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Flax
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For other uses, see Flax (disambiguation).
Flax
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Linaceae
Genus: Linum
Species: L. usitatissimum
Binomial name
Linum usitatissimum
L.
Synonyms[1]
Linum crepitans (Boenn.) Dumort.
Linum humile Mill.
Linum indehiscens (Neilr.) Vavilov & Elladi
Flax (also known as common flax or linseed), Linum usitatissimum, is a member of the genus Linum in the family Linaceae. It is a food and fiber crop cultivated in cooler regions of the world. The textiles made from flax are known in the Western countries as linen, and traditionally used for bed sheets, underclothes, and table linen. The oil is known as linseed oil. In addition to referring to the plant itself, the word "flax" may refer to the unspun fibers of the flax plant. The plant species is known only as a cultivated plant,[2] and appears to have been domesticated just once from the wild species Linum bienne, called pale flax.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 History
3 Uses
3.1 Flaxseeds
3.1.1 Culinary
3.2 Flax fibers
4 Nutrition
4.1 Health effects
4.2 Linseed oil
4.3 Toxicity
5 Cultivation
5.1 Diseases
6 Production
7 Harvesting
7.1 Maturation
7.2 Harvesting for fiber
7.2.1 Mechanical
7.2.2 Manual
8 Processing
9 Preparation for spinning
9.1 Retting flax
9.2 Dressing the flax
10 Genetically modified flax contamination
11 Symbolic images
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
Description[edit]
Capsules
Flowers
Several other species in the genus Linum are similar in appearance to L. usitatissimum, cultivated flax, including some that have similar blue flowers, and others with white, yellow, or red flowers.[4] Some of these are perennial plants, unlike L. usitatissimum, which is an annual plant.
Cultivated flax plants grow to 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) tall, with slender stems. The leaves are glaucous green, slender lanceolate, 20–40 mm long, and 3 mm broad.
The flowers are pure pale blue, 15–25 mm in diameter, with five petals. The fruit is a round, dry capsule 5–9 mm in diameter, containing several glossy brown seeds shaped like an apple pip, 4–7 mm long.
History[edit]
The earliest evidence of humans using wild flax as a textile comes from the present day Republic of Georgia, where spun, dyed, and knotted wild flax fibers were found in Dzudzuana Cave and dated to the Upper Paleolithic, 30,000 years ago.[5][6][7] Flax was first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent region.[8] Evidence exists of a domesticated oilseed flax with increased seed size by 9,000 years ago from Tell Ramad in Syria.[8] Use of the crop steadily spread, reaching as far as Switzerland and Germany by 5,000 years ago.[9] In China and India, domesticated flax was cultivated also at least 5,000 years ago.[10]
Flax was cultivated extensively in ancient Egypt, where the temple walls had paintings of flowering flax, and mummies were entombed in linen.[11] Egyptian priests only wore linen, as flax was considered a symbol of purity.[12] Phoenicians traded Egyptian linen throughout the Mediterranean and the Romans used it for their sails.[13] As the Roman Empire declined, so did flax production, but Charlemagne revived the crop in the eighth century CE with laws designed to publicize the hygiene of linen textiles and the health of linseed oil.[14] Eventually, Flanders became the major center of the linen industry in the European Middle Ages.[14] In North America, flax was introduced by the colonists and it flourished there,[15] but by the early twentieth century, cheap cotton and rising farm wages had caused production of flax to become concentrated in northern Russia, which came to provide 90% of the world's output. Since then, flax has lost its importance as a commercial crop, due to the easy availability of more durable fibers.[16]
Uses[edit]
Brown flaxseeds
Golden flaxseeds
Golden flaxseed meal
Flax is grown for its oil, used as a nutritional supplement, and as an ingredient in many wood-finishing products. Flax is also grown as an ornamental plant in gardens. Flax fibers are used to make linen. The Latin species name usitatissimum means "most useful".[17]
Flax fibers are taken from the stem of the plant, and are two to three times as strong as those of cotton. Additionally, flax fibers are naturally smooth and straight. Europe and North America depended on flax for vegetable-based cloth until the nineteenth century, when cotton overtook flax as the most common plant used for making rag-based paper. Flax is grown on the Canadian prairies for linseed oil, which is used as a drying oil in paints and varnishes and in products such as linoleum and printing inks. In India, flax seed oil also is known as alsi in Hindi and javas in Marathi. It is mainly used in Savji curries, such as mutton curries.
Linseed meal, the by-product obtained after oil production from flax seeds, is used to feed livestock. It is a protein-rich feed for ruminants, rabbits and fish.[18]
Flaxseeds[edit]
Green flaxseeds
Flaxseeds occur in two basic varieties: brown and yellow or golden (also known as golden linseeds).[19] Most types have similar nutritional characteristics and equal numbers of short-chain omega-3 fatty acids. The exception is a type of yellow flax called solin (trade name Linola), which has a completely different oil profile and is very low in omega-3 FAs. Flaxseeds produce a vegetable oil known as flaxseed oil or linseed oil, which is one of the oldest commercial oils. It is an edible oil obtained by expeller pressing, sometimes followed by solvent extraction. Solvent-processed flaxseed oil has been used for many centuries as a drying oil in painting and varnishing.[20]
Although brown flax may be consumed as readily as yellow, and has been for thousands of years, its better-known uses are in paints, for fiber, and for cattle feed.
Culinary[edit]
A 100-gram portion of ground flaxseed supplies about 534 calories (2,230 kJ), 41 g of fat, 28 g of fiber, and 20 g of protein.[21]
Flaxseed sprouts are edible, with a slightly spicy flavor. Excessive consumption of flaxseeds with inadequate amounts of water may cause bowel obstruction.[22] In northern India, flaxseed, called tisi or alsi, traditionally is roasted, powdered, and eaten with boiled rice, a little water, and a little salt.[23]
Whole flaxseeds are chemically stable, but ground flaxseed may go rancid when left exposed to air at room temperature in as little as one week because of oxidation.[24] Refrigeration and storage in sealed containers will keep ground flax from becoming rancid for a longer period. Under conditions similar to those found in commercial bakeries, trained sensory panelists could not detect differences between bread made with freshly ground flax and bread made with milled flax that had been stored for four months at room temperature.[25] If packed immediately without exposure to air and light, milled flax is stable against excessive oxidation when stored for nine months at room temperature [26] and under warehouse conditions, for twenty months at ambient temperatures.
Three natural phenolic glucosides, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, p-coumaric acid glucoside, and ferulic acid glucoside, can be found in commercial breads containing flaxseed.[27]
Flax fibers[edit]
A heckling shop used to prepare flax fibers
Flax fiber is extracted from the bast beneath the surface of the stem of the flax plant. Flax fiber is soft, lustrous, and flexible; bundles of fiber have the appearance of blonde hair, hence the description "flaxen" hair. It is stronger than cotton fiber, but less elastic. The best grades are used for linen fabrics such as damasks, lace, and sheeting. Coarser grades are used for the manufacturing of twine and rope, and historically, for canvas and webbing equipment. Flax fiber is a raw material used in the high-quality paper industry for the use of printed banknotes, rolling paper for cigarettes, and tea bags.
The use of flax fibers dates back tens of thousands of years; linen, a refined textile made from flax fibers, was worn widely by Sumerian priests more than 4,000 years ago.[28] Industrial-scale flax fiber processing existed in antiquity. A bronze-age factory dedicated to flax processing was discovered in Euonymeia.[29]
Flax mills for spinning flaxen yarn were invented by John Kendrew and Thomas Porthouse of Darlington, England, in 1787.[30] New methods of processing flax have led to renewed interest in the use of flax as an industrial fiber.
A flax field in bloom in North Dakota, United States
Nutrition[edit]
Flaxseed
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
2,234 kJ (534 kcal)
Carbohydrates
28.88 g
Sugars
1.55 g
Dietary fiber
27.3 g
Fat
42.16 g
Saturated
3.663 g
Monounsaturated
7.527 g
Polyunsaturated
omega‑3
omega‑6
28.730 g
22.8 g
5.9 g
Protein
18.29 g
Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)
(143%)
1.644 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
(13%)
0.161 mg
Niacin (B3)
(21%)
3.08 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
(20%)
0.985 mg
Vitamin B6
(36%)
0.473 mg
Folate (B9)
(0%)
0 μg
Vitamin C
(1%)
0.6 mg
Minerals
Calcium
(26%)
255 mg
Iron
(44%)
5.73 mg
Magnesium
(110%)
392 mg
Phosphorus
(92%)
642 mg
Potassium
(17%)
813 mg
Zinc
(46%)
4.34 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
In a 100 gram serving, flaxseed contains high levels (> 19% of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins, and dietary minerals.[31][32] Ten grams of flaxseed contains one gram of water-soluble fiber (which lowers blood cholesterol) and three grams of insoluble fiber (which helps prevent constipation).[33] Flax contains hundreds of times more lignans than other plant foods.[33] Flaxseeds are especially rich in thiamine, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus (DVs above 90%).
As a percentage of total fat, flaxseeds contain 54% omega-3 fatty acids (mostly ALA), 18% omega-9 fatty acids (oleic acid), and 6% omega-6 fatty acids (linoleic acid); the seeds contain 9% saturated fat, including 5% as palmitic acid.[31][32] Flaxseed oil contains 53% 18:3 omega-3 fatty acids (mostly ALA) and 13% 18:2 omega-6 fatty acids.
Health effects[edit]
One study of research published between 1990 and 2008 showed that consuming flaxseed or its derivatives may reduce total and LDL-cholesterol in the blood, with greater benefits in women and those with high cholesterol.[34]
A meta-analysis has shown that consumption of more than 30 grams of flaxseed daily for more than 12 weeks reduced body weight, body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference for persons with a BMI greater than 27.[35] Another meta-analysis has shown that consumption of flaxseed for more than 12 weeks produced small reductions in systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure.[36] Flaxseed supplementation showed a small reduction in c-reactive protein (a marker of inflammation) only in persons with a BMI greater than 30.[37]
Linseed oil[edit]
Main article: Linseed oil
Toxicity[edit]
Flaxseed and its oil have repeatedly been demonstrated to be nontoxic and are generally recognized as safe for human consumption.[38] Like many common foods, flax contains small amounts of cyanogenic glycoside;[39] these are nontoxic when consumed in typical amounts, but may be toxic when consumed in large quantities of such staple foods such as cassava.[40] Typical concentrations (for example, 0.48% in a sample of defatted dehusked flaxseed meal) can be removed by special processing.[41]
Cultivation[edit]
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The soils most suitable for flax, besides the alluvial kind, are deep loams containing a large proportion of organic matter. Flax is often found growing just above the waterline in cranberry bogs. Heavy clays are unsuitable, as are soils of a gravelly or dry sandy nature. Farming flax requires few fertilizers or pesticides. Within eight weeks of sowing, the plant can reach 10–15 cm (3.9–5.9 in) in height and grows several centimeters per day under its optimal growth conditions, reaching 70–80 cm (28–31 in) within 50 days.
Diseases[edit]
Main article: List of flax diseases
Production[edit]
In 2014, world production of flax (linseed) was 2.65 million tonnes, led by Canada with 33% of the global total.[42] Other major producers were Kazakhstan, China, and Russia (table).
Harvesting[edit]
Flax (linseed) production – 2014
Country
Production (tonnes)
Canada 872,500
Kazakhstan 419,957
China 387,000
Russia 365,088
United States 161,750
India 141,000
World 2,654,432
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[42]
Maturation[edit]
Flax is harvested for fiber production after about 100 days, or a month after the plants flower and two weeks after the seed capsules form. The bases of the plants begin to turn yellow. If the plants are still green, the seed will not be useful, and the fiber will be underdeveloped. The fiber degrades once the plants turn brown.
Flax grown for seed is allowed to mature until the seed capsules are yellow and just starting to split; it is then harvested in various ways. A combine harvester may either cut only the heads of the plants, or the whole plant. These are then dried to extract the seed. The amount of weeds in the straw affects its marketability, and this, coupled with market prices, determines whether the farmer chooses to harvest the flax straw. If the flax straw is not harvested, typically, it is burned, since the stalks are quite tough and decompose slowly (i.e., not in a single season). Formed into windrows from the harvesting process, the straw often clogs up tillage and planting equipment. Flax straw that is not of sufficient quality for fiber uses can be baled to build shelters for farm animals, or sold as biofuel, or removed from the field in the spring.[43]
Two ways are used to harvest flax fiber, one involving mechanized equipment (combines), and a second method, more manual and targeting maximum fiber length.
Harvesting for fiber[edit]
Mechanical[edit]
The mature plant is cut with mowing equipment, similar to hay harvesting, and raked into windrows. When dried sufficiently, a combine then harvests the seeds similar to wheat or oat harvesting .
Manual[edit]
The plant is pulled up with the roots (not cut), so as to increase the fiber length. After this, the flax is allowed to dry, the seeds are removed, and it is then retted. Dependent upon climatic conditions, characteristics of the sown flax and fields, the flax remains on the ground between two weeks and two months for retting. As a result of alternating rain and the sun, an enzymatic action degrades the pectins which bind fibers to the straw. The farmers turn over the straw during retting to evenly rett the stalks. When the straw is retted and sufficiently dry, it is rolled up. It is then stored by farmers before extracting the fibers.
De vlasoogst (1904) ("Flax harvesting") painting by Emile Claus, Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Brussels, Belgium
Processing[edit]
A hackle or heckle, a tool for threshing flax and preparing the fiber
Flax tissues, Tacuinum sanitatis, 14th century
Threshing is the process of removing the seeds from the rest of the plant. Separating the usable flax fibers from other components requires pulling the stems through a hackle and/or beating the plants to break them.
Flax processing is divided into two parts: the first part is generally done by the farmer, to bring the flax fiber into a fit state for general or common purposes. This can be performed by three machines: one for threshing out the seed, one for breaking and separating the straw (stem) from the fiber, and one for further separating the broken straw and matter from the fiber.
The second part of the process brings the flax into a state for the very finest purposes, such as lace, cambric, damask, and very fine linen. This second part is performed by a refining machine.

Preparation for spinning[edit]
Stem cross-section, showing locations of underlying tissues: Ep = epidermis; C = cortex; BF = bast fibers; P = phloem; X = xylem; Pi = pith
Play media
Threshing, retting, and dressing flax at the Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum (German)
Before the flax fibers can be spun into linen, they must be separated from the rest of the stalk. The first step in this process is retting, which is the process of rotting away the inner stalk, leaving the outer parts intact. At this point, straw, or coarse outer stem (cortex and epidermis), is still remaining. To remove this, the flax is "broken", the straw is broken up into small, short bits, while the actual fiber is left unharmed. Scutching scrapes the outer straw from the fiber. The stems are then pulled through "hackles", which act like combs to remove the straw and some shorter fibers out of the long fiber.
Retting flax[edit]
Several methods are used for retting flax. It can be retted in a pond, stream, field, or tank. When the retting is complete, the bundles of flax feel soft and slimy, and quite a few fibers are standing out from the stalks. When wrapped around a finger, the inner woody part springs away from the fibers. Pond retting is the fastest. It consists of placing the flax in a pool of water which will not evaporate. It generally takes place in a shallow pool which will warm up dramatically in the sun; the process may take from a few days to a few weeks. Pond-retted flax is traditionally considered of lower quality, possibly because the product can become dirty, and is easily over-retted, damaging the fiber. This form of retting also produces quite an odor. Stream retting is similar to pool retting, but the flax is submerged in bundles in a stream or river. This generally takes two or three weeks longer than pond retting, but the end product is less likely to be dirty, does not smell as bad, and because the water is cooler, is less likely to be over-retted. Both pond and stream retting were traditionally used less because they pollute the waters used for the process.
In field retting, the flax is laid out in a large field, and dew is allowed to collect on it. This process normally takes a month or more, but is generally considered to provide the highest quality flax fibers,[citation needed] and it produces the least pollution.
Retting can also be done in a plastic trash can or any type of water-tight container of wood, concrete, earthenware, or plastic. Metal containers will not work, as an acid is produced when retting, and it would corrode the metal. If the water temperature is kept at 80 °F (27 °C), the retting process under these conditions takes 4 or 5 days. If the water is any colder, it takes longer. Scum collects at the top, and an odor is given off the same as in pond retting. 'Enzymatic' retting of flax has been researched as a technique to engineer fibers with specific properties.[44][45]
Dressing the flax[edit]
Breaking flax
Scutching flax
Heckling flax
Flax fiber in different forms, before and after processing
Dressing the flax is the process of removing the straw from the fibers. Dressing consists of three steps: breaking, scutching, and heckling. The breaking breaks up the straw. Some of the straw is scraped from the fibers in the scutching process, and finally, the fiber is pulled through heckles to remove the last bits of straw.
Breaking breaks up the straw into short segments.
Scutching removes some of the straw from the fiber.
Heckling is pulling the fiber through various sizes of heckling combs or heckles. A heckle is a bed of "nails"—sharp, long-tapered, tempered, polished steel pins driven into wooden blocks at regular spacing.
Genetically modified flax contamination[edit]
Small flax plants
In September 2009, it was reported that Canadian flax exports had been contaminated by a deregistered genetically modified cultivar called 'Triffid' that had food and feed safety approval in Canada and the U.S.,[46][47] however, Canadian growers and the Flax Council of Canada raised concerns about the marketability of this cultivar in Europe where a zero tolerance policy exists regarding unapproved genetically modified organisms.[48] Subsequently, deregistered in 2010 and never grown commercially in Canada or the U.S.,[49] 'Triffid' stores were destroyed, but future exports and further tests at the University of Saskatchewan proved that 'Triffid' persisted among flax crops, possibly affecting future crops.[49] Canadian flaxseed cultivars were reconstituted with 'Triffid'-free seed used to plant the 2014 crop.[46] Laboratories are certified to test for the presence of 'Triffid' at a level of one seed in 10,000.[47]
Symbolic images[edit]
Flax is the emblem of Northern Ireland and displayed by the Northern Ireland Assembly. In a coronet, it appeared on the reverse of the British one-pound coin to represent Northern Ireland on coins minted in 1986, 1991, and 2014. Flax also represents Northern Ireland on the badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and on various logos associated with it.
Common flax is the national flower of Belarus.
In early versions of the Sleeping Beauty tale, such as "Sun, Moon, and Talia" by Giambattista Basile, the princess pricks her finger, not on a spindle, but on a sliver of flax, which later is sucked out by her children conceived as she sleeps.
See also[edit]
Flax in New Zealand
Herbalism
International Year of Natural Fibres
Irish linen
Linen clothes
Naturopathic medicine
Nutrition
Phytonutrients
Salvia hispanica
Thomas Ferguson & Co Ltd
Shatnez
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Jump up ^ Michael Raine (27 March 2008), "The last straw: nine ways to handle flax straw", The Western Producer
Jump up ^ Akin Dodd, Foulk (2008). "Pectinolytic enzymes and retting". BioResources. 3 (1): 155–169.
Jump up ^ Akin Dodd, Foulk (2001). "Processing techniques for improving enzyme-retting of flax". Industrial Crops and Products. 13: 239–248.
^ Jump up to: a b "Flax growers try to flush Triffid from system". The Western Producer. 11 January 2013. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sampling and Testing Protocol for Canadian Flaxseed Exported to the European Union" (PDF). Canadian Grain Commission. 28 April 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Canada moves to revive flax exports after GMO flap". Reuters. 2010-01-08. Retrieved 2012-11-11.
^ Jump up to: a b "Triffid seed threatens flax industry". CBC News. 20 January 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
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Help
Category:Lawyers by type
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Subcategories
This category has the following 26 subcategories, out of 26 total.
► Indian lawyers by type (5 C)
A
► Antitrust lawyers (9 P)
► Arbitrators (9 P)
B
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C
► Civil rights lawyers (1 C, 9 P)
► Copyright attorneys (4 P)
► Coroners (6 C, 11 P)
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► Entertainment lawyers (2 C, 8 P)
► Environmental lawyers (1 C, 33 P)
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► Government lawyers (6 C, 10 P)
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► Human rights lawyers (40 P)
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► Immigration lawyers (18 P)
► Intellectual property lawyers (3 C, 12 P)
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► Labour lawyers (1 C, 14 P)
► Legal educators (3 C, 65 P)
► Litigators (14 P)
P
► Patent attorneys (1 C, 52 P)
► Prosecutors (6 C, 27 P)
► Public defenders (219 P)
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► Real property lawyers (8 P)
S
► Solicitors (13 C, 40 P)
T
► Tax lawyers (23 P)
► Trademark attorneys (4 P)
► Trial lawyers (36 P)
Pages in category "Lawyers by type"
The following 32 pages are in this category, out of 32 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).
A
Articled clerk
Associate attorney
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Personal injury lawyer
Public defender
Public defender (Brazil)
Public defender (United States)
Pupil master
S
Shadow counsel
State's attorney
T
Trademark attorney
U
United States Attorney
W
Workers' compensation employer defense
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Lawyers_by_type&oldid=723020441"
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Conch
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the Indian Ritual Conch, see Shankha. For other uses, see Conch (disambiguation).
Apertural view of an adult shell of the queen conch Lobatus gigas, from Trinidad and Tobago
A shell of the Florida crown conch Melongena corona inhabited by a hermit crab
Conch (/kɒŋk, kɒntʃ/)[1][2] is a common name that is applied to a number of different medium to large-sized shells. The term generally applies to large snails whose shell has a high spire and a noticeable siphonal canal (in other words, the shell comes to a noticeable point at both ends).
In North America, a conch is often identified as a queen conch, found off the coast of Florida. Queen conchs are valued for fish bait, and are also known as seafood.[3]
The group of conchs that are sometimes referred to as "true conchs" are marine gastropod molluscs in the family Strombidae, specifically in the genus Strombus and other closely related genera. For example, see Lobatus gigas, the queen conch, and Laevistrombus canarium, the dog conch.
Many other species are also often called "conch", but are not at all closely related to the family Strombidae, including Melongena species (family Melongenidae), and the horse conch Triplofusus papillosus (family Fasciolariidae). Species commonly referred to as conchs also include the sacred chank or more correctly shankha shell (Turbinella pyrum) and other Turbinella species in the family Turbinellidae.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Food
3 Musical instruments
4 Pearls
5 Other uses
6 Religion
6.1 Ancient Peru
6.2 Aztec
6.3 Buddhism
6.4 Hinduism
7 Literature and the oral tradition
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
The English word conch is attested in Middle English,[4] coming from Latin concha (shellfish, mussel),[4][5] which in turn comes from Greek konchē (same meaning)[4][5] ultimately from PIE root *konkho-,[4] cognate with Sanskrit śaṅkha.[4]
Food[edit]
A group of large eastern conchs or whelks of the species Busycotypus canaliculatus for sale at a California seafood market
The meat of conchs is eaten raw in salads, or cooked, as in burgers, chowders, fritters, and gumbos. All parts of the conch meat are edible.[6]
Conch is most indigenous to The Bahamas, and is typically served in fritter, salad, and soup forms. In addition to The Bahamas, conch is also eaten in the West Indies (Jamaica in particular); locals in Jamaica eat conch in soups, stews and curries. Restaurants all over the islands serve this particular meat. In the Dominican Republic, Grenada, and Haiti, conch is commonly eaten in curries or in a spicy soup. It is locally referred to as lambi. In The Turks and Caicos Islands, the Annual Conch Festival is held in November each year, located at the Three Queen's Bar/Restautant in Blue Hills. Local restaurateurs compete for the best and most original conch dishes, that are then judged by international chefs. Free sampling of the dishes follows the judging; along with those festivities, other competitions, events, and music performances occur well into the evening.[7] In Puerto Rico, conch is served as a ceviche, often called ensalada de carrucho (conch salad), consisting of raw conch marinated in lime juice, olive oil, vinegar, garlic, green peppers, and onions. It is also used to fill empanadas.
In Panama, conch is known as cambombia and is often served as a ceviche known as ceviche de cambombia consisting of raw conch marinated in lime juice, chopped onions, finely chopped habaneros, and often vinegar.
Conch is very popular in Italy and among Italian Americans. Called scungille (pl. scungilli) is eaten in a variety of ways, but most often in salads or cooked in a sauce for pasta. It is often included as one of the dishes prepared for the Feast of the Seven Fishes.
In East Asian cuisines, this seafood is often cut into thin slices and then steamed or stir-fried.
Musical instruments[edit]
Main article: Conch (instrument)
Conch shells can be used as wind instruments. They are prepared by cutting a hole in the spire of the shell near the apex, and then blowing into the shell as if it were a trumpet, as in blowing horn. Sometimes a mouthpiece is used, but some shell trumpets are blown without one. Pitch is adjusted by moving one's hand in and out of the aperture; the deeper the hand, the lower the note.
Various species of large marine gastropod shells can be turned into "blowing shells", but some of the best-known species used are the sacred chank or shankha Turbinella pyrum, the Triton's trumpet Charonia tritonis, and the queen conch Strombus gigas.
Pearls[edit]
Many different kinds of mollusks can produce pearls. Pearls from the queen conch, L. gigas, are rare and have been collectors' items since Victorian times.[8] Conch pearls occur in a range of hues, including white, brown and orange, with many intermediate shades, but pink is the colour most associated with the conch pearl, such that these pearls are sometimes referred to simply as "pink pearls".[8] In some gemological texts, non-nacreous gastropod pearls used to be referred to as "calcareous concretions" because they were "porcellaneous" (shiny and ceramic-like in appearance), rather than "nacreous" (with a pearly lustre), sometimes known as "orient". The GIA and CIBJO now simply use the term "pearl"—or, where appropriate, the more descriptive term "non-nacreous pearl"—when referring to such items,[9][10] and under Federal Trade Commission rules, various mollusc pearls may be referred to as "pearls" without qualification.[11]
Although non-nacreous, the surface of fine conch pearls has a unique and attractive appearance of its own. The microstructure of conch pearls comprises partly aligned bundles of microcrystalline fibres that create a shimmering, slightly iridescent effect known as "flame structure". The effect is a form of chatoyancy, caused by the interaction of light rays with the microcrystals in the pearl's surface, and it somewhat resembles moiré silk.
Other uses[edit]
A drawing of the shell of Strombus alatus, the Florida fighting conch
Conch shells are sometimes used as decoration, as decorative planters, and in cameo making.
In classic Maya art, conchs are shown being used in many ways, including as paint and ink holders for elite scribes, as bugles or trumpets, and as hand weapons (held by combatants by inserting their hands in the aperture).
Conch shells have been used as shell money in several cultures.
Some American Aboriginals used cylindrical conch columella beads as part of breastplates and other personal adornment.[12]
In India, the Bengali bride-to-be is adorned with conch shell and coral bangles called "Shakha Paula. It is an important wedding ritual for every Bengali bride as it is an integral Bengali tradition."[13]
In some Afro-Caribbean and African-American cemeteries, conch shells are placed on graves.[14]
In some Caribbean countries such as Jamaica and the Bahamas, cleaned queen conch shells, or polished fragments, are sold, mainly to tourists, as souvenirs or in jewelry. Responding to a 2003 recommendation from CITES, some countries in the Caribbean have banned the export of queen conch shells. CITES has also asked all countries to ban import of these shells from countries that are not complying with CITES recommendations for managing the fishery. Queen conch fisheries have been closed in several countries.[15] Conch shells or fragments taken home by tourists from noncomplying countries may be confiscated on return to the tourist's home country while clearing customs. In the UK, conch shells are the ninth most-seized import.[16]
Conch shells are occasionally used as a building material, either in place of bricks, or as bulk for landfill.
In Grenada, fishermen use the conch shell as a trumpet to announce to the community that fish is available for sale. Conchs are used at Carnival times in the Jouvert Jump where Diab Diab (Jab Jab) blow conch shells as part of the festivities. Especially in Guadeloupe, it is not uncommon to hear conch shells being blown near ports at dawn and during Carnival times, too. Many bands are making the conch shell a main instrument.
In the Bahamas, broken or up-turned conch shells are imbedded into the tops of outdoor walls in an effort to maintain home security; the broken or up-turned shells are sharp enough to cut any intruder who attempts to jump or crawl over the wall.
In Key West, Florida, a native-born résident is affectionately called a « Conch ».
Religion[edit]
Ancient Peru[edit]
The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped the sea and often depicted conch shells in their art.[17]
Aztec[edit]
Quetzalcoatl, the Mexican god of wind and learning, wears around his neck the "wind breastplate" ehecailacocozcatl, "the spirally voluted wind jewel" made of a conch shell.[18]
Buddhism[edit]
Buddhism has also incorporated the conch shell, Turbinella pyrum, as one of the Eight Auspicious Symbols.
Hinduism[edit]
Main article: Shankha
A Hindu priest blowing a shankha (a shell of Turbinella pyrum) during a puja
Ancient india, Carved Conch with Lakshmi-Narayana,11th-12th century
A shankha shell (the shell of a Turbinella pyrum, a species in the gastropod family Turbinellidae) is often referred to in the West as a conch shell, or a chank shell. This shell is used as an important ritual object in Hinduism. The shell is used as a ceremonial trumpet, as part of religious practices, for example puja. The chank trumpet is sounded during worship at specific points, accompanied by ceremonial bells and singing. As it is an auspicious instrument, it is often played in a Lakshmi puja in temple or at home.
In the story of Dhruva, the divine conch plays a special part. The warriors of ancient India blew conch shells to announce battle, as is described in the beginning of the war of Kurukshetra, in the Mahabharata, the famous Hindu epic.
The god of preservation, Vishnu, is said to hold a special conch, Panchajanya, that represents life, as it has come out of life-giving waters.There is an interesting story behind the origin of a "the shankha" or conch shell.According to Hindu mythology, Devas (Gods) and Asuras (Demons) once decided to churn the ocean in order to get a special divine nectar. This divine nectar also known as "Amrit" was known to give immortality to whoever drank it. All the Gods were on one side of it and the Demons were on the other end. The Samudra Manthan produced a number of things from the Ocean. One of the first things to come out of it was lethal poison called Halahala.Everyone was terrified as the poison was potent enough to destroy entire creation. So they went to Lord Shiva for protection and he consumed the poison to safeguard the universe. Lord Shiva took the poison in his mouth but did not swallow it. Later some additional objects came out of the ocean like Lakshmi (goddess of prosperity and beauty), Goddess of wine, Moon, divine Nymphs like Rambha- and Menakha, Uchhaishravas the divine seven headed White horse, Kaustubha a jewel, Parijata the celestial tree, Surabhi the cow of plenty, Airavata a white elephant, Dhanus a mighty bow and many more such things were produced. "Shankha" or conch shell also was one of divine objects that was obtained from Samudra manthan.
Also, the sound of the conch is believed to drive away the evil spirits. The blowing of the conch or "the shankha" needs a tremendous power and respiratory capacity. Hence, blowing it daily helps keep the lungs healthy.[citation needed]
A newly wed Bengali bride wears bangles called Shakha Paula, made from coral and conch shell powder. They have been a part of Bengali custom and tradition. It is believed that in ancient era, the Bengali farming community resided near the river. They collected conch shells and powdered to create bangles. They also used red coral for the bangles. They gifted these beautiful bangles to their wives as they could not afford ivory bangles.They were also known as poor man's ivory as they were cheap substitute for ivory bangles.[13]
Literature and the oral tradition[edit]
The famous Old English riddle Ic wæs be Sonde describes a conch: "I was by sound, near seawall, at ocean-stream; I dwelt alone in my first resting place... Little did I know that I, ere or since, ever should speak mouthless over mead-benches." Another meaning given to this riddle "Ic wæs be Sonde" is that the sound of the conch corresponds to spiritualised sound as heard in higher realms. In the Hindu tradition, the conch shell is used in ceremony as the sound it makes is said to correspond with higher frequency universal sounds associated with music of the spheres.
William Golding's novel Lord of the Flies (1954) features frequent references to "the conch". In the book, the conch is used as a trumpet to call everyone together and held by whoever is speaking at meetings, symbolically representing democracy and order. The conch is seen as a delicate and beautiful object to represent this concept, although its fragility is shown when it "exploded into a thousand white fragments and ceased to exist".
In Prakrit poetry, the conch (शंख; shankha) has an erotic connotation:
Look,
a still, quiet crane
shines on a lotus leaf
like a conch shell lying
on a flawless emerald plate.
—Hāla's gāhā sattasaī 1.4; tr. M. Selby
Ostional, a pueblo in the municipality of San Juan del Sur in the Rivas Department of the southwest region of Nicaragua, by accounts of multiple testimonials in the local region, was founded by their ancestors because of an abundant conch population at the sea shore. Subsequently, the tribe used conch shells in many rituals and customs. In 2008, witnesses at local archaeological digs reported conch shells were found in the graves of some indigenous people in their recently rediscovered cemetery grounds. Some still maintained jade stones, implying the significance of conch shells within their tribal society.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Lentigo pipus
Seashell
Seashell resonance
Shankha
Dakshinavarti Shankh
References[edit]
Jump up ^ § 51. conch.no 7. Pronunciation Challenges. The American Heritage Book of English Usage. 1996
Jump up ^ Wells, John C. (2016) Sounds Fascinating: Further Observations on English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge University Press. p. 11.
Jump up ^ Walters, Martin; Johnson, Jinny (2003). Encyclopedia of Animals. Marks and Spencer. p. 61. ISBN 1-84273-964-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Definition of CONCH". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2017-02-01.
^ Jump up to: a b "Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2017-02-01.
Jump up ^ "Conch". [unreliable source?]
Jump up ^ Turks & Caicos Conch Festival.
^ Jump up to: a b Bari, Hubert (2007). Pink Pearl: A Natural Treasure of the Caribbean. Skira. ISBN 978-8861300132.
Jump up ^ CIBJO 'Pearl Book'. Giathai.net
Jump up ^ GIA Gems & Gemology magazine news archive. Gia.edu.
Jump up ^ Guides for the Jewelry, Precious Metals, and Pewter Industries. FTC.gov.
Jump up ^ Hair Pipes.
^ Jump up to: a b https://storify.com/David75/significance-of-shakhapaula-for-a-bengali-bride
Jump up ^ The Last Miles of the Way: African Homegoing Traditions, 1890-Present, edited by Elaine Nichols.
Jump up ^ CITES suspends traConchesConchesde in queen conch shellfish
Jump up ^ "UK 'complacent' over wildlife threats". BBC News. 2002-02-18. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
Jump up ^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
Jump up ^ http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/8-4/The%20Wind.pdf
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Strombus.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Conch". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keong
Keong – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conch
Conch – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values: சங்கு – Tamil

values: శంఖము – Telugu

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Conch rootpage-Conch skin-vector action-view