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Engineer
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For other uses, see Engineer (disambiguation).
Engineer
Kitty Joyner, an American engineer, in 1952
Occupation
Names
Engineer
Occupation type
Profession
Activity sectors
Applied science
Description
Competencies
Mathematics, science, design, analysis, critical thinking, engineering ethics, project management, engineering economics, creativity, problem solving, (See also: Glossary of engineering)
Education required
Engineering education
Fields of
employment
Research and development, industry, business
Related jobs
Scientist, architect, project manager, inventor, astronaut
Engineers, as practitioners of engineering, are professionals who invent, design, analyze, build, and test machines, systems, structures and materials to fulfill objectives and requirements while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost.[1][2] The word engineer (Latin ingeniator[3]) is derived from the Latin words ingeniare ("to create, generate, contrive, devise") and ingenium ("cleverness").[4][5] The foundational qualifications of an engineer typically include a 4-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus 4–6 years of peer-reviewed professional practice (culminating in a project report or thesis) and passage of engineering board examinations.
The work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life.[1]
Contents
1 Definition
2 Roles and expertise
2.1 Design
2.2 Analysis
2.3 Specialization and management
3 Types of engineers
4 Ethics
5 Education
6 Regulation
7 Perception
7.1 UK
7.2 France
7.3 North America
7.4 Asia and Africa
7.5 Corporate culture
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Definition[edit]
In 1961 , the Conference of Engineering Societies of Western Europe and the United States of America defined "professional engineer" as follows:[6]
A professional engineer is competent by virtue of his/her fundamental education and training to apply the scientific method and outlook to the analysis and solution of engineering problems. He/she is able to assume personal responsibility for the development and application of engineering science and knowledge, notably in research, design, construction, manufacturing, superintending, managing and in the education of the engineer. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a routine mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical and administrative work of others. His/her education will have been such as to make him/her capable of closely and continuously following progress in his/her branch of engineering science by consulting newly published works on a worldwide basis, assimilating such information and applying it independently. He/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. His/her education and training will have been such that he/she will have acquired a broad and general appreciation of the engineering sciences as well as thorough insight into the special features of his/her own branch. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice and to assume responsibility for the direction of important tasks in his/her branch.
Roles and expertise[edit]
Design[edit]
Engineers develop new technological solutions. During the engineering design process, the responsibilities of the engineer may include defining problems, conducting and narrowing research, analyzing criteria, finding and analyzing solutions, and making decisions. Much of an engineer's time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information.[7] Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, including 14% actively searching for information.[8]
Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements and needs. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result.
Analysis[edit]
Engineers conferring on prototype design, 1954
Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure, and test output to maintain quality. They also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects. Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Engineering analysis proceeds by separating the engineering design into the mechanisms of operation or failure, analyzing or estimating each component of the operation or failure mechanism in isolation, and recombining the components. They may analyze risk.[9][10][11][12]
Many engineers use computers to produce and analyze designs, to simulate and test how a machine, structure, or system operates, to generate specifications for parts, to monitor the quality of products, and to control the efficiency of processes.
Specialization and management[edit]
NASA Launch Control Center Firing Room 2 as it appeared in the Apollo era
Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines.[1] Numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, and polymer engineering. Mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as motor vehicles, or in one type of technology, such as turbines or semiconductor materials.[1]
Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time; that is, the work tasks they perform and how their time is distributed among these. Research[8][13] suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work: (1) technical work (i.e., the application of science to product development); (2) social work (i.e., interactive communication between people); (3) computer-based work; (4) information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study[13] found that engineers spend 62.92% of their time engaged in technical work, 40.37% in social work, and 49.66% in computer-based work. Furthermore, there was considerable overlap between these different types of work, with engineers spending 24.96% of their time engaged in technical and social work, 37.97% in technical and non-social, 15.42% in non-technical and social, and 21.66% in non-technical and non-social.
Engineering is also an information-intensive field, with research finding that engineers spend 55.8% of their time engaged in various different information behaviours, including 14.2% actively seeking information from other people (7.8%) and information repositories such as documents and databases (6.4%).[8]
The time engineers spend engaged in such activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. In addition to engineers’ core technical competence, research has also demonstrated the critical nature of their personal attributes, project management skills, and cognitive abilities to success in the role.[14]
Types of engineers[edit]
Main article: List of engineering branches
There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies and products. Typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. For example, mechanical engineering curricula typically includes introductory courses in electrical engineering, computer science, materials science, metallurgy, mathematics, and software engineering.
When developing a product, engineers typically work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers. A mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators. An electrical engineer would design the power systems, sensors, electronics, embedded software in electronics, and control circuitry. Finally, a software engineer would develop the software that makes the robot behave properly. Engineers that aspire to management engage in further study in business administration, project management and organizational or business psychology. Often engineers move up the management hierarchy from managing projects, functional departments, divisions and eventually CEO's of a multi-national corporation.
Branch
Focus
Related sciences
Products
Aerospace engineering Focuses on the development of aircraft and spacecraft Aeronautics, astrodynamics, astronautics, avionics, control engineering, fluid mechanics, kinematics, materials science, thermodynamics Aircraft, robotics, spacecraft, trajectories
Architectural engineering & building engineering Focuses on building and construction Architecture, architectural technology Buildings and bridges
Biomedical engineering Focuses on closing the gap between engineering and medicine to advance various health care treatments. Biology, physics, chemistry, medicine Prostheses, medical devices, regenerative tissue growth, various safety mechanisms, genetic engineering
Chemical engineering Focuses on the manufacturing of chemicals and chemical production processes Chemistry, thermodynamics, process engineering, nanotechnology, biology, medicine Chemicals, petroleum, medicines, raw materials, food & drink, genetic engineering
Civil engineering Focuses on the construction of large systems, structures, and environmental systems Statics, fluid mechanics, soil mechanics, structural engineering, geotechnical engineering, environmental engineering Roads, bridges, dams, buildings, structural system, foundation, earthworks, waste management, water treatment
Computer engineering Focuses on the design and development of computer hardware & software systems Computer science, mathematics, electrical engineering Microprocessors, microcontrollers, operating systems, embedded systems
Electrical engineering Focuses on application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism Mathematics, probability and statistics, engineering ethics, engineering economics, instrumentation, materials science, physics, network analysis, electromagnetism, linear system, electronics, electric power, logic, computer science, data transmission, systems engineering, control engineering, signal processing Electricity generation and equipment, remote sensing, robotics, control system, computers, home appliances, Internet of things, consumer electronics, avionics, hybrid vehicles, spacecraft, unmanned aerial vehicles, optoelectronics, embedded systems
Industrial engineering Focuses on the design, optimization, and operation of production, logistics, and service systems and processes Operations research, engineering statistics, applied probability and stochastic processes, methods engineering, production engineering, manufacturing engineering, systems engineering, logistics engineering, ergonomics quality control systems, manufacturing systems, warehousing systems, supply chains, logistics networks, queueing systems, business process management
Mechatronics engineering Focuses on the technology and controlling all the industrial field Process control, automation Robotics, controllers, CNC
Mechanical engineering Focuses on the development and operation of energy systems, transport systems, manufacturing systems, machines and control systems Dynamics, kinematics, statics, fluid mechanics, materials science, metallurgy, strength of materials, thermodynamics, heat transfer, mechanics, mechatronics, manufacturing engineering, control engineering Cars, airplanes, machines, power generation, spacecraft, buildings, consumer goods, manufacturing, HVAC
Metallurgical engineering/materials engineering Focuses on extraction of metals from its ores and development of new materials Material science, thermodynamics, extraction of metals, physical metallurgy, mechanical metallurgy, nuclear materials, steel technology Iron, steel, polymers, ceramics, metals
Mining engineering Focuses on the use of applied science and technology to extract various minerals from the earth, not to be confused with metallurgical engineering, which deals with mineral processing of various ores after they have already been mined Rock mechanics, geostatistics, soil mechanics, control engineering, geophysics, fluid mechanics, drilling and blasting Gold, silver, coal, iron ore, potash, limestone, diamond, rare-earth element, bauxite, copper
Software engineering Focuses on the design and development of software systems Computer science, information theory, systems engineering, formal language apps, websites, operating systems, embedded systems
Ethics[edit]
Main article: Engineering ethics
The Challenger disaster is held as a case study of engineering ethics.
Engineers have obligations to the public, their clients, employers, and the profession. Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold. Depending on their specializations, engineers may also be governed by specific statute, whistleblowing, product liability laws, and often the principles of business ethics.[15][16][17]
An engineer receiving his Order of the Engineer ring
Some graduates of engineering programs in North America may be recognized by the iron ring or Engineer's Ring, a ring made of iron or stainless steel that is worn on the little finger of the dominant hand. This tradition began in 1925 in Canada with The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer, where the ring serves as a symbol and reminder of the engineer's obligations to the engineering profession. In 1972, the practice was adopted by several colleges in the United States including members of the Order of the Engineer.
Education[edit]
Main article: Engineering education
Most engineering programs involve a concentration of study in an engineering specialty, along with courses in both mathematics and the physical and life sciences. Many programs also include courses in general engineering and applied accounting. A design course, often accompanied by a computer or laboratory class or both, is part of the curriculum of most programs. Often, general courses not directly related to engineering, such as those in the social sciences or humanities, also are required.
Accreditation is the process by which engineering programs are evaluated by an external body to determine if applicable standards are met. The Washington Accord serves as an international accreditation agreement for academic engineering degrees, recognizing the substantial equivalency in the standards set by many major national engineering bodies. In the United States, post-secondary degree programs in engineering are accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology.
Regulation[edit]
Main article: Regulation and licensure in engineering
In many countries, engineering tasks such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, industrial equipment, machine design and chemical plants, must be approved by a licensed professional engineer. Most commonly titled professional engineer is a license to practice and is indicated with the use of post-nominal letters; PE or P.Eng. These are common in North America, as is European engineer (EUR ING) in Europe. The practice of engineering in the UK is not a regulated profession but the control of the titles of chartered engineer (CEng) and incorporated engineer (IEng) is regulated. These titles are protected by law and are subject to strict requirements defined by the Engineering Council UK. The title CEng is in use in much of the Commonwealth.
Many skilled / semi-skilled trades and engineering technicians in the UK call themselves engineers. A growing movement in the UK is to legally protect the title 'Engineer' so that only professional engineers can use it; a petition[18] was started to further this cause.
In the United States, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensure is generally attainable through combination of education, pre-examination (Fundamentals of Engineering exam), examination (professional engineering exam),[19] and engineering experience (typically in the area of 5+ years). Each state tests and licenses professional engineers. Currently, most states do not license by specific engineering discipline, but rather provide generalized licensure, and trust engineers to use professional judgment regarding their individual competencies; this is the favoured approach of the professional societies. Despite this, at least one of the examinations required by most states is actually focused on a particular discipline; candidates for licensure typically choose the category of examination which comes closest to their respective expertise. In the United States, an "industrial exemption" allows businesses to employ employees and call them an "engineer", as long as such individuals are under the direct supervision and control of the business entity and function internally related to manufacturing (manufactured parts) related to the business entity, or work internally within an exempt organization. Such person does not have the final authority to approve, or the ultimate responsibility for, engineering designs, plans, or specifications that are to be: (A) incorporated into fixed works, systems, or facilities on the property of others; or (B) made available to the public. These individuals are prohibited from offering engineering services directly to the public and/or other businesses, and/or engage in practice of engineering; unless the business entity is registered with the state's board of engineering, and the practice is carried on/supervised directly only by engineers licensed to engage in the practice of engineering.[20] In some instances, some positions, such as a “sanitation engineer”, does not have any basis in engineering sciences.
In Canada, engineering is a self regulated profession. The profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with four or more years of post graduate experience in an engineering-related field and passing exams in ethics and law will need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists (APEGBC)[21] in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of P.Eng allowing one to practice engineering.
In Continental Europe, Latin America, Turkey, and elsewhere the title is limited by law to people with an engineering degree and the use of the title by others is illegal. In Italy, the title is limited to people who both hold an engineering degree and have passed a professional qualification examination (Esame di Stato). In Portugal, professional engineer titles and accredited engineering degrees are regulated and certified by the Ordem dos Engenheiros. In the Czech Republic, the title "engineer" (Ing.) is given to people with a (masters) degree in chemistry, technology or economics for historical and traditional reasons. In Greece, the academic title of "Diploma Engineer" is awarded after completion of the five-year engineering study course and the title of "Certified Engineer" is awarded after completion of the four-year course of engineering studies at a Technological Educational Institute (TEI).
Perception[edit]
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The perception and definition of the term 'engineer' varies across countries and continents.
19th-century engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel by the launching chains of the SS Great Eastern
UK[edit]
British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of "the Victorian Engineers", chief amongst whom were Brunel, Stephenson, Telford, and their contemporaries. In the UK, "engineering" has more recently been styled as an industry sector consisting of employers and employees loosely termed "engineers" who included semi-skilled trades. However, the 21st-century view, especially amongst the more educated members of society, is to reserve the term "engineer" to describe a university-educated practitioner of ingenuity represented by the Chartered (or Incorporated) Engineer qualifications. However, a large proportion of the UK public still thinks of "engineers" as skilled tradespeople or even semi-skilled tradespeople with a high school education. Also, UK skilled and semi-skilled tradespeople style themselves as "engineers". This has created confusion in the eyes of some members of the public (particularly the less well educated) to understand what professional engineers actually do, from fixing car engines, television sets and refrigerators to designing and managing the development of aircraft, spacecraft, power stations, infrastructure, and other complex technological systems.
France[edit]
In France, the term 'ingénieur" (engineer) is not a protected title and can be used by anyone, even by those who do not possess an academic degree.
However, the title "Ingénieur Diplomé" (Graduate Engineer) is an official academic title that is protected by the government and is associated with the "Diplôme d'Ingénieur", which is one of the most prestigious academic degrees in France. Anyone misusing this title in France can be fined a large sum and jailed, as it is reserved for graduates of French engineering grandes écoles that provide highly intensive training in science and engineering. Among such institutions, the most renown (and hardest to gain admission) are Ecole Centrale Paris (Centrale), Ecole des Mines de Paris (Mines Paristech), Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Arts et Métiers, Ecole Polytechnique, and Ecole des Ponts ParisTech. Engineering schools which were created during the French revolution have a special reputation among the French people, as they helped to make the transition from a mostly agricultural country of late 18th century to the industrially developed France of the 19th century. A great part of 19th-century France's economic wealth and industrial prowess was created by engineers that have graduated from Ecole Centrale Paris, Ecole des Mines de Paris, or Ecole Polytechnique. This was also the case after the WWII when France had to be rebuilt.
Before the "réforme René Haby" in the 70's, it was very difficult to be admitted to such schools, and the French ingénieurs were commonly perceived as the nation's elite (hence the term "faire les Grandes écoles" in language of older people). However, after the Haby reform and a string of further reforms (Modernization plans of French universities), several engineering schools were created which can be accessed with relatively lower competition, and this reputation as being part of the French elite now applies to those from 'top' engineering schools for engineers, École Nationale d'Administration (ENA) for managers or politicians and École Normale Supérieure (ENS) for researchers in science and humanities. Engineers are less highlighted in current French economy as industry provides less than a quarter of the GDP.
North America[edit]
In the US and Canada, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensed professional engineers in Canada and the USA are referred to as P.Eng (Canada) and PE (USA). A 2002 study by the Ontario Society of Professional Engineers revealed that engineers are the third most respected professionals behind doctors and pharmacists.[22]
Auto rice milling machinery in Bangladesh
In Ontario, and all other Canadian provinces, the "title" Engineer is protected by law and any non-licensed individual or company using the title is committing a legal offense, and can get fined.[23] Companies usually prefer not to use the title except for license holders because of liability reasons, for instance, if the company filed a lawsuit and the judge, investigators, or lawyers found that the company is using the word engineer for non-licensed employees this could be used by opponents to hinder the company's efforts.
Asia and Africa[edit]
In the Indian subcontinent, Russia, Middle East, Africa, and China, engineering is one of the most sought after undergraduate courses, inviting thousands of applicants to show their ability in highly competitive entrance examinations.
In Egypt, the educational system makes engineering the second-most-respected profession in the country (after medicine); engineering colleges at Egyptian universities require extremely high marks on the General Certificate of Secondary Education (Arabic: الثانوية العامة al-Thānawiyyah al-`Āmmah)—on the order of 97 or 98%—and are thus considered (along with the colleges of medicine, natural science, and pharmacy) to be among the "pinnacle colleges" (كليات القمة kullīyāt al-qimmah).
In the Philippines and Filipino communities overseas, engineers who are either Filipino or not, especially those who also profess other jobs at the same time, are addressed and introduced as Engineer, rather than Sir/Madam in speech or Mr./Mrs./Ms. (G./Gng./Bb. in Filipino) before surnames. That word is used either in itself or before the given name or surname.
Corporate culture[edit]
In companies and other organizations, there is sometimes a tendency to undervalue people with advanced technological and scientific skills compared to celebrities, fashion practitioners, entertainers, and managers. In his book, The Mythical Man-Month,[24] Fred Brooks Jr says that managers think of senior people as "too valuable" for technical tasks and that management jobs carry higher prestige. He tells how some laboratories, such as Bell Labs, abolish all job titles to overcome this problem: a professional employee is a "member of the technical staff." IBM maintain a dual ladder of advancement; the corresponding managerial and engineering or scientific rungs are equivalent. Brooks recommends that structures need to be changed; the boss must give a great deal of attention to keeping his managers and his technical people as interchangeable as their talents allow.
See also[edit]
Building engineer
Engineer's degree
Engineers Without Borders
Greatest Engineering Achievements
History of engineering
List of engineering branches
List of engineers
List of fictional scientists and engineers
Washington Accord
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor (2006). "Engineers". Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2006–07 Edition. Retrieved 2006-09-21.
Jump up ^ National Society of Professional Engineers (2006). "Frequently Asked Questions About Engineering". Archived from the original on 22 May 2006. Retrieved 2006-09-21. "Science is knowledge based on our observed facts and tested truths arranged in an orderly system that can be validated and communicated to other people. Engineering is the creative application of scientific principles used to plan, build, direct, guide, manage, or work on systems to maintain and improve our daily lives."
Jump up ^ "The Term 'Architect' in the Middle Ages". JSTOR 2856447. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Oxford Concise Dictionary, 1995
Jump up ^ "engineer". Oxford Dictionaries. April 2010. Oxford Dictionaries. April 2010. Oxford University Press. 22 October 2011
Jump up ^ Steen Hyldgaard Christensen, Christelle Didier, Andrew Jamison, Martin Meganck, Carl Mitcham, and Byron Newberry Springer. Engineering Identities, Epistemologies and Values: Engineering Education and Practice in Context, Volume 2, p. 170, at Google Books
Jump up ^ A. Eide, R. Jenison, L. Mashaw, L. Northup. Engineering: Fundamentals and Problem Solving. New York City: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.,2002
^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson, M. A. (2010). "An empirical analysis of engineers' information behaviors". Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 61 (4): 640–658. doi:10.1002/asi.21290.
Jump up ^ Baecher, G.B.; Pate, E.M.; de Neufville, R. (1979). "Risk of dam failure in benefit/cost analysis". Water Resources Research. 16 (3): 449–456. Bibcode:1980WRR....16..449B. doi:10.1029/wr016i003p00449.
Jump up ^ Hartford, D.N.D. and Baecher, G.B. (2004) Risk and Uncertainty in Dam Safety. Thomas Telford
Jump up ^ International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) (2003) Risk Assessment in Dam Safety Management. ICOLD, Paris
Jump up ^ British Standards Institution (BSIA) (1991) BC 5760 Part 5: Reliability of systems equipment and components – Guide to failure modes effects and criticality analysis (FMEA and FMECA).
^ Jump up to: a b Robinson, M. A. (2012). "How design engineers spend their time: Job content and task satisfaction". Design Studies. 33 (4): 391–425. doi:10.1016/j.destud.2012.03.002.
Jump up ^ Robinson, M. A.; Sparrow, P. R.; Clegg, C.; Birdi, K. (2005). "Design engineering competencies: Future requirements and predicted changes in the forthcoming decade". Design Studies. 26 (2): 123–153. doi:10.1016/j.destud.2004.09.004.
Jump up ^ American Society of Civil Engineers (2006) [1914]. Code of Ethics. Reston, Virginia, USA: ASCE Press. Archived from the original on 14 February 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-11.
Jump up ^ Institution of Civil Engineers (2009). Royal Charter, By-laws, Regulations and Rules. Archived from the original on 3 January 2011. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
Jump up ^ National Society of Professional Engineers (2007) [1964]. Code of Ethics (PDF). Alexandria, Virginia, USA: NSPE. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 20 October 2006.
Jump up ^ "Make 'Engineer' a protected title – Petitions". Petitions – UK Government and Parliament.
Jump up ^ [1] NCEES is a national nonprofit organization dedicated to advancing professional licensure for engineers and surveyors.
Jump up ^ https://engineers.texas.gov/downloads/lawrules.pdf
Jump up ^ "APEGBC – Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia".
Jump up ^ Ontario Society of Professional Engineers, 2002, Engineering: One of Ontario's most respected professions
Jump up ^ Professional Engineers Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. P.28
Jump up ^ The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering, p119 (see also p242), Frederick P. Brooks, Jr., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2nd ed. 1995, pub. Addison-Wesley
External links[edit]
Engineering portal
Look up engineer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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text:
Panda diplomacy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Giant panda in the National Zoo in Washington D.C.
Panda diplomacy is China's use of giant pandas as diplomatic gifts to other countries. The practice existed as far back as the Tang Dynasty,[1] when Empress Wu Zetian (625–705) sent a pair of pandas to the Japanese emperor.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Pandas in Chinese politics
2 Offer of pandas to Taiwan
3 Other animals as diplomatic gifts
4 See also
5 References
Pandas in Chinese politics[edit]
U.S. First Lady Pat Nixon viewing the Beijing Zoo panda exhibit in February 1972.
The People's Republic of China used panda diplomacy in the 1950s and has become known in recent decades for this practice. From 1958 to 1982, China gave 23 pandas to nine different countries.[2] One highlight of panda diplomacy was the Chinese government's gift of two pandas, Ling-Ling and Hsing-Hsing, to the United States in 1972 after President Richard Nixon's historic visit to China[3] (President Nixon reciprocated by sending back a pair of musk oxen). Upon the pandas' arrival in April 1972, First Lady Pat Nixon donated the pandas to the National Zoo in Washington D.C., where she welcomed them in an official ceremony. Over twenty thousand people visited the pandas the first day they were on display, and an estimated 1.1 million visitors came to see them the first year they were in the United States.[2] The pandas were wildly popular and China's gift was seen as an enormous diplomatic success, evidence of China's eagerness to establish official relations with the U.S.[3] It was so successful that British Prime Minister Edward Heath asked for pandas for the United Kingdom during a visit to China in 1974. Chia-Chia and Ching-Ching therefore arrived at the London Zoo a few weeks later.[2]
By 1984, however, pandas were no longer used purely as agents of diplomacy. Instead, China began to offer pandas to other nations only on ten-year loans. The standard loan terms include a fee of up to US$1,000,000 per year and a provision that any cubs born during the loan be the property of the People's Republic of China. Since 1998, because of a World Wildlife Fund lawsuit, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service allows a U.S. zoo to import a panda only if the zoo can ensure that China will channel more than half of its loan fee into conservation efforts for wild pandas and their habitat.
Pandas have become important diplomatic symbols, not only to China. In a visit by Hu Jintao to Japan in May 2008, China announced the loan of two pandas to Japan. The President was quoted as saying "Giant pandas are very popular among the Japanese, and they are a symbol of the friendly ties between Japan and China."[4] Actions that other countries take with pandas are often seen as laden with meaning. For example, British diplomats worried that a 1964 transfer of a panda from a London zoo to Moscow would worsen Sino-Soviet relations.[5] In January 2006, U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Robert Zoellick was photographed hugging a 5-month-old panda cub during his visit to Sichuan Province. The image was widely broadcast by the Chinese media and was purportedly interpreted as a sign that Zoellick supported better relations between China and the United States.[6]
On 16 April 2014, China had planned to send a pair of pandas named Fu Wa and Feng Yi to Malaysia to mark their 40 years diplomatic ties but were postponed following the MH370 tragedy.[7] The two pandas later arrived in Kuala Lumpur International Airport on 21 May 2014 and placed at the National Zoo of Malaysia (Zoo Negara).[8][9]
Offer of pandas to Taiwan[edit]
Main article: Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan
Giant panda at Taipei Zoo
In 2005, Lien Chan, chairman of the Kuomintang, the then-opposition party in Taiwan, visited mainland China. As part of the talks between Lien Chan and the Communist Party of China (CPC), two pandas (later named Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan; tuányuán (simplified Chinese: 团圆) meaning "reunion" in Mandarin) were offered as a gift to the people of Taiwan.
While the idea was popular with the Taiwanese public, it proved difficult with the Republic of China (ROC) government of Taiwan, then led by the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP). The DPP supports Taiwanese independence and opposes unification with the People's Republic of China, and saw the gift of pandas as an attempt by the CPC to draw the ROC government into its "united front". While several zoos in Taiwan made bids to host the pandas, the ROC government raised objections, ostensibly on the grounds that pandas were not suited to the Taiwanese climate and that Taiwan did not have the expertise to rear pandas successfully. It was widely understood, however, that these were underlain by political considerations by the DPP-led government to maintain its distance from the PRC government.[10] Another technical issue is a dispute over the applicability of Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES). In 1998, China offered the Republic of China two giant pandas in exchange for wartime peace. The PRC insisted that a transfer from mainland China to Taiwan was a domestic transfer, not subject to CITES, while the ROC government disputed this and would not accept the pandas without CITES procedures.[11] On March 11, 2006, the ROC formally rejected the offer, with President Chen explaining in his weekly newsletter, "A-bian (Chen's nickname) sincerely urges the Chinese leaders to leave the giant pandas in their natural habitat, because pandas brought up in cages or given as gifts will not be happy".[11]
Following a change of government in Taiwan, in July 2008, the ROC government led by the Kuomintang stated that it would accept the gift of two four-year-old giant pandas.[12] In December 2008, the government approved the import of pandas under the terms of "species of traditional herbal medicine".[13] Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan arrived at Taipei Zoo later in the same month, making international news.
In response to the transfer, the CITES secretariat stated that the transfer of the two pandas was a matter of "internal or domestic trade", and so was not required to be reported to CITES.[14] The ROC quickly issued a rebuttal to the CITES statement and clarified that the procedures for the transfer followed closely a country-to-country transfer. The ROC also noted that such procedures would not be needed if it were an internal/domestic transfer.[15] The ROC further noted that Taiwan is not a CITES signatory and is therefore not obligated to report to the CITES Secretariat its acceptance of the two pandas.[16]
Other animals as diplomatic gifts[edit]
Internationally, other rare animals appear as diplomatic/political gifts as well. For example, in the run-up to the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, five Chinese sturgeons, symbolising the five Olympic rings, were given by China's Central Government to Hong Kong.[17]
In 2009, the government of the Seychelles Islands announced its gift of a pair of Aldabra giant tortoises to the 2010 World Expo in Shanghai in celebration of the 60th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China, and in appreciation of China's assisting the small insular nation with the expenses of participating in the Expo. The two tortoises will be actually kept in Shanghai Zoo.[18]
The government of Mongolia has been gifting horses to visiting dignitaries. Those who have received Mongolia's horses as a gift from its government include the President of South Korea Park Geun-hye,[19] Vice President of India Mohammad Hamid Ansari,[20] Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi,[21] and the United States Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel.[22]
Presenting animals as gifts to dignitaries is an ongoing ritual that dates back centuries. The Song of Roland demonstrates how common this practice was in that even this poem, so focused on scenes of battle, bravery, and chivalry made space to describe the allure and temptation of owning exotic animals.
See also[edit]
Ping-pong diplomacy
Ocean Park
References[edit]
Jump up ^ [1], Bullish on Bears, The Economist Magazine, September 14, 2017
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mark Magnier, Attack of the Pandas, Los Angeles Times, March 21, 2006
^ Jump up to: a b http://blog.nixonfoundation.org/2011/02/pat-nixon-and-panda-diplomacy/
Jump up ^ AFP (May 7, 2008). "Chinese leader hails warming with Japan on rare visit". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ Kate McGeown, China's panda ambassadors, BBC News, May 3, 2005
Jump up ^ Edward Cody, U.S. Envoy Engages in Panda Diplomacy, Washington Post, January 26, 2006, p. A16
Jump up ^ "China delays sending pandas to Malaysia out of respect for MH370 families". The Associated Press. Global News. 11 April 2014. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Pandas arrive in Malaysia after MH370 delay". News24. 21 May 2014. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Pandas arrive in Zoo Negara". The Star. 21 May 2014. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Chris Hogg, Taiwan "unlikely" to want pandas, BBC News, January 9, 2006
^ Jump up to: a b We're not wild about your pandas, China told
Jump up ^ Jane Macartney (July 4, 2008). "Comment: Where airlines go, panda diplomacy may follow". Times Online. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ SEF rejects CITES' interpretation of 'domestic transfer' of pandas. Taiwan News. December 24, 2008
Jump up ^ PANDA DIPLOMACY: CITES secretary says panda transport need not be reported
Jump up ^ Taiwan's status not belittled in pandas' delivery: MAC
Jump up ^ http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2008/12/25/2003431994 PANDA DIPLOMACY: Use of ‘domestic’ by CITES secretariat was wrong: MAC
Jump up ^ ""Living fossil of fish" Chinese sturgeons debut in HK". Xinhua. 20 June 2008.
Jump up ^ Seychelles presents giant tortoises to organizer
Jump up ^ http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/news/2016/07/17/0200000000AEN20160717003400315.html
Jump up ^ http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/mongolian-president-gifts-horse-to-ansari/1/716062.html
Jump up ^ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Why-PM-Modi-left-Kanthaka-in-Mongolia/articleshow/47451105.cms
Jump up ^ https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/hagel-wraps-up-asia-trip-with-stop-in-mongolia/2014/04/10/d2d03492-c095-11e3-bcec-b71ee10e9bc3_story.html
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