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Implantation (human embryo)
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This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (September 2008)
Fertilization in humans. The sperm and ovum unite through fertilization, creating a conceptus that (over the course of 8-9 days) will implant in the uterine wall, where it will reside over the course of 9 months.
In humans, implantation is the stage of pregnancy at which the already fertilized egg adheres to the wall of the uterus. At this stage of prenatal development, the conceptus is called a blastocyst. It is by this adhesion that the fetus receives oxygen and nutrients from the mother to be able to grow.
In humans, implantation of a fertilized ovum is most likely to occur around 9 days after ovulation, however this can range between 6 and 12 days.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Implantation window
2 Adaptation of uterus
2.1 Predecidualization
2.2 Decidualization
2.2.1 Trigger
2.2.2 Parts of decidua
2.3 Decidua throughout pregnancy
2.4 Pinopodes
2.4.1 Function in implantation
2.4.2 Function during implantation
3 Adaptation of secretions
3.1 Nourishment
3.2 Growth and implantation
4 Mechanism
4.1 Zona hatching
4.1.1 Factors
4.2 Apposition
4.2.1 Location
4.2.2 Molecular Mechanism
4.3 Adhesion
4.3.1 Communication
4.3.1.1 Proteoglycan Receptors
4.4 Invasion
4.4.1 Syncytiotrophoblasts
4.4.2 Secretions
4.4.2.1 Autocrine
4.4.2.2 Dislodging
4.4.2.3 Immunosuppressive
4.4.2.4 Decidualization
4.4.2.5 Prevention of menstruation
4.4.2.6 Other factors
5 Failure
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
Implantation window[edit]
The reception-ready phase of the endometrium of the uterus is usually termed the "implantation window" and lasts about 4 days. The implantation window occurs around 6 days after the peak in luteinizing hormone levels. With some disparity between sources, it has been stated to occur from 7 days after ovulation until 9 days after ovulation,[2] or days 6-10 postovulation.[3] On average, it occurs during the 20th to the 23rd day after the last menstrual period.[4]
The implantation window is characterized by changes to the endometrium cells, which aid in the absorption of the uterine fluid. These changes are collectively known as the plasma membrane transformation and bring the blastocyst nearer to the endometrium and immobilize it. During this stage the blastocyst can still be eliminated by being flushed out of the uterus. Scientists have hypothesized that the hormones cause a swelling that fills the flattened out uterine cavity just prior to this stage, which may also help press the blastocyst against the endometrium.[5] The implantation window may also be initiated by other preparations in the endometrium of the uterus, both structurally and in the composition of its secretions.
Adaptation of uterus[edit]
To enable implantation, the uterus goes through changes in order to be able to receive the conceptus.
Predecidualization[edit]
The endometrium increases thickness, becomes vascularized and its glands grow to be tortuous and boosted in their secretions. These changes reach their maximum about 7 days after ovulation.
Furthermore, the surface of the endometrium produces a kind of rounded cells, which cover the whole area toward the uterine cavity. This happens about 9 to 10 days after ovulation.[6] These cells are called decidual cells, which emphasises that the whole layer of them is shed off in every menstruation if no pregnancy occurs, just as leaves of deciduous trees. The uterine glands, on the other hand, decrease in activity and degenerate already 8 to 9 days[6] after ovulation in absence of pregnancy.
The decidual cells originate from the stromal cells that are always present in the endometrium. However, the decidual cells make up a new layer, the decidua. The rest of the endometrium, in addition, expresses differences between the luminal and the basal sides. The luminal cells form the zona compacta of the endometrium, in contrast to the basalolateral zona spongiosa, which consists of the rather spongy stromal cells.[6]
Decidualization[edit]
Decidualization succeeds predecidualization if pregnancy occurs. This is an expansion of it, further developing the uterine glands, the zona compacta and the epithelium of decidual cells lining it. The decidual cells become filled with lipids and glycogen and take the polyhedral shape characteristic for decidual cells.
Trigger[edit]
It is likely that the blastocyst itself makes the main contribution to this additional growing and sustaining of the decidua. An indication of this is that decidualization occurs at a higher degree in conception cycles than in nonconception cycles.[6] Furthermore, similar changes are observed when giving stimuli mimicking the natural invasion of the embryo.[6]
Parts of decidua[edit]
The decidua can be organized into separate sections, although they have the same composition.
Decidua basalis - This is the part of the decidua which is located basalolateral to the embryo after implantation.
Decidua capsularis - Decidua capsularis grows over the embryo on the luminal side, enclosing it into the endometrium. It surrounds the embryo together with decidua basalis.
Decidua parietalis - All other decidua on the uterine surface belongs to decidua parietalis.
Decidua throughout pregnancy[edit]
After implantation the decidua remains, at least through the first trimester.[6] However, its most prominent time is during the early stages of pregnancy, during implantation. Its function as a surrounding tissue is replaced by the definitive placenta. However, some elements of the decidualization remain throughout pregnancy.[6]
The compacta and spongiosa layers are still observable beneath the decidua in pregnancy. The glands of the spongiosa layer continue to secrete during the first trimester, when they degenerate. However, before that disappearance, some glands secrete unequally much. This phenomenon of hypersecretion is called the Arias-Stella phenomenon,[6] after the pathologist Javier Arias-Stella.
Pinopodes[edit]
Main article: Pinopod
Pinopodes are small, finger-like protrusions from the endometrium. They appear between day 19 and day 21[6] of gestational age. This corresponds to a fertilization age of approximately 5 to 7 days, which corresponds well with the time of implantation. They only persist for 2 to 3 days.[6] The development of them is enhanced by progesterone but inhibited by estrogens.
Function in implantation[edit]
Pinopodes endocytose uterine fluid and macromolecules in it. By doing so, the volume of the uterus decreases, taking the walls closer to the embryoblast floating in it. Thus, the period of active pinocytes might also limit the implantation window.[6]
Function during implantation[edit]
Pinopodes continue to absorb fluid, and removes most of it during the early stages of implantation.
Adaptation of secretions[edit]
proteins, glycoproteins and peptides
secreted by the endometrial glands[6]
Matrix-associated:
Fibronectin
Laminin
Entactin
Type-IV collagen
heparan sulfate
Proteoglycan
Integrins
-
Others:
Mucins
Prolactin
IGFBP-1
Placental protein 14 (PP14) or glycodelin
Pregnancy-associated endometrial
alpha-2-globulin (alpha-2-PEG)
endometrial protein 15
Albumin
Beta-Lipoprotein
Relaxin
Fibroblast growth factor 1
Fibroblast growth factor 2
Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A
(PAPP-A)
Stress response protein 27 (SRP-27)
CA-125
Beta-endorphin
Leu-enkephalin
Diamine oxidase
Tissue plasminogen activator
Renin
Progesterone-dependent carbonic anhydrase
Lactoferrin
Not only the lining of the uterus transforms, but in addition, the secretion from its epithelial glands changes. This change is induced by increased levels of progesterone from the corpus luteum. The target of the secretions is the embryoblast, and has several functions on it.
Nourishment[edit]
The embryoblast spends approximately 72 hours[6] in the uterine cavity before implanting. In that time, it cannot receive nourishment directly from the blood of the mother, and must rely on secreted nutrients into the uterine cavity, e.g. iron[6] and fat-soluble vitamins.[6]
Growth and implantation[edit]
In addition to nourishment, the endometrium secretes several steroid-dependent proteins,[6] important for growth and implantation. Cholesterol[6] and steroids[6] are also secreted. Implantation is further facilitated by synthesis of matrix substances, adhesion molecules and surface receptors for the matrix substances. When the sperm nucleus and the egg nucleus have fused together, they form a zygote
Mechanism[edit]
Implantation is initiated when the blastocyst comes into contact with the uterine wall.
Zona hatching[edit]
Main article: Zona hatching
To be able to perform implantation, the blastocyst first needs to get rid of its zona pellucida. This process can be called "hatching".
Factors[edit]
Lytic factors in the uterine cavity, as well as factors from the blastocyst itself are essential for this process. Mechanisms in the latter are indicated by that the zona pellucida remains intact if an unfertilized egg is placed in the uterus under the same conditions.[6] A substance probably involved is plasmin. Plasminogen, the plasmin precursor, is found in the uterine cavity, and blastocyst factors contribute to its conversion to active plasmin. This hypothesis is supported by lytic effects in vitro by plasmin.[6] Furthermore, plasmin inhibitors also inhibit the entire zona hatching in rat experiments.[6]
Apposition[edit]
The very first, albeit loose, connection between the blastocyst and the endometrium is called the apposition.[6]
Location[edit]
On the endometrium, the apposition is usually made where there is a small crypt in it, perhaps because it increases the area of contact with the rather spherical blastocyst.
On the blastocyst, on the other hand, it occurs at a location where there has been enough lysis of the zona pellucida to have created a rupture to enable direct contact between the underlying trophoblast and the decidua of the endometrium.[6] However, ultimately, the inner cell mass, inside the trophoblast layer, is aligned closest to the decidua. Nevertheless, the apposition on the blastocyst is not dependent on if it is on the same side of the blastocyst as the inner cell mass. Rather, the inner cell mass rotates inside the trophoblast to align to the apposition.[6] In short, the entire surface of the blastocyst has a potential to form the apposition to the decidua.
Molecular Mechanism[edit]
The identity of the molecules on the trophoblast and the endometrial epithelia that mediate the initial interaction between the two remain unidentified. However, a number of research groups have proposed that MUC1, a member of the Mucin family of glycosylated proteins, is involved.[7] MUC1 is a transmembrane glycoprotein expressed at the apical surface of endometrial epithelial cells during the window of implantation in humans and has been shown to be differentially expressed between fertile and infertile subjects during this time.[7] MUC1 displays carbohydrate moieties on its extracellular domain that are ligands of L-selectin, a protein expressed on the surface of trophoblast cells.[8] An in vitro model of implantation developed by Genbacev et al., gave evidence to support the hypothesis that L-selectin mediates apposition of the blastocyst to the uterine epithelium by interacting with its ligands.[9]
Adhesion[edit]
Adhesion is a much stronger attachment to the endometrium than the loose apposition.
The trophoblasts adhere by penetrating the endometrium, with protrusions of trophoblast cells.
Communication[edit]
There is massive communication between the blastocyst and the endometrium at this stage. The blastocyst signals to the endometrium to adapt further to its presence, e.g. by changes in the cytoskeleton of decidual cells. This, in turn, dislodges the decidual cells from their connection to the underlying basal lamina, which enables the blastocyst to perform the succeeding invasion.[6]
This communication is conveyed by receptor-ligand-interactions, both integrin-matrix and proteoglycan ones.
Proteoglycan Receptors[edit]
Another ligand-receptor system involved in adhesion is proteoglycan receptors, found on the surface of the decidua of the uterus. Their counterparts, the proteoglycans, are found around the trophoblast cells of the blastocyst. This ligand-receptor system also is present just at the implantation window.[6]
Invasion[edit]
Invasion is an even further establishment of the blastocyst in the endometrium.
Syncytiotrophoblasts[edit]
The protrusions of trophoblast cells that adhere into the endometrium continue to proliferate and penetrate into the endometrium. As these trophoblast cells penetrate, they differentiate to become a new type of cells, syncytiotrophoblast. The prefix syn- refers to the transformation that occurs as the boundaries between these cells disappear to form a single mass of many cell nuclei (a syncytium). The rest of the trophoblasts, surrounding the inner cell mass, are hereafter called cytotrophoblasts.
Invasion continues with the syncytiotrophoblasts reaching the basal membrane beneath the decidual cells, penetrating it and further invading into the uterine stroma. Finally, the whole embryo is embedded in the endometrium. Eventually, the syncytiotrophoblasts come into contact with maternal blood and form chorionic villi. This is the initiation of forming the placenta.
Secretions[edit]
The blastocyst secretes factors for a multitude of purposes during invasion. It secretes several autocrine factors, targeting itself and stimulating it to further invade the endometrium.[6] Furthermore, secretions loosen decidual cells from each other, prevent the embryo from being rejected by the mother, trigger the final decidualization and prevent menstruation.
Autocrine[edit]
Human chorionic gonadotropin is an autocrine growth factor for the blastocyst.[6] Insulin-like growth factor 2,[6] on the other hand, stimulates the invasiveness of it.
Dislodging[edit]
The syncytiotrophoblasts dislodges decidual cells in their way, both by degradation of cell adhesion molecules linking the decidual cells together as well as degradation of the extracellular matrix between them.
Cell adhesion molecules are degraded by syncytiotrophoblast secretion of Tumor necrosis factor-alpha. This inhibits the expression of cadherins and beta-catenin.[6] Cadherins are cell adhesion molecules, and beta-catenin helps to anchor them to the cell membrane. Inhibited expression of these molecules thus loosens the connection between decidual cells, permitting the syncytotrophoblasts and the whole embryo with them to invade into the endometrium.
The extracellular matrix is degraded by serine endopeptidases and metalloproteinases. Examples of such metalloproteinases are collagenases, gelatinases and stromelysins.[6] These collagenases digest Type-I collagen, Type-II collagen, Type-III collagen, Type-VII collagen and Type-X collagen.[6] The gelatinases exist in two forms; one digesting Type-IV collagen and one digesting gelatin.[6]
Immunosuppressive[edit]
The embryo differs from the cells of the mother, and would be rejected as a parasite by the immune system of the mother if it didn't secrete immunosuppressive agents. Such agents are Platelet-activating factor, human chorionic gonadotropin, early pregnancy factor, immunosuppressive factor, Prostaglandin E2, Interleukin 1-alpha, Interleukin 6, interferon-alpha, leukemia inhibitory factor and Colony-Stimulating Factor.
Decidualization[edit]
Factors from the blastocyst also trigger the final formation of decidual cells into their proper form. In contrast, some decidual cells in the proximity of the blastocyst degenerate, providing nutrients for it.[6]
Prevention of menstruation[edit]
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) not only acts as an immunosuppressive,[6] but also "notifies" the mother's body that she is pregnant, preventing menstruation by sustaining the function of the corpus luteum.
Other factors[edit]
Other factors secreted by the blastocyst are;
Embryo-derived histamine-releasing factor
Tissue plasminogen activator as well as its inhibitors
Estradiol
β1-integrins
Fibroblast growth factor
CYTL1[10]
Transforming growth factor alpha
inhibin
Failure[edit]
Implantation failure is considered to be caused by inadequate uterine receptivity in two-thirds of cases, and by problems with the embryo itself in the other third.[11]
Inadequate uterine receptivity may be caused by abnormal cytokine and hormonal signaling as well as epigenetic alterations.[12] Recurrent implantation failure is a cause of female infertility. Therefore, pregnancy rates can be improved by optimizing endometrial receptivity for implantation.[12] Evaluation of implantation markers may help to predict pregnancy outcome and detect occult implantation deficiency.[12]
Luteal support is the administration of medication, generally progestins, for the purpose of increasing the success rate of implantation and early embryogenesis, thereby complementing the function of the corpus luteum.
In women with more than 3 implantation failures in assisted reproduction, a review of several small randomized controlled studies estimated that the use of adjunct low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) improves live birth rate by approximately 80%.[13]
See also[edit]
Embryonic diapause
Blastocyst
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Weinberg CR (1999). "Time of implantation of the Conceptus and loss of pregnancy". New England Journal of Medicine. 340 (23): 1796–1799. doi:10.1056/NEJM199906103402304. PMID 10362823.
Jump up ^ Xiao, Y.; Sun, X.; Yang, X.; Zhang, J.; Xue, Q.; Cai, B.; Zhou, Y. (2010). "Leukemia inhibitory factor is dysregulated in the endometrium and uterine flushing fluid of patients with adenomyosis during implantation window". Fertility and Sterility. 94 (1): 85–89. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.03.012. PMID 19361790.
Jump up ^ Aboubakr M. Elnashar, Gamal I. Aboul-Enein. Endometrial receptivity. Middle East Fertility Society Journal, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2004, pp. 10-24
Jump up ^ 6.2 Implantation stages from embryology.ch at by the universities of Fribourg, Lausanne and Bern (Switzerland). Retrieved May, 2012
Jump up ^ "Implantation stages". Human Embryology. Online course in embryology for medicine students developed by the universities of Fribourg, Lausanne and Bern (Switzerland) with the support of the Swiss Virtual Campus. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Boron, Walter; Emile Boulpaep (2004). Medical Physiology: A Cellular And Molecular Approaoch. Oxford: Elsevier. ISBN 1-4160-2328-3. OCLC 61527528. [page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b Margarit, L.; Taylor, A.; Roberts, M. H.; Hopkins, L.; Davies, C.; Brenton, A. G.; Conlan, R. S.; Bunkheila, A.; Joels, L.; White, J. O.; Gonzalez, D. (2010). "MUC1 as a Discriminator between Endometrium from Fertile and Infertile Patients with PCOS and Endometriosis". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 95 (12): 5320–5329. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-0603. ISSN 0021-972X.
Jump up ^ Carson, D. D.; et al., (2006). "MUC1 is a scaffold for selectin ligands in the human uterus". Front. Biosci. 11 (1): 2903. doi:10.2741/2018.
Jump up ^ Genbacev, O. D.; et al., (2003). "Trophoblast L-selectin-mediated adhesion at the maternal-fetal interface". Science. 299: 405–8. doi:10.1126/science.1079546. PMID 12532021.
Jump up ^ Ai Z., Jing W., Fang L. (2015). "Cytokine-Like Protein 1 (Cytl1) A Potential Molecular Mediator in Embryo Implantation". PLOS ONE. 11 (1): e0147424. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147424. PMC 4723121  . PMID 26800213. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Melford, S. E.; Taylor, A. H.; Konje, J. C. (2013). "Of mice and (wo)men: factors influencing successful implantation including endocannabinoids". Human Reproduction Update. 20 (3): 415–428. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmt060. ISSN 1355-4786. PMID 24306146.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cakmak, H.; Taylor, H. S. (2010). "Implantation failure: Molecular mechanisms and clinical treatment". Human Reproduction Update. 17 (2): 242–253. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmq037. PMC 3039220  . PMID 20729534.
Jump up ^ Potdar, N.; Gelbaya, T. A.; Konje, J. C.; Nardo, L. G. (2013). "Adjunct low-molecular-weight heparin to improve live birth rate after recurrent implantation failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Human Reproduction Update. 19 (6): 674–684. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmt032. PMID 23912476.
Further reading[edit]
"Implantation of the blastocyst..."
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text:
Garden of Eden
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Eden Gardens or Eden Garden.
For other uses, see Garden of Eden (disambiguation).
The Garden of Eden as depicted in the first or left panel of Bosch's The Garden of Earthly Delights triptych. The panel includes many imagined and exotic African animals.[1]
The Garden of Eden (Hebrew גַּן עֵדֶן, Gan ʿEḏen) or (often) Paradise, is the biblical "garden of God", described most notably in the Book of Genesis chapters 2 and 3, and also in the Book of Ezekiel.[2][3] Genesis 13:10 refers to the "garden of God" (not called Eden by name),[4] and the "trees of the garden" are mentioned in Ezekiel 31.[5] The Book of Zechariah and the Book of Psalms also refer to trees and water in relation to the temple without explicitly mentioning Eden.[6]
Traditionally, scholars favored deriving the name "Eden" from the Akkadian edinnu, derived from a Sumerian word edin meaning "plain" or "steppe". Eden is now believed[by whom?] to be more closely related to an Aramaic root word meaning "fruitful, well-watered."[3] Another interpretation associates the name "Eden" with a Hebrew word for "pleasure"; thus the Douay-Rheims Bible in Genesis 2:8 has the wording "And the Lord God had planted a paradise of pleasure" (rather than "a garden in Eden"). The Hebrew term is translated "pleasure" in Sarah's secret saying in Genesis 18:12.[7]
Much like records of the great flood, the creation story and the account of the confusion of languages, the story of Eden echoes the Mesopotamian myth of a king, as a primordial man, who is placed in a divine garden to guard the Tree of life.[8] The Hebrew Bible depicts Adam and Eve as walking around the Garden of Eden naked due to their innocence.[9] Eden and its rivers may signify the real Jerusalem, the Temple of Solomon, or the Promised Land. It may also represent the divine garden on Zion, and the mountain of God, which was also Jerusalem. The imagery of the Garden, with its serpent and cherubim, has been compared[by whom?] to the images of the Solomonic Temple with its copper serpent (the nehushtan) and guardian cherubs.[10][need quotation to verify]
Contents
[hide]
1 Biblical narratives
1.1 Genesis
1.2 Ezekiel
2 Proposed locations
3 Parallel concepts
4 Other views
4.1 Jewish eschatology
4.2 Islamic view
4.3 Latter-day Saints
5 Art
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Biblical narratives[edit]
Expulsion from Paradise, painting by James Jacques Joseph Tissot
The Expulsion illustrated in the English Caedmon manuscript, c. 1000 CE
Genesis[edit]
Main articles: Genesis creation narrative and Adam and Eve
The second part of the Genesis creation narrative, Genesis, opens with Adonai Elohim (the LORD God, lit. YHWH Elohim, see Names of God in Judaism) creating the first man (Adam), whom he placed in a garden that he planted "eastward in Eden".[11]
And out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food; the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil.
—  Genesis 2:9
The man was free to eat from any tree in the garden except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Last of all, the God made a woman (Eve) from a rib of the man to be a companion for the man. In chapter three, the man and the woman were seduced by the serpent into eating the forbidden fruit, and they were expelled from the garden to prevent them from eating of the tree of life, and thus living forever. Cherubim were placed east of the garden, "and a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep him away from the tree of life" (Genesis 3:24).
Genesis 2:10–14 lists four rivers in association with the garden of Eden: Pishon, Gihon, the Tigris, and the Euphrates. It also refers to the land of Cush—translated/interpreted as Ethiopia, but thought by some to equate to Cossaea, a Greek name for the land of the Kassites.[12] These lands lie north of Elam, immediately to the east of ancient Babylon, which, unlike Ethiopia, does lie within the region being described.[13] In Antiquities of the Jews, the first-century Jewish historian Josephus identifies the Pishon as what "the Greeks called Ganges" and the Geon (Gehon) as the Nile.[14]
Ezekiel[edit]
Main article: Ezekiel's cherub in Eden
In Ezekiel 28:12–19 the prophet Ezekiel the "son of man" sets down God's word against the king of Tyre: the king was the "seal of perfection", adorned with precious stones from the day of his creation, placed by God in the garden of Eden on the holy mountain as a guardian cherub. But the king sinned through wickedness and violence, and so he was driven out of the garden and thrown to the earth, where now he is consumed by God's fire: "All the nations who knew you are appalled at you, you have come to a horrible end and will be no more." (v.19).
According to Terje Stordalen, the Eden in Ezekiel appears to be located in Lebanon.[15] "[I]t appears that the Lebanon is an alternative placement in Phoenician myth (as in Ez 28,13, III.48) of the Garden of Eden",[16] and there are connections between paradise, the garden of Eden and the forests of Lebanon (possibly used symbolically) within prophetic writings.[17] Edward Lipinski and Peter Kyle McCarter have suggested that the Garden of the gods (Sumerian paradise), the oldest Sumerian version of the Garden of Eden, relates to a mountain sanctuary in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges.[18]
Proposed locations[edit]
Map showing the rivers in the Middle East known in English as the Tigris and Euphrates.
Map by Pierre Mortier, 1700, based on theories of Pierre Daniel Huet, Bishop of Avranches. A caption in French and Dutch reads: Map of the location of the terrestrial paradise, and of the country inhabited by the patriarchs, laid out for the good understanding of sacred history, by M. Pierre Daniel Huet.
Although the Garden of Eden is considered to be mythological by most scholars,[19][20][21][22][23][24] there have been other suggestions for its location:[25] for example, at the head of the Persian Gulf, in southern Mesopotamia (now Iraq) where the Tigris and Euphrates rivers run into the sea;[26] and in the Armenian Highlands or Armenian Plateau.[27][28][29][30] British archaeologist David Rohl claims it may have been located in Iran, and in the vicinity of Tabriz, but this suggestion has not caught on with scholarly sources.[31]
According to the Bible, the location of Eden is described in the Book of Genesis, chapter 2, verses 10–14:
A river flowed from Eden to water the garden, and from there it divided to make four streams.
The first is named the Pishon, and this winds all through the land of Havilah where there is gold. The gold of this country is pure; bdellium and cornelian stone are found there. The second river is named the Gihon, and this winds all through the land of Cush. The third river is named the Tigris, and this flows to the east of Ashur. The fourth river is the Euphrates.
Parallel concepts[edit]
The city of Dilmun in the Sumerian mythological story of Enki and Ninhursag is a paradisaical abode[32] of the immortals, where sickness and death were unknown.[33]
The garden of the Hesperides in Greek mythology was somewhat similar to the Christian concept of the Garden of Eden, and by the 16th century a larger intellectual association was made in the Cranach painting (see illustration at top). In this painting, only the action that takes place there identifies the setting as distinct from the Garden of the Hesperides, with its golden fruit.
The Persian term "paradise" (Hebrew פרדס, pardes), meaning a royal garden or hunting-park, gradually became a synonym for Eden after c. 500 BCE. The word "pardes" occurs three times in the Old Testament, but always in contexts other than a connection with Eden: in the Song of Solomon iv. 13: "Thy plants are an orchard (pardes) of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard"; Ecclesiastes 2. 5: "I made me gardens and orchards (pardes), and I planted trees in them of all kind of fruits"; and in Nehemiah ii. 8: "And a letter unto Asaph the keeper of the king's orchard (pardes), that he may give me timber to make beams for the gates of the palace which appertained to the house, and for the wall of the city." In these examples pardes clearly means "orchard" or "park", but in the apocalyptic literature and in the Talmud "paradise" gains its associations with the Garden of Eden and its heavenly prototype, and in the New Testament "paradise" becomes the realm of the blessed (as opposed to the realm of the cursed) among those who have already died, with literary Hellenistic influences.
In ancient Hindu mythology, Nandankanan is a garden of the deities where the virtuous souls of the dead can roam freely.[citation needed]
Other views[edit]
Jewish eschatology[edit]
In the Talmud and the Jewish Kabbalah,[34] the scholars agree that there are two types of spiritual places called "Garden in Eden". The first is rather terrestrial, of abundant fertility and luxuriant vegetation, known as the "lower Gan Eden". The second is envisioned as being celestial, the habitation of righteous, Jewish and non-Jewish, immortal souls, known as the "higher Gan Eden". The Rabbanim differentiate between Gan and Eden. Adam is said to have dwelt only in the Gan, whereas Eden is said never to be witnessed by any mortal eye.[34]
According to Jewish eschatology,[35][36] the higher Gan Eden is called the "Garden of Righteousness". It has been created since the beginning of the world, and will appear gloriously at the end of time. The righteous dwelling there will enjoy the sight of the heavenly chayot carrying the throne of God. Each of the righteous will walk with God, who will lead them in a dance. Its Jewish and non-Jewish inhabitants are "clothed with garments of light and eternal life, and eat of the tree of life" (Enoch 58,3) near to God and His anointed ones.[36] This Jewish rabbinical concept of a higher Gan Eden is opposed by the Hebrew terms gehinnom[37] and sheol, figurative names for the place of spiritual purification for the wicked dead in Judaism, a place envisioned as being at the greatest possible distance from heaven.[38]
In modern Jewish eschatology it is believed that history will complete itself and the ultimate destination will be when all mankind returns to the Garden of Eden.[39]
Islamic view[edit]
Spanish-Arabic world map from 1109 CE with Eden in east (at top)
Events taking place in the Garden of Eden are spoken about prominently in the Quran and the tafsir (interpretation). The term "Jannāt `Adni" ("Gardens of Eden" or "Gardens of Perpetual Residence") is used in the Qur'an for the destination of the righteous. There are several mentions of "the Garden" in the Qur'an (2:35, 7:19, 20:117), meaning the Garden of Eden, but without the word "`Adn".[40] There are other places that talk about events there, without mentioning the location. This includes surat Sad, which features 18 verses on the subject (38:71–88), surat al-Baqarah, surat al-A'raf, and surat al-Hijr. The narrative mainly surrounds the resulting expulsion of Iblis from the garden and his subsequent tempting of Adam and Eve. After Iblis refuses to follow God's command to bow down to Adam for being his greatest creation, Allah transforms him into Satan as a punishment. Despite the Biblical account, the Quran mentions only one tree in Eden, the tree of immortality, which Allah specifically claimed it was forbidden to Adam and Eve. Despite this, however, Satan, disguised as a serpent, repeatedly told Adam to eat from the tree, and eventually both Adam and Eve did so, resulting in disobeying Allah.[41] These stories are also featured in the Islamic hadith collections, including al-Tabari.[42]
Latter-day Saints[edit]
See also: Adam and Eve (LDS Church)
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also known as Mormons or Latter-day Saints) believe that after Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden they resided in a place known as Adam-ondi-Ahman, located in present-day Daviess County, Missouri. It is recorded in the Doctrine and Covenants that Adam blessed his posterity there and that he will return to that place at the time of the final judgement[43][44] in fulfillment of biblical prophecy.[45]
Numerous early leaders of the Church, including Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and George Q. Cannon, taught that the Garden of Eden itself was located in nearby Jackson County, Missouri,[46] but there are no surviving first-hand accounts of that doctrine being taught by Joseph Smith himself. LDS doctrine is unclear as to the exact location of the Garden of Eden, but tradition among Latter-Day Saints places it somewhere in the vicinity of Adam-ondi-Ahman, or in Jackson County.[47][48]
Art[edit]
The Garden of Eden motifs most frequently portrayed in illuminated manuscripts and paintings are the "Sleep of Adam" ("Creation of Eve"), the "Temptation of Eve" by the Serpent, the "Fall of Man" where Adam takes the fruit, and the "Expulsion". The idyll of "Naming Day in Eden" was less often depicted. Much of Milton's Paradise Lost occurs in the Garden of Eden. Michelangelo depicted a scene at the Garden of Eden in the Sistine Chapel ceiling. In the Divine Comedy, Dante places the Garden at the top of Mt. Purgatory. For many medieval writers, the image of the Garden of Eden also creates a location for human love and sexuality, often associated with the classic and medieval trope of the locus amoenus.[49] One of oldest depictions of Garden of Eden is made in Byzantine style in Ravenna, while the city was still under Byzantine control. A preserved blue mosaic is part of the mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Circular motifs represent flowers of the garden of Eden.
The Garden of Eden by Lucas Cranach der Ältere, a 16th-century German depiction of Eden
The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens, depicting both domestic and exotic wild animals such as tigers, parrots and ostriches co-existing in the garden
5th century "Garden of Eden" mosaic in mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy. UNESCO World heritage site.
"The Garden of Eden" by Thomas Cole (c. 1828)
"The Garden of Eden" by Adi Holzer made in the year 2012.
See also[edit]
Antelapsarianism
Christian naturism
Epic of Gilgamesh
Eridu
Fertile Crescent
Golden Age
Heaven in Judaism
Jannah
Nondualism
Persian gardens
Tamoanchan
The Summerland
Utopia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gibson, Walter S. Hieronymus Bosch. New York:Hudson, 1973. p. 26. ISBN 0-500-20134-X
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce Manning; Coogan, Michael D (2004). The Oxford Guide To People And Places Of The Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-517610-0. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Cohen 2011, pp. 228–229
Jump up ^ http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis+13
Jump up ^ http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ezekiel+31
Jump up ^ Luttikhuizen 1999, p. 37
Jump up ^ H5731 Eden – The same as H5730 (masculine); Eden= "pleasure" ... the first habitat of man after the creation; site unknown
Jump up ^ Davidson 1973, p. 33.
Jump up ^ Donald Miller (2007) Miller 3-in-1: Blue Like Jazz, Through Painted Deserts, Searching for God, Thomas Nelson Inc, ISBN 978-1418551179, p. PT207
Jump up ^ Stordalen 2000, p. 307–310.
Jump up ^ Levenson 2004, p. 13 "The root of Eden denotes fertility. Where the wondrously fertile gard was thought to have been located (if a realistic location was ever conceived) is unclear. The Tigris and Euphrates are the two great rivers of the Mesopotamia (now found in modern Iraq). But the Piston is unidentified, and the only Gihon in the Bible is a spring in Jerusalem (1 Kings 1.33, 38)."
Jump up ^ "The Jewish Quarterly Review". The Jewish Quarterly Review. University of Pennsylvania Press. 64-65: 132. 1973. ISSN 1553-0604. Retrieved 2014-02-19. ...as Cossaea, the country of the Kassites in Mesopotamia [...]
Jump up ^ Speiser 1994, p. 38
Jump up ^ Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews. Book I, Chapter 1, Section 3.
Jump up ^ Stordalen 2000, p. 164
Jump up ^ Brown 2001, p. 138
Jump up ^ Swarup 2006, p. 185
Jump up ^ Smith 2009, p. 61
Jump up ^ Levenson 2004, p. 11 "How much history lies behind the story of Genesis? Because the action of the primeval story is not represented as taking place on the plane of ordinary human history and has so many affinities with ancient mythology, it is very far-fetched to speak of its narratives as historical at all."
Jump up ^ Schwartz, Howard; Loebel-Fried, Caren; Ginsburg, Elliot K. (2007). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Oxford University Press. p. 704.
Jump up ^ George, Arthur; George, Elena (2014). The Mythology of Eden. Hamilton Books. p. 458.
Jump up ^ Delumeau, Jean; O'Connell, Matthew (2000). History of Paradise: The Garden of Eden in Myth and Tradition. University of Illinois Press. p. 276.
Jump up ^ Graves, Robert; Patai, Raphael (1986). Hebrew Myths: The Book of Genesis. Random House. p. 315.
Jump up ^ Albright, W. F. (October 1922). "The Location of the Garden of Eden". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. The University of Chicago Press. 39 (1): 15–31. doi:10.1086/369964. JSTOR 528684.
Jump up ^ Wilensky-Lanford, Brook (2012). Paradise Lust: Searching for the Garden of Eden. Grove Press.
Jump up ^ Hamblin, Dora Jane (May 1987). "Has the Garden of Eden been located at last? (Dead Link)" (PDF). Smithsonian. 18 (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Zevit, Ziony. What Really Happened in the Garden of Eden? 2013. Yale University Press, p. 111.
Jump up ^ Day, John. Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan. 2002. Sheffield Academic Press, p. 30.
Jump up ^ Duncan, Joseph E. Milton's Earthly Paradise: A Historical Study of Eden. 1972. University Of Minnesota Press, pp. 96, 212.
Jump up ^ Scafi, Alessandro. Return to the Sources: Paradise in Armenia, in: Mapping Paradise: A History of Heaven on Earth. 2006. London-Chicago: British Library-University of Chicago Press, pp. 317-322
Jump up ^ Cline, Eric H. (2007). From Eden to Exile: Unraveling Mysteries of the Bible. National Geographic. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-4262-0084-7.
Jump up ^ Mathews 1996, pp. 96.
Jump up ^ Cohen 2011, pp. 229.
^ Jump up to: a b Gan Eden – JewishEncyclopedia; 02-22-2010.
Jump up ^ Olam Ha-Ba – The Afterlife - JewFAQ.org; 02-22-2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Eshatology – JewishEncyclopedia; 02-22-2010.
Jump up ^ "Gehinnom is the Hebrew name; Gehenna is Yiddish." Gehinnom – Judaism 101 websourced 02-10-2010.
Jump up ^ "Gan Eden and Gehinnom". Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2011-06-30.
Jump up ^ "End of Days". End of Days. Aish. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
Jump up ^ See list of occurrences.
Jump up ^ Leaman, Oliver The Quran, an encyclopedia, p. 11, 2006
Jump up ^ Wheeler, Brannon Mecca and Eden: ritual, relics, and territory in Islam p. 16, 2006
Jump up ^ "Doctrine and Covenants 107:53".
Jump up ^ "Doctrine and Covenants 116:1".
Jump up ^ "Daniel 7:13-14,22".
Jump up ^ "Joseph Smith/Garden of Eden in Missouri", FairMormon Answers
Jump up ^ Bruce A. Van Orden, "I Have a Question: What do we know about the location of the Garden of Eden?", Ensign, January 1994, pp. 54–55.
Jump up ^ http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101#C18 "Mormonism 101: FAQ"
Jump up ^ Curtius 1953, p. 200, n.31
Bibliography[edit]
Brown, John Pairman (2001). Israel and Hellas, Volume 3. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110168822.
Cohen, Chaim (2011). "Eden". In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine. The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199730049.
Curtius, Ernst Robert (1953). European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages. Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-01899-7. Translated by Willard R. Trask.
Davidson, Robert (1973). Genesis 1-11 (commentary by Davidson, R. 1987 [Reprint] ed.). Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521097604.
Levenson, Jon D. (2004). "Genesis: introduction and annotations". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi. The Jewish study Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195297515.
Mathews, Kenneth A. (1996). Genesis. Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman & Holman Publishers. ISBN 9780805401011.
Smith, Mark S. (2009). "Introduction". In Pitard, Wayne T. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, volume II. BRILL. ISBN 9004153489.
Speiser, E.A. (1994). "The Rivers of Paradise". In Tsumura, D.T.; Hess, R.S. I Studied Inscriptions from Before the Flood. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9780931464881.
Stordalen, Terje (2000). Echoes of Eden. Peeters. ISBN 9789042908543.
Swarup, Paul (2006). The self-understanding of the Dead Sea Scrolls Community. Continuum.
Willcocks, Sir William, Hormuzd Rassam. Mesopotamian Trade. Noah's Flood: The Garden of Eden, in: The Geographical Journal 35, No. 4 (April 1910). DOI: 10.2307/1777041[dead link]
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Garden of Eden.
Look up Garden of Eden in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Smithsonian article on the geography of the Tigris-Euphrates region
Many translations of II Kings 19:12
"Eden". The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
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Adam and Eve
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Genesis creation narrative in the Book of Genesis
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Eve
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Television
"Probe 7, Over and Out" (1963)
Film
Mama's Affair (1921)
Good Morning, Eve! (1934)
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The Original Sin (1948)
The Private Lives of Adam and Eve (1960)
El pecado de Adán y Eva (1969)
La Biblia en pasta (1984)
The Annunciation (1984)
Adipapam (1988)
Adam (1992)
Man's Best Friend (1998)
Babs (2000)
The Last Eve (2005)
Year One (2009)
The Tragedy of Man (2011)
Adam and Dog (2011)
Tropico (2013)
Plays
Le Jeu d'Adam (12th century)
The Broken Jug (1808)
The Tragedy of Man (1861)
The Creation of the World and Other Business (1972)
Musicals
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Dude (1972)
Up from Paradise (1973)
Children of Eden (1991)
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structure
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Ève (1875)
Genesis Suite (1945)
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The Book of Genesis (2009)
Art
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Vienna Diptych (15th century)
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Adam and Eve (1507)
Paradise and Hell (1510)
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Adam and Eve (1528)
The Fall of Man (1550)
Maps of Ancient Israel
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The Fall of Man (1628)
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Eve (1931)
Adam and Eve (1932)
The Serpent Chooses Adam and Eve (1958)
Adam and Eve (1992)
Songs
"Dese Bones G'wine Rise Again"
"Adam-ondi-Ahman" (1835)
"Forbidden Fruit" (1915)
"The Garden of Eden" (1956)
"Let's Give Adam and Eve Another Chance" (1970)
"Man Gave Names to All the Animals" (1979)
Albums
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Snakes for the Divine
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