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War on Cancer
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The War on Cancer refers to the effort to find a cure for cancer by increased research to improve the understanding of cancer biology and the development of more effective cancer treatments, such as targeted drug therapies. The aim of such efforts is to eradicate cancer as a major cause of death. The signing of the National Cancer Act of 1971 by United States president Richard Nixon is generally viewed as the beginning of this effort, though it was not described as a "war" in the legislation itself.[1]
Despite significant progress in the treatment of certain forms of cancer (such as childhood leukemia[2]), cancer in general remains a major cause of death 40+ years after this war on cancer began,[3] leading to a perceived lack of progress[4][5][6] and to new legislation aimed at augmenting the original National Cancer Act of 1971.[7] New research directions, in part based on the results of the Human Genome Project, hold promise for a better understanding of the genetic factors underlying cancer, and the development of new diagnostics, therapies, preventive measures, and early detection ability. However, targeting cancer proteins can be difficult, as a protein can be undruggable.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 National Cancer Act of 1971
1.2 NCI Director's Challenge
1.3 Renewed focus on cancer
1.4 Livestrong Foundation
1.5 21st Century Cancer Access to Life-Saving Early detection, Research and Treatment (ALERT) Act
1.6 Obama-Biden Plan to Combat Cancer
1.7 World Cancer Campaign
2 Progress
2.1 Challenges
3 Modern cancer research
3.1 Genome-based cancer research projects
3.1.1 The Cancer Genome Atlas
3.1.2 Cancer Genome Project
3.2 Cancer research supportive infrastructure
4 Modern cancer treatment
4.1 Cancer clinical trials
4.2 Targeted tumor treatment
5 Public education and support
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of Cancer
National Cancer Act of 1971[edit]
External video
The Long War on Cancer, Retro Report[8]
The war on cancer began with the National Cancer Act of 1971, a United States federal law.[9] The act was intended "to amend the Public Health Service Act so as to strengthen the National Cancer Institute in order to more effectively carry out the national effort against cancer".[1] It was signed into law by President Nixon on December 23, 1971.[10]
Health activist and philanthropist Mary Lasker was instrumental in persuading the United States Congress to pass the National Cancer Act.[11] She and her husband Albert Lasker were strong supporters of medical research. They established the Lasker Foundation which awarded people for their research. In the year of 1943, Mary Lasker began changing the American Cancer Society to get more funding for research. Five years later she contributed to getting federal funding for the National Cancer Institute and the National Heart Institute. In 1946 the funding was around $2.8 million and had grown to over $1.4 billion by 1972. In addition to all of these accomplishments, Mary became the president of the Lasker Foundation due to the death of her husband in 1952. Lasker's devotion to medical research and experience in the field eventually contributed to the passing of the National Cancer Act.[12]
The improved funding for cancer research has been quite beneficial over the last 40 years. In 1971, the number of survivors in the U.S. was 3 million and as of 2007 has increased to more than 12 million.[13]
NCI Director's Challenge[edit]
In 2003, Andrew von Eschenbach, the director of the National Cancer Institute (who served as FDA Commissioner from 2006-2009 and is now a Director at biotechnology company BioTime) issued a challenge "to eliminate the suffering and death from cancer, and to do so by 2015".[14][15] This was supported by the American Association for Cancer Research in 2005[16] though some scientists felt this goal was impossible to reach and undermined von Eschenbach's credibility.[17]
John E. Niederhuber, who succeeded Andrew von Eschenbach as NCI director, noted that cancer is a global health crisis, with 12.9 million new cases diagnosed in 2009 worldwide and that by 2030, this number could rise to 27 million including 17 million deaths "unless we take more pressing action."[18]
Harold Varmus, former director of the NIH and current director of the NCI,[19][20] held a town hall meeting in 2010[21] in which he outlined his priorities for improving the cancer research program, including the following:
reforming the clinical trials system,
improving utilization of the NIH clinical center (Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research Center),
readjusting the drug approval and regulation processes,
improving cancer treatment and prevention, and
formulating new, more specific and science-based questions.
Renewed focus on cancer[edit]
Recent years have seen an increased perception of a lack of progress in the war on cancer, and renewed motivation to confront the disease.[5][22] On July 15, 2008, the United States Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions convened a panel discussion titled, Cancer: Challenges and Opportunities in the 21st Century.[23] It included interviews with noted cancer survivors such as Arlen Specter, Elizabeth Edwards and Lance Armstrong, who came out of retirement in 2008, returning to competitive cycling "to raise awareness of the global cancer burden."[24]
Livestrong Foundation[edit]
The Livestrong Foundation created the Livestrong Global Cancer Campaign to address the burden of cancer worldwide and encourage nations to make commitments to battle the disease and provide better access to care.[25] In April 2009, the foundation announced that the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan pledged $300 million to fund three important cancer control initiatives – building a cutting-edge cancer treatment and research facility, developing a national cancer control plan and creating an Office of Advocacy and Survivorship.[26] The Livestrong Foundation encourages similar commitments from other nations to combat the disease.
Livestrong Day is an annual event established by the LAF to serve as "a global day of action to raise awareness about the fight against cancer." Individuals from around the world are encouraged to host cancer-oriented events in their local communities and then register their events with the Livestrong website.[27]
21st Century Cancer Access to Life-Saving Early detection, Research and Treatment (ALERT) Act[edit]
The US Senate on 26 March 2009 issued a new bill (S. 717), the 21st Century Cancer Access to Life-Saving Early detection, Research and Treatment (ALERT) Act[28] intended to "overhaul the 1971 National Cancer Act."[7] The bill aims to improve patient access to prevention and early detection by:
providing funding for research in early detection,
supplying grants for screening and referrals for treatment, and
increasing access to clinical trials and information.
Obama-Biden Plan to Combat Cancer[edit]
During their 2008 U.S. presidential campaign then Senators Barack Obama and Joe Biden published a plan to combat cancer that entailed doubling "federal funding for cancer research within 5 years, focusing on NIH and NCI" as well as working "with Congress to increase funding for the Food and Drug Administration."[29][30] Their plan would provide additional funding for:
research on rare cancers and those without effective treatment options,
the study of health disparities and evaluation of possible interventions,
and efforts to better understand genetic factors that can impact cancer onset and outcomes.
President Obama's 2009 economic stimulus package includes $10 billion for the NIH, which funds much of the cancer research in the U.S., and he has pledged to increase federal funding for cancer research by a third for the next two years as part of a drive to find "a cure for cancer in our time."[31][32] In a message published in the July 2009 issue of Harper's Bazaar, President Obama described his mother's battle with ovarian cancer and, noting the additional funding his administration has slated for cancer research, stated: "Now is the time to commit ourselves to waging a war against cancer as aggressive as the war cancer wages against us."[33] On 30 September 2009, Obama announced that $1 billion of a $5 billion medical research spending plan would be earmarked for research into the genetic causes of cancer and targeted cancer treatments.[34]
Cancer-related federal spending of money from the 2009 Recovery Act can be tracked online.[35]
Prostate cancer funding has been removed from the proposed 2016 CDC budget.[36]
World Cancer Campaign[edit]
The International Union Against Cancer (UICC) has organized a World Cancer campaign in 2009 with the theme, "I love my healthy active childhood," to promote healthy habits in children and thereby reduce their lifestyle-based cancer risk as adults.[37] The World Health Organization is also promoting this campaign[38] and joins with the UICC in annually promoting World Cancer Day on 4 February.[39]
Progress[edit]
Though there has been significant progress in the understanding of cancer biology, risk factors, treatments, and prognosis of some types of cancer (such as childhood leukemia[2]) since the inception of the National Cancer Act of 1971, progress in reducing the overall cancer mortality rate has been disappointing.[5][32] Many types of cancer remain largely incurable (such as pancreatic cancer[40]) and the overall death rate from cancer has not decreased appreciably since the 1970s.[41] The death rate for cancer in the U.S., adjusted for population size and age, dropped only 5 percent from 1950 to 2005.[3] Cancer was expected to surpass cardiovascular disease as the leading cause of death in the world by 2010, according to the World Health Organization's World Cancer Report 2008.[42][43] As of 2012, WHO reported 8.2 million annual deaths from cancer[44] Heart disease (including both Ischaemic and hypertensive) accounted for 8.5 million annual deaths. Stroke accounted for 6.7 million annual deaths. [45]
There is evidence for progress in reducing cancer mortality.[46] Age-specific analysis of cancer mortality rates has had progress in reducing cancer mortality in the United States since 1955. An August 2009 study found that age-specific cancer mortality rates have been steadily declining since the early 1950s for individuals born since 1925, with the youngest age groups experiencing the steepest decline in mortality rate at 25.9 percent per decade, and the oldest age groups experiencing a 6.8 percent per decade decline.[47] Dr. Eric Kort, the lead author of this study, claims that public reports often focus on cancer incidence rates and underappreciate the progress that has been achieved in reduced cancer mortality rates.[48]
The effectiveness and expansion of available therapies has seen significant improvements since the 1970s. For example, lumpectomy replaced more invasive mastectomy surgery for the treatment of breast cancer.[49] Treatment of childhood leukemia[2] and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) have undergone major advances since the war on cancer began. The drug Gleevec now cures most CML patients, compared to previous therapy with interferon, which extended life for approximately 1 year in only 20-30 percent of patients.[50]
Dr. Steven Rosenberg, chief of surgery at the NCI has said that as of the year 2000, 50% of all diagnosed cases of cancer are curable through a combination of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy.[49][51] Cancer surveillance experts have reported a 15.8 percent decrease in the age-standardized death rate from all cancers combined between 1991 and 2006 along with an approximately 1 percent annual decrease in the rate of new diagnoses between 1999 and 2006.[46] A large portion of this decreased mortality for men was attributable to smoking cessation efforts in the United States.
A 2010 report from the American Cancer Society found that death rates for all cancers combined decreased 1.3% per year from 2001 to 2006 in males and 0.5% per year from 1998 to 2006 in females, largely due to decreases in the 3 major cancer sites in men (lung, prostate, and colorectum) and 2 major cancer sites in women (breast and colorectum). Cancer death rates between 1990 and 2006 for all races combined decreased by 21.0% among men and by 12.3% among women. This reduction in the overall cancer death rates translates to the avoidance of approximately 767,000 deaths from cancer over the 16-year period. Despite these reductions, the report noted, cancer still accounts for more deaths than heart disease in persons younger than 85 years.[52][53]
An improvement in the number of cancer survivors living in the U.S. was indicated in a 2011 report by the CDC and the NCI, which noted that the number of cancer survivors in 2007 (11.7 million) increased by 19% from 2001 (9.8 million survivors). The number of cancer survivors in 1971 was 3 million. Breast, prostate, and colorectal cancers were the most common types of cancer among survivors, accounting for 51% of diagnoses. As of January 1, 2007, an estimated 64.8% of cancer survivors had lived ≥5 years after their diagnosis of cancer, and 59.5% of survivors were aged ≥65 years.[54][55] A continued decline in cancer rates in the U.S. among both women and men, across most major racial groups, and in the most common cancer sites (lung, colon and rectum), was indicated in a 2013 report by the National Cancer Institute. However, the same report indicated an increase from 2000 to 2009 in cancers of the liver, pancreas and uterus.[56]
Challenges[edit]
A multitude of factors have been cited as impeding progress in finding a cure for cancer[5][6] and key areas have been identified and suggested as important to accelerate progress in cancer research.[57] Since there are many different forms of cancer with distinct causes, each form requires different treatment approaches. However, this research could still lead to therapies and cures for many forms of cancer. Some of the factors that have posed challenges for the development of preventive measures and anti-cancer drugs and therapies include the following:
Inherent biological complexity of the disease:
number of changes within a cell leading to the cancerous state[58]
disease heterogeneity due to different tissues of origin[59]
contribution of numerous genetic and environmental risk factors[60]
complexity of cellular interactions and cell signaling within the tumor microenvironment[61][62][63]
suitability of model organisms for understanding human disease.[6]
Roadblocks to translational medicine[64]
Challenges of early detection and diagnosis[65][66]
The drug approval process[67]
Availability of and access to patients with suitable tumor tissue for research[68]
Challenges in implementing preventive measures, such as the development and use of preventive drugs and therapies[69][70]
Choropleth mapping of the changes over time, of the national incidence rate, by cancer type, relative to the population at risk, is a technical challenge.[citation needed]
“The public is so jaded by cancer research media attention at the moment... And let’s face it, rather embarrassingly, most claimed ‘breakthroughs’ are not proving to significantly advance cancer therapies... It is a real conundrum for researchers today, because ‘early publicity’ is needed for funding, capital raising and professional kudos, but not too helpful for the public who then think that an immediate cure might be just around the corner.” Professor Brendon Coventry, 9 July 2013[71]
Modern cancer research[edit]
Genome-based cancer research projects[edit]
The rise of a new class of molecular technologies developed during the Human Genome Project opens up new ways to study cancer and holds the promise for the discovery of new aspects of cancer biology that could eventually lead to novel, more effective diagnostics and therapies for cancer patients.[72] [73] [74] These new technologies are capable of screening many biomolecules and genetic variations such as SNPs[75] and copy number variations in a single experiment and are employed within functional genomics and personalized medicine studies.
Speaking on the occasion of the announcement of $1 billion in new funding for genome-based cancer research, Dr. Francis Collins, director of the NIH claimed, "We are about to see a quantum leap in our understanding of cancer."[34] Harold Varmus, after his appointment to be the director of the NCI, said we are in a "golden era for cancer research," poised to profit from advances in our understanding of the cancer genome.[20]
High-throughput DNA sequencing has been used to study the whole genome sequence of two different cancer tissues: a small-cell lung cancer metastasis and a malignant melanoma cell line.[76] The sequence information provides a comprehensive catalog of approximately 90% of the somatic mutations in the cancerous tissue, providing a more detailed molecular and genetic understanding of cancer biology than was previously possible, and offering hope for the development of new therapeutic strategies gleaned from these insights.[77][78]
The Cancer Genome Atlas[edit]
The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), a collaborative effort between the National Cancer Institute and the National Human Genome Research Institute, is an example of a basic research project that is employing some of these new molecular approaches.[79] One TCGA publication notes the following:
Here we report the interim integrative analysis of DNA copy number, gene expression and DNA methylation aberrations in 206 glioblastomas...Together, these findings establish the feasibility and power of TCGA, demonstrating that it can rapidly expand knowledge of the molecular basis of cancer.[80]
In a cancer research funding announcement made by president Obama in September 2009, TCGA project is slated to receive $175 million in funding to collect comprehensive gene sequence data on 20,000 tissue samples from people with more than 20 different types of cancer, in order to help researchers understand the genetic changes underlying cancer. New, targeted therapeutic approaches are expected to arise from the insights resulting from such studies.[34]
Cancer Genome Project[edit]
The Cancer Genome Project at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute aims to identify sequence variants/mutations critical in the development of human cancers. The Cancer Genome Project combines knowledge of the human genome sequence with high throughput mutation detection techniques.[81]
Cancer research supportive infrastructure[edit]
Advances in information technology supporting cancer research, such as the NCI's caBIG project, promise to improve data sharing among cancer researchers and accelerate "the discovery of new approaches for the detection, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cancer, ultimately improving patient outcomes."[82]
Modern cancer treatment[edit]
Cancer clinical trials[edit]
Researchers are considering ways to improve the efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and overall success rate of cancer clinical trials.[83]
Increased participation in rigorously designed clinical trials would increase the pace of research. Currently, about 3% of people with cancer participate in clinical trials; more than half of them are patients for whom no other options are left, patients who are participating in "exploratory" trials designed to burnish the researchers' résumés or promote a drug rather than to produce meaningful information, or in trials that will not enroll enough patients to produce a statistically significant result.[citation needed]
Targeted tumor treatment[edit]
A major challenge in cancer treatment is to find better ways to specifically target tumors with drugs and chemotherapeutic agents in order to provide a more effective, localized dose and to minimize exposure of healthy tissue in other parts of the body to the potentially adverse effects of the treatments. The accessibility of different tissues and organs to anti-tumor drugs contributes to this challenge. For example, the blood–brain barrier blocks many drugs that may otherwise be effective against brain tumors. In November 2009, a new, experimental therapeutic approach for treating glioblastoma was published in which the anti-tumor drug Avastin was delivered to turmor site within the brain through the use of microcatheters, along with mannitol to temporarily open the blood–brain barrier permitting delivery of the chemotherapy into the brain.[84][85]
Public education and support[edit]
An important aspect to the war on cancer is improving public access to educational and supportive resources, to provide individuals with the latest information about cancer prevention and treatment, as well as access to support communities. Resources have been created by governmental and other organizations to provide support for cancer patients, their families and caregivers, to help them share information and find advice to guide decision making.[86][87][88][89][90][91][92]
See also[edit]
American Cancer Society
caBIG
International Agency for Research on Cancer
International Union Against Cancer
National Cancer Institute
National Comprehensive Cancer Network
Stand Up to Cancer
The Cancer Genome Atlas project
American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) project CancerProgress[93]
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Jump up ^ "The Cancer Genome Atlas website". National Cancer Institute and the National Human Genome Research Institute. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
Jump up ^ McLendon, R.; Friedman, Allan; Bigner, Darrell; Van Meir, Erwin G.; Brat, Daniel J.; M. Mastrogianakis, Gena; Olson, Jeffrey J.; Mikkelsen, Tom; et al. (2008-10-23). "Comprehensive genomic characterization defines human glioblastoma genes and core pathways". Nature. 455 (7216): 1061–1068. doi:10.1038/nature07385. PMC 2671642  . PMID 18772890.
Jump up ^ "The Cancer Genome Project website". Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Archived from the original on 2013-07-02. Retrieved 2009-02-14.
Jump up ^ "About caBIG". NCI's cancer Biomedical Informatics Grid website. Retrieved 2008-12-06.
Jump up ^ Patlak, Margie; Nass, Sharyl (2008). Improving the Quality of Cancer Clinical Trials: Workshop Summary. p. 136. ISBN 0-309-11668-6.
Jump up ^ Grady, Denise (2009-11-16). "Breaching a Barrier to Fight Brain Cancer". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-12-20.
Jump up ^ "World's First Delivery of Intra-Arterial Avastin Directly Into Brain Tumor". Science Daily. 2009-11-17. Retrieved 2009-12-20.
Jump up ^ "Cancer Information Service". NCI. Retrieved 2009-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Need Answers? 1-800-227-2345". ACS. Retrieved 2009-11-08.
Jump up ^ "Cancer Prevention and Control". CDC. Retrieved 2010-12-27.
Jump up ^ "World Health Organization's Cancer website". WHO. Retrieved 2010-12-27.
Jump up ^ "Cancer Compass, Community for cancer patients & caregivers". Retrieved 2010-12-27.
Jump up ^ "Cancer Survivors Network". ACS. Retrieved 2010-12-27.
Jump up ^ "CancerTV". Retrieved 2010-12-27.
Jump up ^ "About CancerProgress.Net". CancerProgress. American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO). 2011. Retrieved May 10, 2012.
External links[edit]
NCI Cancer Bulletin, biweekly updates on cancer research news
Forty Years' War, a series in The New York Times examining the War on Cancer (2009)
Why We're Losing the War on Cancer and How to Win It on CNN (2007)
Waging War on Cancer, documentary television show hosted by Paula Zahn
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Leader–member exchange theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The leader–member exchange (LMX) theory is a relationship-based approach to leadership that focuses on the two-way (dyadic) relationship between leaders and followers.[1] It suggests that leaders develop an exchange with each of their subordinates, and that the quality of these leader–member exchange relationships influences subordinates' responsibility, decisions, and access to resources and performance.[2] Relationships are based on trust and respect and are often emotional relationships that extend beyond the scope of employment.[3] Leader–member exchange may promote positive employment experiences and augment organizational effectiveness.[4] It is widely used by many managers and is replacing many of its predecessors.
The latest version (2016) of leader–member exchange theory of leadership development explains the growth of vertical dyadic workplace influence and team performance in terms of selection and self-selection of informal apprenticeships in leadership.[5] It suggests that leaders select the best and make offers and members of team accept or not. Apprentices who complete the program develop strong emotional attachments with their mentor-teacher. This is reflected in their descriptions by both of their relationship as one of mutual respect for competence, trust in character and benevolence toward each other.[6] Those who complete the apprenticeship training are more collaborative, helpful to all team members, more deeply engaged in team activities and contribute more to team health and prosperity. This is seen as a win-win relationship by both parties, their team, network and overall organization.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Theory
1.1 Background
1.2 Consequences
1.3 Culture
1.4 Citizenship behaviors
2 Evolution
2.1 The four stages
2.1.1 Stage 1: Vertical dyad linkage
2.1.2 Stage 2: Leader–member exchange
2.1.3 Stage 3: Leadership-making
2.1.4 Stage 4: Team-making
3 Limitations
4 Future developments
5 See also
6 References
Theory[edit]
The goal of LMX theory is to explain the effects of leadership on members, teams, and organizations. According to the theory, leaders form strong trust, emotional, and respect-based relationships with some members of a team, but not with others.[3] LMX theory claims that leaders do not treat each subordinate the same. The work-related attitudes and behaviors of those subordinates depend on how they are treated by their leader.[8]
Background[edit]
Based on Dulebohn et al.[9]
Dulebohn et al. identify three primary groups of antecedents: leader characteristics, follower characteristics, and interpersonal relationships.[10] Followers are evaluated by their competence, agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, neuroticism, and openness, positive affectivity, negative affectivity, and locus of control.[10] Leaders, on the other hand, are evaluated based on supervisor's expectation of followers, contingent reward behavior, transformational leadership, extraversion, and agreeableness.[10] Although the leader takes a dominant role in creating an LMX relationship, the follower also plays an important part in creating the relationship. Interpersonal relationship variables that may affect this relationship are perceived similarity, affect/liking, integration, self-promotion, assertiveness, and leader trust.[10] This variety of characteristics creates the basis for LMX and allows it to be successful or unsuccessful, depending on the present traits.
Of the follower characteristics, competence, agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, locus of control, and positive affectivity are all positively correlated with LMX.[10] Negative affectivity and neuroticism are negatively correlated with LMX.[10] All of the listed leader characteristics are positively correlated with LMX.[10] With the exception of assertiveness, all of the interpersonal relationship variable correlated positively with LMX.[10] In an experiment run by Dulebohn et al. that measured the effects of various characteristics on LMX and its outcomes, leader behaviors and perceptions explained most of the variance.[10] This study suggests that it is up to the leader to form the relationships necessary for successful implementation of LMX.
Consequences[edit]
Whether LMX is successful can be measured by a multitude of consequences. Some of the consequences that can be measured include: turnover intentions, actual turnover, overall organizational citizenship behavior, affective commitment, normative commitment, general job satisfaction, satisfaction with supervisor, satisfaction with pay, procedural justice, distributive justice, empowerment, perceptions of politics, role ambiguity, and role conflict.[9] LMX typically decreases turnover intentions and actual turnover, as well as role ambiguity and role conflict.[9] LMX increases the other measures, particularly increasing perceptual and attitudinal outcomes.[9]
In their 1997 meta-analysis of LMX correlates and constructs, Gerstner & Day explain that research has generally found relationships between LMX and positive work performance and attitude measures, especially for members (as opposed to leaders).[11] That is, especially for members, LMX is associated with higher performance ratings, better objective performance, higher overall satisfaction, more satisfaction with supervisor, stronger organizational commitment, and more positive role perceptions. Gerstner & Day's meta-analysis used 79 studies to examine the correlates of LMX. Their analysis found a positive correlation between the member's perceptions of LMX and the leader's ratings of the member's job performance. It also found an even stronger positive correlation between the leader's perceptions of LMX and the leader's ratings of the member's job performance. Fortunately for some subordinates, Gerstner & Day explain that supervisors may have a tendency to rate a subordinate more favorably due to a positive LMX relationship. They further explain that LMX perceptions may cause a leader to form positive or negative expectations about an employee which can then affect actual employee performance rather than only performance ratings. This meta-analysis also found statistically significant positive correlations between LMX and objective performance (as opposed to subjective performance ratings), satisfaction with supervisor, overall satisfaction, organizational commitment, and role clarity. It found statistically significant negative correlations between LMX and role conflict and turnover intentions.[11]
Culture[edit]
Rockstuhl et al.'s 2012 meta-analysis of LMX theory and national culture correlates found that in Western cultures LMX is more strongly correlated with organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), justice perceptions, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and leader trust than in Asian cultures.[8] This meta-analysis used 253 studies conducted in 23 countries to compare the differences in how LMX influenced work-related attitudes and behaviors such as task performance, OCB, distributive justice, procedural justice, interactional justice, job satisfaction, affective commitment, normative commitment, and turnover intentions between two different cultural configurations: horizontal-individualistic (Western countries) and vertical-collectivist (Asian countries). The analysis found that the relationships between LMX and citizenship behaviors, between LMX and justice outcomes, between LMX and job satisfaction, between LMX and turnover intentions, and between LMX and leader trust are stronger in horizontal-individualistic cultures than in vertical-collectivist cultures. The analysis also found that there is not a cultural difference in the relationships between LMX and task performance and between LMX and affective and normative organizational commitment.[8]
Citizenship behaviors[edit]
Ilies et al.'s 2007 meta-analysis of LMX theory and citizenship behaviors found a positive relationship between LMX and citizenship behaviors.[12] The meta-analysis also found that the target of the citizenship behaviors has a moderating effect on the magnitude of the relationship between LMX and citizenship behaviors. That is, citizenship behaviors targeted at individuals are more strongly correlated with LMX than are citizenship behaviors targeted at an organization.[12]
Evolution[edit]
Much of what has become leader–member exchange theory has origins in the introduction of the vertical dyad linkage theory (VDL) in 1975. Vertical dyad linkage theory has become widely known as leader–member exchange theory, although researchers such as George B. Graen and Mary Uhl-Bien maintain that current LMX theory differs markedly from early VDL work.[1] Previous leadership theories had assumed that all subordinates have similar characteristics and that all supervisors behaved in the same fashion with all their subordinates.[13] Gerstner and Day explain that traditional leadership theories attributed leadership effectiveness to personal characteristics of the leader, to features of the situation, or to an interaction between the two.[11] LMX seeks to provide a different perspective that treats each subordinate/supervisor pair as an individual dyad with its own relationships. According to LMX, the quality of this dyadic relationship predicts attitudinal and behavioral outcomes (such as those discussed above) at the individual, group, and organizational level.[11] In 1976 Graen published "Role-making processes in complex organizations" in the Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,[14] further increasing awareness about LMX. Before this article was published, few researchers explored LMX, but after its publication, LMX became a widely-researched and -cited theory.[citation needed]
By the 1980s, researchers in this field began transitioning from VDL to LMX, with the primary difference being a new focus specifically on jobs and task domains.[13] By the 1990s LMX had started to become a substantial theory, integrating the previous theories of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and perceived organizational support (POS).[13] It became increasingly clear that LMX correlated with job satisfaction and organizational commitment.[11] In 1995 Graen and Uhl-Bien used four stages to explain how LMX theory had evolved over time. (A more detailed discussion of these stages follows below.) During the first stage the theory primarily involved work socialization and vertical dyad linkage, with the focus was on the analysis of differentiated dyads, that is, in-groups and out-groups.[11] In the second stage LMX studies focussed on the quality of the leader-member relationship and on its outcomes.[11] The third stage involved the creation of a prescriptive approach to building dyadic relationships.[11] In the fourth stage, LMX moved beyond the dyad level and researchers assessed it at the systems-level, that is, at group and network levels.[11]
From 2000 to the present[update], leader–member exchange theory has been researched extensively[by whom?], adding more correlates and processes, as described in the #Antecedents[dead link] and Consequences sections above. LMX is evolving into a theory that crosses dyad-group levels.[13]
The four stages[edit]
In their 1995 paper titled "Relationship-Based Approach to Leadership: Development of Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory of Leadership over 25 Years: Applying a Multi-Level Multi-Domain Perspective," George B. Graen and Mary Uhl-Bien discuss the development of LMX from through four evolutionary stages.[1]
Based on Graen and Uhl-Bien[1]
Stage 1: Vertical dyad linkage[edit]
Graen and Uhl-Bien explain that research into issues relating to leader–member exchange began with studies on work socialization and vertical dyad linkage which found that many managerial processes in organizations occurred on a dyadic basis, with managers forming differentiated relationships with those who reported to them.[1] Longitudinal studies of management teams were conducted in which managers and those who reported to them were asked to describe their work and working relationships in terms of inputs, process, and outcomes.[1] When asked to describe their manager's behavior, different employees gave very different descriptions of the same person.[1] Some employees described what are called "high-quality exchanges" (also known as "in-group"), which are "characterized by a high degree of mutual trust, respect, and obligation."[1] Others described "low-quality exchanges" (also known as "out-group"), which are "characterized by low trust, respect, and obligation."[1] According to Graen and Uhl-Bien, early VDL research concluded that these differentiated relationships resulted from a manager's limited time and social resources, allowing him/her to form only a few higher-quality exchange relationships.[1]
Stage 2: Leader–member exchange[edit]
In the second stage, terminology shifted from vertical dyad linkage to leader–member exchange.[1] Graen and Uhl-Bien explain that VDL research was followed by a series of studies which moved the theory "beyond a description of the differentiated relationships in a work unit to an explanation of how these relationships develop and what the consequences of the relationships are for organizational functioning".[1] A number of studies analyzed the specific characteristics of LMX relationships, and other studies analyzed the relationship between LMX and organizational outcomes/consequences.[1] Graen and Uhl-Bien describe the central concepts of LMX research at this time as: "(1) development of LMX relationships is influenced by characteristics and behaviors of leaders and members and occurs through a role-making process, and (2) higher-quality LMX relationships have very positive outcomes for leaders, followers, work units, and the organization in general."[1]
Stage 3: Leadership-making[edit]
Graen and Uhl-Bien recount that the research in the third stage moved beyond "in-groups" and "out-groups" and focused more on producing effective leadership process through the development of effective leadership relationships.[1] According to Graen and Uhl-Bien, the key difference in this stage is that it says that managers should make high-quality LMX relationships available to all employees, rather than having differentiated relationships among employees as described in the VDL approach.[1] This stage uses the Leadership Making model to provide a more prescriptive and practically useful model of leadership development. The idea of Leadership Making began with two longitudinal field experiments that analyzed what would happen if leaders were trained to give all of their subordinates the opportunity to develop a high-quality relationship.[1] Results showed that the performance of subordinates who took advantage of the opportunity to develop a high-quality LMX improved dramatically.[1] Overall, the performance of the work unit improved by increasing the number of high-quality LMX relationships.[1] The Leadership Making model was developed[by whom?] based on these studies to emphasize the importance of forming high-quality relationships within organizations and to outline a process for how these relationships might be formed and maintained in practice.[1] The model describes a process in which leader–member relationships go from a "stranger" phase (characterized by formal, contractual interactions) to an "acquaintance" stage (characterized by increased social exchanges and the sharing of information and resources on a personal and work level) to a level of "mature partnership" exchanges (characterized by "in kind" exchanges that are behavioral and emotional, by loyalty, by support, by mutual respect, by trust, and by a high degree of incremental influence).[1]
Stage 4: Team-making[edit]
At the fourth stage Graen and Uhl-Bien propose using a systems-level perspective to investigate how differentiated dyadic relationships combine to form larger, network systems.[1] These networks are what make up an organization's "leadership structure", or the "pattern of leadership relationships among individuals throughout the organization".[1] Graen and Uhl-Bien explain that the leadership structure emerges from the network of relationships and mutual dependencies that develop as organization members fulfill roles and complete tasks.[1] Investigation at this stage analyzes task interdependencies and the quality of the relationships that develop due to these interdependencies.[1] Specifically, research seeks to identify where more effective leadership relationships have a large impact on task performance as well as how differentiated relationships affect each other and the entire leadership structure.[1]
Limitations[edit]
The main limitation of leader–member exchange theory, and research on the topic, is that it is not particularly helpful in describing the specific leader behaviors that promote high quality relationships. This is due largely to the fact that LMX is a descriptive (rather than normative) theory which focuses on explaining how people relate to and interact with each other rather than on a prescription for how to form high quality LMX relationships.[11] LMX research has limited discussion of leader behaviors that can promote relationship building, for the most part offering only generalities about the need for leaders to show trust, respect, openness, autonomy and discretion. [citation needed] There has been some theorizing about how to form high-quality LMX relationships, such as Graen & Uhl-Bien's Leadership Making model, but this area of investigation is lacking in useful empirical evidence.[1]
Future developments[edit]
While much work has been done on leader–member exchange (LMX) in the past forty years, LMX is still being actively researched. One of the main questions regards how LMX relationships form and how managers can most effectively create them.[3] Thus far, most large-scale studies have relied on existing dyads and investigated the consequences of those existing relationships. There exist many theories about how the initial dyadic relationship forms, and how to form strong leader–member relationships, yet there is little consensus among scientists.[3] Additionally, there is much to be learned about the context surrounding LMX, such as organizational culture.[15] Although some research has been done examining national culture and LMX, it is still being heavily investigated.[15] Another area for future research, which is suggested by Graen & Uhl-Bien, is investigating LMX relationships on a network scale.[1] This involves looking at multiple LMX relationships across an organization and analyzing how these relationships influence and depend on each other, and how the quality of these relationships influences performance across the organization. Further research could also be done on how LMX and job embeddedness may interact to lead to higher job satisfaction. According to a study by Harris, Wheeler, and Kacmar (2011), LMX leads to job embeddedness, which then leads to higher job satisfaction.[16] Job embeddedness is a measurement of the extent to which people feel a part of their company and it is also related to the many antecedents of LMX that are discussed above. Currently most of the research on LMX focuses more on behavioral and job performance outcomes than on employee's job satisfaction. Since employee job satisfaction can have many organizational benefits, this area might warrant further investigation.
See also[edit]
Social exchange theory
Attribution (psychology)
Transactional leadership
Transformational leadership
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab Graen, G. B.; Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). "The Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of LMX theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level, multi-domain perspective". Leadership Quarterly 6 (2): 219–247. doi:10.1016/1048-9843(95)90036-5.
Jump up ^ Deluga, R. J. (1 June 1998). "Leader-Member Exchange Quality and Effectiveness Ratings: The Role of Subordinate-Supervisor Conscientiousness Similarity". Group & Organization Management. 23 (2): 189–216. doi:10.1177/1059601198232006.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bauer, Tayla; Ergoden, Berrin (2015). The Oxford Handbook of Leader-Member Exchange. New York, NY 10016: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199326174.
Jump up ^ Liden, R.C.; Sparrowe, R.T.; Wayne, S.J. (1997). "Leader-member exchange theory: The past and potential for the future". Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management. 15: 47–119.
Jump up ^ Graen, G. B. & Canedo, J. (2016). The new workplace leadership development. Oxford Bibliography on Management. Oxford University Press, N.Y., New York.
Jump up ^ Graen, G. B., & Schiemann, W. (2013). Leadership-motivated excellence theory: An extension of LMX. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 28(5), 452–469.
Jump up ^ Nier, S. L. (2013). LMX as "silver bullet" to all things now experienced in US civil service. Survey of 13,000 US Government Employees.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rockstuhl, Thomas, Dulebohn, James H., Ang, Soon, & Shore, Lynn M. (2012). "Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) and Culture: A Meta-Analysis of Correlates of LMX Across 23 Countries." Journal of Applied Psychology 97 (6): 1097-1130.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Dulebohn, James H.; Bommer, William H.; Liden, Robert C.; Brouer, Robyn L.; Ferris, Gerald R. (2012-11-01). "A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents and Consequences of Leader-Member Exchange Integrating the Past With an Eye Toward the Future". Journal of Management. 38 (6): 1715–1759. doi:10.1177/0149206311415280. ISSN 0149-2063.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Dulebohn, James; Bommer, William; Liden, Robert; Brouer, Robyn; Ferris, Gerald (6 November 2012). "A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents and Consequences of Leader-Member Exchange: Integrating the Past With an Eye Toward the Future". Journal of Management. 36 (6): 1715–1759. doi:10.1177/0149206311415280.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Gerstner, Charlotte R., & Day, David V. (1997). "Meta-Analytic Review of Leader-Member Exchange Theory: Correlates and Construct Issues." Journal of Applied Psychology 82 (6): 827-844.
^ Jump up to: a b Ilies, Remus, Nahrgang, Jennifer D. & Morgeson, Frederick P. (2007). "Leader–Member Exchange and Citizenship Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis." Journal of Applied Psychology 92 (1): 269-277.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Day, David; Miscenko, Darja (2016). Bauer, Talya; Erdogan, Berrin, eds. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX): Construct Evolution, Contributions, and Future Prospects for Advancing Leadership Theory. New York, NY 10016: Oxford University Press. pp. 9–28. ISBN 978-0-19-932617-4.
Jump up ^ Graen, G. B. (1976). "Role-making processes in complex organizations". In Dunnette, Marvin D. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally College Pub. Co. p. 1201-1245. ISBN 0528629123.
^ Jump up to: a b Anand, S., Hu, J., Liden, R. C., & Vidyarthi, P. R. (2011). Leader-member exchange: Recent research findings and prospects for the future. A. Bryman et al, 311-325.
Jump up ^ Harris, Kenneth J.; Wheeler, Anthony R.; Kacmar, K. Michele (2011-04-01). "The mediating role of organizational job embeddedness in the LMX–outcomes relationships". The Leadership Quarterly. 22 (2): 271–281. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.02.003.
Seibert, S. E.; Sparrowe, R. T.; Liden, R. C. (2003). "A group exchange structure approach to leadership in groups". In Pearce, C. L.; Conger, J. A. Shared leadership: Reframing the hows and whys of leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ISBN 0-7619-2623-2.
17 - A critical test of overall leadership theory compared 35 meta-analyses data for the best fitting structural equation model. Comparing LMX theory with transformational leadership theory, consideration and initiation of structuring theory, and contingent reward theory confirmed a new model of charismatic leadership [17]. This overall model of the process specified the necessary establishment of an interpersonal LMX contract first followed by incentives of either transformational leadership, consideration, structuring or contingent reward related to appropriate follower performance and organizational citizen behavior. This advanced model represents a new understanding of how the four leading theories relate to a common process of building "charismatic leadership". The most researched competing theories were not complete and were made whole and integrated into a single model of best leadership style (charisma).
17 - Gottfredson, R. K., & Aguinis, H. (2016). Leadership behaviors and follower performance: Deductive and inductive examination of theoretical rationales and underlying mechanisms. Journal of Organizational Behavior. Wiley Online Library. www.wileyonlinelibrary.com. DOI: 10.11002/job.2152.
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Miles Austin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Miles Austin
Austin with the Philadelphia Eagles in 2015
No. 14, 19
Position:
Wide receiver
Personal information
Born:
(1984-06-30) June 30, 1984 (age 33)
Summit, New Jersey
Height:
6 ft 2 in (1.88 m)
Weight:
216 lb (98 kg)
Career information
High school:
Garfield (NJ)
College:
Monmouth
Undrafted:
2006
Career history
Dallas Cowboys (2006–2013)
Cleveland Browns (2014)
Philadelphia Eagles (2015)
Career highlights and awards
2× Pro Bowl (2009, 2010)
NFC receiving yards leader (2009)
Dallas Cowboys single-game receiving yards record (250)
Career NFL statistics
Receptions:
361
Receiving yards:
5,273
Receiving touchdowns:
37
Player stats at NFL.com
Player stats at PFR
Miles Jonathon Austin III (born June 30, 1984) is a former American football wide receiver who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 10 seasons and spent the majority of his career with the Dallas Cowboys. He also played for the Cleveland Browns and Philadelphia Eagles. Austin played college football at Monmouth and holds the school's record for receiving yards.
Austin joined the Cowboys as an undrafted free agent in 2006 and was a member of the team for eight seasons. During his tenure with the Cowboys, he was named to two Pro Bowls. He retired after playing for the Browns and Eagles for one season each.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early years
2 College career
3 Professional career
3.1 Dallas Cowboys
3.1.1 2006 season
3.1.2 2007 season
3.1.3 2008 season
3.1.4 2009 season
3.1.5 2010 season
3.1.6 2011 season
3.1.7 2012 season
3.1.8 2013 season
3.2 Cleveland Browns
3.3 Philadelphia Eagles
3.4 Career statistics
4 Post-playing career
5 References
6 External links
Early years[edit]
Austin was born in Summit, New Jersey to parents Miles, an African-American, and mother Ann Austin, a Caucasian, who were born in Nebraska and New Jersey, respectively. He has one sister, Jennifer Austin.[1][2] Austin grew up in Garfield, New Jersey and attended Garfield High School.[3] He was a letterman in football, basketball, and track and field. In football, he played wide receiver and defensive back, and as a senior, he won All-Bergen County honors and All-State honors. In basketball, Austin garnered All-Bergen County honors as well.
Also a standout athlete, Austin was on the school's track & field team, where he was a top competitor in the sprinting, jumping and throwing events. He recorded the third-longest javelin throw in Bergen County history, with a throw of 65.44 meters. He placed third in the triple jump event at the 2001 New Jersey Meet of Champions, with a leap of 13.35 meters. He got a personal-best leap of 6.81 meters in the long jump. In sprints, he had career-best times of 10.8 seconds in the 100 meters and 22.28 seconds in the 200 meters.[4]
College career[edit]
Austin played college football for the Monmouth Hawks football team. He caught 150 passes for 2,867 yards and 33 touchdowns. He is the school record-holder in receiving yards.
Austin rushed 15 times for 140 yards and one touchdown.[5] In 2003, Austin set a Monmouth single-season record for touchdown catches with 12.[5] He ran 4.47 second 40-yard dash and jumped 40.5 inches in the vertical leap at the 2006 NFL combine.[6][7]
Professional career[edit]
Dallas Cowboys[edit]
2006 season[edit]
Austin was signed as an undrafted free agent in 2006 by the Dallas Cowboys. He made the team based on his potential and was used mainly on special teams, returning 29 kickoffs for 753 yards and recorded 5 tackles.[8] His main highlight of the year was in the Cowboys playoff game against the Seattle Seahawks. He returned 3 kickoffs for 136 yards in the game, including a 93-yard touchdown return. In the 55 postseason games in franchise history, it was the Cowboys' first ever kickoff return touchdown.
Austin (#19), running away from Mike Vrabel (#50) and Mike Brown (#30), against the Kansas City Chiefs in 2009.
2007 season[edit]
Austin was the team's main kickoff returner, ranking third in the NFC and ninth in the league with a 25.5 average on 24 attempts for 612 yards. He set career-highs with six kickoff returns for 166 yards against the Green Bay Packers. He also recorded his first career reception against the New York Jets.
2008 season[edit]
Austin had a strong training camp and was contending for the starting position that was open with the departure of Terry Glenn, until spraining his knee in the third preseason game against the Houston Texans. After missing some games with the injury, he exploded against the Green Bay Packers registering 115 yards on two catches for his first career 100-yard game and first touchdown. He suffered a second knee injury against the Washington Redskins and missed three games.
2009 season[edit]
With the release of Terrell Owens, Austin started the regular season as the Cowboys' No. 3 receiver. During free agency, the New York Jets looked at Austin but did not offer him a contract, possibly because they would have had to give the Cowboys a second-round draft pick in order to sign him.[9] Before the year, Football Outsiders rated Austin as the top prospect in football on their Top 25 Prospects list.[10]
Austin got his first NFL start on October 11, 2009 against the Kansas City Chiefs, as a replacement for injured Roy Williams. Austin had 10 catches for 250 yards (a Cowboys record for receiving yards in a single game, breaking Bob Hayes' 246-yard effort in 1966 against the Washington Redskins) and 2 touchdowns including the 60-yard game winner in overtime. Austin made his second career start on October 25 against the Atlanta Falcons replacing Patrick Crayton as the No. 2 receiver. Austin solidified his place as a starting receiver with 171 receiving yards along with 2 touchdowns. After only two weeks as a starting wide receiver, Austin was the ninth-most productive receiver in the league going into Week 8, and moved up to eighth just four weeks later having caught his 8th touchdown against the Oakland Raiders on Thanksgiving Day. Against the Giants in week 13 he had 10 catches for 104 yards and a touchdown.[11]
December 29, 2009, Austin was selected to the 2010 Pro Bowl, his first. He went on to lead the NFC (third overall in the NFL) with 1320 receiving yards for the 2009 season. He also tied for first in the NFC with 11 receiving touchdowns which was tied for third in the NFL for receiving touchdowns in only starting 11 games in the 2009 season.
2010 season[edit]
Austin (bottom) and Tony Romo.
On September 9, 2010, Austin agreed to a six-year contract extension that began in 2011. The deal included $17 million in guaranteed salary. He signed a $3.168 million contract in June 2010 and his extension was worth $54 million, which brought the total value of his contract to $57 million.[12] The team paid a very high first year salary ($17 million), by taking advantage that the NFL collective bargaining agreement wasn't renewed, and in the final year of the agreement there was no salary cap system in place. Even though the NFL initially approved the contract, in 2013 commissioner Roger Goodell would penalize the Cowboys by taking $10 million from the team's original $120.6 million salary cap space.[13]
With 10 catches in each of the first two games of the 2010 season, Austin became the second player in Cowboys history to record double-digit catches in consecutive weeks.[14] On Thanksgiving Day, Austin scored a 60-yard touchdown on an end-around. However, the Cowboys lost 30–27 to the New Orleans Saints.
He finished the season with 69 catches for 1,041 yards and 7 touchdowns. He made his second consecutive Pro Bowl in 2010, replacing DeSean Jackson who sprained his MCL during practice for the Pro Bowl.[15]
2011 season[edit]
Austin's 2011 season started well with a 5-catch, 90-yard performance in week 1, followed by a career-best mark for touchdowns in a game with 3 to go along with 9 catches for 143 yards in a week 2 victory over the San Francisco 49ers.
In week 14 while playing against the New York Giants to secure the division title and a playoff spot, he lost in the lights of Cowboys Stadium a first down pass from Tony Romo that would have won the game for the Cowboys, who ended losing 34–37 and eventually missing the playoffs.[16]
Austin's 2011 season was marred by nagging hamstring injuries which caused him to miss 6 games and limited him to his lowest reception, touchdown, and yardage output since the 2008 season.
2012 season[edit]
After having a disappointing season, Austin started 2012 with 4 receptions for 73 yards while also grabbing a key touchdown in the 4th quarter of a 24–17 upset win over the Super Bowl defending champions New York Giants. The next game was a surprise defeat to the Seattle Seahawks, where he had 5 receptions for 63 yards while also grabbing a touchdown. The next week, in a victory over the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Austin had 5 receptions for 107 yards. In the fourth game against the Chicago Bears, he had 4 receptions for 57 yards while also grabbing a touchdown in a losing effort caused by the Cowboys' 5 interceptions. He bounced back with 5 receptions for 97 yards with a touchdown in a victory over the Carolina Panthers. In a Week 13 win over the Philadelphia Eagles, he had 2 receptions for 46 yards with a touchdown. Austin's multiple injuries and the emergence of Dez Bryant as the Cowboys' leading wide receiver, hurt his chances of reaching 1,000 yards, but still had a productive year with 943 receiving yards, 66 receptions and 6 touchdowns.
2013 season[edit]
Austin looked to bounce back in 2013. After a Week 1 performance with 10 receptions and 72 receiving yards in a victory over the New York Giants, in the next two weeks, he would be held to 5 receptions and 53 receiving yards, while suffering a hamstring injury in the third game. After being shut down by the team in an effort to return him to health, he did not have another reception until a Week 12 victory over the New York Giants. In that game, Austin had one reception for 17 yards followed by another discouraging performance in a Thanksgiving victory over the Oakland Raiders, with one reception for 18 yards. His season would end up being a disappointment after missing five games with a left hamstring injury, never displaying his explosive speed and being held without a reception in two games. Austin finished with his lowest receiving numbers since his second year in the league and his future with the team at risk, taking into account his history of hamstring injuries and rookie Terrance Williams playing well in his absence.
On March 11, 2014, it was announced that Austin had been designated as a post-June 1 release, ending his tenure as a Dallas Cowboy.[17]
Cleveland Browns[edit]
Needing to improve their depth at wide receiver after Josh Gordon's suspension, the Cleveland Browns signed him as a free agent on May 15, 2014. He asked for and received permission from former Browns quarterback Bernie Kosar to wear number 19 despite the number not being officially retired. Aside from Frisman Jackson briefly wearing 19 in 2004, the number hadn't been issued by the Browns since Bill Belichick controversially cut Kosar in the middle of the 1993 season.[18] Austin became the leader of a young wide receiver corps and filled the possession receiver role, before being placed on the injured reserve list with a kidney injury on December 3.
Philadelphia Eagles[edit]
On March 31, 2015, Austin and the Philadelphia Eagles agreed to terms on a one-year deal worth $2.3 million.[19] Austin, who was projected to have a big role in a young and inexperienced wide receiver corps, was held to 13 catches for 224 yards and 1 TD in 11 games. He had some moments, such as a 39-yard catch and run for a TD against the Redskins, but he was still criticized for not producing, as he was held to 0 catches in 5 different games, with a season high of 4 catches for 52 yards. On December 7, 2015, Austin was released by the Eagles.[20]
Career statistics[edit]
Year
Team
GP
REC
TGTS
YDS
AVG
LNG
TD
FD
FUM
LST
2006 DAL 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
2007 DAL 16 5 10 76 15.2 35 0 3 0 0
2008 DAL 12 13 23 278 21.4 63 3 11 1 0
2009 DAL 16 81 125 1,320 16.3 60 11 59 1 0
2010 DAL 16 69 119 1,041 15.1 69 7 50 1 1
2011 DAL 10 43 73 579 13.5 53 7 31 0 0
2012 DAL 16 66 118 943 14.3 49 6 48 1 1
2013 DAL 11 24 49 244 10.2 20 0 14 0 0
2014 CLE 12 47 70 568 12.1 31 2 34 0 0
2015 PHI 11 13 31 224 17.2 39 1 8 0 0
Total 118 348 587 5,049 14.5 69 36 250 5 3
[21]
Post-playing career[edit]
In 2016, Austin was hired by the Cowboys as a scout.[22][23][24] Austin described his role as an "advanced scout" who evaluated receivers and defensive backs.[25] In January 2018, Austin was interviewed for a role as the Cowboy's receiving coach.[26]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Weinberg, David (November 5, 2009). "Dallas wide receiver Miles Austin making New Jersey proud", The Press of Atlantic City. Accessed February 17, 2021. "Austin is a Summit, N.J., native, who attended Garfield High School."
Jump up ^ "Miles Austin: Dallas Cowboys' overnight sensation | Sports News | News for Dallas, Texas | Dallas Morning News". Dallasnews.com. October 31, 2009. Retrieved November 16, 2010.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived October 7, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Miles Austin | Monmouth | Cowboys WR". Trackingfootball.com. Archived from the original on December 10, 2015. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "2008 Monmouth Football Media Guide" (PDF). Gomuhawks.com. Retrieved December 8, 2015. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "2006 NFL Combine Results". Thehogs.net. Archived from the original on September 28, 2011. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Miles Austin: From undrafted free agent to superstar wide receiever [sic] – ESPN Dallas". Sports.espn.go.com. October 30, 2009. Retrieved November 16, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Miles Austin's (2006) Main Highlight". Website, Youtube.com. Retrieved October 11, 2009.
Jump up ^ "New York Jets to host Cowboys WR Miles Austin, report says". NJ.com. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Prospects Gone Wild". Rotoworld.com. Archived from the original on July 18, 2010. Retrieved June 14, 2010.
Jump up ^ "NFL Stats: by Player Category". Nfl.com. Retrieved November 16, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Miles Austin agrees to 6-year extension". Sports.espn.go.com. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "NFL – League sends signal with penalties for Dallas Cowboys, Washington Redskins". Espn.go.com. March 13, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Austin has enticing matchup Week 3". Sportsnipe.com. Archived from the original on March 21, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "NFL Recap – New Orleans Saints at Dallas Cowboys – Nov 25, 2010 – CBSSports.com Game Recap". Cbssports.com. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Miles Austin owns up to mistake on would-be TD – Dallas Cowboys Blog- ESPN". Espn.go.com. December 15, 2011. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Rosenthal, Gregg. "Miles Austin will be released by Dallas Cowboys". NFL.com. Retrieved March 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Miles Austin gets Bernie Kosar's blessing to wear 19 | ProFootballTalk". Profootballtalk.nbcsports.com. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Philadelphia Eagles sign Miles Austin to one-year deal". Espn.go.com. March 31, 2015. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Orr, Conor. "Eagles cut veteran wideout Miles Austin". NFL.com. Retrieved December 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Miles Austin Stats". ESPN Internet Ventures. Retrieved March 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ Machota, Joe. "Tony Romo participates in individual drills for first time since late August". sportsday.dallasnews.com. Retrieved February 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Andre Gurode, Miles Austin Working with Cowboys Scouting Dept ✭". insidethestar.com.
Jump up ^ "Miles Austin hopes to stay in Dallas Cowboys scouting department". July 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ mbuhler@norfolkdailynews.com, MIKE BUHLER. "Nebraska roots shaped Miles Austin".
Jump up ^ "Cowboys interview Colts receivers coach Sanjay Lal, Miles Austin".
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Miles Austin.
Philadelphia Eagles bio
Cleveland Browns bio
Monmouth Hawks bio
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miles_Austin&oldid=824254358"
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