level effects, partially because periwinkles can themselves overgraze important marsh plants.[39]
Conservation[edit]
Diamondback terrapin juvenile.
Status[edit]
In the 1900s the species was once considered a delicacy to eat and was hunted almost to extinction. The numbers also decreased due to the development of coastal areas and, more recently, wounds from the propellors on motorboats. Another common cause of death is the trapping of the turtles under crabbing and lobster nets. Due to this, it is listed as an endangered species in Rhode Island, is considered a threatened species in Massachusetts and is considered a "species of concern" in Georgia, Delaware, Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, and Virginia.[citation needed] The diamondback terrapin is listed as a “high priority species” under the South Carolina Wildlife Action Plan.[40] In New Jersey, it was recommended to be listed as a species of Special Concern in 2001. In July 2016, the species was removed from the New Jersey game list and is now listed as non-game with no hunting season.[41][42] In Connecticut there is no open hunting season for this animal. However, it holds no federal conservation status.[8]
Conservation status[edit]
The species is classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN due to decreasing population numbers in much of its range. There is limited protection for terrapins on a state-by-state level throughout its range; it is listed as Endangered in Rhode Island and Threatened in Massachusetts. The Diamondback Terrapin Working Group [43] deal with regional protection issues. There is no national protection except through the Lacey Act, and little international protection.[citation needed]
Diamondback terrapins are the only U.S. turtles that inhabit the brackish waters of estuaries, tidal creeks and salt marshes. With a historic range stretching from Massachusetts to Texas, terrapin populations have been severely depleted by land development and other human impacts along the Atlantic coast.[citation needed]
Earthwatch Institute, a global non-profit that teams volunteers with scientists to conduct important environmental research, supports a research program called "Tagging the Terrapins of the Jersey Shore." This program allows volunteers to explore the coastal sprawl of New Jersey’s Ocean County on Barnegat Bay, one of the most extensive salt marsh ecosystems on the East Coast, in search of this ornate turtle. On this project, volunteers contribute to environmental sustainability in the face of rampant development. Veteran turtle scientists Dr. Hal Avery, Dr. Jim Spotila, Dr. Walter Bien and Dr. Ed Standora are overseeing this program and the viability of terrapin populations in the face of growing environmental change.[44]
Threats[edit]
The major threats to diamondback terrapins are all associated with humans and probably differ in different parts of their range. People tend to build their cities on ocean coasts near the mouths of large rivers and in doing so they have destroyed many of the huge marshes terrapins inhabited.[45] Nationwide, probably >75% of the salt marshes where terrapins lived have been destroyed or altered. Currently, ocean level rise threatens the remainder.
Traps used to catch crabs both commercially and privately have commonly caught and drowned many diamondback terrapins,[23] which can result in male-biased populations and local population declines and even extinctions.[24][46] When these traps are lost or abandoned (“ghost traps”), they can kill terrapins for many years. Terrapin-excluding devices are available to retrofit crab traps; these reduce the number of terrapins captured while having little or no impact on crab capture rates.[47][48] In some states (NJ, DE, MD), these devices are required by law.
Nests, hatchlings, and sometimes adults[49] are commonly eaten by raccoons, foxes, rats[29][50][51] and many species of birds, especially crows and gulls.[32][52] Density of these predators are often increased because of their association with humans. Predation rates can be extremely high; predation by raccoons on terrapin nests at Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge in New York varied from 92-100% each year from 1998–2008,[29] Burke unpubl. data).
Terrapins are killed by cars when nesting females cross roads[53] and mortality can be high enough to seriously impact populations.[54] Terrapins are still harvested for food in some states. Terrapins may be affected by pollutants such as metals and organic compounds,[55] but this has not been demonstrated in wild populations.
There is an active casual and professional pet trade in terrapins and it is unknown how many are removed from the wild for this purpose. Some people breed the species in captivity[56] and some color variants are considered especially desirable. In Europe, Malaclemys are widely kept as pets, as are many closely related species.
Relationship with humans[edit]
University of Maryland's Testudo statue
In Maryland, diamondback terrapins were so plentiful in the 18th century that slaves protested the excessive use of this food source as their main protein. Late in the 19th century, demand for turtle soup claimed a harvest of 89,150 pounds from Chesapeake Bay in one year. In 1899, terrapin was offered on the dinner menu of Delmonico's Restaurant in New York City as the third most expensive item on the extensive menu. A patron could request either Maryland or Baltimore terrapin at a price of $2.50. Although demand was high, over capture was so high by 1920, the harvest of terrapins reached only 823 pounds for the year.[57]
According to the FAA National Wildlife Strike Database, a total of 18 strikes between diamondback terrapins and civil aircraft were reported in the US from 1990 to 2007, none of which caused damage to the aircraft.[58] On July 8, 2009, flights at John F. Kennedy Airport in New York City were delayed for up to one and a half hours as 78 diamondback terrapins had invaded one of the runways. The turtles, which according to airport authorities were believed to have entered the runway in order to nest, were removed and released back into the wild.[59] A similar incident happened on June 29, 2011, when over 150 turtles crossed runway four, closing the runway and disrupting air traffic. Those terrapins were also relocated safely.[60] The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey installed a turtle barrier along runway 4L at JFK to reduce the number of terrapins on the runway and encourage them to nest elsewhere.[61] Nevertheless, on June 26, 2014, 86 terrapins made it onto the same runway, as a high tide carried them over the barrier. Their population is controlled by the raccoon population; it has been shown that as the raccoons decrease in number, mating terrapins increase, leading to increased turtle activity at the airport.[62]
Many human activities threaten the safety of diamondback terrapins. The terrapins get caught and drown in crab nets that humans put out, are suffocated by pollution that humans greatly contribute to, and lose their marsh and estuarine habitats because of urban development.[63]
History as a delicacy[edit]
Diamondback terrapins were heavily harvested for food in colonial America and probably before that by Native Americans. Terrapins were so abundant and easily obtained that slaves and even the Continental Army ate large numbers of them. By 1917, terrapins had become a fashionable delicacy and sold for as much as $5 each.[50] Huge numbers of terrapins were harvested from marshes and marketed in cities. By the early 1900s populations in the northern part of the range were severely depleted and the southern part was greatly reduced as well.[38] As early as 1902 the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries (which later became the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) recognized that terrapin populations were declining and started building large research facilities, centered at the Beaufort, North Carolina Fisheries Laboratory, to investigate methods for captive breeding terrapins for food.[64] People tried (unsuccessfully) to establish them in many other locations, including San Francisco.[65]
Use as a symbol[edit]
Maryland named the diamondback terrapin its official state reptile in 1994. The University of Maryland, College Park has used the species as its nickname (the Maryland Terrapins) and mascot (Testudo) since 1933, and the school newspaper has been named The Diamondback since 1921. The athletic teams are often referred to as "Terps" for short.[66] The terrapin has also been a symbol of the Grateful Dead because of their song "Terrapin Station". Many images of the terrapin dancing with a tambourine appear on posters, T-shirts and other places in Grateful Dead memorabilia.
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Seigel, R.A. (1980). "Predation by raccoons on diamondback terrapins, Malaclemys terrapin tequesta". Journal of Herpetology. 14: 87–89. doi:10.2307/1563885.
^ Jump up to: a b Hay, W.P. 1917. Artificial Propagation of the diamondback terrapin. Department of Commerce Bureau of Fisheries Economic Circular No. 5, revised. Pages 3-21
Jump up ^ Draud, M.; Bossert, M.; Zimnavoda, S. (2004). "Predation on hatchling and juvenile diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin) by the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus)". Journal of Herpetology. 38: 467–470. doi:10.1670/29-04n.
Jump up ^ Burger, J (1977). "Determinants of hatching success in diamondback terrapin, Malaclemys terrapin". American Midland Naturalist. 97: 444–464. doi:10.2307/2425108.
Jump up ^ Szerlag, S.; McRobert, S.P. (2006). "Road occurrence and mortality of the northern diamondback terrapin". Applied Herpetology. 3: 27–37. doi:10.1163/157075406775247058.
Jump up ^ Avissar, N.G. (2006). "Changes in population structure of diamondback terrapins (Malaclemys terrapin terrapin) in a previously surveyed creek in southern New Jersey". Chelonian Conservation and Biology. 5: 154–159. doi:10.2744/1071-8443(2006)5[154:cipsod]2.0.co;2.
Jump up ^ Holliday, D. K; Elskus, A. A.; Roosenburg, W. M. (2009). "Impacts of multiple stressors on growth and metabolic rate of Malaclemys terrapin". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 28: 338–345. doi:10.1897/08-145.1.
Jump up ^ Szymanski, S (2005). "Experience with the raising, keeping, and breeding of the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin macrospilota)". Radiata. 14: 3–12.
Jump up ^ Turtletrack.org
Jump up ^ FAA National Wildlife Strike Database Archived 2008-08-28 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Turtles Delay Flights at JFK at the New York Post website
Jump up ^ Mating turtles shut down runway at JFK at CNN.com
Jump up ^ Prendergast, Daniel (15 June 2013). "Shell of a save: JFK barriers to block runway turtles". New York Post. Retrieved 15 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Terrapins take over Kennedy
Jump up ^ Conant, Therese, Diamondback Terrapin (PDF), Division of Conservation Education, N.C. Wildlife Resources Commission, retrieved October 20, 2011
Jump up ^ Wolfe, Douglas A. 2000. A History of the Federal Biological Laboratory at Beaufort, North Carolina 1899-1999.
Jump up ^ Brown, P. R. (1971). "The story of California diamondbacks". Herpetology. 5: 37–38.
Jump up ^ "Maryland state reptile—diamondback terrapin". Maryland manual on-line: a guide to Maryland government. Maryland State Archives. March 8, 2010. Retrieved January 21, 2011.
Bibliography[edit]
Conant, Roger (1975). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Smith, Hobart Muir; Brody, E.D. (1982). Reptiles of North America, A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diamondback terrapin.
Video of a Diamondback Terrapin in Ocean City, NJ, 20 June 2010.
Jonathan's Diamondback Terrapin World
Malaclemys Gallery
Species Malaclemys terrapin at The Reptile Database

[show]
v
t
e
Family Emydidae (pond turtles)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Testudines
Suborder: Cryptodira
Superfamily: Testudinoidea
Family: Emydidae
Genus
Species of the subfamily Deirochelyinae
Chrysemys
Painted turtle
Deirochelys
Chicken turtle
Graptemys
Alabama map turtle
Barbour's map turtle
Black-knobbed map turtle
Cagle's map turtle
Escambia map turtle
False map turtle
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Ouachita map turtle
Pascagoula map turtle
Pearl River map turtle
Ringed map turtle
Texas map turtle
Yellow-blotched map turtle
Malaclemys
Diamondback terrapin
Pseudemys
Alabama red-bellied cooter
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Florida red-bellied cooter
Peninsula cooter
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River cooter
Texas river cooter
Trachemys
Big Bend slider
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Central Antillean slider
Colombian slider
Cuatro Cienegas slider
Cuban slider
D'Orbigny's slider
Hispaniolan slider
Jamaican slider
Maranhão slider
Meso-American slider
Nicaraguan slider
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Yaqui slider
Species of the subfamily Emydinae
Clemmys
Spotted turtle
Emys
Blanding's turtle
European pond turtle
Sicilian pond turtle
Western pond turtle
Glyptemys
Bog turtle
Wood turtle
Terrapene
Coahuilan box turtle
Common box turtle
Ornate box turtle
Spotted box turtle
Phylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2011 update: annotated checklist.
Subspecies and the extinct (Gyremys sectabilis) are not included.
[show]
v
t
e
Extant turtle taxonomy
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Subclass: Anapsida
Order: Chelonii or Testudines
Suborder
Superfamily
Family
Subfamily
Genus
Cryptodira
Chelydridae
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Geoemydidae
Geoemydinae
Batagur
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Geoemyda
Hardella
Heosemys
Leucocephalon
Malayemys
Mauremys
Melanochelys
Morenia
Notochelys
Orlitia
Pangshura
Sacalia
Siebenrockiella
Vijayachelys
Rhinoclemmydinae
Rhinoclemmys
Platysternidae
Platysternon
Testudinidae
Aldabrachelys
Astrochelys
Chelonoidis
Chersina
Cylindraspis
Geochelone
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Homopus
Indotestudo
Kinixys
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Manouria
Psammobates
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Carettochelyidae
Carettochelys
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Cyclanorbinae
Cyclanorbis
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Trionychinae
Amyda
Apalone
Chitra
Dogania
Nilssonia
Palea
Pelochelys
Pelodiscus
Rafetus
Trionyx
Pleurodira
Chelidae
Chelinae
Acanthochelys
Chelus
Mesoclemmys
Phrynops
Platemys
Rhinemys
Chelodininae
Chelodina
Elseya
Elusor
Emydura
Flaviemys
Myuchelys
Pseudemydura
Rheodytes
Hydromedusinae
Hydromedusa
Pelomedusidae
Pelomedusa
Pelusios
Podocnemididae
Erymnochelys
Peltocephalus
Podocnemis
Phylogenetic arrangement based on turtles of the world 2012 update: annotated checklist. Extinct turtles not included.
Portal Book See also List of Testudines families
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q569170
ADW: Malaclemys
ARKive: malaclemys-terrapin
EoL: 1055887
Fossilworks: 105368
GBIF: 2443212
iNaturalist: 39836
IRMNG: 11235119
ITIS: 173780
IUCN: 12695
NCBI: 8485
Species+: 5107
WoRMS: 422564
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diamondback_terrapin&oldid=841412647"
Categories:
IUCN Red List near threatened species
Fauna of the Eastern United States
Reptiles of the United States
Symbols of Maryland
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Monotypic turtle genera
Reptiles described in 1793
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles with 'species' microformats
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text:
Red giant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other meanings see Red giant (disambiguation).
Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
Spectral type
Brown dwarfs
White dwarfs
Red dwarfs
Subdwarfs
Main sequence
("dwarfs")
Subgiants
Giants
Bright giants
Supergiants
Hypergiants
absolute
magni-
tude
(MV)
A red giant is a luminous giant star of low or intermediate mass (roughly 0.3–8 solar masses (M☉)) in a late phase of stellar evolution. The outer atmosphere is inflated and tenuous, making the radius large and the surface temperature around 5,000 K (8,540 °F) or lower. The appearance of the red giant is from yellow-orange to red, including the spectral types K and M, but also class S stars and most carbon stars.
The most common red giants are stars on the red-giant branch (RGB) that are still fusing hydrogen into helium in a shell surrounding an inert helium core. Other red giants are the red-clump stars in the cool half of the horizontal branch, fusing helium into carbon in their cores via the triple-alpha process; and the asymptotic-giant-branch (AGB) stars with a helium burning shell outside a degenerate carbon–oxygen core, and a hydrogen burning shell just beyond that.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Evolution
2.1 Stars that do not become red giants
3 Planets
3.1 Prospects for habitability
3.2 Enlargement of planets
4 Well known examples
4.1 Red-giant branch
4.2 Red-clump giants
4.3 Asymptotic giant branch
5 The Sun as a red giant
6 References
7 External links
Characteristics[edit]
Mira, a variable asymptotic giant branch red giant
Red giants are stars that have exhausted the supply of hydrogen in their cores and have begun thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in a shell surrounding the core. They have radii tens to hundreds of times larger than that of the Sun. However, their outer envelope is lower in temperature, giving them a reddish-orange hue. Despite the lower energy density of their envelope, red giants are many times more luminous than the Sun because of their great size. Red-giant-branch stars have luminosities up to nearly three thousand times that of the Sun (L☉), spectral types of K or M, have surface temperatures of 3,000–4,000 K, and radii up to about 200 times the Sun (R☉). Stars on the horizontal branch are hotter, with only a small range of luminosities around 75 L☉. Asymptotic-giant-branch stars range from similar luminosities as the brighter stars of the red giant branch, up to several times more luminous at the end of the thermal pulsing phase.
Among the asymptotic-giant-branch stars belong the carbon stars of type C-N and late C-R, produced when carbon and other elements are convected to the surface in what is called a dredge-up.[1] The first dredge-up occurs during hydrogen shell burning on the red-giant branch, but does not produce a large carbon abundance at the surface. The second, and sometimes third, dredge up occurs during helium shell burning on the asymptotic-giant branch and convects carbon to the surface in sufficiently massive stars.
The stellar limb of a red giant is not sharply-defined, contrary to their depiction in many illustrations. Rather, due to the very low mass density of the envelope, such stars lack a well-defined photosphere, and the body of the star gradually transitions into a 'corona'.[2] The coolest red giants have complex spectra, with molecular lines, emission features, and sometimes masers, particularly from thermally pulsing AGB stars.[3]
Another noteworthy feature of red giants is that, unlike Sun-like stars whose photospheres have a large number of small convection cells (solar granules), red-giant photospheres, as well as those of red supergiants, have just a few large cells, the features of which cause the variations of brightness so common on both types of stars.[4]
Evolution[edit]
Main article: Stellar evolution § Mid-sized stars
This image tracks the life of a Sun-like star, from its birth on the left side of the frame to its evolution into a red giant on the right after billions of years.
Red giants are evolved from main-sequence stars with masses in the range from about 0.3 M☉ to around 8 M☉.[5] When a star initially forms from a collapsing molecular cloud in the interstellar medium, it contains primarily hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of "metals" (in stellar structure, this simply refers to any element that is not hydrogen or helium i.e. atomic number greater than 2). These elements are all uniformly mixed throughout the star. The star reaches the main sequence when the core reaches a temperature high enough to begin fusing hydrogen (a few million kelvin) and establishes hydrostatic equilibrium. Over its main sequence life, the star slowly converts the hydrogen in the core into helium; its main-sequence life ends when nearly all the hydrogen in the core has been fused. For the Sun, the main-sequence lifetime is approximately 10 billion years. More-massive stars burn disproportionately faster and so have a shorter lifetime than less massive stars.[6]
When the star exhausts the hydrogen fuel in its core, nuclear reactions can no longer continue and so the core begins to contract due to its own gravity. This brings additional hydrogen into a zone where the temperature and pressure are adequate to cause fusion to resume in a shell around the core. The outer layers of the star then expand greatly, thus beginning the red-giant phase of the star's life. As the star expands, the energy produced in the burning shell of the star is spread over a much larger surface area, resulting in a lower surface temperature and a shift in the star's visible light output towards the red – hence it becomes a red giant. At this time, the star is said to be ascending the red-giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram.[6]
Mira A is an old star, already shedding its outer layers into space.
The evolutionary path the star takes as it moves along the red-giant branch, that ends finally with the complete collapse of the core, depends on the mass of the star. For the Sun and stars of less than about 2 M☉[7] the core will become dense enough that electron degeneracy pressure will prevent it from collapsing further. Once the core is degenerate, it will continue to heat until it reaches a temperature of roughly 108 K, hot enough to begin fusing helium to carbon via the triple-alpha process. Once the degenerate core reaches this temperature, the entire core will begin helium fusion nearly simultaneously in a so-called helium flash. In more-massive stars, the collapsing core will reach 108 K before it is dense enough to be degenerate, so helium fusion will begin much more smoothly, and produce no helium flash.[6] The core helium fusing phase of a star's life is called the horizontal branch in metal-poor stars, so named because these stars lie on a nearly horizontal line in the H–R diagram of many star clusters. Metal-rich helium-fusing stars instead lie on the so-called red clump in the H–R diagram.[8]
An analogous process occurs when the central helium is exhausted and the star collapses once again, causing helium in a shell to begin fusing. At the same time hydrogen may begin fusion in a shell just outside the burning helium shell. This puts the star onto the asymptotic giant branch, a second red-giant phase.[9] The helium fusion results in the build up of a carbon–oxygen core. A star below about 8 M☉ will never start fusion in its degenerate carbon–oxygen core.[7] Instead, at the end of the asymptotic-giant-branch phase the star will eject its outer layers, forming a planetary nebula with the core of the star exposed, ultimately becoming a white dwarf. The ejection of the outer mass and the creation of a planetary nebula finally ends the red-giant phase of the star's evolution.[6] The red-giant phase typically lasts only around a billion years in total for a solar mass star, almost all of which is spent on the red-giant branch. The horizontal-branch and asymptotic-giant-branch phases proceed tens of times faster.
If the star has about 0.2 to 0.5 M☉,[7] it is massive enough to become a red giant but does not have enough mass to initiate the fusion of helium.[5] These "intermediate" stars cool somewhat and increase their luminosity but never achieve the tip of the red-giant branch and helium core flash. When the ascent of the red-giant branch ends they puff off their outer layers much like a post-asymptotic-giant-branch star and then become a white dwarf.
Stars that do not become red giants[edit]
Very low mass stars are fully convective[10][11] and may continue to fuse hydrogen into helium for up to a trillion years[12] until only a small fraction of the entire star is hydrogen. Luminosity and temperature steadily increase during this time, just as for more-massive main-sequence stars, but the length of time involved means that the temperature eventually increases by about 50% and the luminosity by around 10 times. Eventually the level of helium increases to the point where the star ceases to be fully convective and the remaining hydrogen locked in the core is consumed in only a few billion more years. Depending on mass, the temperature and luminosity continue to increase for a time during hydrogen shell burning, the star can become hotter than the Sun and tens of times more luminous than when it formed although still not as luminous as the Sun. After some billions more years, they start to become less luminous and cooler even though hydrogen shell burning continues. These become cool helium white dwarfs.[5]
Very-high-mass stars develop into supergiants that follow an evolutionary track that takes them back and forth horizontally over the HR diagram, at the right end constituting red supergiants. These usually end their life as a type II supernova. The most massive stars can become Wolf–Rayet stars without becoming giants or supergiants at all.[13][14]
Planets[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2015)
Red giants with known planets: the M-type HD 208527, HD 220074 and, as of February 2014, a few tens[15] of known K-giants including Pollux, Gamma Cephei and Iota Draconis.
Prospects for habitability[edit]
Although traditionally it has been suggested the evolution of a star into a red giant will render its planetary system, if present, uninhabitable, some research suggests that, during the evolution of a 1 M☉ star along the red-giant branch, it could harbor a habitable zone for several times 109 years at 2 AU out to around 108 years at 9 AU out, giving perhaps enough time for life to develop on a suitable world. After the red-giant stage, there would for such a star be a habitable zone between 7 and 22 AU for an additional 109 years.[16] Later studies have refined this scenario, showing how for a 1 M☉ star the habitable zone lasts from 108 years for a planet with an orbit similar to that of Mars one to 7015662709600000000♠2.1×108 yr for one that orbits at Saturn's distance to the Sun, the maximum time (7016116763120000000♠3.7×108 yr) corresponding for planets orbiting at the distance of Jupiter. However, for planets orbiting a 0.5 M☉ star in equivalent orbits to those of Jupiter and Saturn they would be in the habitable zone for 7017183034080000000♠5.8×109 yr and 7016662709600000000♠2.1×109 yr respectively; for stars more massive than the Sun, the times are considerably shorter.[17]
Enlargement of planets[edit]
As of June 2014, 50 giant planets have been discovered around giant stars. However, these giant planets are more massive than the giant planets found around solar-type stars. This could be because giant stars are more massive than the Sun (less massive stars will still be on the main sequence and will not have become giants yet) and more massive stars are expected to have more massive planets. However, the masses of the planets that have been found around giant stars do not correlate with the masses of the stars; therefore, the planets could be growing in mass during the stars' red giant phase. The growth in planet mass could be partly due to accretion from stellar wind, although a much larger effect would be Roche lobe overflow causing mass-transfer from the star to the planet when the giant expands out to the orbital distance of the planet.[18]
Well known examples[edit]
Many of the well known bright stars are red giants, because they are luminous and moderately common. The asymptotic giant branch variable star Gamma Crucis is the nearest M class giant star at 88 light years.[19] The K0 red giant branch star Arcturus is 36 light years away.[20]
Red-giant branch[edit]
Aldebaran (α Tauri)
Arcturus (α Bootis)
Gacrux (γ Crucis)
Red-clump giants[edit]
Hamal (α Arietis)
κ Persei
δ Andromedae[21]
Asymptotic giant branch[edit]
Mira (ο Ceti)
χ Cygni
α Herculis
The Sun as a red giant[edit]
See also: Sun § Life phases
The current size of the Sun (now in the main sequence) compared to its estimated maximum size during its red-giant phase in the future
In about 5 to 6 billion years, the Sun will have depleted the hydrogen fuel in its core and will begin to expand. At its largest, its surface (photosphere) will approximately reach the current orbit of Earth. It will then lose its atmosphere completely; its outer layers forming a planetary nebula and the core a white dwarf. The evolution of the Sun into and through the red-giant phase has been extensively modelled, but it remains unclear whether Earth will be engulfed by the Sun or will continue in orbit. The uncertainty arises in part because as the Sun burns hydrogen, it loses mass causing Earth (and all planets) to orbit farther away. There are also significant uncertainties in calculating the orbits of the planets over the next 5–6.5 billion years, so the fate of Earth is not well understood. At its brightest, the red-giant Sun will be several thousand times more luminous than today but its surface will be at about half the temperature.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Boothroyd, A. I.; Sackmann, I. ‐J. (1999). "The CNO Isotopes: Deep Circulation in Red Giants and First and Second Dredge‐up". The Astrophysical Journal. 510: 232. Bibcode:1999ApJ...510..232B. doi:10.1086/306546.
Jump up ^ Suzuki, Takeru K. (2007). "Structured Red Giant Winds with Magnetized Hot Bubbles and the Corona/Cool Wind Dividing Line". The Astrophysical Journal. 659 (2): 1592. arXiv:astro-ph/0608195  . Bibcode:2007ApJ...659.1592S. doi:10.1086/512600.
Jump up ^ Habing, Harm J.; Olofsson, Hans (2003). "Asymptotic giant branch stars". Asymptotic giant branch stars. Bibcode:2003agbs.conf.....H.
Jump up ^ Schwarzschild, Martin (1975). "On the scale of photospheric convection in red giants and supergiants". Astrophysical Journal. 195: 137–144. Bibcode:1975ApJ...195..137S. doi:10.1086/153313.
^ Jump up to: a b c Laughlin, G.; Bodenheimer, P.; Adams, F. C. (1997). "The End of the Main Sequence". The Astrophysical Journal. 482: 420. Bibcode:1997ApJ...482..420L. doi:10.1086/304125.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Zeilik, Michael A.; Gregory, Stephan A. (1998). Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics (4th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. pp. 321–322. ISBN 0-03-006228-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fagotto, F.; Bressan, A.; Bertelli, G.; Chiosi, C. (1994). "Evolutionary sequences of stellar models with new radiative opacities. IV. Z=0.004 and Z=0.008". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 105. Bibcode:1994A&AS..105...29F.
Jump up ^ Alves, David R.; Sarajedini, Ata (1999). "The Age-dependent Luminosities of the Red Giant Branch Bump, Asymptotic Giant Branch Bump, and Horizontal Branch Red Clump". The Astrophysical Journal. 511: 225. arXiv:astro-ph/9808253  . Bibcode:1999ApJ...511..225A. doi:10.1086/306655.
Jump up ^ Sackmann, I. -J.; Boothroyd, A. I.; Kraemer, K. E. (1993). "Our Sun. III. Present and Future". The Astrophysical Journal. 418: 457. Bibcode:1993ApJ...418..457S. doi:10.1086/173407.
Jump up ^ Reiners, A.; Basri, G. (2009). "On the magnetic topology of partially and fully convective stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 496 (3): 787. arXiv:0901.1659  . Bibcode:2009A&A...496..787R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200811450.
Jump up ^ Brainerd, Jerome James (2005-02-16). "Main-Sequence Stars". Stars. The Astrophysics Spectator. Retrieved 2006-12-29.
Jump up ^ Richmond, Michael. "Late stages of evolution for low-mass stars". Retrieved 2006-12-29.
Jump up ^ Crowther, P. A. (2007). "Physical Properties of Wolf-Rayet Stars". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 45 (1): 177–219. arXiv:astro-ph/0610356  . Bibcode:2007ARA&A..45..177C. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.45.051806.110615.
Jump up ^ Georges Meynet; Cyril Georgy; Raphael Hirschi; Andre Maeder; et al. (12–16 July 2010). G. Rauw; M. De Becker; Y. Naz\'e; J.-M. Vreux; et al., eds. "Red Supergiants, Luminous Blue Variables and Wolf-Rayet stars: The single massive star perspective". Societe Royale des Sciences de Liege, Bulletin (Proceedings of the th Liege Astrophysical Colloquium). v1. Li'ege. 80 (39): 266–278. arXiv:1101.5873  . Bibcode:2011BSRSL..80..266M.
Jump up ^ http://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/ExoTables/nph-exotbls?dataset=planets
Jump up ^ Lopez, Bruno; Schneider, Jean; Danchi, William C. (2005). "Can Life Develop in the Expanded Habitable Zones around Red Giant Stars?". The Astrophysical Journal. 627 (2): 974–985. arXiv:astro-ph/0503520  . Bibcode:2005ApJ...627..974L. doi:10.1086/430416.
Jump up ^ Ramirez, Ramses M.; Kaltenegger, Lisa (2016). "Habitable Zones of Post-Main Sequence Stars". The Astrophysical Journal. 823 (1). arXiv:1605.04924  . Bibcode:2016ApJ...823....6R. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/823/1/6.
Jump up ^ Jones, M. I.; Jenkins, J. S.; Bluhm, P.; Rojo, P.; Melo, C. H. F. (2014). "The properties of planets around giant stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 566: A113. arXiv:1406.0884  . Bibcode:2014A&A...566A.113J. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201323345.
Jump up ^ Ireland, M. J.; et al. (May 2004). "Multiwavelength diameters of nearby Miras and semiregular variables". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 350 (1): 365–374. arXiv:astro-ph/0402326  . Bibcode:2004MNRAS.350..365I. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07651.x.
Jump up ^ Abia, C.; Palmerini, S.; Busso, M.; Cristallo, S. (2012). "Carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios in Arcturus and Aldebaran. Constraining the parameters for non-convective mixing on the red giant branch". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 548: A55. arXiv:1210.1160  . Bibcode:2012A&A...548A..55A. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220148.
Jump up ^ Alves, David R. (2000). "K-Band Calibration of the Red Clump Luminosity". The Astrophysical Journal. 539 (2): 732. arXiv:astro-ph/0003329  . Bibcode:2000ApJ...539..732A. doi:10.1086/309278.
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