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Standard of living in India
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Standard of living in India varies from state to state. With one of the fastest growing economies in the world, clocked at a growth rate of 7.6% in 2015, India is on its way to becoming a large and globally important consumer economy. According to Deutsche Bank Research, there are between 30 million and 300 million middle-class people in India.[1] If current trends continue, India's share of world GDP will significantly increase from 7.3 in 2016 to 8.5 percent of the world share by 2020.[2] In 2011, less than 22 percent of Indians lived under the global poverty line, nearly a 10 percent reduction from 29.8 percent just two years prior in 2009.[3]
According to NCAER, India's middle class population would be 267 million in 2016. Further ahead, by 2025-26 the number of middle class households in India is likely to more than double from the 2015-16 levels to 113.8 million households or 547 million individuals.[4] Another estimate put the Indian middle class as numbering 475 million people by 2030.[5] It is estimated that average real wages will quadruple between 2013 and 2030.[6]
The standard of living in India shows large disparity. For example, there is widespread poverty in rural areas of India, where medical care tends to be very basic or unavailable, while cities boast of world class medical establishments. Similarly, the very latest machinery may be used in some construction projects, but many construction workers work without mechanisation in most projects.[7] However, a rural middle class is now emerging in India, with some rural areas seeing increasing prosperity.[8]
In 2010, the per capita PPP-adjusted GDP for India was US$3,608.[9]
Contents
1 Poverty
2 Physical infrastructure
3 Regional imbalance
4 See also
5 References
Poverty[edit]
Main article: Poverty in India
24.3% of the population earned less than US$1 (PPP, around US$0.25 in nominal terms) a day in 2005, down from 42.1% in 1981.[10][11] 41.6% of its population (540 million people approx.) is living below the new international poverty line of $1.25 (PPP) per day, down from 59.8% in 1981.[10] The World Bank further estimates that a third of the global poor now reside in India.
On the other hand, the Planning Commission of India uses its own criteria and has estimated that 27.5% of the population was living below the poverty line in 2004–2005, down from 51.3% in 1977–1978, and 36% in 1993-1994.[12] The source for this was the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (NSS) and the criterion used was monthly per capita consumption expenditure below ₹ 356.35 for rural areas and ₹ 538.60 for urban areas. 75% of the poor are in rural areas, most of them are daily wagers, self-employed householders and landless labourers.
Although Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades, its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.[13] For the year 2015-16, the GSDP growth rates of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh was higher than Maharashtra, Odisha or Punjab.[14]
Since the early 1950s, successive governments have implemented various schemes, under planning, to alleviate poverty, that have met with partial success. Programmes like Food for work and National Rural Employment Programme have attempted to use the unemployed to generate productive assets and build rural infrastructure.[15] In August 2005, the Indian parliament passed the Rural Employment Guarantee Bill, the largest programme of this type, in terms of cost and coverage, which promises 100 days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in 200 of India's 600 districts. The Indian government is planning to bring in more economic reforms which can help farmers and unskilled labourers transition into industrialised sectors.
See also: List of Indian states by life expectancy at birth
Physical infrastructure[edit]
Main articles: Transport in India and Water supply and sanitation in India
Pictured here, is the New Delhi Metro, operational since 2002 and seen as a model for other metros.
Since independence, India has allocated nearly half of the total outlay of the five-year plans for infrastructural development. Much of the total outlay was spent on large projects in the area of irrigation, energy, transport, communications and social overheads. Development of infrastructure was completely in the hands of the public sector and was plagued by corruption, bureaucratic inefficiencies, urban-bias and an inability to scale investment.[16] Calcutta city was the first city in India to boast of a metro-system. India's low spending on power, construction, transportation, telecommunications and real estate, at $31 billion or 6% of GDP in 2002 has prevented India from sustaining a growth rate of around 8%. This has prompted the government to partially open up infrastructure to the private sector allowing foreign investment.[17][18] India holds second position in the world in roadways' construction.[19]
As of 31 December 2005, there were an estimated 835,000 broadband lines in India.[20] Low tele-density is the major hurdle for slow pick-up in broadband services. Over 76% of the broadband lines were via DSL and the rest via cable modems.
A 2007 study by the Asian Development Bank showed that in 20 cities the average duration of water supply was only 4.3 hours per day. No city had a continuous water supply. The longest duration of supply was 12 hours per day in Chandigarh, and the lowest was 0.3 hours per day in Rajkot.[21]
A study by WaterAid estimated as many as 157 million Indian or 41 percent of Indians living in urban areas, live without adequate sanitation. India comes top for having the greatest number of urbanites living without sanitation. India tops urban sanitation crisis, has the largest amount of urban dwellers without sanitation and the most open defecators over 41 million people.[22][23]
Regional imbalance[edit]
Main article: List of regions of India
One of the critical problems facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India's different states and territories in terms of per capita income, poverty, availability of infrastructure and socio-economic development. For instance, the difference in growth rate between the forward and backward states was 0.3% (5.2% & 4.9%) during 1980–81 to 1990–91, but had grown to 3.3% (6.3% & 3.0%) during 1990–91 to 1997–98.[24]
The five-year plans have attempted to reduce regional disparities by encouraging industrial development in the interior regions, but industries still tend to concentrate around urban areas and port cities. Even the industrial townships in the interiors, Bhilai for instance, resulted in very little development in the surrounding areas.[25] After liberalisation, the disparities have grown despite the efforts of the union government in reducing them. Part of the reason being that manufacturing and services and not agriculture are the engines of growth. The more advanced states are better placed to benefit from them, with infrastructure like well developed ports, urbanisation and an educated and skilled workforce which attract manufacturing and service sectors. The union and state governments of backward regions are trying to reduce the disparities by offering tax holidays, cheap land, etc., and focusing more on sectors like tourism, which although being geographically and historically determined, can become a source of growth and is faster to develop than other sectors.[26][27]
See also: States of India by size of economy
See also[edit]
Economy of India
BIMARU
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The middle class in India" (PDF). Deutsche Bank Research.
Jump up ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects".
Jump up ^ "India - Data". data.worldbank.org.
Jump up ^ "India's middle class population to touch 267 million in 5 yrs".
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Average wages in India could quadruple by 2030: PwC report". thehindu.com.
Jump up ^ Labouring Brick by Brick: A Study of Construction Workers Archived 5 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine. - www.sewa.org
Jump up ^ "Rural areas see middle class rise". Deccan Herald.
Jump up ^ List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
^ Jump up to: a b "The developing world is poorer than we thought, but no less successful in the fight against poverty". World Bank. 2008. Archived from the original on 23 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "India has fewer poor people: World Bank". Business Standard.
Jump up ^ Poverty estimates for 2004-05, Planning commission, Government of India, March 2007. Accessed: 25 August 2007
Jump up ^ "Inclusive Growth and Service delivery: Building on India's Success" (PDF). World Bank. 2006. Retrieved 28 April 2007.
Jump up ^ "AP stands 1st in India in GSDP growth rate". The Times of India. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Economic Survey 2004–2005". Retrieved 15 July 2006.
Jump up ^ Sankaran, S (1994). Indian Economy: Problems, Policies and Development. Margham Publications. ISBN.
Jump up ^ "Infrastructure the missing link". CNN. 6 October 2004. Retrieved 14 August 2005.
Jump up ^ "Infrastructure in India: Requirements and favorable climate for foreign investment". Archived from the original on 13 July 2005. Retrieved 14 August 2005.
Jump up ^ "Infrastructure Rankings".
Jump up ^ "World broadband statistics q4-2005" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 July 2006. Retrieved 24 July 2006.
Jump up ^ 2007 Benchmarking and Data Book of Water Utilities in India (PDF). Asian Development Bank. 2007. p. 3. ISBN 978-971-561-648-5.
Jump up ^ "The State of the World's Toilet 2016" (PDF). Retrieved 27 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Overflowing Cities: 157 Million Indians Still Without Toilets". Retrieved 27 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Datt, Ruddar & Sundharam, K.P.M. "27". Indian Economy. pp. 471–472.
Jump up ^ Bharadwaj, Krishna (1991). "Regional differentiation in India". In Sathyamurthy, T.V. Industry & agriculture in India since independence. Oxford University Press. pp. 189–199. ISBN 0-19-564394-1.
Jump up ^ Sachs, D. Jeffrey; Bajpai, Nirupam & Ramaiah, Ananthi (2002). "Understanding Regional Economic Growth in India" (PDF). Working paper 88. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 July 2007.
Jump up ^ Kurian, N.J. "Regional disparities in india". Retrieved 6 August 2005.
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Aviation fuel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
An aviation fuel truck
At some airports, underground fuel pipes allow refueling without the need for tank trucks. Trucks just carry the necessary hoses and pressure apparatus, but no fuel.
Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft. It is generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical applications, such as heating or road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion due to high temperature, among other properties.[1]
Most current commercial airlines and military aircraft use jet fuel for maximum fuel efficiency and lowest cost. These aircraft account for the vast majority of aviation fuel refined today, which is also used in diesel aircraft engines. Other aviation fuels available for aircraft are kinds of petroleum spirit used in engines with spark plugs (i.e. piston and Wankel rotary engines).
Specific energy is the important criterion in selecting an appropriate fuel to power an aircraft. Much of the weight of an aircraft goes into fuel storage to provide the range, and more weight means more fuel consumption. Aircraft have a high peak power and thus fuel demand during take-off and landing. Electric batteries are effectively ruled out as the main propulsion energy store for commercial aircraft.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types of aviation fuel
1.1 Conventional aviation fuels
1.1.1 Jet fuel
1.1.2 Avgas
1.2 Emerging aviation fuels
1.2.1 Biofuels
1.2.2 CNG & LNG
2 Production of aviation fuel
3 Energy content
4 Density
5 Chemical composition
6 Tax
7 Certification
8 In use
8.1 Overwing
8.2 Underwing
8.3 Misfueling
9 Safety precautions
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Types of aviation fuel[edit]
Conventional aviation fuels[edit]
Jet fuel[edit]
Ground fueling of a MIG-29 from a URAL tanker
Main article: Jet fuel
Jet fuel is a clear to straw-colored fuel, based on either an unleaded kerosene (Jet A-1), or a naphtha-kerosene blend (Jet B). It is similar to diesel fuel, and can be used in either compression ignition engines or turbine engines.
Jet-A powers modern commercial airliners and is a mix of pure kerosene and burns at temperatures at or above 49 degrees Celsius (120 degrees Fahrenheit). Kerosene-based fuel has a much higher flash point than gasoline-based fuel, meaning that it requires significantly higher temperature to ignite. It is a high-quality fuel; if it fails the purity and other quality tests for use on jet aircraft, it is sold to other ground-based users with less demanding requirements, like railroad engines.[2]
Avgas[edit]
Main article: Avgas
Avgas (aviation gasoline) is used in spark-ignited internal-combustion engines in aircraft. Its formulation is distinct from mogas (motor gasoline) used in cars and many military vehicles such Deuce and 1/2s . Avgas is formulated for stability, safety, and predictable performance under a wide range of environments, and is typically used in aircraft that use reciprocating or Wankel engines.
Emerging aviation fuels[edit]
Biofuels[edit]
Alternative to conventional fossil-based aviation fuels, new fuels made via the Biomass to liquid method (like sustainable aviation fuel) and certain straight vegetable oils can also be used. Fuels such as sustainable aviation fuel have the advantage that few or no modifications are necessary on the aircraft itself and that they have far lower GHG emissions. The reason why they aren't being used heavily though is because they still face political, technological and economic barriers, i.e. they are currently more expensive than conventionally produced aviation fuel by a wide margin.[3][4][5]
CNG & LNG[edit]
Main article: Natural_gas § Transportation
Compressed natural gas and liquified natural gas are other fuel feedstocks that aircraft could switch to other than conventional fossil-oil. Turbofans for instance can be operated on a number of different fuels and some have been made optimized for use with natural gas.[6] Some aircraft, such as the Tupolev Tu-155, and the "SUGAR Freeze" aircraft under NASA's N+4 Advanced Concept Development program (made by Boeing's Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research (SUGAR) team) were designed to run on LNG.[7] The low specific energy of natural gas even in liquid form compared to conventional fuels give it a distinct disadvantage for flight applications.
Production of aviation fuel[edit]
The production of aviation fuel falls into two categories: fuel suitable for turbine engines and fuel suitable for internal combustion engines. There are international specifications for each.
Jet fuel is used in both turboprop and jet aircraft, and must maintain a low viscosity at low temperature, meet definite limits in terms of density and calorific value, burn cleanly, and remain chemically stable when heated to high temperature.[8]
Aviation gasoline, often referred to as "avgas" or 100-LL (low-lead), is a highly refined form of gasoline for aircraft, with an emphasis on purity, anti-knock characteristics and minimization of spark plug fouling. Avgas must meet performance guidelines for both the rich mixture condition required for take-off power settings and the leaner mixtures used during cruise to reduce fuel consumption.
Avgas is sold in much lower volume than jet fuel, but to many more individual aircraft operators; whereas jet fuel is sold in high volume to large aircraft operators, such as airlines and military.[9]
Energy content[edit]
The net energy content for aviation fuels depends on their composition. Some typical values are:[10]
BP Avgas 80, 44.65 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 690 kg/m3.
Kerosene type BP Jet A-1, 43.15 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 804 kg/m3.
Kerosene type BP Jet TS-1 (for lower temperatures), 43.2 MJ/kg, density at 15 °C is 787 kg/m3.
Density[edit]
Airliner manufacturers retain a density of jet fuel around 6.7 lb/USgal or 0.8 kg/l :
Airbus 0.785 kg/l (6.55 lb/US gal) [1]
Boeing 6.7 lb/US gal (0.80 kg/l) [2]
Bombardier Aerospace : between 6.7 lb/US gal / 0.8028 kg/l [3] and 6.75 lb/US gal / 0.809 kg/l [4]
Embraer : between 0.803 kg/l / 6.70 lb/gal [5] and 0.811 kg/l/ 6.77 lb/gal [6]
Chemical composition[edit]
Aviation fuels consist of blends of over two thousand chemicals, primarily hydrocarbons (paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, and aromatics), additives such as antioxidants and metal deactivators, biocides, static reducers, icing inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, and impurities. Principal components include n-heptane and isooctane. Like other fuels, aviation fuel for spark-ignited piston engines are described by their octane rating.
Alcohol, alcohol mixtures, and other alternative fuels may be used experimentally, but alcohol is not permitted in any certified aviation fuel specification.[11] In Brazil, the Embraer Ipanema EMB-202A is a version of the Ipanema agricultural aircraft with a modified Lycoming IO-540-K1J5 engine so as to be able to run on ethanol. Other aircraft engines that were modified to run on 100% ethanol were several other types of Lycoming engines (including the Lycoming 235N2C, and Lycoming IO-320[12])[13] and certain Rotax engines.[14]
Tax[edit]
The Convention on International Civil Aviation (ICAO) (Chicago 1944, Article 24), exempts air fuels in transit from (double) taxation. [15] Bi-lateral Air Services Agreements govern the tax exemption of aviation fuels. In the course of an EU initiative, many of these agreements have been modified to allow taxation. Australia and the United States oppose a worldwide levy on aviation fuel, but a number of other countries have expressed interest. During a debate in the UK Parliament, the forgone tax income due to the exemption of tax on aviation fuel was estimated at £10 billion annually.[16] Furthermore, the planned inclusion of international aviation into the European Union Emission Trading Scheme in 2014 has been called an 'illegal tax' by countries including the US and China, which cite the Chicago Convention.[17]
Certification[edit]
Fuels have to conform to a specification in order to be approved for use in type certificated aircraft. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) developed specifications for automobile gasoline as well as aviation gasoline. These specifications are ASTM D910 and ASTM D6227 for aviation gasoline and ASTM D439 or ASTM D4814 (latest revision) for automobile gasoline.
In use[edit]
Aviation fuel storage tanks at George Bush Intercontinental Airport, Houston, Texas.
Aviation fuel generally arrives at the airport via pipeline systems, such as the CEPS, ... It is then pumped over and dispensed from a tanker or bowser. The fuel is then driven up to parked aircraft and helicopters. Some airports have pumps similar to filling stations to which aircraft must taxi. Some airports have permanent piping to parking areas for large aircraft.
Aviation fuel is transferred to an aircraft via one of two methods: overwing or underwing.
Overwing[edit]
Overwing fueling is used on smaller planes, helicopters, and all piston-engine aircraft. Overwing fueling is similar to car fueling — one or more fuel ports are opened and fuel is pumped in with a conventional pump.
Underwing[edit]
Most widebody aircraft use a double single-point
Underwing fueling, also called single-point refueling or pressure refueling where not dependent on gravity, is used on larger aircraft and for jet fuel exclusively.
For pressure refueling, a high-pressure hose is attached and fuel is pumped in at 275 kilopascals (40 psi) and a maximum of 310 kilopascals (45 psi) for most commercial aircraft. Pressure for military aircraft, especially fighters, ranges up to 415 kilopascals (60 psi). Air being displaced in the tanks is usually vented overboard through a single vent on the aircraft. Because there is only one attachment point, fuel distribution between tanks is either automated or it is controlled from a control panel at the fueling point or in the cockpit. An early use of pressure refueling was on the de Havilland Comet and Sud Aviation Caravelle.[18] Larger aircraft allow for two or more attachment points, however this is still referred to as single-point refueling, as either attachment point can refuel all of the tanks. Multiple attachments allow for faster fuel flows.
Misfueling[edit]
Because of the danger of confusing the fuel types, precautions are taken to distinguish between avgas and jet fuel beyond clearly marking all containers, vehicles, and piping. The aperture on fuel tanks of aircraft requiring avgas cannot be greater than 60 millimetres in diameter. Avgas is often dyed and is dispensed from nozzles with a diameter of 40 mm (49 mm in the United States).[19] [20]
Jet fuel is clear to straw-colored, and is dispensed from a special nozzle called a J spout or Duckbill that has a rectangular opening larger than 60 mm diagonally, so as not to fit into avgas ports. However, some jet and turbine aircraft, such as some models of the Astar helicopter, have a fueling port too small for the J spout, and thus require a smaller nozzle.
Safety precautions[edit]
British Airways Airbus A321 being refueled
Any fueling operation can be very dangerous, and aviation operations have characteristics which must be accommodated. As an aircraft flies through the air, it can accumulate static electricity. If this is not dissipated before fueling, an electric arc could occur and ignite fuel vapors. To prevent this, aircraft are electrically bonded to the fueling apparatus before fueling begins, and are not disconnected until after fueling is complete. Some regions require the aircraft and/or fuel truck to be grounded too.[21] Pressure fueling systems incorporate a dead man's switch to preclude unmonitored operation.
Aviation fuel can cause severe environmental damage; all fueling vehicles must carry equipment to control fuel spills. Fire extinguishers must be present at any fueling operation. Airport firefighting forces are specially trained and equipped to handle aviation fuel fires and spills. Aviation fuel must be checked daily and before every flight for contaminants such as water or dirt.
Many airlines now require safety belts be left unfastened should passengers be aboard during refueling.[citation needed]
A Carson Helicopters S-61N Fire King being refueled during firefighting operations in Southern River, Western Australia.
See also[edit]
Avgas
Aviation biofuel
Sustainable Aviation Fuel
Environmental impact of aviation
Jet fuel
Kerosene
JP-1
JP-4
JP-5
JP-6
JP-7
JP-8
JPTS
Rocket fuel
Swift fuel
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Aviation Fuel". Archived from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
Jump up ^ U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. "Aviation Fuel". Archived from the original on 20 April 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
Jump up ^ RREB report
Jump up ^ IATA 2014 Report on Alternative Fuels
Jump up ^ "Bringing biojet fuels to the market". Retrieved 27 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Aircraft Design - MIT Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment". Retrieved 27 December 2016.
Jump up ^ EnergyWire. "Could natural gas fuel commercial flights of the future?". Retrieved 27 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Air BP. "Avgas vs Jet Fuel". Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Sergeant Oil & Gas Co Inc. "Aviation gasoline". Retrieved 10 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Air BP. BP Products handbook. Retrieved 2008-09-13
Jump up ^ FAA,. "FAA Ethanol Safety Document". Archived from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Team - Vanguard Squadron". Retrieved 27 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Lycoming engines for ethanol use
Jump up ^ Rotax engines on ethanol/conventional fuel blend Archived September 21, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ House of Commons Library. "Taxing aviation fuel. Standard Note SN00523 (2012)" (PDF). p. 3, note 11. Retrieved 4 Nov 2016.
Jump up ^ Lucas, Caroline. "Does the government subsidise airlines by £10 billion?". 2012. Factcheck. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Malina, Robert (2012). "The Impact of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme on US Aviation". Journal of Air Transport Management. 19. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
Jump up ^ "REFUELLING THE COMET". Retrieved 2 July 2013.
Jump up ^ CSGNetwork.com. "Aviation Fuel-AvGas Information Aviation Gasoline". Retrieved 10 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Shell.com. "AvGas Grades and Specifications". Archived from the original on 28 May 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-01-05. Retrieved 2010-04-22.
http://www.appliedthermalfluids.com/home/brands-manufacturers/exxonmobil-aviation-jet-oils/[permanent dead link] "Mobil Aviation Jet Oils"
External links[edit]
History of jet fuels (by AirBP).
Aviation Fuels Technical Review (by Chevron Global Aviation).
"Shauck and his wife flew a single-engine airplane across the Atlantic Ocean in 1989 using 100% ethanol". Archived from the original on 2006-09-27. .
Air NZ sees biofuel salvation in jatropha.
Messerschmitt Bf 109 site. Transcribed document on World War II German aviation fuel.
World Jet Fuel Specifications 2008 handbook.
Shell Aviation Fuels Handbook.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aviation_fuel&oldid=797822225"
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