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Judiciary of Texas
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The structure of the Judiciary of Texas is laid out in Article 5 of the Texas Constitution and is further defined by statute, in particular the Texas Government Code and the Texas Probate Code.
The structure is exceedingly complex, featuring many layers of courts, numerous instances of overlapping jurisdiction (both in terms of amount in controversy and territorial), myriad differences between counties, and an unusual bifurcated appellate system at the top level found in only one other state: Oklahoma.
The Municipal Courts are the most active courts, with the County and District Courts handling most other cases and often sharing the same courthouse. Administration is the responsibility of the Texas Supreme Court, which is aided by the Texas Office of Court Administration, the Texas Judicial Council and the State Bar of Texas, which it oversees. The State Bar of Texas (SBOT)[1] is a mandatory bar, rather than merely an association of lawyers (such as the ABA or local bar associations). In order to practice law in Texas courts, an attorney must be licensed, and must pay dues. The public can obtain basic information on all Texas attorneys, including their bar number, license status, and disciplinary record, from the Bar's website.
Contents
[hide]
1 History and perception
2 Courts
2.1 Supreme Court
2.2 Court of Criminal Appeals
2.3 Courts of Appeals
2.4 District Courts
2.5 Probate Courts
2.6 Constitutional County Courts
2.7 Statutory County Courts at Law
2.8 Municipal Courts
2.9 Justice of the Peace Courts
3 Administration
4 Officers
4.1 Judges
4.2 Justices of the Peace
4.3 Magistrates
4.4 Prosecutors
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History and perception[edit]
In the 19th century, Texas had a reputation for arbitrary "frontier justice"; in one notorious example highlighted by Stanford legal historian Lawrence M. Friedman, its appellate courts upheld a conviction of "guily" (where the t was omitted) in 1879 but reversed a conviction of "guity" (where the l was omitted) in 1886.[2][3] The latter decision actually attempted to distinguish the earlier one by trying to explain why the letter l was more important than the letter t. The poor quality of Texas justice has been attributed to the state's shortage of proper law schools and law libraries, as well as the traditional preference of Texans for "'self-help' justice as practiced in the courts of 'Judge Winchester' or 'Judge Lynch.'"[4]
Courts[edit]
The Texas Supreme Court Building
Texas is the only state besides Oklahoma to have a bifurcated appellate system at the highest level.[5] The Texas Supreme Court hears appeals involving civil matters, and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals hears appeals involving criminal matters.[5] Sometimes, the dividing line is murky, especially with respect to jurisdiction in mandamus and habeas corpus cases. See, e.g. Justice Willet's dissent in In re Reece, 341 S.W.3d 360 (Tex. 2011) (orig. proceeding).[6] Unlike its counterpart in Oklahoma, the Texas Supreme Court is not really supreme when it comes to a jurisdictional ping-pong or tug-of-war between the two high courts because both are co-equal.
Article V, Section 1, states:
[t]he judicial power of this State shall be vested in one Supreme Court, in one Court of Criminal Appeals, in Courts of Appeals, in District Courts, in County Courts, in Commissioners Courts, in Courts of Justices of the Peace, and in such other courts as may be provided by law. The Legislature may establish such other courts as it may deem necessary and prescribe the jurisdiction and organization thereof, and may conform the jurisdiction of the district and other inferior courts thereto.
As such, the Texas Legislature has created additional courts to address caseload pressures driven by population growth in different areas of the state. District courts are (usually) consecutively numbered regardless of whether they are specialize to handle criminal, civil, or family matters (though in some counties, Criminal District Courts have separate numbering systems, an example being Dallas County which has seven such courts numbered 1 through 11[7]). The highest numbers indicate that the court was created recently, but the number alone provides no clue as to location of the new court and the appellate district within which it is located. As such, a comprehensive list of Dallas courts can be found to include 60 courts in Dallas. [8]
Further sections of Article V spell out the basic requirements for each court's jurisdiction and for its officers.
Supreme Court[edit]
The Texas Supreme Court hears appeals involving civil matters and does not hear any appeals involving criminal matters except when the defendant is a juvenile. Under Texas law, juvenile proceedings (even those involving criminal activity) are considered civil matters; thus, the Texas Supreme Court hears such appeals, but it defers to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals in matters where the Texas Penal Code must be interpreted. The Supreme Court also maintains responsibility for attorney licensing and discipline.
Court of Criminal Appeals[edit]
The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals hears appeals on criminal cases excluding those involving juvenile proceedings. Cases in which the death penalty was imposed are directly and automatically appealed to this court, bypassing the intermediate Courts of Appeals, which hear both civil and criminal cases.
Courts of Appeals[edit]
The Old Harris County Courthouse, home of the First Court of Appeals of Texas and Fourteenth Court of Appeals in Houston
Texas has 14 Courts of Appeals, which have intermediate appellate jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases. However, death penalty cases are automatically appealed to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals and bypass this level.
There are a total of 80 justices among the 14 Courts; each court has between three and 13 justices as set by statute. All cases are heard by a three-justice panel unless a hearing en banc is ordered (except where a particular court has only three justices assigned to it, in which instance all cases are automatically heard en banc; an example is the 12th Court of Appeals). The Texas Legislature determines which counties are assigned to a court, and has shifted counties between courts to balance the docket.
In an oddity, two of the fourteen courts are located in Houston (the 1st and 14th Courts), both having concurrent jurisdiction over the same ten counties, the largest being Harris County. Parties who want to appeal a case from any of these counties are required to state in their notice of appeal that they wish to appeal to either the first or the fourteenth court of appeals, and then have to wait and see to which one of the two they are assigned randomly. They will quickly receive a notice from the designated court advising them that they have not yet paid the required $195 filing fee to prosecute the appeal, and that their appeal may be dismissed if they do not do so within 20 days. See TEX. R. APP. P. 5 (requiring payment of fees at time of filing, unless excused). This is standard form letter that is sent even though nobody knows which court they going to end up in when they filed the notice of appeal. The notice must be filed in the trial court, but the payment has to be made in the court of appeals.
An even more bizarre situation occurs in East and North Texas, where the 6th Court has four counties – Gregg, Rusk, Upshur, and Wood – which overlap with the 12th Court, and also has Hunt County overlapping with the 5th Court.
District Courts[edit]
The Texas district courts are the trial courts of general jurisdiction.
The district court has exclusive jurisdiction on felony cases, cases involving title to land, and election contest cases. It shares jurisdiction with the county courts, and in some case justice of the peace courts, for civil cases (its lowest limit for hearing a case is a mere $200 in controversy, while JP courts can hear cases up to $10,000). Family law jurisdiction varies depending on the existence of a county court-at-law; in some counties, the district courts share jurisdiction over divorces, child custody and support matters, adoptions and child welfare cases with county courts at law. Also, probate jurisdiction varies depending on the existence of a statutory probate court in the county. In some larger counties, such as Harris County, the district courts are specialized, some hearing family matters, others hearing criminal cases, and a third set hearing non-family civil cases.
In more rural areas, as many as five counties share a district court; urban counties, on the other hand, have multiple district courts, which in some cases specialize in civil, criminal, family law or juvenile matters.
One of the most unusual features of Texas trial courts, including district courts, is the tradition of having only one judge per trial court. Instead of adding more departments to existing courts in response to population growth, Texas adds more courts. The result is that a typical Texas urban courthouse is home to many single-judge trial courts, each of which is legally organized as a separate court with its own unique name and number. This contrasts sharply with the prevailing tradition in the federal judiciary and the courts of virtually all U.S. states, in which a trial court can have multiple judges sitting in separate departments and all of which have authority to act in the name of the same trial court. While Texas law provides for certain specific circumstances in which a judge of one trial court can act for an absent judge of another trial court in the same jurisdiction, it is not as flexible as simply treating all trial judges as members of the same court (and in turn occasionally results in another basis for appeal).
This tradition dates back to the hurried enactment of the Constitution of the Republic of Texas in 1836 by the newborn Republic. Section 2 of Article IV provided for "not less than three nor more than eight" judicial districts, and that "a judge" would be appointed for each district. Similar clauses implying one judge per court appeared in all subsequent constitutions. For example, Section 7 of Article V of the 1876 state constitution provided for 26 judicial districts, and that "a judge" would be elected for each district. This issue was finally remedied by a constitutional amendment in 1985, but the tradition of one judge per trial court was by then thoroughly entrenched.
Probate Courts[edit]
In another unique twist, the Constitution grants the Legislature the authority to determine which court handles probate matters. Thus, in ten of the 15 largest counties (specifically, the counties of Bexar, Collin, Dallas, Denton, El Paso, Galveston, Harris, Hidalgo, Tarrant, and Travis) the Legislature has established one or more Statutory Probate Courts. These specialized courts handle matters of probate, guardianship, trust, and mental health. In some counties, the statutory probate courts also hear condemnation cases. There are no jurisdictional monetary limits on the types of lawsuits that a statutory probate court may hear. As such, their jurisdiction at times overlaps that of the district court.
Constitutional County Courts[edit]
The Harris County Civil Courthouse
See also: Counties of Texas
Not to be confused with County Courts at Law, which are created by statute, there is a County Court for each of the 254 counties in Texas. The Texas Constitution states that "[t]here shall be established in each county in this State a County Court ..." Sections 15 through 17 of Article V, as well as Chapters 25 and 26 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of these Courts and their officers.
The county court has exclusive jurisdiction over "Class A" and "Class B" misdemeanors (these offenses can involve jail time), concurrent jurisdiction over civil cases where the amount in controversy is moderately sized, and appellate jurisdiction over JP and municipal court cases (for municipal court cases, this may involve a trial de novo if the lower court is not a "court of record").
County court judges are not required to be licensed attorneys. Due to this, defendants in counties which only have the traditional constitutional county court may ask to have their cases transferred to that county's district court for trial if the district judge consents [1]. However, defendants in counties with the county court at law structure do not have this option, as the county court at law judges are required to have law degrees.
Section 15 states that the County Court shall be a "court of record". Section 16 states that the County Court "has jurisdiction as provided by law"; Section 17 states that the County Court shall hold terms as provided by law and that County Court juries shall consist of six persons, but in civil cases a jury shall not be empaneled unless one of the parties demands it and pays a jury fee or files an affidavit stating that it is unable to do so.
Since the county judge is also responsible for presiding over the Commissioners Court (the main executive and legislative body of the county), in 94 counties the Texas Legislature has established county courts at law to relieve the county judge of judicial duties. The first multi-county statutory county court (composed of Fisher, Mitchell, and Nolan counties) was created in 2013. In most counties with courts at law, the civil and criminal jurisdiction of the constitutional county court has been transferred to the county courts at law. Unlike the county judge, judges of the county courts of law are required to be attorneys. The county courts at law may hear both civil and criminal matters, or hear them separately, depending on how the Legislature has structured them (Dallas, Denton, El Paso, Harris, and Tarrant counties have "county criminal courts" or "county criminal courts at law" that hear only criminal cases).
Statutory County Courts at Law[edit]
Statutory County Courts at Law, not to be confused with Constitutional County Courts, generally have broader jurisdiction than constitutional county courts. Statutory County Courts can generally entertain lawsuits in which the amount in controversy is over $500 but not over $200,000. [9] However, unlike constitutional county courts, the jurisdiction of Statutory County Courts can vary from county to county. For example, in Dallas County, Statutory County Courts have jurisdiction nearly as broad as that of District Courts. [10] In Travis County, the amount in controversy for matters the Statutory County Court can entertain ranges from $500 to $250,000. [11] There is no clear policy reason for the varying jurisdictions of the Statutory County Courts.
Municipal Courts[edit]
See also: Cities of Texas
An Austin Municipal Court
Under the authority granted it by Section 1 of Article V, the Legislature has allowed for the creation of municipal courts in each incorporated city in Texas, by voter approval creating such court. Chapters 29 and 30 of the Texas Government Code outline the duties of these Courts and their officers.
Municipal courts in Texas come into contact with more defendants than all other Texas courts combined. The subject matter of municipal courts relates to crimes relating to public safety and quality of life issues. In recent years, municipal courts and justice court in Texas have become the primary venue for acts of misconduct committed by children.
Within the city limits, these courts have shared jurisdiction with the JP courts on Class C criminal misdemeanor cases, and have exclusive jurisdiction on cases involving city ordinances. Municipal courts have limited civil jurisdiction over public matters relating to public safety (e.g., dangerous dog determinations). Confusion surrounding a municipal court's civil jurisdiction is complicated that if a municipal court is a "court of record," the Legislature has authorized municipalities to adopt ordinances that give municipal courts concurrent jurisdiction over substandard building cases with county and/or district courts. The matter of civil jurisdiction has been further confused by the advent of civil penalties for conduct that can be prosecuted as a Class C misdemeanor (e.g. certain parking violations, red light camera violations).
As a general rule, the municipal courts are not "courts of record" (i.e., no court reporter recorded and transcribed the proceedings), and thus an appeal to the county level would require a whole new trial (i.e., a trial de novo). This proved to be a loophole for some defendants in traffic cases, who betted on the officer not being able to attend, and thus having the case dismissed. Furthermore, the de novo trials crowded the dockets of already busy county courts at law. Many major cities—such as those in Austin, El Paso, Houston, Dallas and San Antonio—have chosen to convert their municipal courts to courts of record (this also requires voter approval) to close this loophole.
Municipal court cases are generally appealed to the county court level, but cannot be appealed beyond that level unless the fine is more than $100 or a constitutional matter is asserted.
Justice of the Peace Courts[edit]
A JP court of Judge Roy Bean in 1900
The lowest court level in Texas is the Justice of the Peace Court (also called Justice Court or JP Court). Each county has at least one JP Court.[12] Sections 18 and 19 of Article V, as well as Chapters 27 and 28 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of these Courts and their officers.
Section 19 sets forth the minimum jurisdiction of the JP court:
Original jurisdiction in "criminal matters of misdemeanor cases punishable by fine only" (called "Class C" misdemeanor cases under the Texas Penal Code),
Exclusive jurisdiction in "civil matters where the amount in controversy is $200 or less", and
"Such other jurisdiction as may be provided by law". Under this provision, the Legislature has raised the top limit on civil matters to $10,000 and assigned the JP courts, among others, the right to hear cases involving eviction as well as cases involving foreclosure and liens against personal property where the amount falls within the (revised) JP Court's jurisdiction. In addition, marriage licenses are obtained through JP offices, and JP's are also legally permitted to perform marriage ceremonies.
JP cases are appealed to the county court level where the case results in a trial de novo. In criminal cases, cases beginning in justice court cannot be appealed beyond the county level court unless the fine is more than $100 or a constitutional matter is asserted.
Under Section 18, the number of JP's (and associated constables; each county has as many constables as JP's) is dependent on the size of the county:
For counties with populations less than 18,000 (as determined by the census), the entire county shall be one JP precinct, unless the Commissioners' Court determines that more are needed, in which case the court can divide the county into no more than four JP precincts.
For counties with populations at least 18,000 but less than 50,000, the number of JP precincts shall be no less than two nor more than eight.
For counties with populations 50,000 or greater, the number of JP precincts shall be no less than four nor more than eight.
In any county with population less than 150,000, if any precinct contains a city with 18,000 or more population, that precinct shall have two JP's.
In any county with population 150,000 or greater, each JP precinct may have more than one JP.
Special provisions apply to Chambers and Randall counties (must have no fewer than two nor more than six precincts) and to Mills, Reagan, and Roberts (the Constable office is abolished, with the Sheriff's office performing all duties).
Administration[edit]
The Texas Law Center, which houses the State Bar of Texas
The Texas Supreme Court has constitutional responsibility for the efficient administration of the judicial system and possesses the authority to make rules of administration applicable to the courts[13] in addition to promulgation and amend rules governing procedure in trial and appellate courts, and rules of evidence.[14] The chief justice of the Supreme Court, presiding judge of the Court of Criminal Appeals, chief justices of each of the 14 courts of appeals, and judges of each of the trial courts are generally responsible for the administration of their respective courts.[13]
There is a local administrative district judge in each county, as well as a local administrative statutory county court judge in each county that has a statutory county court.[13] In counties with two or more district courts, a local administrative district judge is elected by the district judges in the county for a term not to exceed two years; in counties with two or more statutory county courts, a local administrative statutory county court judge is elected by the statutory county court judges for a term not to exceed two years.[15] The local administrative judge is charged with implementing the local rules of administration, supervising the expeditious movement of court caseloads, and other administrative duties.[16]
eFileTexas.gov is the official electronic court filing (e-filing) system.[17] Each county maintains (or does not maintain) their own docket management and retrieval systems,[18] similar to PACER for the federal government. There is no longer an officially published reporter. West's Texas Cases (a Texas-specific version of the South Western Reporter) includes reported opinions of the Supreme Court, the Court of Criminal Appeals, and the Courts of Appeals.[19][20] The Texas Reports includes Supreme Court opinions until July 1962, and the Texas Criminal Reports includes Court of Criminal Appeals opinions until November 1962.[20] There is no systematic reporting of decisions of trial courts.[19] Court opinions can generally be freely accessed on the web from the various courts' websites, with appellate opinions generally being available from 1997–2002 onwards.[21]
In 2014 the Texas Court of Appeals's web sites were updated and migrated to new web addresses (with automatic forwarding from the old URLs). Each court's website allows for case and opinion searches using various types of input in addition to cause number, such as party name, attorney name, attorney bar number, file date/date range, and full-text search using key words. All current opinion are now released as pdf documents, rather than html, and thus standardized, although different courts use different templates and citation/footnoting styles, which makes for some degree of variation in appearance. Additionally, courts of appeals are now also making procedural orders, briefs, and motions available online.
The Texas Judicial Council is the primary policy-making body for the judiciary.[22] It is responsible for studying and recommending changes to improve the administration of justice.[23] The Administrative Director of the Office of Court Administration serves as Executive Director for the Council.
The Texas Office of Court Administration provides information and research, technology services, budgetary and legal support, and other administrative assistance to a variety of judicial branch entities and courts, under the supervision of the Supreme Court of Texas and the Chief Justice.[22] The office is led by an Administrative Director appointed by the Supreme Court and reporting to the Chief Justice.
The State Bar of Texas (the Texas Bar) is an agency of the judiciary under the administrative control of the Texas Supreme Court. The Texas Bar is responsible for assisting the Texas Supreme Court in overseeing all attorneys licensed to practice law in Texas.
Officers[edit]
Judge Roy Bean, a Justice of the Peace and "The Law West of the Pecos"
Judges[edit]
Judges are elected in partisan elections.[5][24] Trial judges are elected for 4 years, and appeals court judges are elected for 6 years.[5] The Governor may fill vacancies until the next election, and judges traditionally leave office before their last term is completed.[5] Judges may be removed by voters in retention elections, by trial by jury, or by legislative address or impeachment if state judges.[25] Some incumbent judges/justices who seek reelection are defeated in primary elections, others in general elections. The chances of election-driver turnover on district and appellate benches is affected by the nature of the concurrent elections (presidential or mid-term) and by partisan tides, at least in the more competitive counties and appellate districts, e.g. Dallas and Harris County/Houston (county-level) and San Antonio (appellate district level).
District court judges are required to be licensed attorneys. In addition to judicial powers, district judges also have administrative duties as well. District judges may remove county officials [2], officials of a general-law municipality [3], and municipal court judges [4] under certain circumstances. Also, they appoint and supervise the county auditor, oversee the operations of the adult and juvenile probation offices, and are granted "supervisory" jurisdiction over the county commissioners court.
County judges do not need to be lawyers, and most are not.[26] Sections 15 through 17 of Article V, as well as Chapters 25 and 26 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of County Court officers. Section 15 states that the county judge shall be "well informed in the law of the State", "a conservator of the peace", and shall be elected for a four-year term. The county judge is also responsible for presiding over the Commissioners Court (the main executive and legislative body of the county). County court at law judges are required to be lawyers.[26]
In one of the odd provisions of the Texas Government Code, there is no requirement that a municipal judge be an attorney if the municipal court is not a court of record (Chapter 29, Section 29.004), but the municipal judge must be a licensed attorney with at least two years experience in practicing Texas law if the municipal court is a court of record (Chapter 30, Section 30.00006). The Code provides for differing requirements for municipal judges in certain cities, such as:
Lubbock (five years experience, Section 30.00044)
El Paso (provides for a presiding judge to be paid 20% above the other judges, Section 30.00128)
San Antonio (must be have resided in the city for three years prior to appointment, Section 30.00224)
Wichita Falls (need not be a resident of the city when appointed but must be a resident during his tenure, Section 30.00304),
Sweetwater (need only be a licensed attorney in good standing, Section 30.00464)
Lewisville ("shall devote as much time to the office as it requires", Section 30.01326)
Houston ("may only be removed under Article V, Section 1-a, of the Texas Constitution", Section 30.00674)
Bullard (the requirement for being a licensed attorney does not apply, Section 30.01482)
Westlake and Trophy Club (both cities are located in Tarrant and Denton counties; for Westlake criminal appeals are taken to the Tarrant County Courts at Law, while for Trophy Club criminal appeals are taken to the Denton County Courts at Law, Sections 30.01781 and 30.01811)
The thirteen-member Texas State Commission on Judicial Conduct hears complaints against judges, and may censure, reprimand, or recommend removal by the Supreme Court.[27][25] It very rarely punishes judges;[27] out of more than 1,110 complaints it resolved in fiscal year 2009, only 70 disciplinary actions were taken.[25][28]
Justices of the Peace[edit]
There is no requirement that the JP be an attorney.[29] However, the Texas Government Code requires a JP to attend an 80-hour course involving the performance of JP duties within one year after initial election, and a 20-hour course every year thereafter. In addition, the JP is an ex officio notary public.
Magistrates[edit]
A "magistrate" can be any judge or JP and can set bonds, arraign defendants, issue search and arrest warrants, and conduct criminal bond forfeiture hearings.[29] Five counties (Bexar, Dallas, Lubbock, Tarrant, and Travis) have district court magistrates who are appointed by district court judges and do not conduct trials.[30]
Prosecutors[edit]
There are several prosecution offices: district attorneys, county attorneys, criminal district attorneys, and city attorneys.[31] District attorneys prosecute criminal cases in district courts and serve one or more counties in which they are elected for four-year terms.[32] County attorneys prosecute misdemeanor criminal cases and serve a single county in which they are elected for four-year terms.[33] Criminal district attorneys prosecute both felony and misdemeanor criminal cases and serve a single county in which they are elected for four-year terms.[12] City attorneys prosecute criminal cases in municipal courts.[12] If a county has only a district attorney or county attorney, this official prosecutes all criminal cases within the county.[34]
See also[edit]
Government of Texas
Law of Texas
Law enforcement in Texas
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.texasbar.com/
Jump up ^ Lawrence M. Friedman, A History of American Law, 3rd ed. (New York: Touchstone, 2005), 299.
Jump up ^ Lawrence M. Friedman, Crime and Punishment in American History (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 256.
Jump up ^ Bill Neal, Getting Away With Murder On The Texas Frontier: Notorious Killings & Celebrated Trials (Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press, 2006), 5-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Maxwell, Crain & Santos 2010, p. 55.
Jump up ^ https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=e.g.+In+re+Reece,+341+S.W.3d+360+(Tex.+2011)+(orig.+proceeding).+&hl=en&as_sdt=6,44&case=13629628230375350015&scilh=0
Jump up ^ http://www.dallascounty.org/department/courts/county_criminal.php
Jump up ^ http://www.dallascourts.com/forms/lstCourts.asp?division=num
Jump up ^ http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/Docs/GV/htm/GV.25.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/Docs/GV/htm/GV.25.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/Docs/GV/htm/GV.25.htm
^ Jump up to: a b c Anderson 1997, p. 19.
^ Jump up to: a b c Administration 2012, p. 9.
Jump up ^ http://www.txcourts.gov/rules-forms/rules-standards.aspx
Jump up ^ Administration 2012, pp. 9-10.
Jump up ^ Administration 2012, p. 10.
Jump up ^ "eFileTexas.gov | EFileTexas.gov". eFileTexas.gov. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "Texas Courts Online | Case searches". Texas Office of Court Administration. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Quarles & Cordon 2003, p. 73.
^ Jump up to: a b Quarles & Cordon 2008, p. 34.
Jump up ^ Quarles & Cordon 2008, pp. 35–36.
^ Jump up to: a b Annual Reports of the Judicial Support Agencies, Boards and Commissions: For the Fiscal Year Ended August 31, 2012 (PDF). Texas Office of Court Administration. December 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Reavley, Tom (1973). "The Texas Judiciary: Problems and Needs". The 63rd Texas Legislature Pre-session Conference: Judicial Reorganization, Revenue Sharing, Property Taxation and School Finance. Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs, University of Texas at Austin. p. 10. OCLC 621945.
Jump up ^ Hansen 1998, p. 69.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bessette et al. 2011, p. 782.
^ Jump up to: a b Anderson 1997, p. 21.
^ Jump up to: a b Dautrich et al. 2009, p. 769.
Jump up ^ Jennings, Dianne (14 December 2009). "State Commission on Judicial Conduct has the job of judging Texas' judges". The Dallas Morning News.
^ Jump up to: a b Anderson 1997, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Anderson 1997, p. 22.
Jump up ^ Anderson 1997, p. 17.
Jump up ^ Anderson 1997, pp. 17-18.
Jump up ^ Anderson 1997, pp. 18-19.
Jump up ^ Schmidt et al. 2007, p. 866.
Maxwell, William Earl; Crain, Ernest; Santos, Adolfo (2010). Texas Politics Today (2009-2010 ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-49-557025-7.
Hansen, Mark (October 1998). "A Run for the Bench". ABA Journal. 84: 68–72. ISSN 0747-0088.
Annual Statistical Report for the Texas Judiciary (2012) (PDF). Texas Office of Court Administration. January 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
Anderson, Ken (1997). Crime in Texas: Your Complete Guide to the Criminal Justice System. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70478-X. LCCN 96-41661.
Schmidt, Steffen W.; Bardes, Barbara A.; Shelley, Mack C.; Crain, Ernest; Maxwell, William Earl (2007). American Government and Politics Today: Texas Edition 2007-2008 (13th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-39202-6. LCCN 2006936862.
Dautrich, Kenneth; Yalof, David A.; Prindle, David F.; Newell, Charldean; Shoemaker, Mark (2009). American Government, Texas Edition: Historical, Popular, and Global Perspectives: Texas Edition. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-57031-8. LCCN 2008939486.
Bessette, Joseph M.; Pitney, Jr., John J.; Brown, Lyle C.; Langenegger, Joyce A.; Garcia, Sonia R.; Lewis, Ted A.; Biles, Robert E. (2011). American Government and Politics: Deliberation, Democracy and Citizenship: Texas Edition. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-90588-2. LCCN 2010942819.
Quarles, Brandon D.; Cordon, Matthew C. (2003). Legal Research for the Texas Practitioner. Wm. S. Hein Publishing. ISBN 0-8377-3626-9.
Quarles, Brandon D.; Cordon, Matthew C. (2008). Researching Texas Law (2nd ed.). Wm. S. Hein Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8377-1533-9.
External links[edit]
eFileTexas.gov
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Little Caesars
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Little Caesar Enterprises Inc.
Fox Theatre, where the headquarters of Little Caesars is located
Trading name
Little Caesars
Industry
Restaurants
Founded
May 8, 1959; 58 years ago (1959-05-08)
Garden City, Michigan, U.S.
Founders
Mike Ilitch
Marian Ilitch
Headquarters
2211 Woodward Avenue
Detroit, Michigan, U.S.
Area served
Worldwide
Key people
David Scrivano (President)
Products
Pizza, Chicken Wings, Crazy Bread
Owners
Ilitch Holdings
Website
littlecaesars.com/en-us/
Little Caesar Enterprises Inc. (doing business as Little Caesars) is the third-largest pizza chain in the United States, behind Pizza Hut and Domino's Pizza.[1] It operates and franchises pizza restaurants in the United States and internationally in Asia, the Middle East, Australia, Canada, Latin America and the Caribbean. The company was founded in 1959 and is based in Detroit, Michigan, headquartered in the Fox Theatre building in Downtown.[2] Little Caesar Enterprises, Inc. operates as a subsidiary of Ilitch Holdings, Inc.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Corporate
2.1 Trademark
3 Franchise
3.1 International growth
4 Products
5 Community outreach
5.1 Love Kitchen
5.2 Veterans program
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Little Caesars Pizza was founded on May 8, 1959, by Detroit Tigers farm team shortstop Mike Ilitch and his wife Marian Ilitch. The first location was in a strip mall in Garden City, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. Mike wanted to call it simply "Pizza Treat," but Marian didn't like the name. Marian considered Mike her "little Caesar". Mike ultimately relented, and the store opened as "Little Caesar's Pizza Treat." The original store is still open today.[citation needed]
The company is famous for its advertising catchphrase, "Pizza! Pizza!" which was introduced in 1979. The phrase refers to two pizzas being offered for the comparable price of a single pizza from competitors. Originally, the pizzas were served in a single long package (a piece of corrugated cardboard in 2-by-1 proportions, with two square pizzas placed side by side, then slid into a form-fitting paper sleeve that was folded and stapled closed). In addition to pizza, they served hot dogs, chicken, shrimp, and fish. Little Caesars has since discarded the unwieldy packaging in favor of typical pizza boxes.
In 1998, Little Caesars filled what was then the largest pizza order, filling an order of 13,386 pizzas from the VF Corporation of Greensboro, North Carolina.[4]
Starting in 2004, the chain began offering "Hot-N-Ready", a large pepperoni pizza sold for $5. The concept was successful enough to become a permanent fixture of the chain, and Little Caesars' business model has shifted to focus more on carryout.[5]
Little Caesars was among the first to use a new kind of speed cooking conveyor oven, the "Rotary Air Impingement Oven" as described in U.S. Patent 5676044.[6]
On December 10, 2014, Little Caesars announced plans for a new 8-story, 205,000-square-foot Global Resource Center to be built at Woodward Avenue and Columbia Street in downtown Detroit. The new facility will double the size of Little Caesars World Headquarters Campus, currently located in the Fox Office Center building, which houses both the iconic Fox Theatre, and 186,000 square feet of office space for Little Caesars, and other Ilitch-affiliated ventures. The plans include a complete renovation of the 186,000 square foot Fox Office space into a modern, flexible, open and collaborative workspace. An overhead pedestrian bridge over Columbia Street will connect the Fox with the new Little Caesars Global Resource Center, and workspace for an additional 600 jobs to be brought to Detroit over time.[7][8]
On January 31, 2016, it was announced that the new Little Caesars Pizza Global Resource Center, has grown by one floor to be a nine-story building at Woodward and Columbia Street. It will sit next to the company's current headquarters inside the Fox Theatre. Original plans called for a 205,000-square-foot building; it is now expected to be about 240,000-square-feet.[9]
Corporate[edit]
Ilitch Holdings, Inc. provides professional and technical services to companies owned by Marian Ilitch. These include the Detroit Red Wings of the National Hockey League (whose new NHL arena from 2017 onward is named for the American pizza chain), the Detroit Tigers of Major League Baseball, Blue Line Foodservice Distribution, Little Caesars Pizza Kits, Champion Foods, Olympia Entertainment, Olympia Development, Uptown Entertainment, and the Hockeytown Cafe (also the site of City Theater), and the Fox Theatre in downtown Detroit.[10]
Trademark[edit]
While Little Caesars owns the "Pizza! Pizza!" trademark in the U.S., the unaffiliated Canadian Pizza Pizza restaurant chain, founded on New Year's Eve in 1967, in Toronto (twelve years before Little Caesars began using its trademarked version in the United States) owns the Canadian trademark. As a result, Little Caesars cannot directly use its well-known slogan in Canada, due to a copyright claim by JAD Productions Corporation. Instead, the company has used "Two Pizzas!" along with "Delivery! Delivery!", "Quality! Quality!" or other such double-word tag lines in its advertising and packaging in Canada. They have used "Hot 'N Ready!" in their TV commercials for their "Hot 'N Ready" pizzas.[citation needed]
Franchise[edit]
Franchise in Marquette, Michigan.
A typical Little Caesars in Haltom City, Texas on U.S. 377.
Little Caesars sold its first franchise in 1962, and, by 1987, had restaurants in all 50 states.[11] Throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Little Caesars were commonly found in Kmart stores, more specifically in Big Kmarts and Super Kmarts. The first Kmart and the first Little Caesars were both built in Garden City, Michigan. After Kmart's bankruptcy issues, some of today's Kmarts have replaced the Little Caesars with their own branded "K-Cafe". However, several Little Caesars remain. Little Caesars pizza was also included in many remodeled Kmart locations or re-branded stores such as Sears Grand or Sears Essentials.[citation needed]
Today, Little Caesars is the fastest-growing pizza chain in the United States,[12] and continues to expand across the country and internationally.[13]
Former Little Caesars Pizza Station in Brno, Czech Republic
International growth[edit]
By 1987,[14] the company was operating across the Northern United States, purchasing the Mother's Pizza chain out of receivership in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom in 1989.[15] As of 2017, the company is present in Canada (some Canadian cities had locations since 1969), Puerto Rico, Chile, US Virgin Islands, Guam, Honduras, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, Panama, Turkey, Jordan, Egypt, Guatemala, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, El Salvador, Jamaica, Bahrain, Australia and Trinidad and Tobago.[16]
Products[edit]
Little Caesars specializes in a variety of pizzas. Several core menu items are part of the HOT-N-READY menu, designed to make popular items available for immediate carry-out at lower prices than competing chains, while others are made to order and customizable using an assortment of toppings, which vary by store. Standard pizza options include their Classic Cheese and/or Pepperoni, Italian Sausage Pizza, Hula Hawaiian Pizza, Three Meat Treat Pizza, Ultimate Supreme Pizza, and Veggie Pizza.[17] In 2013, they added the DEEP!DEEP! Dish Pizza, a Detroit-style pizza, to the menu,[18] which can be ordered as a full-size, 8-corner pizza, or as of 2014, in a smaller portion with a Pepsi product as part of their lunchtime combo deal.[19]
Additional entrée options include flavored wings and bread, such as Crazy Bread and Italian Cheese Bread.[20] Select locations offer salads. All Little Caesars locations carry Pepsi products.[citation needed]
On occasion, Little Caesars releases limited time offers. In 2014, they introduced the Soft Pretzel Crust Pizza,[21] which was brought back for a second time in 2015 due to high demand.[citation needed]
Little Caesars was the first among pizza chains in their category to introduce a pizza wrapped in bacon when they released the Bacon Wrapped Crust Pizza, also in 2015, which featured their deep dish pizza wrapped in 3.5 feet of bacon.[22]
Community outreach[edit]
Love Kitchen[edit]
The Little Caesars Love Kitchen is a kitchen on wheels that serves pizza to those in need. Since its creation in 1985, it has traveled to 48 states and 4 Canadian provinces and responded to several disasters, including the September 11 terrorist attacks. Former Presidents Bill Clinton and George H.W. Bush recognized the Love Kitchen by awarding Little Caesars with The President’s Volunteer Action Award Citation.[23]
Veterans program[edit]
In 2006, Little Caesars started its Veterans Program, which provides incentives to honorably discharged veterans looking to open their own business when transitioning back to civilian life or seeking a career change.[24] Mike Ilitch was inspired to start the program after hearing a story about a veteran, who lost both legs in war, returning to civilian life.[25]
See also[edit]
List of pizza chains of the United States
Detroit portal
Companies portal
Food portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The 2015 Pizza Power Report". PMQ Pizza Magazine. Retrieved 2015-01-08.
Jump up ^ "Franchise Opportunities". (Archive) Little Caesars. 5/5. Retrieved on November 2, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Little Caesar Enterprises, Inc.: Private Company Information - Bloomberg". www.bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2017-07-17.
Jump up ^ Inc., Fanpop,. "Little Caesars Article: Miscellaneous Facts About Little Caesars". www.fanpop.com. Retrieved 2017-06-14.
Jump up ^ Skid, Nathan (27 April 2009). "Hot-N-Steady: Renewed focus on value keeps Little Caesars cooking at age 50". Retrieved 30 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Patent US5676044 - Rotary air impingement oven - Google Patents". Google.com. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Little Caesars Pizza Doubles Down on Detroit".
Jump up ^ "Little Caesars to build 8-story downtown HQ next to Fox".
Jump up ^ "Area around new Red Wings arena teems with planned projects".
Jump up ^ "Ilitch Holdings, Inc.". Archived from the original on 2006-12-15. Retrieved 2006-01-23.
Jump up ^ "Milestones | Little Caesars | Australia". www.little-caesars.com.au. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Pizza Franchise Opportunities". Little Caesars' official webpage. Retrieved 2017-02-25.
Jump up ^ "International Franchise Development". Little Caesars International. Retrieved 2017-02-25.
Jump up ^ "LITTLE CAESARS PIZZA ANNOUNCES 700 NEW INTERNATIONAL RESTAURANTS". Prnewswire.co.uk. 1999-12-09. Retrieved 2012-01-23.
Jump up ^ MacLeod, Meredith (2 February 2013). "Mother’s Pizza rising again in east Hamilton". The Spectator. Hamilton ON. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Little Caesars International
Jump up ^ "Little Caesars Pizza - Pizza Franchise Opportunities Available". www.littlecaesars.com. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Little Caesars New DEEP!DEEP! Dish Pizza is not an April Fools' Joke Probably". Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ "News: Little Caesars - New $5 Hot-N-Ready Lunch Combo". www.brandeating.com. Brand Eating. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Little Caesars Pizza - Pizza Franchise Opportunities Available". www.littlecaesars.com. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ Kryza, Andy (2014-09-03). "Taste-test: We inhaled Little Caesars' new pretzel crust pizza". Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Little Caesars' Bacon-Wrapped Crust is the Crust to End All Crusts". Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Little Caesars Pizza > Giving Back > Love Kitchen". littlecaesars.com. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ "Little Caesars Veterans Program | Veterans Program". franchise.littlecaesars.com. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
Jump up ^ "The Ilitch Family | Little Caesars | Australia". www.little-caesars.com.au. Retrieved 2016-08-08.
External links[edit]
LittleCaesars.com - Official U.S. Website
LittleCaesars.ca - Official Canada Website
Little-Caesars.com.au - Australia Website
LittleCaesarsinternational.com - World
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