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Hybrid (biology)
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For other uses, see Hybrid.
A mule is a sterile hybrid of a male donkey and a female horse. Mules are smaller than horses but stronger than donkeys, making them useful as pack animals.
In biology, a hybrid, or crossbreed, is the result of combining the qualities of two organisms of different breeds, varieties, species or genera through sexual reproduction. Hybrids are not always intermediates between their parents (such as in blending inheritance), but can show hybrid vigour, often growing larger or taller than either parent. The concept of a hybrid is interpreted differently in animal and plant breeding, where there is interest in the individual parentage. In genetics, attention is focused on the numbers of chromosomes. In taxonomy, a key question is how closely related the parent species are.
Species are reproductively isolated by strong barriers to hybridisation, which include morphological differences, differing times of fertility, mating behaviors and cues, and physiological rejection of sperm cells or the developing embryo. Some act before fertilization and others after it. Similar barriers exist in plants, with differences in flowering times, pollen vectors, inhibition of pollen tube growth, somatoplastic sterility, cytoplasmic-genic male sterility and the structure of the chromosomes. A few animal species and many plant species, however, are the result of hybrid speciation, including important crop plants such as wheat, where the number of chromosomes has been doubled.
Human impact on the environment has resulted in an increase in the intrabreeding between species, with introduced species worldwide, which has resulted in an increase in hybridization. The genetic mixing may threaten many species with extinction, while genetic erosion in crop plants may be damaging the gene pools of many species for future breeding. Many commercially useful fruits, flowers, garden herbs and trees have been produced by hybridization. One flower, Oenothera lamarckiana, was central to early genetics research into mutationism and polyploidy.
Hybrid humans existed during prehistoric ancient times. Mythological hybrids appear in human culture in forms as diverse as the Minotaur, blends of animals, humans and mythical beasts such as centaurs and sphinxes, and the Nephilim of the Biblical apocrypha described as the wicked sons of fallen angels and attractive women.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 As seen by different disciplines
2.1 Animal and plant breeding
2.2 Biogeography
2.3 Genetics
2.4 Taxonomy
3 Biology
3.1 Expression of parental traits
3.2 Mechanisms of reproductive isolation
3.3 Speciation
3.4 Hybrid vigour
4 Human influence
4.1 Anthropogenic hybridization
4.2 Management
4.3 Genetic mixing and extinction
4.4 Effect on biodiversity and food security
5 In different taxa
5.1 In animals
5.2 In plants
5.3 In humans
6 In mythology
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
Liger, a lion/tiger hybrid bred in captivity
The term hybrid is derived from Latin hybrida, used for crosses such as of a tame sow and a wild boar. The term came into popular use in English in the 19th century, though examples of its use have been found from the early 17th century.[1] Conspicuous hybrids are popularly named with portmanteau words, starting in the 1920s with the breeding of tiger–lion hybrids (liger and tigon).[2]
As seen by different disciplines[edit]
Animal and plant breeding[edit]
From the point of view of animal and plant breeders, there are several kinds of hybrid formed from crosses within a species, such as between different breeds.[3] Single cross hybrids result from the cross between two true-breeding organisms which produces an F1 hybrid (first filial generation). The cross between two different homozygous lines produces an F1 hybrid that is heterozygous; having two alleles, one contributed by each parent and typically one is dominant and the other recessive. Typically, the F1 generation is also phenotypically homogeneous, producing offspring that are all similar to each other.[4] Double cross hybrids result from the cross between two different F1 hybrids (i.e., there are four unrelated grandparents).[5] Three-way cross hybrids result from the cross between an F1 hybrid and an inbred line.[6] Triple cross hybrids result from the crossing of two different three-way cross hybrids.[7] Top cross (or "topcross") hybrids result from the crossing of a top quality or pure-bred male and a lower quality female, intended to improve the quality of the offspring, on average.[8]
Population hybrids result from the crossing of plants or animals in one population with those of another population. These include interspecific hybrids or crosses between different breeds.[9]
In horticulture, the term stable hybrid is used to describe an annual plant that, if grown and bred in a small monoculture free of external pollen (e.g., an air-filtered greenhouse) produces offspring that are "true to type" with respect to phenotype; i.e., a true-breeding organism.[10]
Biogeography[edit]
Further information: Hybrid zone
Hybridization can occur in the zones where geographical subspecies overlap. For example, the butterfly Limenitis arthemis has two major subspecies in North America, L. a. arthemis (the white admiral) and L. a. astyanax (the red-spotted purple). The white admiral has a bright, white band on its wings, while the red-spotted purple has cooler blue-green shades. Hybridization occurs between a narrow area across New England, southern Ontario, and the Great Lakes, the "suture region". It is at these regions that the subspecies were formed.[11]
Genetics[edit]
Oenothera lamarckiana is a permanent natural hybrid, studied intensively by the geneticist Hugo de Vries. Illustration by De Vries, 1913
From the point of view of genetics, several different kinds of hybrid can be distinguished.[12][13] A genetic hybrid carries two different alleles of the same gene, where for instance one allele may code for a lighter coat colour than the other.[12][13] A structural hybrid results from the fusion of gametes that have differing structure in at least one chromosome, as a result of structural abnormalities.[12][13] A numerical hybrid results from the fusion of gametes having different haploid numbers of chromosomes.[12][13] A permanent hybrid results when only the heterozygous genotype occurs, as in Oenothera lamarckiana,[14] because all homozygous combinations are lethal.[12][13] In the early history of genetics, Hugo De Vries supposed these were caused by mutation.[15][16]
Taxonomy[edit]
From the point of view of taxonomy, hybrids differ according to their parentage. Hybrids between different subspecies (such as between the Bengal tiger and Siberian tiger) are called intra-specific hybrids.[17] Interspecific hybrids are the offspring from interspecies mating;[18] these sometimes result in hybrid speciation.[19] Intergeneric hybrids result from matings between different genera, such as between sheep and goats.[20] Interfamilial hybrids, such as between chickens and guineafowl or pheasants, are reliably described but extremely rare.[21] Interordinal hybrids (between different orders) are few, but have been made with the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (female) and the sand dollar Dendraster excentricus (male).[22]
Biology[edit]
Expression of parental traits[edit]
Hybrid between Lady Amherst's pheasant (Chrysolophus amherstiae) and another species, probably golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus)
When two distinct types of organisms breed with each other, the resulting hybrids typically have intermediate traits (e.g., one plant parent has red flowers, the other has white, and the hybrid, pink flowers).[23] Commonly, hybrids also combine traits seen only separately in one parent or the other (e.g., a bird hybrid might combine the yellow head of one parent with the orange belly of the other).[23]
Mechanisms of reproductive isolation[edit]
Main article: Reproductive isolation
Interspecific hybrids are bred by mating individuals from two species, normally from within the same genus. The offspring display traits and characteristics of both parents, but are often sterile, preventing gene flow between the species.[24] Sterility is often attributed to the different number of chromosomes between the two species. For example, donkeys have 62 chromosomes, horses have 64 chromosomes, and mules or hinnies have 63 chromosomes. Mules, hinnies, and other normally sterile interspecific hybrids cannot produce viable gametes, because differences in chromosome structure prevent appropriate pairing and segregation during meiosis, meiosis is disrupted, and viable sperm and eggs are not formed. However, fertility in female mules has been reported with a donkey as the father.[25]
A variety of mechanisms limit the success of hybridization, including the large genetic difference between most species. Barriers include morphological differences, differing times of fertility, mating behaviors and cues, and physiological rejection of sperm cells or the developing embryo. Some act before fertilization; others after it.[26][27][28][29]
In plants, some barriers to hybridization include blooming period differences, different pollinator vectors, inhibition of pollen tube growth, somatoplastic sterility, cytoplasmic-genic male sterility and structural differences of the chromosomes.[30]
Speciation[edit]
Durum wheat is tetraploid, derived from wild emmer wheat, which is a hybrid of two diploid wild grasses, Triticum urartu and a wild goatgrass such as Aegilops searsii or Ae. speltoides.[31]
Main articles: Hybrid speciation and Hybrid zone
A few animal species are the result of hybridization. The Lonicera fly is a natural hybrid. The American red wolf appears to be a hybrid of the gray wolf and the coyote,[32] although its taxonomic status has been a subject of controversy.[33][34][35] The European edible frog is a semi-permanent hybrid between pool frogs and marsh frogs; its population requires the continued presence of at least one of the parent species.[36] Cave paintings indicate that the European bison is a natural hybrid of the aurochs and the steppe bison.[37][38]
Plant Hybridization is more commonplace compared to animal hybridization. Many crop species are hybrids, including notably the polyploid wheats: some have four sets of chromosomes (tetraploid) or six (hexaploid), while other wheat species have (like most eukaryotic organisms) two sets (diploid), so hybridization events likely involved the doubling of chromosome sets, causing immediate genetic isolation.[39]
Hybridization may be important in speciation in some plant groups. However, homoploid hybrid speciation (not increasing the number of sets of chromosomes) may be rare: by 1997, only 8 natural examples had been fully described. Experimental studies suggest that hybridization offers a rapid route to speciation, a prediction confirmed by the fact that early generation hybrids and ancient hybrid species have matching genomes, meaning that once hybridization has occurred, the new genome can remain stable.[40]
Many hybrid zones are known where the ranges of two species meet, and hybrids are continually produced in great numbers. These hybrid zones are useful as biological model systems for studying the mechanisms of speciation. Recently DNA analysis of a bear shot by a hunter in the North West Territories confirmed the existence of naturally-occurring and fertile grizzly–polar bear hybrids.[41]
Hybrid vigour[edit]
Hybrid vigour: Salvia jurisicii x nutans hybrids (top centre, with flowers) are taller than their parents Salvia jurisicii (centre tray) or Salvia nutans (top left).
Main article: Heterosis
Hybrids are not as might be expected always intermediate between their parents (as if there were blending inheritance), but are sometimes stronger than either parent variety, a phenomenon called heterosis, hybrid vigour, or heterozygote advantage. This is most common with plant hybrids.[42] A transgressive phenotype is a phenotype that displays more extreme characteristics than either of the parent lines.[43] Plant breeders use several techniques to produce hybrids, including line breeding and the formation of complex hybrids. An economically important example is hybrid maize (corn), which provides a considerable seed yield advantage over open pollinated varieties. Hybrid seed dominates the commercial maize seed market in the United States, Canada and many other major maize-producing countries.[44]
In a hybrid, any trait that falls outside the range of parental variation (and is thus not simply intermediate between its parents) is considered heterotic. Positive heterosis produces more robust hybrids, they might be stronger or bigger; while the term negative heterosis refers to weaker or smaller hybrids.[45] Heterosis is common in both animal and plant hybrids. For example, hybrids between a lion and a tigress ("ligers") are much larger than either of the two progenitors, while "tigons" (lioness × tiger) are smaller. Similarly, the hybrids between the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) and domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) are larger than either of their parents, as are those produced between the common pheasant and hen golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus).[46] Spurs are absent in hybrids of the former type, although present in both parents.[47]
Human influence[edit]
Anthropogenic hybridization[edit]
Hybridization is greatly influenced by human impact on the environment,[48] through effects such as habitat fragmentation and species introductions.[49] Such impacts make it difficult to conserve the genetics of populations undergoing introgressive hybridization. Humans have introduced species worldwide to environments for a long time, both intentionally for purposes such as biological control, and unintentionally, as with accidental escapes of individuals. Introductions can drastically affect populations, including through hybridization.[13][50]
Management[edit]
Examples of hybrid flowers from hybrid swarms of Aquilegia pubescens and Aquilegia formosa
There is a kind of continuum with three semi-distinct categories dealing with anthropogenic hybridization: hybridization without introgression, hybridization with widespread introgression (backcrossing with one of the parent species), and hybrid swarms (highly variable populations with much interbreeding as well as backcrossing with the parent species). Depending on where a population falls along this continuum, the management plans for that population will change. Hybridization is currently an area of great discussion within wildlife management and habitat management. Global climate change is creating other changes such as difference in population distributions which are indirect causes for an increase in anthropogenic hybridization.[48]
Conservationists disagree on when is the proper time to give up on a population that is becoming a hybrid swarm, or to try and save the still existing pure individuals. Once a population becomes a complete mixture, the goal becomes to conserve those hybrids to avoid their loss. Conservationists treat each case on its merits, depending on detecting hybrids within the population. It is nearly impossible to formulate a uniform hybridization policy, because hybridization can occur beneficially when it occurs "naturally", and when hybrid swarms are the only remaining evidence of prior species, they need to be conserved as well.[48]
Genetic mixing and extinction[edit]
Main article: Genetic pollution
Further information: Genetic mixing and Introgression
Regionally developed ecotypes can be threatened with extinction when new alleles or genes are introduced that alter that ecotype. This is sometimes called genetic mixing.[51] Hybridization and introgression, which can happen in natural and hybrid populations, of new genetic material can lead to the replacement of local genotypes if the hybrids are more fit and have breeding advantages over the indigenous ecotype or species. These hybridization events can result from the introduction of non-native genotypes by humans or through habitat modification, bringing previously isolated species into contact. Genetic mixing can be especially detrimental for rare species in isolated habitats, ultimately affecting the population to such a degree that none of the originally genetically distinct population remains.[52][53]
Effect on biodiversity and food security[edit]
The Green Revolution of the 20th century relied on hybridization to create high-yielding varieties, along with increased reliance on inputs of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation.[54]
Main articles: biodiversity and food security
In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution's use of conventional hybridization increased yields by breeding "high-yielding varieties". The replacement of locally indigenous breeds, compounded with unintentional cross-pollination and crossbreeding (genetic mixing), has reduced the gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds resulting in the loss of genetic diversity.[55] Since the indigenous breeds are often well-adapted to local extremes in climate and have immunity to local pathogens, this can be a significant genetic erosion of the gene pool for future breeding. Therefore, commercial plant geneticists strive to breed "widely adapted" cultivars to counteract this tendency.[56]
In different taxa[edit]
In animals[edit]
Familiar examples of equid hybrids are the mule, a cross between a female horse and a male donkey, and the hinny, a cross between a female donkey and a male horse. Pairs of complementary types like the mule and hinny are called reciprocal hybrids.[57] Among many other mammal crosses are hybrid camels, crosses between a bactrian camel and a dromedary.[58] The first known instance of hybrid speciation in marine mammals was discovered in 2014. The clymene dolphin (Stenella clymene) is a hybrid of two Atlantic species, the spinner and striped dolphins.[59]
Cagebird breeders sometimes breed bird hybrids known as mules between species of finch, such as goldfinch × canary.[60]
Among amphibians, Japanese giant salamanders and Chinese giant salamanders have created hybrids that threaten the survival of Japanese giant salamanders because of competition for similar resources in Japan.[61]
Among fish, a group of about fifty natural hybrids between Australian blacktip shark and the larger common blacktip shark was found by Australia's eastern coast in 2012.[62]
Among insects, so-called killer bees were accidentally created during an attempt to breed a strain of bees that would both produce more honey and be better adapted to tropical conditions. It was done by crossing a European honey bee and an African bee.[63]
The Colias eurytheme and C. philodice butterflies have retained enough genetic compatibility to produce viable hybrid offspring.[64] Hybrid speciation may have produced the diverse Heliconius butterflies,[65] but that is disputed.[66]
A "zonkey", a zebra/donkey hybrid
A "jaglion", a jaguar/lion hybrid
A domestic canary/goldfinch hybrid
In plants[edit]
The London plane, Platanus × acerifolia is a natural hybrid, popular for street planting.
Further information: List of plant hybrids
Plant species often hybridize more readily than animal species, and the resulting hybrids are fertile more often. Many plant species are the result of hybridization, combined with polyploidy, which duplicates the chromosomes. Chromosome duplication allows orderly meiosis and so viable seed can be produced.[67]
Plant hybrids are generally given names that include an "×" (not in italics), such as Platanus × acerifolia for the London plane, a natural hybrid of P. orientalis (oriental plane) and P. occidentalis (American sycamore).[68][69]
Plant species that are genetically compatible may not hybridize in nature for various reasons, including geographical isolation, differences in flowering period, or differences in pollinators. Species that are brought together by humans in gardens may hybridize naturally, or hybridization can be facilitated by human efforts, such as altered flowering period or artificial pollination. Hybrids are sometimes created by humans to produce improved plants that have some of the characteristics of each of the parent species. Much work is now being done with hybrids between crops and their wild relatives to improve disease-resistance or climate resilience for both agricultural and horticultural crops.[70]
Some crop plants are hybrids from different genera (intergeneric hybrids), such as Triticale, × Triticosecale, a wheat–rye hybrid.[71] Most modern and ancient wheat breeds are themselves hybrids; bread wheat, Triticum aestivum, is a hexaploid hybrid of three wild grasses.[31] Several commercial fruits including loganberry (Rubus × loganobaccus)[72] and grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi)[73] are hybrids, as are garden herbs such as peppermint (Mentha × piperita),[74] and trees such as the London plane (Platanus × acerifolia).[75][76] Among many natural plant hybrids is Iris albicans, a sterile hybrid that spreads by rhizome division,[77] and Oenothera lamarckiana, a flower that was the subject of important experiments by Hugo de Vries that produced an understanding of polyploidy.[14]
A sterile hybrid between Trillium cernuum and T. grandiflorum
An ornamental lily hybrid known as Lilium 'Citronella'[78]
Sterility in a non-polyploid hybrid is often a result of chromosome number; if parents are of differing chromosome pair number, the offspring will have an odd number of chromosomes, which leaves them unable to produce chromosomally-balanced gametes.[79] While that is undesirable in a crop such as wheat, for which growing a crop that produces no seeds would be pointless, it is an attractive attribute in some fruits. Triploid bananas and watermelons are intentionally bred because they produce no seeds and are also parthenocarpic.[80]
Oase 2 skull may be a human-Neanderthal hybrid.
In humans[edit]
Main article: Archaic human admixture with modern humans
There is evidence of hybridisation between modern humans and other species of the genus Homo. In 2010, the Neanderthal genome project showed that 1–4% of DNA from all people living today, apart from most Sub-Saharan Africans, are of Neanderthal heritage. Analyzing the genomes of 600 Europeans and East Asians found that combining them covered 20% of the Neanderthal genome that is in the modern human population.[81] Ancient human populations lived and interbred with Neanderthals, Denisovans, and at least one other extinct Homo species.[82] Thus, Neanderthal and Denisovan DNA has been incorporated into human DNA by introgression.[83]
In 1998, a complete prehistorical skeleton found in Portugal, the Lapedo child, had features of both anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals.[84] Some ancient human skulls with especially large nasal cavities and unusually shaped braincases represent human-Neanderthal hybrids. A 37,000- to 42,000-year-old human jawbone found in Romania's Oase cave contains traces of Neanderthal ancestry[a] from only four to six generations earlier.[86] All genes from Neanderthals in the current human population are descended from Neanderthal fathers and human mothers.[87] A Neanderthal skull unearthed in Italy in 1957 reveals Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA, which is passed on through only the maternal lineage, but the skull has a chin shape similar to modern humans. It is proposed that it was the offspring of a Neanderthal mother and a human father.[88]
The Minotaur of ancient Greek mythology was (in one version of the myth) supposedly the offspring of Pasiphaë and a white bull.
In mythology[edit]
Main article: Mythological hybrid
Folk tales and myths sometimes contain mythological hybrids; the Minotaur was the offspring of a human, Pasiphaë, and a white bull.[89] More often, they are composites of the physical attributes of two or more kinds of animals, mythical beasts, and humans, with no suggestion that they are the result of interbreeding, as in the centaur (man/horse), chimera (goat/lion/snake), hippocamp (fish/horse), and sphinx (woman/lion).[90] The Old Testament mentions a first generation of half-human hybrid giants, the Nephilim,[91][92] while the apocryphal Book of Enoch describes the Nephilim as the wicked sons of fallen angels and attractive women.[93]
See also[edit]
Biology portal
Canid hybrid
Chimera (genetics)
Chloroplast capture (botany)
Felid hybrids
Genetic admixture
Genetic erosion
Grex (horticulture)
Hybridogenesis
Hybrot
Inbreeding
Interspecific pregnancy
Macropod hybrids
Purebred
Selective breeding
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Signs of Neanderthal lineage include a wide jaw and large teeth that get bigger toward the back of the mouth.[85]
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text:
The Wall (game show)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Wall
Genre
Game show
Developed by
Andrew Glassman
LeBron James
Maverick Carter
Presented by
Chris Hardwick
Theme music composer
Michael Lord
Composer(s)
Michael Lord
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
2
No. of episodes
21
Production
Executive producer(s)
Chris Hardwick
LeBron James
Andrew Glassman
Maverick Carter
Running time
42–44 minutes
Production company(s)
Glassman Media
SpringHill Entertainment
CORE Media Group
Distributor
Universal Television
Endemol Shine Group
Release
Original network
NBC
Picture format
1080i HDTV (16:9)
Audio format
Stereo
Original release
December 19, 2016 – present
External links
Website
www.nbc.com/the-wall?nbc=1
The Wall is an American television game show broadcast by NBC, which premiered on December 19, 2016. The show is hosted by Chris Hardwick, who also serves as executive producer on the show along with LeBron James, Maverick Carter, and Andrew Glassman.[1] On January 18, 2017, NBC ordered 20 additional episodes bringing the episode count to 30.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Gameplay
1.1 Round 1: Free Fall
1.2 Round 2
1.3 Round 3
1.4 Final Decision
2 Episodes
2.1 Season 1
2.2 Season 2
3 Notable contestants
4 Reception
4.1 Critical reception
4.2 Ratings
4.2.1 Season 1
4.2.2 Season 2
5 See also
6 International versions
7 References
8 External links
Gameplay[edit]
The Wall is a five-story-tall pegboard, similar to a pachinko game or bean machine; it also is similar to the Plinko board used for that pricing game of the same name on The Price is Right. The bottom of the board is divided into 15 slots marked with various dollar amounts, some of which increase as the game progresses. Seven numbered "drop zones" are centered at the top of the board (above the center seven slots), from which balls can be dropped into play.
A team of two contestants plays each game, with a potential top prize of $12,374,994.[3][4] Green balls dropped on the board will add to the team's bank, while red balls dropped on the board will subtract from it. Throughout the game, the bank has a floor of $0.
Round 1: Free Fall[edit]
In Free Fall, the team is asked a series of five questions, each with two answer choices. As each question is asked, three balls are simultaneously released from drop zones 1, 4, and 7. The team must select one answer and lock it in before any portion of a ball crosses the threshold of a money slot. If the team's answer is correct, the balls turn green and their values are added to the team's bank. If the team answers incorrectly or fails to lock in an answer, the balls turn red and their values are subtracted from the team's bank.
If the team's bank balance is zero at the end of this round, the game ends immediately and they leave with no winnings. Otherwise, their earnings become part of a guaranteed payout to be offered to them at the end of the game. The maximum amount that a team can bank in this round is $375,000.
The values on the board range from $1 to $25,000, and are arranged as follows:
$1 $5,000 $100 $20,000 $10 $10,000 $1 $25,000 $1 $10,000 $10 $20,000 $100 $5,000 $1
Round 2[edit]
At the start of the second round, the contestants are separated from each other for the remainder of the game. One enters an isolation chamber behind The Wall, while the other remains onstage. Two green balls are played simultaneously, dropped from zones chosen by the onstage player. Three multiple-choice questions are then played, each with three answer choices. The onstage player is shown only the answers to each question, and must decide which zone to use, based on how confident he/she is that the isolated player can answer correctly. The question and answers are then presented to the isolated player; after he/she responds, the ball is dropped from the chosen zone. A correct answer turns the ball green and adds the value of the slot it lands in to the team bank, while a miss turns the ball red and deducts the value. The isolated player is not told which of his/her answers are correct or given any information on the team bank.
The onstage player is offered an opportunity to "Double Up" on the second question and "Triple Up" on the third; these options allow him/her to play two or three balls from the selected drop zone instead of one, respectively.
After the third question, if the banked total is at least $3 (as the least that could be lost from two red balls is $2), two red balls are dropped simultaneously from the same zones that were chosen for the initial two green balls. The maximum amount that a team can bank in this round is $1,999,998.
The values on the board range from $1 to $250,000, and are arranged as follows:
$1 $5,000 $100 $10,000 $10 $25,000 $1 $50,000 $1 $100,000 $10 $125,000 $100 $250,000 $1
Round 3[edit]
Gameplay proceeds as in Round 2, but each of the three questions now has four answer choices. In addition, four green and four red balls are played at the start and end of the round respectively, and are dropped one at a time, rather than simultaneously. The "Double Up" and "Triple Up" options are available as before.
The maximum amount that a team can bank in this round is $9,999,996.
The values on the board range from $1 to $1,000,000, and are arranged as follows:
$1 $50,000 $100 $100,000 $10 $200,000 $1 $300,000 $1 $400,000 $10 $500,000 $100 $1,000,000 $1
Final Decision[edit]
After the third question in Round 3, the isolated player is sent a contract by the host and must either sign or destroy it. Signing the contract gives up the team bank in favor of a guaranteed payout, equal to the Free Fall winnings plus an additional $20,000 for every question answered correctly in Rounds 2 and 3. If the isolated player destroys the contract, the team receives their final bank total instead. After the four red balls have dropped in Round 3 and the final bank is calculated (or after the last question if there is less than $4 banked), the isolated player returns to the stage to reveal his/her decision. Only at this point does he/she learn the number of correct answers given, the payout total, and the team's final bank. If the isolated player destroys the contract, the team receives their final bank total instead.
The maximum possible guaranteed payout is $495,000, obtained by scoring $375,000 in Free Fall and answering all questions correctly in Rounds 2 and 3. The maximum possible bank total is $12,374,994, obtained by answering every question correctly, having every green ball drop into the highest-valued slot, and having the six mandatory red balls each drop into a $1 slot.
Episodes[edit]
Season 1[edit]
Episode
Contestants
Guaranteed Payout Contract
Final Bank Total
Contract Decision
Free Fall Bank
Correct Answers (Bonus)
Total Offer
1 John and Angel $65,213 5 ($100,000) $165,213 $1,300,010 Rejected
2 Chris and Katie $35,132 4 ($80,000) $115,132 $0 Rejected
3 Mike and Shana $10,121 2 ($40,000) $50,121 $529,921 Rejected
4 Jarrod and Shantell $75,001 3 ($60,000) $135,001 $950,011 Accepted
5 Matt and Jean $45,014 2 ($40,000) $85,014 $1,100,098 Rejected
6 Ebony and Deanna $170,105 2 ($40,000) $210,105 $194,896 Accepted
7 Nathan and Erica $30,301 3 ($60,000) $90,301 $349,890 Rejected
8 Katie and Kevin $140,013 3 ($60,000) $200,013 $299,969 Rejected
9 Darnell and Dion $35,112 0 ($0) $35,112 $0 Rejected
10 Ashle and Xandi $100,313 1 ($20,000) $120,313 $0 Accepted
The contestants won more than $1 million
The contestants left with the larger possible amount
The contestants left with the smaller possible amount
Season 2[edit]
Episode
Contestants
Guaranteed Payout Contract
Final Bank Total
Contract Decision
Free Fall Bank
Correct Answers (Bonus)
Total Offer
1 Ryan and Stephenie $45,214 5 ($100,000) $145,214 $570,344 Rejected
2 Noah and Lisa $110,312 4 ($80,000) $190,312 $1,095,498 Rejected
3 Milton and Aaryn $65,004 3 ($60,000) $125,004 $520,095 Rejected
4 Lenny and Sharon $50,320 5 ($100,000) $150,320 $850,632 Accepted
5 Delvar and Bonnie $15,221 2 ($40,000) $55,221 $399,792 Rejected
6 Jeff and Jamie $20,011 3 ($60,000) $80,011 $0 Rejected
7 Chris and Paris $100,231 2 ($40,000) $140,231 $0 Accepted
8 Angela and Jodi $115,322 4 ($80,000) $195,322 $220,333 Accepted
9 Tomeka and Andre $65,241 2 ($40,000) $105,241 $0 Accepted
10 Erin and Rachael $115,024 4 ($80,000) $195,024 $0 Rejected
11 Sheriese and Kieara $74,912 3 ($60,000) $134,912 $50,012 Rejected
The contestants won more than $1 million
The contestants left with the larger possible amount
The contestants left with the smaller possible amount
Notable contestants[edit]
Married couple John and Angel Whorton won a total of $1,300,010 in the premiere episode. This was the second time that a contestant or team of contestants won $1 million (or more) on a game show's premiere episode; the first such occurrence was on Power of 10 in 2007 by contestant Jamie Sadler.
Reception[edit]
Critical reception[edit]
The Wall has received mixed reviews by critics. Jan Chaney of Vulture dubbed The Wall as being "the most stereotypically American game show on television right now" and "absurd yet undeniably diverting."[5] Calling The Wall a "carbon copy of Plinko", Chaney criticized the show for making "attempts to sell us something new, even though its concept is really based on old ideas [...] mixed up just enough [to] seem fresh".[5]
Bethonie Butler of Chicago Tribune agreed that "The Wall looks a lot like the famed Plinko game from CBS", but qualified that "originality is relative when it comes to game shows", remarking on the similarity between popular trivia game shows such as Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? and Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?[6]
Ratings[edit]
Season 1[edit]
No.
Episode
Air date
Time slot (ET)
Rating/Share (18–49)
Viewers (m)
Timeslot rank
1 "John and Angel" December 19, 2016 (2016-12-19) Monday 10:00 p.m.
1.6/6[7]
6.53[7]
1
2 "Chris and Kate" January 2, 2017 (2017-01-02)
1.2/4[8]
4.53[8]
2
3 "Mike and Shana" January 3, 2017 (2017-01-03) Tuesday
8:00 p.m.
1.7/6[9]
6.79[9]
2
4 "Jarrod and Shantell" January 10, 2017 (2017-01-10)
1.7/6[10]
7.00[10]
2
5 "Matt and Jean" January 17, 2017 (2017-01-17)
1.7/6[11]
6.62[11]
2
6 "Ebony and Deanna" January 24, 2017 (2017-01-24)
1.6/6[12]
6.61[12]
2
7 "Nathan and Erica" January 31, 2017 (2017-01-31) Tuesday 9:00 p.m.
1.5/5[13]
6.06[13]
1
8 "Katie and Kevin" February 7, 2017 (2017-02-07) Tuesday
8:00 p.m.
1.5/5[14]
6.14[14]
3
9 "Darnell and Dion" February 14, 2017 (2017-02-14)
1.4/5[15]
5.76[15]
3
10 "Ashle and Xandi" February 21, 2017 (2017-02-21)
1.4/5[16]
5.89[16]
3
Season 2[edit]
No.
Episode
Air date
Time slot (ET)
Rating/Share (18–49)
Viewers (m)
Timeslot rank
1 "Ryan and Stephenie" May 8, 2017 (2017-05-08) Monday 10:00 p.m.
1.1/4[17]
4.68[17]
1
2 "Noah and Lisa" May 15, 2017 (2017-05-15)
1.0/4[18]
4.85[18]
2
3 "Milton and Aaryn" June 22, 2017 (2017-06-22) Thursday 9:00 p.m.
1.0/4[19]
4.49[19]
1
4 "Lenny and Sharon" June 29, 2017 (2017-06-29)
1.0/4[20]
4.65[20]
2
5 "Delvar and Bonnie" July 6, 2017 (2017-07-06)
1.0/4[21]
4.60[21]
2
6 "Jeff and Jamie" July 13, 2017 (2017-07-13)
1.2/5[22]
6.05[22]
3
7 "Chris and Paris" July 20, 2017 (2017-07-20)
1.1/4[23]
4.95[23]
2
8 "Angela and Jodi" July 27, 2017 (2017-07-27)
1.0/4[24]
4.88[24]
2
9 "Tomeka and Andre" August 10, 2017 (2017-08-10) Thursday 8:00 p.m.
0.7/3[25]
4.22[25]
3
10 "Erin and Rachael" August 17, 2017 (2017-08-17)
0.9/4[26]
4.87[26]
1
11 "Sheriese and Kieara" August 24, 2017 (2017-08-24)
0.8/4[27]
4.64[27]
2
See also[edit]
Peggle – A similar game published by PopCap Games
International versions[edit]
Countries
Title
Presenter
Channel
Premiere date
Argentina The Wall: Construye tu vida Marley Telefe October 1, 2017 – present
Australia The Wall Axle Whitehead Seven Network[28] October 2017
Belgium ( Flanders) The Wall: De muur die geeft en neemt Niels Destadsbader VTM September 4, 2017 – present
Canada ( Quebec) The Wall TBA TVA[29] 2017
Colombia TBA TBA Caracol Television 2018
France The Wall : Face au mur Christophe Dechavanne TF1 February 27, 2017 – present
Germany The Wall Frank Buschmann RTL[30] July 1, 2017 – present
Hungary A Fal Balázs Sebestyén RTL Klub March 2018
Italy The Wall Gerry Scotti Canale 5[31] November 20, 2017
Poland The Wall. Wygraj marzenia Paweł Orleański TVP 1 September 22, 2017 – present
Romania The Wall – Marele Zid Valentin Butnaru Antena 1 September 13, 2017 – present
Russia Стена Andrey Malakhov Russia 1[32] October 22, 2017
Spain The Wall: Cambia tu vida Carlos Sobera Telecinco[33] June 23, 2017 - September 8, 2017
Thailand TBA TBA TBA January 2018
Most of the European versions are produced in Studio 204 in Paris, France (Polish, Romanian, Australian and Russian versions are produced in the Transcolor Studio in Szeligi near Warsaw, Poland), while the German version is a double-length version (two games per episode).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wagmeister, Elizabeth (28 October 2015). "Chris Hardwick to Host NBC Game Show ‘The Wall’ from Exec Producer LeBron James". Variety. Retrieved 15 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (January 18, 2017). "‘The Wall’: New NBC Game Show Picked Up For 20 More Episodes". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Wall". NBC.com.
Jump up ^ Pedersen, Erik (14 November 2016). "‘The Wall’: NBC Sets Premiere Date For Game Show From EPs Chris Hardwick & LeBron James". Deadline. Retrieved 15 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Wall Is the Most American Game Show on TV". Vulture. 2017-01-03. Retrieved 2017-01-12.
Jump up ^ Butler, Bethonie. "NBC's 'The Wall' is basically a high-tech Plinko game, but viewers probably don't care". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 2017-01-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (December 20, 2016). "‘Great Christmas Light Fight’ finale adjusts down: Monday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (January 4, 2017). "‘Jimmy Kimmel Live’s’ ‘Bachelor’ special adjusts down: Monday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 4, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (January 5, 2017). "‘Chicago PD,’ ‘The Mick’ and others unchanged: Tuesday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 5, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (January 11, 2017). "‘The Mick’ and ‘This Is Us’ adjust up, ‘Bones’ adjusts down: Tuesday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 11, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (January 19, 2017). "‘Fresh Off the Boat’ adjusts up: Tuesday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 19, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (January 25, 2017). "‘Chicago Fire’ adjusts up, ‘Agents of SHIELD’ adjusts down: Tuesday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 25, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (February 1, 2017). "‘The Wall’ adjusts up, ‘Bones’ adjusts down: Tuesday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 1, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (February 8, 2017). "‘The Middle,’ ‘The Wall, ‘This Is Us,’ FOX comedies all adjust up: Tuesday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 8, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (February 15, 2017). "'American Housewife' adjusts up, ‘Agents of SHIELD’ and ‘Tough Mudder’ adjust down: Tuesday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 15, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (February 23, 2017). "‘The Flash,’ ‘NCIS,’ all others unchanged: Tuesday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (May 9, 2017). "‘Gotham,’ ‘Man with a Plan,’ ‘Jane the Virgin’ adjust up, ‘Quantico’ adjusts down: Monday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 9, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (May 16, 2017). "‘Dancing with the Stars,’ ‘Man with a Plan' finale adjust up: Monday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 16, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (June 23, 2017). "‘Hollywood Game Night’ and ‘The Wall’ adjust up: Thursday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (June 30, 2017). "‘Supernatural’ rerun adjusts down: Thursday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (July 10, 2017). "‘Game Night,’ ‘The Wall,’ ‘Battle of the Network Stars’ adjust up: Thurday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 10, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (July 14, 2017). "‘America’s Got Talent’ adjusts up: Thursday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (July 21, 2017). "’Big Brother’ adjusts up, ‘Hollywood Game Night’ and ‘Zoo’ adjust down: Thursday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 21, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (July 28, 2017). "‘Beat Shazam’ and ‘Penn & Teller’ adjust up, ‘Zoo’ adjusts down: Thursday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (August 11, 2017). "'Big Brother’ stays on top as everything adjusts down: Thursday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 12, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (August 18, 2017). "‘Big Brother’ adjusts up; ‘Boy Band,’ ‘Beat Shazam,’ ‘Whose Line,’ NBC shows adjust down: Thursday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 18, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (August 25, 2017). "'Big Brother,' 'Weekend Update,' 'Boy Band' and more adjust down: Thursday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Knox, David (7 August 2017). "Auditions: The Wall". TV Tonight. Retrieved 7 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Vlessing, Etan (June 26, 2017). "NBC's 'The Wall' Game Show Headed to Canada". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved June 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Endemol Shine Germany and RTL close new deal for The Wall". Endemol Shine Group. 5 April 2017. Retrieved 20 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Andamento ascolti al 25 settembre 2017" (PDF). Publitalia. 3 October 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.
Jump up ^ http://russia.tv/article/show/article_id/35592/
Jump up ^ "Telecinco producirá 'The wall', el concurso revelación de la temporada en EE. UU.". Telemania. 31 March 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2017.
External links[edit]
Official website
The Wall on IMDb
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Apportionment Act of 1911
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Apportionment Act of 1911
Long title
An Act For the apportionment of Representatives in Congress among the several States under the Thirteenth Census.
Nicknames
Apportionment Act of 1911,
Public Law 62-5
Enacted by
the 62nd United States Congress
Effective
March 4, 1913
Citations
Public law
62-5
Statutes at Large
37 Stat. 13
Codification
Acts amended
Apportionment Act of 1901
Titles amended
2
U.S.C. sections amended
2 USC §2a
Legislative history
Introduced in the House as H.R. 2983
Passed the House on
Passed the Senate on August 8, 1911
Signed into law by President William Howard Taft on
Major amendments
Reapportionment Act of 1929
United States Supreme Court cases
Wood v. Broom (1932)
Connor v. Johnson (1966)
United States Dept. of Commerce v. Montana (1992)
The Apportionment Act of 1911 (Pub.L. 62–5, 37 Stat. 13) was an apportionment bill passed by the United States Congress on August 8, 1911. The law set the number of members of the United States House of Representatives at 435, effective with the 63rd Congress on March 4, 1913.[1] This number included a provision for the addition of one seat each for Arizona and New Mexico when they became states.
Contents
[hide]
1 Previous apportionment
2 Text
3 Subsequent apportionment
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Previous apportionment[edit]
The requirement for allocating United States Representatives is found in Article One, Section 2, Clause 3 of the United States Constitution. After the first census, Congress began to pass legislation to dictate the method of allotting U.S. Representatives to the states based on population (see Apportionment Act of 1792).[2] The Jefferson method of apportionment had been in use after the first census of 1790 through the 1830 census, and required fractional remainders to be discarded when calculating each state's total number of U.S. Representatives.[3][4][5][6] Daniel Webster proposed the Webster method, which was adopted for the 1840 census and allocated one representative to states with a fractional remainder greater than 0.5.[7] Prior to the Apportionment Act of 1911, the Hamilton/Vinton (largest remainder) method had been used for this purpose since 1850.[8][9][10][11][12][13] In addition to setting the number of U.S. Representatives at 435, the Apportionment Act of 1911 returned to the Webster method of apportionment of U.S. Representatives. Adopted in 1868, Section Two of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had already removed the three-fifths method of counting slaves, and instead required "counting the whole number of all persons in each State."
Text[edit]
“ Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,
Section 1. That after the third day of March, nineteen hundred and thirteen, the House of Representatives shall be composed of four hundred and thirty-three Members, to be apportioned among the several States as follows:
Alabama, ten
Arkansas, seven
California, eleven
Colorado, four
Connecticut, five
Delaware, one
Florida, four
Georgia, twelve
Idaho, two
Illinois, twenty-seven
Indiana, thirteen
Iowa, eleven
Kansas, eight
Kentucky, eleven
Louisiana, eight
Maine, four
Maryland, six
Massachusetts, sixteen
Michigan, thirteen
Minnesota, ten
Mississippi, eight
Missouri, sixteen
Montana, two
Nebraska, six
Nevada, one
New Hampshire, two
New Jersey, twelve
New York, forty-three
North Carolina, ten
North Dakota, three
Ohio, twenty-two
Oklahoma, eight
Oregon, three
Pennsylvania, thirty-six
Rhode Island, three
South Carolina, seven
South Dakota, three
Tennessee, ten
Texas, eighteen
Utah, two
Vermont, two
Virginia, ten
Washington, five
West Virginia, six
Wisconsin, eleven
Wyoming, one
Section 2. That if the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico shall become States in the Union before the apportionment of Representatives under the next decennial census they shall have one Representative each, and if one of such Territories shall so become a State, such State shall have one Representative, which Representative or Representatives shall be in addition to the number four hundred and thirty-three, as provided in section one of this Act, and all laws and parts of laws in conflict with this section are to that extent hereby repealed.
Section 3. That in each State entitled under this apportionment to more than one Representative, the Representatives to the Sixty-third and each subsequent Congress shall be elected by districts composed of a contiguous and compact territory, and containing as nearly as practicable an equal number of inhabitants. The said districts shall be equal to the number of Representatives to which such State may be entitled in Congress, no district electing more than one Representative.
Section 4. That in case of an increase in the number of Representatives in any State under this apportionment such additional Representative or Representatives shall be elected by the State at large and the other Representatives by the districts now prescribed by law until such State shall be redistricted in the manner provided by the laws thereof and in accordance with the rules enumerated in section three of this Act; and if there be no change in the number of Representatives from a State, the Representatives thereof shall be elected from the districts now prescribed by law until such State shall be redistricted as herein prescribed.
Section 5. That candidates for Representative or Representatives to be elected at large in any State shall be nominated in the same manner as candidates for governor, unless otherwise provided by the laws of such State.
”
Subsequent apportionment[edit]
For the first and only time, Congress failed to pass an apportionment act after the 1920 census. This left the allocations of the Act of 1911 in place until the 1930 census. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established a method for reallocating seats among the states, given population shifts and the maximum of 435 representatives.[14] The Apportionment Act of 1941 made the apportionment process self-executing after each decennial census.[15] This lifted Congress's responsibility to pass an apportionment act for each census, and ensured that the events surrounding the 1920 census would not happen again. The number of U.S. Representatives increased temporarily to 437 when Alaska and Hawaii were admitted as states during the 86th Congress (seating one member from each of those states without changing the apportionment of the other seats). After the 1960 census and the 1962 election, that number went back to 435.[16][17]
See also[edit]
United States congressional apportionment
Redistricting
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://constitution.org/uslaw/sal/037_statutes_at_large.pdf
Jump up ^ 3 Annals of Cong. 539 (1792)
Jump up ^ Act of Jan. 14, 1802, 2 Stat. 128
Jump up ^ Act of Dec. 21, 1811, 2 Stat. 669
Jump up ^ Act of Mar. 7, 1822, 3 Stat. 651
Jump up ^ Act of May 22, 1832, 4 Stat. 516
Jump up ^ Act of 1842, 5 Stat. 491
Jump up ^ Act of May 23, 1850, 9 Stat. 432-433
Jump up ^ Act of 1862, 12 Stat. 572
Jump up ^ Act of 1872, 17 Stat. 28
Jump up ^ Act of 1882, 22 Stat. 5
Jump up ^ Act of 1891
Jump up ^ Act of 1901, 31 Stat. 733
Jump up ^ Act of June 18, 1929, 46 Stat. 21
Jump up ^ Act of Nov. 15, 1941, 55 Stat. 761-762
Jump up ^ 72 Stat. 345
Jump up ^ 73 Stat. 8
External links[edit]
Member FAQ, "What is the size of the House of Representatives and how is it determined?" - Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apportionment_Act_of_1911&oldid=775471745"
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