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Protist
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Protist
Temporal range: Neoproterozoic – Present
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Excluded groups
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Supergroups[1] and typical phyla
Archaeplastida (in part)
Rhodophyta (red algae)
Glaucophyta
SAR
Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms, oomycetes, ...)
Alveolata
Apicomplexa
Ciliophora
Dinoflagellata
Rhizaria
Cercozoa
Foraminifera
Radiolaria
Excavata
Euglenozoa
Percolozoa
Metamonada
Amoebozoa
Hacrobia
Apusozoa
Opisthokonta (in part)
Choanozoa
Many others;
classification varies
A protist (/ˈproʊtɪst/) is any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant or fungus. The protists do not form a natural group, or clade, but are often grouped together for convenience, like algae or invertebrates. In some systems of biological classification, such as the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, the protists make up a kingdom called Protista, composed of "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues."[2][3][A]
Besides their relatively simple levels of organization, protists do not necessarily have much in common.[6] When used, the term “protists” is now considered to mean similar-appearing but diverse taxa that are not related through an exclusive common ancestor, and have different life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures.[7][8] In the classification system of Lynn Margulis, the term protist is reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more inclusive term Protoctista is applied to a biological kingdom which includes certain large multicellular eukaryotes, such as kelp, red algae and slime molds.[9] Others use the term protist more broadly, to encompass both microbial eukaryotes and macroscopic organisms that do not fit into the other traditional kingdoms.
In cladistic systems, there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, both terms referring to a paraphyletic group which spans the entire eukaryotic tree of life. In cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are distributed among various supergroups (SAR, Archaeplastida, Excavata, Opisthokonta, etc.) and "Protista", ''Protoctista'' and "Protozoa" are considered obsolete. However, the term "protist" continues to be used informally as a catch-all term for eukaryotic microorganisms. For example, the phrase "protist pathogen" may be used to denote any disease-causing microbe which is not bacteria, virus, viroid or metazoa.[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Subdivisions
2 Classification
2.1 Historical classifications
2.2 Modern classifications
3 Metabolism
4 Reproduction
5 Ecology
5.1 Parasitism: role as pathogens
6 Fossil record
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Bibliography
10.1 General
10.2 Physiology, ecology and paleontology
11 External links
Subdivisions[edit]
See also: Eukaryote § Five supergroups
The term protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms such as:
Protozoa the unicellular "animal-like" (heterotrophic/parasitic) protozoa which was further sub-divided based on motility such as (flagellated) Flagellata, (ciliated) Ciliophora, (phagocytic) amoeba and spore-forming Sporozoans
Protophyta the "plant-like" (autotrophic) protophyta (mostly unicellular algae)
Molds the "fungus-like" (saprophytic) slime molds and water molds.
Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, have been considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi (e.g., slime molds and flagellated algae), and names for these have been published under either or both of the ICN and the ICZN.[11][12] Conflicts, such as these – for example the dual-classification of Euglenids and Dinobryons, which are mixotrophic – is an example of why the kingdom Protista was adopted.
These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness among organisms). Molecular analyses in modern taxonomy have been used to redistribute former members of this group into diverse and sometimes distantly related phyla. For instance, the water molds are now considered to be closely related to photosynthetic organisms such as Brown algae and Diatoms, the slime molds are grouped mainly under Amoebozoa, and the Amoebozoa itself includes only a subset of "Amoeba" group, and significant number of erstwhile "Amoeboid" genera are distributed among Rhizarians and other Phyla.
However, the older terms are still used as informal names to describe the morphology and ecology of various protists. For example, the term protozoa is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that do not form filaments.
Classification[edit]
See also: Kingdom_(biology) § Summary
Historical classifications[edit]
Further information: wikispecies:Protista and wikispecies:Protoctista
Among the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera (e.g., Vorticella, Chaos, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus)[13][14] were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. G. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin.[15] The first groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria.[16] In 1817, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to organisms such as ciliates and corals.[17] After the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include only animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae. The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was first proposed in the early 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as primitive unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "fourth kingdom of nature", in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals.[17] The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), defined as a “kingdom of primitive forms”.[18]
In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg's label, arguing that Haeckel's term Protista included anucleated microbes such as bacteria, which the term "Protoctista" (literally meaning "first established beings") did not. In contrast, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such as diatoms, green algae and fungi.[19] This classification was the basis for Whittaker's later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life.[4] The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the separate kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a group of eukaryotic microorganisms.[20] These five kingdoms remained the accepted classification until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, when it became apparent that neither protists nor monera were single groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups).[21]
Modern classifications[edit]
Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes
Many systematists today do not treat Protista as a formal taxon, but the term "protist" is still commonly used for convenience in two ways.[22] The most popular contemporary definition is a phylogenetic one, that identifies a paraphyletic group:[23] a protist is any eukaryote that is not an animal, (land) plant, or (true) fungus; this definition[24] excludes many unicellular groups, like the Microsporidia (fungi), many Chytridiomycetes (fungi), and yeasts (fungi), and also a non-unicellular group included in Protista in the past, the Myxozoa (animal).[25] Some systematists judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and use Protista in this sense as a formal taxon (as found in some secondary textbooks, for pedagogical purpose).
The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular,[22] that either exist as independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, do not show differentiation into tissues (but vegetative cell differentiation may occur restricted to sexual reproduction, alternate vegetative morphology, and quiescent or resistant stages, such as cysts);[26] this definition excludes many brown, many red and some green algae, which may have tissues.
The taxonomy of protists is still changing. Newer classifications attempt to present monophyletic groups based on morphological (especially ultrastructural),[27][28][29] biochemical (chemotaxonomy)[30][31] and DNA sequence (molecular research) information.[32][33] However, there are sometimes discordances between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorized as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence, cryptic species) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-cycle stages).[34]
Because the protists as a whole are paraphyletic, new systems often split up or abandon the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as separate lines of eukaryotes. The recent scheme by Adl et al. (2005)[26] does not recognize formal ranks (phylum, class, etc.) and instead treats groups as clades of phylogenetically related organisms. This is intended to make the classification more stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the main groups of protists, which may be treated as phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper right.[35] Many are thought to be monophyletic, though there is still uncertainty. For instance, the excavates are probably not monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably only monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded.[36]
Metabolism[edit]
Nutrition can vary according to the type of protist. Most eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, but the pigments were lost in some groups.[which?] Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy, osmotrophy, saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic. Some protists that do not have / lost chloroplasts/mitochondria have entered into endosymbiontic relationship with other bacteria/algae to replace the missing functionality. For example, Paramecium bursaria & Paulinella have captured a green algae (Zoochlorella) & an cyanobacterium respectively that act as a replacement for chloroplast. Meanwhile, a protist, Mixotricha paradoxa that has lost its mitochondria uses endosymbiontic bacteria as mitochondria and ectosymbiontic hair-like bacteria (Treponema spirochetes) for locomotion.
Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding can take place where the flagella find prey. Other protists can engulf bacteria and other food particles, by extending their cell membrane around them to form a food vacuole and digesting them internally in a process termed phagocytosis.
Nutritional types in protist metabolism
Nutritional type
Source of energy
Source of carbon
Examples
Photoautotrophs Sunlight Organic compounds or carbon fixation Most algae
Chemoheterotrophs Organic compounds Organic compounds Apicomplexa, Trypanosomes or Amoebae
Reproduction[edit]
Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually by binary fission.
Some species, for example Plasmodium falciparum, have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually.[37] However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between different strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species.[38]
Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years ago.[39] The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread among extant eukaryotes, it seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that sex appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had the capability for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For example, the common intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, G. lamblia was recently found to have a core set of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes.[40] These results suggested that G. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of sex, was also found in G. lamblia.[41]
The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania have been shown to be capable of a sexual cycle in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.[42]
Trichomonas vaginalis, a parasitic protist, is not known to undergo meiosis, but when Malik et al.[43] tested for 29 genes that function in meiosis, they found 27 to be present, including 8 of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings suggest that T. vaginalis may be capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were also present in G. lamblia, it appears that most of these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of T. vaginalis and G. lamblia. These two species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent among eukaryotes, leading Malik et al.[43] to suggest that these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes.
Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[44]
This view was further supported by a study of amoebae by Lahr et al.[45] Amoeba have generally been regarded as asexual protists. However these authors describe evidence that most amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual, and that the majority of asexual groups likely arose recently and independently. It should be noted that early researchers (e.g., Calkins) have interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules free in the cytoplasm) in amoeboid organisms as sexual reproduction.[46]
Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, but tend to reproduce sexually under stressful conditions, such as starvation or heat shock.[47] Oxidative stress, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species leading to DNA damage, also appears to be an important factor in the induction of sex in protists.[47]
Some commonly found Protist pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a wide variety of animals - which act as secondary or intermediate host - but can undergo sexual reproduction only in the primary or definitive host (for example: felids such as domestic cats in this case).[48][49][50]
Ecology[edit]
Protists live in almost any environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such as algae, are photosynthetic and are vital primary producers in ecosystems, particularly in the ocean as part of the plankton. Other protists include pathogenic species such as the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium which cause malaria.
Parasitism: role as pathogens[edit]
See also: Antiprotozoal agent and Apicomplexa § Parasitology_and_genomics
Some protists are significant parasites of animals (e.g., five species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium cause malaria in humans and many others cause similar diseases in other vertebrates), plants (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes late blight in potatoes)[51] or even of other protists.[52][53] Protist pathogens share many metabolic pathways with their eukaryotic hosts. This makes therapeutic target development extremely difficult – a drug that harms a protist parasite is also likely to harm its animal/plant host. A more thorough understanding of protist biology may allow these diseases to be treated more efficiently. For example, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast but essential to carry out important functions other than photosynthesis) present in apicomplexans provides an attractive target for treating diseases caused by dangerous pathogens such as plasmodium.
Recent papers have proposed the use of viruses to treat infections caused by protozoa.[54][55]
Researchers from the Agricultural Research Service are taking advantage of protists as pathogens to control red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) populations in Argentina. Spore-producing protists such as Kneallhazia solenopsae (recognized as a sister clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom now)[56] can reduce red fire ant populations by 53–100%.[57] Researchers have also been able to infect phorid fly parasitoids of the ant with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that can spread the pathogenic protist between red fire ant colonies.[58]
Fossil record[edit]
Many protists have neither hard parts nor resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown. Examples of such groups include the apicomplexans,[59] most ciliates,[60] some green algae (the Klebsormidiales),[61] choanoflagellates,[62] oomycetes,[63] brown algae,[64] yellow-green algae,[65] excavates (e.g., euglenids).[66] Some of these have been found preserved in amber (fossilized tree resin) or under unusual conditions (e.g., Paleoleishmania, a kinetoplastid).
Others are relatively common in the fossil record,[67] as the diatoms,[68] golden algae,[69] haptophytes (coccoliths),[70] silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates,[71] green algae,[72] red algae,[73] heliozoans, radiolarians,[74] foraminiferans,[75] ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans).[76] Some are even used as paleoecological indicators to reconstruct ancient environments.
More probable eukaryote fossils begin to appear at about 1.8 billion years ago, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of likely algal protists.[77] Another possible representant of early fossil eukaryotes are the Gabonionta.
See also[edit]
Evolution of sexual reproduction
Protistology
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In the original 4-kingdom model proposed in 1959, Protista included all unicellular microorganisms such as bacteria. Herbert Copeland proposed separate kingdoms – Mychota – for prokaryotes and – Protoctista – for eukaryotes (including fungi) that were neither plants nor animals. Copeland's distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells was eventually critical in Whittaker proposing a final five-kingdom system, even though he resisted it for over a decade.[4][5]
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Jump up ^ Keen, E. C. (2013). "Beyond phage therapy: Virotherapy of protozoal diseases". Future Microbiology. 8 (7): 821–823. PMID 23841627. doi:10.2217/FMB.13.48.
Jump up ^ Hyman, P.; Atterbury, R.; Barrow, P. (2013). "Fleas and smaller fleas: Virotherapy for parasite infections". Trends in Microbiology. 21 (5): 215–220. PMID 23540830. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2013.02.006.
Jump up ^ Liu, Y. J.; Hodson, M. C.; Hall, B. D. (2006). "phylogenetic structure of Kingdom Fungi inferred from RNA polymerase II subunit genes". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 6: 74. PMC 1599754  . PMID 17010206. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-6-74.
Jump up ^ "ARS Parasite Collections Assist Research and Diagnoses". USDA Agricultural Research Service. January 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ Durham, Sharon (January 28, 2010) ARS Parasite Collections Assist Research and Diagnoses. Ars.usda.gov. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Introduction to the Apicomplexa. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Fossil Record of the Ciliata. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Klebsormidiales. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Introduction to the Choanoflagellata. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Introduction to the Oomycota. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Introduction to the Phaeophyta. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Introduction to the Xanthophyta. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Introduction to the Basal Eukaryotes. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Why Is The Museum On The Web?. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Fossil Record of Diatoms. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Introduction to the Chrysophyta. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Introduction to the Prymnesiophyta. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Fossil Record of the Dinoflagellata. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Systematics of the "Green Algae", Part 1. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Fossil Record of the Rhodophyta. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Fossil Record of the Radiolaria. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Fossil Record of Foraminifera. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Introduction to the Testaceafilosea. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Jump up ^ Fossil Record of the Eukaryota. Ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
Bibliography[edit]
General[edit]
Haeckel, E. Das Protistenreich. Leipzig, 1878.
Hausmann, K., N. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
Margulis, L., J.O. Corliss, M. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
Margulis, L., K.V. Schwartz. Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, 3rd ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1998.
Margulis, L., L. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
Margulis, L., M.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2009.
Schaechter, M. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012.
Physiology, ecology and paleontology[edit]
Foissner, W.; D.L. Hawksworth. Protist Diversity and Geographical Distribution. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Small Everywhere? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011.
Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Cell physiology sourcebook : essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
Moore, R. C., and other editors. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Protista, part B (vol. 1, Charophyta, vol. 2, Chrysomonadida, Coccolithophorida, Charophyta, Diatomacea & Pyrrhophyta), part C (Sarcodina, Chiefly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida) and part D (Chiefly Radiolaria and Tintinnina). Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America; & Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press.
External links[edit]
Wikispecies has information related to: Protista
Wikispecies has information related to: Protoctista
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Protista.
Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
A java applet for exploring the new higher level classification of eukaryotes
Plankton Chronicles – Protists – Cells in the Sea – video
Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica. (2013). Diversity of Life. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/Taxa.htm. Last modified: 11/18/13.
Tsukii, Y. (1996). Protist Information Server (database of protist images). Laboratory of Biology, Hosei University.[1]. Updated: March 22, 2016.
[show]
v
t
e
Eukaryota
Domain
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
(Supergroup
Plant
Hacrobia
Heterokont
Alveolata
Rhizaria
Excavata
Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
Animal
Fungi)
Excavata
Metamonad
Malawimonadea
Discoba
Euglenozoa
Jakobea
Percolozoa
Tsukubea
Diaphoretickes
Archaeplastida
Glaucophyta
Rhodophyta
Viridiplantae or plantae sensu stricto
Chlorophyta
Streptophyta
Cryptista
Cryptophyceae
Endohelea
Goniomonadea
Kathablepharidea
Palpitea
Picomonadea
Telonemea
Haptista
Centrohelea
Pavlovophyceae
Prymnesiophyceae
Rappemonada
SAR
Rhizaria
Cercozoa
Retaria
Acantharea
Foraminifera
Polycystinea
Sticholonchea
Halvaria
Stramenopiles
(heterokonts)
Bicosoecea
Developayellales
Hyphochytrea
Ochrophyta
Opalinata
Opalomonadea
Peronosporomycetes
Pirsoniales
Platysulca
Sagenista
Alveolata
Acavomonadia
Ciliates
Colponemidia
Myzozoa
Apicomonadea
Apicomplexa
Chromerida
Dinoflagellata
Perkinsozoa
Protoalveolata
Incertae sedis
Kamera lens
Podiata
Diphyllatea
Discocelida
Glissodiscea
Micronucleariida
Rigifilida
Amorphea
Amoebozoa
Conosa (Archamoebae, Semiconosia)
Lobosa (Cutosea, Discosea, Tubulinea)
Obazoa
B+A
Breviatea
Apusomonadida
Opisthokonta
Holozoa
Teretosporea
Mesomycetozoea
Corallochytrea
Filasterea
Choanoflagellates
Metazoa or Animals
Holomycota
Cristidiscoidea
True fungi
Opisthosporidia
Aphelida
Cryptomycota
Microsporidia
Incertae sedis
Parakaryon myojinensis
†Acritarcha
†Charnia
†Gakarusia
†Galaxiopsis
†Grypania
†Leptoteichos
Major kingdoms are underlined. See also: protist. Sources and alternative views: Wikispecies.
[show]
v
t
e
Microbiology: Protistology: Protists
Former
classifications
Protozoa
Mastigophora/Flagellates
Sarcodina/Amoeboids
Testate
Heliozoa
Infusoria/Ciliates
Sporozoa
Algae
Cryptogams
Thallophytes
Fungus-like organisms
Slime molds
Ambiregnal protists
Morphology
Archaeplastida
Chloroplastida
"green algae": Phycoplast
Phragmoplast
Flagellar apparatus
Glaucophytes:
Cyanelles
Phycobilisomes
Red algae:
Pit connection
Phycobilisomes
Hacrobia
Cryptophyta:
Mastigonemes
Periplast
Haptophyte:
Coccolith
Haptonema
Stramenopiles
General:
Mastigonemes
Diatoms:
Frustule
Brown algae:
Lamina
Pneumatocyst
Alveolata
General:
Alveoli
Trichocyst
Dinoflagellates:
Dinokaryon
Dinocyst
Theca
Ciliates:
Cilium
Cirrus
Macronucleus
Micronucleus
Apicomplexans:
Rhoptry
Apicoplast
Microneme
Rhizaria
Phytomyxea
Cruciform division
Excavate
Kinetoplastids:
Kinetoplast
Glycosome
Euglenoidea:
Periplast/pellicle
Amoebozoa
Dictyostelids:
Macrocyst
Sorocarp
Opisthokonta
Choanoflagellates:
Collar of microvilli
General
Levels of
organization
Unicellular
Monadoid
Amoeboid
Coccoid
Colonial s.s.
Colonial flagellated
Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid
Sarcinoid
Coenobial
Filamentous/trichal/hyphal
Parenchymatous
Pseudoparenchymatous/plektenchymatic
Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous
Multinucleated
Syncytial
Coenocytic
Siphonous
Siphonocladous
Multicellular s.s./tissular/histonal
Cell surface
structures
Simple cell membrane
Mucilage
Scale
Frustule
Cell wall
Lorica
Skeleton
Test
Theca
Periplast/pellicle
Locomotion
Flagellum
Cilium
Pseudopodia
Gliding motility
Mitochondria
Hydrogenosome
Mitosome
Nucleus
Nucleomorph
Multinucleate cells
Plasmodium
Dikaryon
Heterokaryon
Mitosis in protists
Open
Closed
Orthomitosis
Pleuromitosis
Meiosis in protists
Gametic
Zygotic
Sporic
Other
Cyst
Cytostome
Fimbriae
Extrusome
Contractile vacuole
Eyespot apparatus
Pyrenoid
Axostyle
Mastigont system
Ecology and
physiology
Microbial ecology
Microbial biogeography
Baas-Becking hypothesis
Development/Reproduction
Life cycles
Fertilization
Nutrition: Autotrophy
Phototrophy
Heterotrophy
Phagotrophy
Osmotrophy
Saprotrophy
Parasitism
Biotrophy
Necrotrophy
Mixotrophy
Auxotrophy
[show]
v
t
e
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Microscopic organisms first observed and
described by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1
Bacteria
Ciliate
Giardia
Infusoria
Protist
Protozoa
Rotifer
Spermatozoon
Volvox
General topics
Animalcule
Bacteriology
Protozoology
Protistology
Spontaneous generation
Preformationism
Microscopic discovery of microorganisms
Microscopic scale
History of biology
History of microbiology
Natural history
Optical microscopy
History of microscopy
History of the microscope
Invention of the optical microscope
Timeline of microscope technology
Golden Age of Dutch science and technology
Science and technology in the Dutch Republic
Royal Society
Scientific Revolution
Age of Reason
Related people
Clifford Dobell (Leeuwenhoek scholar)
Brian J. Ford (Leeuwenhoek scholar)
Galileo Galilei
Regnier de Graaf
Robert Hooke (author of Micrographia)
Nicolaas Hartsoeker
Nicolas Steno
Jan Swammerdam
Johannes Vermeer
Recognitions
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Ziekenhuis
Leeuwenhoek (crater)
Leeuwenhoek Lecture
Leeuwenhoek Medal
Leeuwenhoeckia
Levenhookia
Leeuwenhoekiella
List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field
1 Generally considered to be the first acknowledged microscopist and microbiologist in history.
Authority control
GND: 4135232-4
NDL: 00562366
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/w/index.php?title=Protist&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protis
Protis – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values: طلائعيات – Arabic

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values: প্ৰটিষ্টা – Assamese

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values: প্রোটিস্ট – Bangla

values: Протистар – Bashkir

values: Пратысты – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: Протисти – Bulgarian

values:
https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist
Protist – Bavarian
bar
bar
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisti
Protisti – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protists
Protists – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist
Protist – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protister
Protister – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisten
Protisten – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protistid
Protistid – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Πρώτιστα – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protistoj
Protistoj – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisto
Protisto – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values: آغازیان – Persian

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist
Protist – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Manx
gv
gv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protistas
Protistas – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values: प्रोटिस्ट – Hindi

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisto
Protisto – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Iloko
ilo
ilo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Interlingua
ia
ia
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumverur
Frumverur – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: פרוטיסטים – Hebrew

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values: პროტისტები – Georgian

values: Споралылар – Kazakh

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pwotis
Pwotis – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisti
Protisti – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisten
Protisten – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protistai
Protistai – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Ligurian
lij
lij
interlanguage-link-target

values: പ്രോട്ടിസ്റ്റ – Malayalam

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protis
Protis – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisten
Protisten – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Neapolitan
nap
nap
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protistar
Protistar – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values: ਪਰੋਟਿਸਟ – Punjabi

values:
https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pruotis
Pruotis – Jamaican Creole English
jam
jam
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisty
Protisty – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protiste
Protiste – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values: Протисты – Russian

values: Протистар – Sakha

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist
Protist – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values: ප්‍රෝටිස්ටා රාජධානිය – Sinhala

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisti
Protisti – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brotist
Brotist – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values: شانشینی پێشەنگییەکان – Central Kurdish

values: Протисти – Serbian

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protisti
Protisti – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protister
Protister – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: அதிநுண்ணுயிரி – Tamil

values: Протистлар – Tatar

values: ప్రోటిస్టా – Telugu

values: โพรทิสต์ – Thai

values: Протисти – Ukrainian

values: یک خلوی عضویہ – Urdu

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protista
Protista – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values: פראטיסטן – Yiddish

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