text:
Herbalism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Phytomedicine" redirects here. For the journal, see Phytomedicine (journal).
Herbalism (also herbal medicine or phytotherapy) is the study of botany and use of plants intended for medicinal purposes or for supplementing a diet. Plants have been the basis for medical treatments through much of human history, and such traditional medicine is still widely practiced today.[1] Modern medicine makes use of many plant-derived compounds as the basis for evidence-based pharmaceutical drugs. Although phytotherapy may apply modern standards of effectiveness testing to herbs and medicines derived from natural sources, few high-quality clinical trials and standards for purity or dosage exist. The scope of herbal medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee products, as well as minerals, shells and certain animal parts.
The term, phytomedicine, may also refer to the science of pathology and damage to plants, the causes thereof, their manifestations, development, dissemination, methods for maintaining plant health, and measures used to control plant diseases and their causes.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synonyms
2 History
3 Modern herbal medicine
3.1 Clinical tests
3.2 Prevalence of use
3.3 Herbal preparations
3.4 Safety
3.5 Labeling accuracy
3.6 Practitioners of herbalism
3.7 Government regulations
3.8 Scientific criticism
4 Phytotherapy
5 Traditional systems
5.1 Africa
5.2 Americas
5.3 China
5.4 India
5.5 Indonesia
6 Herbal philosophy and spiritual practices
7 Uses of herbal medicines by animals
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
Synonyms[edit]
As terms referring to medicinal or dietary practices of using botanical products, herbalism, herbal medicine or phytotherapy are used interchangeably in many countries, including Canada,[2] Norway,[3] the United Kingdom,[4] other countries in Europe and South America,[5][6][7] South Africa,[8] and the United States.[9]
General practices include ancient methods of traditional Chinese medicine and Ayurveda. Practitioners of herbalism or phytotherapy are referred to as herbalists or phytotherapists.[2][8] Products used in herbalism may be called herbal medicines, botanicals, natural health products, herbal remedies, herbal supplements, or phytotherapies.[5][6][9][10]
History[edit]
Main articles: History of herbalism and Materia medica
Archaeological evidence indicates that the use of medicinal plants dates back to the Paleolithic age, approximately 60,000 years ago. Written evidence of herbal remedies dates back over 5,000 years, to the Sumerians, who compiled lists of plants. A number of ancient cultures wrote about plants and their medical uses in books called herbals. In ancient Egypt, herbs are mentioned in Egyptian medical papyri, depicted in tomb illustrations, or on rare occasions found in medical jars containing trace amounts of herbs.[11] Among the oldest, lengthiest, and most important medical papyri of ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus dates from about 1550 BC, and covers more than 700 drugs, mainly of plant origin.[12] The earliest known Greek herbals come from Theophrastus of Eresos who in the 4th c. B.C. wrote in Greek Historia Plantarum, from Diocles of Carystus who wrote during the 3rd century B.C, and from Krateuas who wrote in the 1st century B.C. Only a few fragments of these works have survived intact, but from what remains scholars have noted a large amount of overlap with the Egyptian herbals.[13] Seeds likely used for herbalism have been found in archaeological sites of Bronze Age China dating from the Shang Dynasty[14] (c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC). Over a hundred of the 224 drugs mentioned in the Huangdi Neijing, an early Chinese medical text, are herbs.[15] Herbs also commonly featured in the medicine of ancient India, where the principal treatment for diseases was diet.[16] De Materia Medica, originally written in Greek by Pedanius Dioscorides (c. 40 – 90 AD) of Anazarbus, Cilicia, a Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist, is a particularly important example of herbal writing; it dominated for some 1500 years until the 1600s.[17]
Modern herbal medicine[edit]
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 80 percent of the population of some Asian and African countries presently use herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care.[18] Pharmaceuticals are prohibitively expensive for most of the world's population, half of whom lived on less than $2 U.S. per day in 2002.[19] In comparison, herbal medicines can be grown from seed or gathered from nature for little or no cost.
Many of the pharmaceuticals currently available to physicians have a long history of use as herbal remedies, including opium, aspirin, digitalis, and quinine. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the United States have been derived from plants.[20] At least 7,000 medical compounds in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants.[21] Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the higher plants and widely used in modern medicine today, 80% show a positive correlation between their modern therapeutic use and the traditional use of the plants from which they are derived.[22]
Clinical tests[edit]
In a 2010 global survey of the most common 1000 plant-derived compounds, 156 had clinical trials published.[23] Preclinical studies (cell culture and animal studies) were reported for about one-half of the plant products, while 120 (12%) of the plants evaluated – although available in the Western market – had no rigorous studies of their properties, and five were toxic or allergenic, a finding that led the authors to conclude "their use ought to be discouraged or forbidden."[23] Nine plants evaluated in human clinical research included Althaea officinalis (marshmallow), Calendula officinalis (marigold), Centella asiatica (centella), Echinacea purpurea (echinacea), Passiflora incarnata (passionflower), Punica granatum (pomegranate), Vaccinium macrocarpon (cranberry), Vaccinium myrtillus (bilberry), and Valeriana officinalis (valerian), although generally there were inconsistent, often negative results, and the studies were of low quality.[23]
In 2015, the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; Herbalism was one of 17 topics evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found.[24] Establishing guidelines to assess safety and efficacy of herbal products, the European Medicines Agency provides criteria for evaluating and grading the quality of clinical research in preparing monographs about herbal products.[25] In the United States, the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health of the National Institutes of Health funds clinical trials on herbal compounds, provides fact sheets evaluating the safety, potential effectiveness and side effects of many plant sources,[26] and maintains a registry of clinical research conducted on herbal products.[27]
According to Cancer Research UK, "there is currently no strong evidence from studies in people that herbal remedies can treat, prevent or cure cancer".[28]
Prevalence of use[edit]
The use of herbal remedies is more prevalent in patients with chronic diseases such as cancer, diabetes, asthma and end-stage renal disease.[29][30][31] Multiple factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, education and social class are also shown to have association with prevalence of herbal remedies use.[32]
A survey released in May 2004 by the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health focused on who used complementary and alternative medicines (CAM), what was used, and why it was used. The survey was limited to adults, aged 18 years and over during 2002, living in the United States. According to this survey, herbal therapy, or use of natural products other than vitamins and minerals, was the most commonly used CAM therapy (18.9%) when all use of prayer was excluded.[33][34]
Herbal remedies are very common in Europe. In Germany, herbal medications are dispensed by apothecaries (e.g., Apotheke). Prescription drugs are sold alongside essential oils, herbal extracts, or herbal teas. Herbal remedies are seen by some as a treatment to be preferred to pure medical compounds that have been industrially produced.[35]
In India the herbal remedy is so popular that the government of India has created a separate department—AYUSH—under the Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. The National Medicinal Plants Board was also established in 2000 by the Indian government in order to deal with the herbal medical system.[36]
Herbal preparations[edit]
There are many forms in which herbs can be administered, the most common of which is in the form of a liquid that is drunk by the patient—either an herbal tea or a (possibly diluted) plant extract.[37]
Several methods of standardization may be determining the amount of herbs used. One is the ratio of raw materials to solvent. However different specimens of even the same plant species may vary in chemical content. For this reason, thin layer chromatography is sometimes used by growers to assess the content of their products before use. Another method is standardization on a signal chemical.[38]
Leaves of Eucalyptus olida being packed into a steam distillation unit to gather its essential oil.
Herbal teas, or tisanes, are the resultant liquid of extracting herbs into water, though they are made in a few different ways. Infusions are hot water extracts of herbs, such as chamomile or mint, through steeping. Decoctions are the long-term boiled extracts, usually of harder substances like roots or bark. Maceration is the old infusion of plants with high mucilage-content, such as sage, thyme, etc. To make macerates, plants are chopped and added to cold water. They are then left to stand for 7 to 12 hours (depending on herb used). For most macerates 10 hours is used.[39]
Tinctures are alcoholic extracts of herbs, which are generally stronger than herbal teas.[40] Tinctures are usually obtained by combining 100% pure ethanol (or a mixture of 100% ethanol with water) with the herb. A completed tincture has an ethanol percentage of at least 25% (sometimes up to 90%).[39] Herbal wine and elixirs are alcoholic extract of herbs, usually with an ethanol percentage of 12–38%.[39] Extracts include liquid extracts, dry extracts, and nebulisates. Liquid extracts are liquids with a lower ethanol percentage than tinctures. They are usually made by vacuum distilling tinctures. Dry extracts are extracts of plant material that are evaporated into a dry mass. They can then be further refined to a capsule or tablet.[39]
The exact composition of an herbal product is influenced by the method of extraction. A tea will be rich in polar components because water is a polar solvent. Oil on the other hand is a non-polar solvent and it will absorb non-polar compounds. Alcohol lies somewhere in between.[37]
A herb shop in the souk of Marrakesh, Morocco
Many herbs are applied topically to the skin in a variety of forms. Essential oil extracts can be applied to the skin, usually diluted in a carrier oil. Many essential oils can burn the skin or are simply too high dose used straight; diluting them in olive oil or another food grade oil such as almond oil can allow these to be used safely as a topical. Salves, oils, balms, creams and lotions are other forms of topical delivery mechanisms. Most topical applications are oil extractions of herbs. Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for anywhere from weeks to months allows certain phytochemicals to be extracted into the oil. This oil can then be made into salves, creams, lotions, or simply used as an oil for topical application. Many massage oils, antibacterial salves, and wound healing compounds are made this way.[41][citation needed]
Inhalation, as in aromatherapy, can be used as a treatment.[42][43][44]
Safety[edit]
For partial list of herbs with known adverse effects, see List of herbs with known adverse effects.
Datura stramonium has been used in Ayurveda for various treatments, but contains alkaloids, such as atropine and scopolamine, which may cause severe toxicity.[45]
A number of herbs are thought to be likely to cause adverse effects.[46] Furthermore, "adulteration, inappropriate formulation, or lack of understanding of plant and drug interactions have led to adverse reactions that are sometimes life threatening or lethal.[47]" Proper double-blind clinical trials are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of each plant before they can be recommended for medical use.[48] Although many consumers believe that herbal medicines are safe because they are "natural", herbal medicines and synthetic drugs may interact, causing toxicity to the patient. Herbal remedies can also be dangerously contaminated, and herbal medicines without established efficacy, may unknowingly be used to replace medicines that do have corroborated efficacy.[49]
Standardization of purity and dosage is not mandated in the United States, but even products made to the same specification may differ as a result of biochemical variations within a species of plant.[50] Plants have chemical defense mechanisms against predators that can have adverse or lethal effects on humans. Examples of highly toxic herbs include poison hemlock and nightshade.[51] They are not marketed to the public as herbs, because the risks are well known, partly due to a long and colorful history in Europe, associated with "sorcery", "magic" and intrigue.[52] Although not frequent, adverse reactions have been reported for herbs in widespread use.[53] On occasion serious untoward outcomes have been linked to herb consumption. A case of major potassium depletion has been attributed to chronic licorice ingestion.,[54] and consequently professional herbalists avoid the use of licorice where they recognize that this may be a risk. Black cohosh has been implicated in a case of liver failure.[55] Few studies are available on the safety of herbs for pregnant women,[56] and one study found that use of complementary and alternative medicines are associated with a 30% lower ongoing pregnancy and live birth rate during fertility treatment.[57] Examples of herbal treatments with likely cause-effect relationships with adverse events include aconite, which is often a legally restricted herb, ayurvedic remedies, broom, chaparral, Chinese herb mixtures, comfrey, herbs containing certain flavonoids, germander, guar gum, liquorice root, and pennyroyal.[58] Examples of herbs where a high degree of confidence of a risk long term adverse effects can be asserted include ginseng, which is unpopular among herbalists for this reason, the endangered herb goldenseal, milk thistle, senna, against which herbalists generally advise and rarely use, aloe vera juice, buckthorn bark and berry, cascara sagrada bark, saw palmetto, valerian, kava, which is banned in the European Union, St. John's wort, Khat, Betel nut, the restricted herb Ephedra, and Guarana.[47]
There is also concern with respect to the numerous well-established interactions of herbs and drugs.[47] In consultation with a physician, usage of herbal remedies should be clarified, as some herbal remedies have the potential to cause adverse drug interactions when used in combination with various prescription and over-the-counter pharmaceuticals, just as a patient should inform a herbalist of their consumption of orthodox prescription and other medication.[citation needed]
For example, dangerously low blood pressure may result from the combination of an herbal remedy that lowers blood pressure together with prescription medicine that has the same effect. Some herbs may amplify the effects of anticoagulants.[59] Certain herbs as well as common fruit interfere with cytochrome P450, an enzyme critical to much drug metabolism.[60]
Labeling accuracy[edit]
A 2013 study found that one-third of herbal supplements sampled contained no trace of the herb listed on the label.[50] The study found products adulterated with contaminants or fillers not listed on the label, including potential allergens such as soy, wheat, or black walnut. One bottle labeled as St. John's Wort was found to actually contain Alexandrian senna, a laxative.[50][61]
Researchers at the University of Adelaide found in 2014 that almost 20 per cent of herbal remedies surveyed were not registered with the Therapeutic Goods Administration, despite this being a condition for their sale.[62] They also found that nearly 60 per cent of products surveyed had ingredients that did not match what was on the label. Out of 121 products, only 15 had ingredients that matched their TGA listing and packaging.[62]
In 2015, the New York Attorney General issued cease and desist letters to four major U.S. retailers (GNC, Target, Walgreens, and Walmart) who were accused of selling herbal supplements that were mislabeled and potentially dangerous.[63][64] Twenty-four products were tested by DNA barcoding as part of the investigation, with all but five containing DNA that did not match the product labels.
Practitioners of herbalism[edit]
A herbalist gathers the flower heads of Arnica montana.
Herbalists must learn many skills, including the wildcrafting or cultivation of herbs, diagnosis and treatment of conditions or dispensing herbal medication, and preparations of herbal medications. Education of herbalists varies considerably in different areas of the world. Lay herbalists and traditional indigenous medicine people generally rely upon apprenticeship and recognition from their communities in lieu of formal schooling.[citation needed]
In some countries formalized training and minimum education standards exist, although these are not necessarily uniform within or between countries. For example, in Australia the currently self-regulated status of the profession (as of April 2008) results in different associations setting different educational standards, and subsequently recognising an educational institution or course of training. The National Herbalists Association of Australia is generally recognised as having the most rigorous professional standard within Australia.[65] In the United Kingdom, the training of medical herbalists is done by state funded Universities. For example, Bachelor of Science degrees in herbal medicine are offered at Universities such as University of East London, Middlesex University, University of Central Lancashire, University of Westminster, University of Lincoln and Napier University in Edinburgh at the present.[41][citation needed]
Government regulations[edit]
The World Health Organization (WHO), the specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that is concerned with international public health, published Quality control methods for medicinal plant materials in 1998 in order to support WHO Member States in establishing quality standards and specifications for herbal materials, within the overall context of quality assurance and control of herbal medicines.[66]
In the European Union (EU), herbal medicines are regulated under the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products.[67]
In the United States, herbal remedies are regulated dietary supplements by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under current good manufacturing practice (cGMP) policy for dietary supplements.[68] Manufacturers of products falling into this category are not required to prove the safety or efficacy of their product so long as they do not make 'medical' claims or imply uses other than as a 'dietary supplement', though the FDA may withdraw a product from sale should it prove harmful.[69][70]
Canadian regulations are described by the Natural and Non-prescription Health Products Directorate which requires an eight-digit Natural Product Number or Homeopathic Medicine Number on the label of licensed herbal medicines or dietary supplements.[10]
Some herbs, such as cannabis and coca, are outright banned in most countries though coca is legal in most of the South American countries where it is grown. The Cannabis plant is used as an herbal medicine, and as such is legal in some parts of the world. Since 2004, the sales of ephedra as a dietary supplement is prohibited in the United States by the FDA,[71] and subject to Schedule III restrictions in the United Kingdom.
Scientific criticism[edit]
Herbalism has been criticized as a potential "minefield" of unreliable product quality, safety hazards, and potential for misleading health advice.[1][72] Globally, there are no standards across various herbal products to authenticate their contents, safety or efficacy,[50] and there is generally an absence of high-quality scientific research on product composition or effectiveness for anti-disease activity.[72][73] Presumed claims of therapeutic benefit from herbal products, without rigorous evidence of efficacy and safety, receive skeptical views by scientists.[1]
Unethical practices by some herbalists and manufacturers, which may include false advertising about health benefits on product labels or literature,[72] and contamination or use of fillers during product preparation,[50][74] may erode consumer confidence about services and products.[75][76]
Phytotherapy[edit]
An example of a 'phytotherapeutic' compound: the bark of the cinchona tree contains quinine, which today is a widely prescribed treatment for malaria, especially in countries that cannot afford to purchase more expensive antimalarial drugs
Paraherbalism or phytotherapy is the pseudoscientific use of extracts of plant or animal origin as supposed medicines or health-promoting agents.[1][72][77] Phytotherapy differs from plant-derived medicines in standard pharmacology because it does not isolate and standardize the compounds from a given plant believed to be biologically active. It relies on the false belief that preserving the complexity of substances from a given plant with less processing is safer and potentially more effective, for which there is no evidence either condition applies.[77]
Phytochemical researcher Varro Eugene Tyler described paraherbalism as "faulty or inferior herbalism based on pseudoscience", using scientific terminology but lacking scientific evidence for safety and efficacy.[77] Tyler listed ten fallacies that distinguish herbalism from paraherbalism, including claims that there is a conspiracy to suppress safe and effective herbs, the doctrine of signatures (the belief that the shape of the plant indicates its function) is valid, dilution of substances increases their potency (a doctrine of the pseudoscience of homeopathy), astrological alignments are significant, anecdotal evidence is an effective means of proving a substance works, and herbs were created by God to cure disease, among others.[77] None of these beliefs have any basis in fact.[41][78]
Closely related to herbalism, phytotherapy is the intended medical use of plants and plant extracts for therapeutic purposes.[79][80][81] A possible differentiation with herbalism is that phytotherapy may require constituents in the plant extract be standardized by adhering to a minimum content of one or several active compounds in the therapeutic product.[79]
Modern phytotherapy may use conventional methods to assess herbal drug quality, but more typically relies on modern processes like high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography, ultraviolet/visible spectrophotometry or atomic absorption spectroscopy to identify species, measure bacteriological contamination, assess potency, and create Certificates of Analysis for the material.[82] Phytotherapy is distinct from homeopathy and anthroposophic medicine, and avoids mixing plant and synthetic bioactive substances. Phytotherapy is regarded by some as traditional medicine.[81]
Traditional systems[edit]
See also: Traditional medicine
Ready to drink macerated medicinal liquor with goji berry, tokay gecko, and ginseng, for sale at a traditional medicine market in Xi'an, China.
Africa[edit]
Main article: Traditional African medicine
Up to 80% of the population in Africa uses traditional medicine as primary health care.[83]
Americas[edit]
Native Americans medicinally used about 2,500 of the approximately 20,000 plant species that are native to North America.[84]
China[edit]
Some researchers trained in both western and traditional Chinese medicine have attempted to deconstruct ancient medical texts in the light of modern science. One idea is that the yin-yang balance, at least with regard to herbs, corresponds to the pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant balance. This interpretation is supported by several investigations of the ORAC ratings of various yin and yang herbs.[85][86]
India[edit]
In India, Ayurvedic medicine has quite complex formulas with 30 or more ingredients, including a sizable number of ingredients that have undergone "alchemical processing", chosen to balance dosha.[87]
In Ladakh, Lahul-Spiti and Tibet, the Tibetan Medical System is prevalent, also called the 'Amichi Medical System'. Over 337 species of medicinal plants have been documented by C.P. Kala. Those are used by Amchis, the practitioners of this medical system.[88][89]
In Tamil Nadu, Tamils have their own medicinal system now popularly called Siddha medicine. The Siddha system is entirely in the Tamil language. It contains roughly 300,000 verses covering diverse aspects of medicine. This work includes herbal, mineral and metallic compositions used as medicine. Ayurveda is in Sanskrit, but Sanskrit was not generally used as a mother tongue and hence its medicines are mostly taken from Siddha and other local traditions.[90]
Indonesia[edit]
Different types of Indonesian jamu herbal medicines held in bottles.
In Indonesia, especially among the Javanese, the jamu traditional herbal medicine is an age old tradition preserved for centuries. Jamu is thought to have originated in the Mataram Kingdom era, some 1300 years ago.[91] The bas-reliefs on Borobudur depicts the image of people grinding herbs with stone mortar and pestle, a drink seller, a physician and masseuse treating their clients.[92] All of these scenes might be interpreted as a traditional herbal medicine and health-related treatments in ancient Java. The Madhawapura inscription from Majapahit period mentioned a specific profession of herbs mixer and combiner (herbalist), called Acaraki.[92] The medicine book from Mataram dated from circa 1700 contains 3,000 entries of jamu herbal recipes, while Javanese classical literature Serat Centhini (1814) describes some jamu herbal concoction recipes.[92]
Though highly possible influenced by Indian Ayurveda system, Indonesia is a vast archipelago with numerous indigenous plants not to be found in India, which include plants similar to Australia beyond the Wallace Line. Indonesians might experimented and figure out the medicinal uses of these native herbal plants. Jamu may vary from region to region, and often not written down, especially in remote areas of the country.[93] Although primarily herbal, materials acquired from animals, such as honey, royal jelly, milk and ayam kampung eggs are also often used in jamu.
Herbal philosophy and spiritual practices[edit]
This article is part of a series on
Alternative medicine, pseudomedicine and medical conspiracy theories
General information[hide]
Alternative medicine
Quackery (Health fraud)
History of alternative medicine
Rise of modern medicine
Pseudoscience
Pseudomedicine
Antiscience
Skepticism
Skeptical movement
Fringe medicine and science[hide]
Accupressure
Acupuncture
Anthroposophic medicine
Bonesetter
Chiropractic
Homeopathy
Mesmerism
Naturopathy
Orgone
Osteopathy
Parapsychology
Phrenology
Radionics
Conspiracy theories[hide]
Anti-fluoridation movement
Anti-vaccine movement
Vaccines causing autism
GMO conspiracy theories
HIV/AIDS origins
Chemtrails
Classifications[hide]
Alternative medical systems
Mind–body intervention
Biologically-based therapy
Manipulative methods
Energy therapy
Traditional medicine[hide]
Apitherapy
Ayurveda
African
Greek
Roman
European
Japanese
Shamanism
Siddha
Chinese
Korean
Mongolian
Tibetan
Yunani
Chumash
v
t
e
According to Eisenburg: “The Chinese and Western medical models are like two frames of reference in which identical phenomena are studied. Neither frame of reference provides an unobstructed view of health and illness. Each is incomplete and in need of refinement." Specifically, the traditional Chinese medical model could effect change on the recognized and expected phenomena of detachment to patients unique to the clinical relationships between patient and physician of the Western school of medicine.[94]
Four approaches to the use of plants as medicine include:[95]
The magical/shamanic— Almost all societies, with the exception of cultures influenced by Western-style industrialization, recognize this kind of use. The practitioner is regarded as endowed with gifts or powers that allow him/her to use herbs in a way that is hidden from the average person, and the herbs are said to affect the spirit or soul of the person.
The energetic— This approach includes the major systems of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, and Unani. Herbs are regarded as having actions in terms of their energies and affecting the energies of the body. The practitioner may have extensive training, and ideally be sensitive to energy, but need not have supernatural powers.
The functional dynamic— This approach was used by early physiomedical practitioners, whose doctrine forms the basis of contemporary practice in the UK. Herbs have a functional action, which is not necessarily linked to a physical compound, although often to a physiological function, but there is no explicit recourse to concepts involving energy.
The chemical— Modern phytotherapists attempt to explain herb actions in terms of their chemical constituents. It is generally assumed that the specific combination of secondary metabolites in the plant are responsible for the activity claimed or demonstrated, a concept called synergy.
Herbalists tend to use extracts from parts of plants, such as the roots or leaves but not isolate particular phytochemicals.[96] Pharmaceutical medicine prefers single ingredients on the grounds that dosage can be more easily quantified. It is also possible to patent single compounds, and therefore generate income. Herbalists often reject the notion of a single active ingredient, arguing that the different phytochemicals present in many herbs will interact to enhance the therapeutic effects of the herb and dilute toxicity.[82] Furthermore, they argue that a single ingredient may contribute to multiple effects. Herbalists deny that herbal synergism can be duplicated with synthetic chemicals They argue that phytochemical interactions and trace components may alter the drug response in ways that cannot currently be replicated with a combination of a few potentially active ingredients.[97] Pharmaceutical researchers recognize the concept of drug synergism but note that clinical trials may be used to investigate the efficacy of a particular herbal preparation, provided the formulation of that herb is consistent.[98]
In specific cases the claims of synergy[99] and multifunctionality[100] have been supported by science. The open question is how widely both can be generalized. Herbalists would argue that cases of synergy can be widely generalized, on the basis of their interpretation of evolutionary history, not necessarily shared by the pharmaceutical community. Plants are subject to similar selection pressures as humans and therefore they must develop resistance to threats such as radiation, reactive oxygen species and microbial attack in order to survive.[101] Optimal chemical defenses have been selected for and have thus developed over millions of years.[102] Human diseases are multifactorial and may be treated by consuming the chemical defences that they believe to be present in herbs. Bacteria, inflammation, nutrition and reactive oxygen species may all play a role in arterial disease.[103] Herbalists claim a single herb may simultaneously address several of these factors.[104] In short herbalists view their field as the study of a web of relationships rather than a quest for single cause and a single cure for a single condition.
In selecting herbal treatments herbalists may use forms of information that are not applicable to pharmacists. Because herbs can moonlight as vegetables, teas or spices they have a huge consumer base and large-scale epidemiological studies become feasible. Ethnobotanical studies are another source of information.[105] Herbalists contend that historical medical records and herbals are underutilized resources.[106] They favor the use of convergent information in assessing the medical value of plants. An example would be when in-vitro activity is consistent with traditional use.
Uses of herbal medicines by animals[edit]
Main article: Zoopharmacognosy
Indigenous healers often claim to have learned by observing that sick animals change their food preferences to nibble at bitter herbs they would normally reject.[107] Field biologists have provided corroborating evidence based on observation of diverse species, such as chickens, sheep, butterflies, and chimpanzee. The habit[which?] has been shown to be a physical means of purging intestinal parasites. Lowland gorillas take 90%[verification needed] of their diet from the fruits of Aframomum melegueta, a relative of the ginger plant, that is a potent antimicrobial and apparently keeps shigellosis and similar infections at bay.[108] Current research focuses on the possibility that this plants also protects gorillas from fibrosing cardiomyopathy which has a devastating effect on captive animals.[109]
Sick animals tend to forage plants rich in secondary metabolites, such as tannins and alkaloids.[110] Since these phytochemicals often have antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and antihelminthic properties, a plausible case can be made for self-medication by animals in the wild.[108]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Herbalism.
Adaptogen
Ayurveda
Chinese herbology
Doctrine of signatures
Ethnobotany
Ethnomedicine
European Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products
Herb garden
Herbal
Herbal tea
Integrative medicine
List of plants used in herbalism
Naturopathy
Portal:Herbalism
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Hard to swallow". Nature. 448 (7150): 105–6. 2007. Bibcode:2007Natur.448S.105.. doi:10.1038/448106a. PMID 17625521.
^ Jump up to: a b "What is herbalism?". Canadian Herbalist Association of British Columbia. 2015. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Herbal medicine / Phytotherapy". National Research Center in Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Norway. Retrieved 24 February 2017. Herbal medicine/Phytotherapy as a treatment is directly regulated in 10 of 39 countries. ... Switzerland: Anthroposophic medicine, classical homeopathy, herbal medicine (Phytotherapy) and non-acupuncture TCM, practised by certified Medical Doctors (MDs) will be permanently included in KVG (krankenversicherung) of compulsory Health Insurance (OKP).
Jump up ^ Ernst, Edzard (10 November 1998). "Health: Herbs that can cure you – or kill you". The Independent. Retrieved 24 February 2017. There are two types of herbalism – traditional and phytotherapy.
^ Jump up to: a b "Phytotherapy and Herbal Medicine". Patient QI. Phytotherapy and Herbal Medicine tend to be used interchangeably as terms. Phytotherapy is the term used more in France, Spain, Italy, Portugal, Belgium and South America whilst Herbal Medicine is the English term and is used more in the UK Northern Europe, Australasia and North America. In North America herbal supplements are usually prescribed by naturopaths, in the UK and Europe they would be prescribed by Medical Herbalists or Phytotherapists.
^ Jump up to: a b Capasso R, Izzo AA, Pinto L, Bifulco T, Vitobello C, Mascolo N (2000). "Phytotherapy and quality of herbal medicines". Filoterapia. 71 (Suppl 1): S58–65. doi:10.1016/s0367-326x(00)00173-8. PMID 10930714. The extensive use of plants as medicines has pointed out that herbal medicines are not as safe as frequently claimed.
Jump up ^ Capasso, F.; Gaginella, T.S.; Grandolini, G.; Izzo, A.A. (2003). Phytotherapy A Quick Reference to Herbal Medicine. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-00052-5.
^ Jump up to: a b "Phytotherapy". South African Association of Herbal Practitioners. 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2017. Phytotherapy or herbalism is the oldest medical practice in the world. Our ancestors used herbs to treat their illnesses and even today many cultures still rely on herbs for their medicine. ... In South Africa, Phytotherapy is a registered profession.
^ Jump up to: a b "Herbal medicine". MedlinePlus, National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health. 3 January 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Licensed Natural Health Products Database: What is it?". Health Canada. 8 December 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Nunn, John (2002). Ancient Egyptian Medicine. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-8061-3504-5.
Jump up ^ Atanasov AG, Waltenberger B, Pferschy-Wenzig EM, Linder T, Wawrosch C, Uhrin P, Temml V, Wang L, Schwaiger S, Heiss EH, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Breuss JM, Bochkov V, Mihovilovic MD, Kopp B, Bauer R, Dirsch VM, Stuppner H (2015). "Discovery and resupply of pharmacologically active plant-derived natural products: A review". Biotechnol. Adv. 33: 1582–614. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.001. PMC 4748402  . PMID 26281720.
Jump up ^ Robson, Barry & Baek, O.K. (2009). The Engines of Hippocrates: From the Dawn of Medicine to Medical and Pharmaceutical Informatics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 50. ISBN 9780470289532.
Jump up ^ Hong, Francis (2004). "History of Medicine in China" (PDF). McGill Journal of Medicine. 8 (1): 7984. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-01.
Jump up ^ Unschuld, Pual (2003). Huang Di Nei Jing: Nature, Knowledge, Imagery in an Ancient Chinese Medical Text. University of California Press. p. 286. ISBN 978-0-520-92849-7.
Jump up ^ Ackerknecht, Erwin (1982). A Short History of Medicine. JHU Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8018-2726-6.
Jump up ^ The Classical Tradition. Harvard University Press. 2010. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0.
Jump up ^ "Traditional medicine". Archived from the original on 2008-07-28.
Jump up ^ Edgar J. DaSilva; Elias Baydoun; Adnan Badran (2002). "Biotechnology and the developing world". Electronic Journal of Biotechnology. 5 (1). doi:10.2225/vol5-issue1-fulltext-1. ISSN 0717-3458.
Jump up ^ "Traditional medicine". Archived from the original on 2008-07-28.
Jump up ^ Interactive European Network for Industrial Crops and their Applications (2000–2005). "Summary Report for the European Union". QLK5-CT-2000-00111. Archived from the original on 2013-12-22. [www.ienica.net/reports/ienicafinalsummaryreport2000-2005.pdf Free full-text].
Jump up ^ Fabricant DS, Farnsworth NR (March 2001). "The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drug discovery". Environ. Health Perspect. 109 Suppl 1 (Suppl 1): 69–75. doi:10.1289/ehp.01109s169. PMC 1240543  . PMID 11250806.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cravotto G, Boffa L, Genzini L, Garella D (February 2010). "Phytotherapeutics: an evaluation of the potential of 1000 plants". J Clin Pharm Ther. 35 (1): 11–48. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01096.x. PMID 20175810.
Jump up ^ Baggoley C (2015). "Review of the Australian Government Rebate on Natural Therapies for Private Health Insurance" (PDF). Australian Government – Department of Health. Lay summary – Gavura, S. Australian review finds no benefit to 17 natural therapies. Science-Based Medicine. (19 November 2015).
Jump up ^ "Assessment of clinical safety and efficacy in the preparation of Community herbal monographs for well-established and of Community herbal monographs/entries to the Community list for traditional herbal medicinal products/substances/preparations". European Medicines Agency. 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Herbs at a Glance". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Institutes of Health. 21 November 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Clinicaltrials.gov, a registry of studies on herbal medicine". Clinicaltrials.gov, US National Institutes of Health. 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Herbal medicine". Cancer Research UK. Retrieved 15 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Burstein, H. J.; Gelber, S; Guadagnoli, E; Weeks, J. C. (June 1999). "Use of alternative medicine by women with early-stage breast cancer". N Engl J Med. 340 (22): 1733–9. doi:10.1056/NEJM199906033402206. PMID 10352166.
Jump up ^ Egede, L. E.; Ye, X; Zheng, D; Silverstein, M. D. (February 2002). "The prevalence and pattern of complementary and alternative medicine use in individuals with diabetes". Diabetes Care. 25 (2): 324–9. doi:10.2337/diacare.25.2.324. PMID 11815504.
Jump up ^ Roozbeh, J; Hashempur, M. H.; Heydari, M (November 2013). "Use of herbal remedies among patients undergoing hemodialysis". Iran J Kidney Dis. 7 (6): 492–5. PMID 24241097.
Jump up ^ Bishop, F. L.; Lewith, G. T. (March 2010). "Who Uses CAM? A Narrative Review of Demographic Characteristics and Health Factors Associated with CAM Use". Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 7 (1): 11–28. doi:10.1093/ecam/nen023. PMC 2816378  . PMID 18955327.
Jump up ^ Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a combination of medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine.
Jump up ^ More Than One-Third of U.S. Adults Use Complementary and Alternative Medicine Press release, May 27, 2004. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health
Jump up ^ James A. Duke (December 1999 – January 2000). "Returning to our Medicinal Roots". Mother Earth News: 26–33.
Jump up ^ Kala, Chandra Prakash; Sajwan (2007). "Revitalizing Indian systems of herbal medicine by the National Medicinal Plants Board through institutional networking and capacity building". Current Science. 93 (6): 797–806.
^ Jump up to: a b Saad, Bashar & Said, Omar (2011). Greco-Arab and Islamic Herbal Medicine: Traditional System, Ethics, Safety, Efficacy, and Regulatory Issues. John Wiley & Sons. p. 80. ISBN 9780470474211.
Jump up ^ "What is Herb Standardization?". HerbalGram. (52): 25. 2001.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Groot Handboek Geneeskrachtige Planten by Geert Verhelst
Jump up ^ Green, James (2000). The Herbal Medicine Maker's Handbook: A Home Manual. Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 168. ISBN 9780895949905.
^ Jump up to: a b c Odinsson, Eoghan (2010). Northern Lore: A Field Guide to the Northern Mind-Body-Spirit. ISBN 1452851433.
Jump up ^ "Aromatherapy". University of Maryland Medical Center. 2017.
Jump up ^ Herz R (2009). "Aroma therapy facts and fiction: a scientific analysis". Int J Neurosci. 119 (2): 263–290. doi:10.1080/00207450802333953. PMID 19125379.
Jump up ^ Gilani AH, Shah AJ, Zubair A, Khalid S, Kiani J, Ahmed A, Rasheed M, Ahmad V (2009). "Chemical composition and mechanisms underlying the spasmolytic and bronchodilatory properties of the essential oil of Nepeta cataria L". J Ethnopharmacol. 121 (3): 405–411. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2008.11.004.
Jump up ^ Gaire, B. P.; Subedi, L (2013). "A review on the pharmacological and toxicological aspects of Datura stramonium L". Journal of Integrative Medicine. 11 (2): 73–9. doi:10.3736/jintegrmed2013016. PMID 23506688.
Jump up ^ Talalay, P; Talalay, P (2001). "The importance of using scientific principles in the development of medicinal agents from plants". Academic Medicine. 76 (3): 238–47. doi:10.1097/00001888-200103000-00010. PMID 11242573.
^ Jump up to: a b c Elvin-Lewis M (2001). "Should we be concerned about herbal remedies". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 75 (2–3): 141–164. doi:10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00394-9. PMID 11297844.
Jump up ^ Vickers AJ (2007). "Which botanicals or other unconventional anticancer agents should we take to clinical trial?". J Soc Integr Oncol. 5 (3): 125–9. doi:10.2310/7200.2007.011. PMC 2590766  . PMID 17761132.
Jump up ^ Ernst E (2007). "Herbal medicines: balancing benefits and risks". Novartis Found. Symp. Novartis Foundation Symposia. 282: 154–67; discussion 167–72, 212–8. doi:10.1002/9780470319444.ch11. ISBN 978-0-470-31944-4. PMID 17913230.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Newmaster, S. G.; Grguric, M; Shanmughanandhan, D; Ramalingam, S; Ragupathy, S (2013). "DNA barcoding detects contamination and substitution in North American herbal products". BMC Medicine. 11: 222. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-11-222. PMC 3851815  . PMID 24120035.
Jump up ^ Müller, JL (1998). "Love potions and the ointment of witches: historical aspects of the nightshade alkaloids". J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 36 (6): 617–27. doi:10.3109/15563659809028060. PMID 9776969.
Jump up ^ Lee, MR (December 2006). "Solanaceae III: henbane, hags and Hawley Harvey Crippen". J R Coll Physicians Edinb. 36 (4): 366–73. PMID 17526134.
Jump up ^ Pinn, G (November 2001). "Adverse effects associated with herbal medicine". Aust Fam Physician. 30 (11): 1070–5. PMID 11759460.
Jump up ^ Lin, Shih-Hua; Yang, SS; Chau, T; Halperin, ML (March 2003). "An unusual cause of hypokalemic paralysis: chronic licorice ingestion". Am J Med Sci. 325 (3): 153–6. doi:10.1097/00000441-200303000-00008. PMID 12640291.
Jump up ^ Lynch, Christopher R.; Folkers, ME; Hutson, WR (June 2006). "Fulminant hepatic failure associated with the use of black cohosh: a case report". Liver Transpl. 12 (6): 989–92. doi:10.1002/lt.20778. PMID 16721764.
Jump up ^ Born, D; Barron, ML (May–June 2005). "Herb use in pregnancy: what nurses should know". MCN Am J Matern Child Nurs. 30 (3): 201–6. doi:10.1097/00005721-200505000-00009. PMID 15867682.
Jump up ^ Boivin J, Schmidt L (2009). "Use of complementary and alternative medicines associated with a 30% lower onging pregnancy/live birth rate during 12 months of fertility treatment". Human Reproduction. 24 (7): 1626–1631. doi:10.1093/humrep/dep077. PMID 19359338.
Jump up ^ Ernst E (1998). "Harmless Herbs? A Review of the Recent Literature" (PDF). The American Journal of Medicine. 104 (2): 170–8. doi:10.1016/S0002-9343(97)00397-5. PMID 9528737. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Spolarich, AE; Andrews, L (Summer 2007). "An examination of the bleeding complications associated with herbal supplements, antiplatelet and anticoagulant medications". J Dent Hyg. 81 (3): 67. PMID 17908423.
Jump up ^ Nekvindová, J; Anzenbacher, P (July 2007). "Interactions of food and dietary supplements with drug metabolising cytochrome P450 enzymes". Ceska Slov Farm. 56 (4): 165–73. PMID 17969314.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, Anahad (3 November 2012). "Herbal Supplements Are Often Not What They Seem". New York Times. Retrieved 12 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Carroll, Lucy (24 February 2014). "Herbal medicines: Study raises alarm over labelling". The Sydney Morning Herald, Australia. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, Anahad (3 February 2015). "New York Attorney General Targets Supplements at Major Retailers". New York Times. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Kaplan, Sarah (3 February 2015). "GNC, Target, Wal-Mart, Walgreens accused of selling adulterated 'herbals'". Washington Post. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Breakspear I (2006). "Education and Regulation in Herbal Medicine: An Australian Perspective". Journal of the American Herbalists Guild. 6 (2): 35–38.
Jump up ^ "WHO Quality Control Methods for Herbal Materials" (PDF). World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 2011.
Jump up ^ "Herbal medicinal products". European Medicines Agency. 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Botanical Dietary Supplements". Office of Dietary Supplements, US National Institutes of Health. June 2011. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
Jump up ^ US Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994
Jump up ^ Goldman P (2001). "Herbal medicines today and the roots of modern pharmacology". Annals of Internal Medicine. 135 (8 Pt 1): 594–600. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-135-8_Part_1-200110160-00010. PMID 11601931.
Jump up ^ FDA Issues Regulation Prohibiting Sale of Dietary Supplements Containing Ephedrine Alkaloids and Reiterates Its Advice That Consumers Stop Using These Products Archived 2007-09-15 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Barrett, Stephen (23 November 2013). "The herbal minefield". Quackwatch. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy, 2014-2023; page 41" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2013. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Zhang, J; Wider, B; Shang, H; Li, X; Ernst, E (2012). "Quality of herbal medicines: Challenges and solutions". Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 20 (1–2): 100–6. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2011.09.004. PMID 22305255.
Jump up ^ Morris, C. A.; Avorn, J (2003). "Internet marketing of herbal products". JAMA. 290 (11): 1505–9. doi:10.1001/jama.290.11.1505. PMID 13129992.
Jump up ^ Coghlan, M. L.; Haile, J; Houston, J; Murray, D. C.; White, N. E.; Moolhuijzen, P; Bellgard, M. I.; Bunce, M (2012). "Deep Sequencing of Plant and Animal DNA Contained within Traditional Chinese Medicines Reveals Legality Issues and Health Safety Concerns". PLoS Genetics. 8 (4): e1002657. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002657. PMC 3325194  . PMID 22511890.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Varro E. Tyler (31 August 1999). "False Tenets of Paraherbalism". Quackwatch. Retrieved 2016-10-29.
Jump up ^ Tyler, VE; Robbers JE (1999). Tyler's Herbs of Choice: The Therapeutic Use of Phytomedicinals. Routledge. pp. 6–8. ISBN 0789001594.
^ Jump up to: a b Heinrich, Michael (30 May 2016). "Phytotherapy". Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Capasso, F.; Gaginella, T.S.; Grandolini, G.; Izzo, A.A. (2003). Phytotherapy A Quick Reference to Herbal Medicine. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-00052-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Moulay Alaoui-Jamali (2 September 2010). Alternative and Complementary Therapies for Cancer: Integrative Approaches and Discovery of Conventional Drugs. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 558–. ISBN 1441900209.
^ Jump up to: a b Gad, H. A.; El-Ahmady, S. H.; Abou-Shoer, M. I.; Al-Azizi, M. M. (2013). "Application of chemometrics in authentication of herbal medicines: A review". Phytochemical Analysis. 24 (1): 1–24. doi:10.1002/pca.2378. PMID 22678654.
Jump up ^ "Traditional medicine, Factsheet No. 134". World Health Organization. May 2003.
Jump up ^ Moerman, Daniel E. (1997). "Ethnobotany in North America". In Selin, Helaine. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer. p. 321. ISBN 9780792340669.
Jump up ^ Liao, Hui; Banbury, Linda K.; Leach, David N. (2008). "Antioxidant activity of 45 Chinese herbs and the relationship with their TCM characteristics". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 5 (4): 429–34. doi:10.1093/ecam/nem054. PMC 2586310  . PMID 18955214.
Jump up ^ Boxin Ou; Dejian Huang; Maureen Hampsch-Woodill & Judith A. Flanagan (2003). "When east meets west: the relationship between yin-yang and antioxidation-oxidation". The FASEB Journal. 17 (2): 127–129. doi:10.1096/fj.02-0527hyp. PMID 12554690.
Jump up ^ Kala, Chandra Prakash (2006). "Preserving Ayurvedic herbal formulations by Vaidyas: The traditional healers of the Uttaranchal Himalaya region in India". HerbalGram. 70: 42–50.
Jump up ^ Kala, Chandra Prakash (2005). "Health traditions of Buddhist community and role of amchis in trans-Himalayan region of India". Current Science. 89 (8): 1331–1338.
Jump up ^ Kala, Chandra Prakash (2003). Medicinal plants of Indian trans-Himalaya. Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. p. 200.
Jump up ^ Theivaththin Kural, Chandrasekarendra saraswathi sankaracharya, Vol.3, pp737
Jump up ^ Indira Permanasari; Aryo Wisanggeni (21 February 2012). "Jejak Mataram Kuno di Sindoro". Ekspedisi Cincin Api Kompas (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Jamu dan Lulur, Rahasia Cantik Para Putri Keraton". Tribun Jogja (in Indonesian). 21 May 2013. Retrieved 4 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Susan-Jane Beers, Jamu: The Ancient Indonesian Art of Herbal Healing (Hong Kong: Periplus, 2001)
Jump up ^ Eisenberg, David, and Thomas Lee Wright. Encounters with Qi: Exploring Chinese Medicine. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1995.
Jump up ^ Hirani, Sushma. "Herbal Therapy". Sushma Hirani. Retrieved 5 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Vickers, A; Zollman, C (October 16, 1999). "Herbal medicine". British Medical Journal. 319 (7216): 1050–3. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7216.1050. PMC 1116847  . PMID 10521203.
Jump up ^ Williamson, E (2001). "Synergy and other interactions in phytomedicines". Phytomedicine. 8 (5): 401–409. doi:10.1078/0944-7113-00060. PMID 11695885.
Jump up ^ Goldman, Peter (2001). "Herbal Medicines Today and the Roots of Modern Pharmacology" (PDF). Annals of Internal Medicine. 135 (8 Pt 1): 594–600. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-135-8_Part_1-200110160-00010. PMID 11601931. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-27.
Jump up ^ Williamson, E (2001). "Synergy and other interactions in phytomedicines". Phytomedicine. 8 (5): 401–409. doi:10.1078/0944-7113-00060. PMID 11695885.
Jump up ^ Izhaki, Ido (2002). "Emodin – a secondary metabolite with multiple ecological functions in higher plants". New Phytologist. 155 (2): 205–217. doi:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00459.x.
Jump up ^ Grassmann, J; Hippeli, Susanne; Elstner, Erich F (June–August 2002). "Plant's defence and its benefits for animals and medicine: role of phenolics and terpenoids in avoiding oxygen stress". Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. 40 (6–8): 471–478. doi:10.1016/S0981-9428(02)01395-5.
Jump up ^ Briskin, D. P. (October 2000). "Medicinal Plants and Phytomedicines. Linking Plant Biochemistry and Physiology to Human Health". Plant Physiol. 124 (2): 507–514. doi:10.1104/pp.124.2.507. PMC 1539282  . PMID 11027701.
Jump up ^ Mallika, V.; Goswami, B; Rajappa, M (October–November 2007). "Atherosclerosis pathophysiology and the role of novel risk factors: a clinicobiochemical perspective". Angiology. 58 (5): 513–22. doi:10.1177/0003319707303443. PMID 18024933.
Jump up ^ Govindarajan, R; Vijayakumar, M; Pushpangadan, P (2005). "Antioxidant approach to disease management and the role of 'Rasayana' herbs of Ayurveda". J. Ethnopharmacol. 99 (2): 165–78. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2005.02.035. PMID 15894123.
Jump up ^ Slikkerveer, L.J. (2006). The Challenge Of Non-experimental Validation Of Mac Plants. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Springer.
Jump up ^ Riddle, JM (2002). "History as a tool in identifying "new" old drugs". Adv Exp Med Biol. 505: 89–94. PMID 12083469.
Jump up ^ Huffman MA (May 2003). "Animal self-medication and ethno-medicine: exploration and exploitation of the medicinal properties of plants". Proc Nutr Soc (in Hindi). 62 (2): 371–81. doi:10.1079/PNS2003257. PMID 14506884.
^ Jump up to: a b Engel, Cindy (2002). Wild Health: How Animals Keep Themselves Well and What We Can Learn From Them. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-07178-4.
Jump up ^ Dybas, Raskin (2007). "Out of Africa: A Tale of Gorillas, Heart Disease... and a Swamp Plant". BioScience. 57 (5): 392–397. doi:10.1641/B570503.
Jump up ^ Hutchings MR, Athanasiadou S, Kyriazakis I, Gordon IJ (May 2003). "Can animals use foraging behavior to combat parasites?". Proc Nutr Soc. 62 (2): 361–70. doi:10.1079/PNS2003243. PMID 14506883.
Further reading[edit]
Aronson, Jeffrey K. (2008). Meyler's Side Effects of Herbal Medicines. Elsevier. ISBN 9780080932903.
Braun, Lesley & Cohen, Marc (2007). Herbs and Natural Supplements: An Evidence-Based Guide. Elsevier. ISBN 9780729537964.
[show]
v
t
e
History of botany
Fields and
disciplines
Agriculture
Biogeography
Bryology
Cladistics
Comparative anatomy
Cytology
Economic botany
Ethnobotany
Floristics
Forestry
Genetic engineering
Horticulture
Lichenology
Molecular phylogenetics
Mycology
Natural history
Numerical taxonomy
Paleobotany
Palynology
Phycology
Phytochemistry
Phytogeography
Plant anatomy
Plant ecology
Plant genetics
Plant morphology
Plant pathology
Plant physiology
Pteridology
Institutions
Jardin des Plantes
Natural History Museum, London
Orto botanico di Padova
Orto botanico di Pisa
Rothamsted Research
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Publications
Historia Plantarum and Causes of Plants of Theophrastus c. 300 BC
De Plantis of Nicolaus of Damascus c. 1st-century BC
De Materia Medica of Dioscorides c. 60 AD
Naturalis Historia 77–79 AD
De Vegetabilibus of Albertus Magnus c. 1256
Herbarum Vivae Icones 1530
Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus 1538
Kreütterbuch of Hieronymus Bock 1539
De plantis libri XVI of Caesalpino 1583
Stirpium Historiae 1583
Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes 1597
Prodromus Theatrici Botanici 1620
Pinax theatri botanici 1623
Anatome Plantarum 1675
Anatomy of Plants 1682
Historia Plantarum of John Ray 1686–1704
De Sexu Plantarum Epistola 1694
Éléments de botanique 1694
Vegetable Staticks 1727
Systema Naturae 1735
Genera Plantarum 1737
Philosophia Botanica 1751
Species Plantarum 1753
Systema Naturae, 10th ed. 1758–9
Familles des Plantes 1763–4
Experiments Upon Vegetables 1779
Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen 1790
Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale 1802
Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation 1804
Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen 1812
Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis 1824–73
Nepenthaceae
Die Vegetabilische Zelle 1851
Vergleichende Untersuchungen 1851
On the Origin of Species 1859
Experiments on Plant Hybridization 1865
Die Vegetation der Erde 1872
Plantesamfund 1895
Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage 1898
Variation and Evolution in Plants 1950
Ontogeny and Phylogeny 1977
An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants 1981
Theories and
concepts
Alternation of generations
Cell theory
Center of diversity
Phylogenetic nomenclature
Spontaneous generation
Taxonomy
Ultrastructure
Influential
figures
Theophrastus c. 371–287 BC
Pliny the Elder 23–79 AD
Pedanius Dioscorides c. 40–90 AD
Otto Brunfels 1464–1534
Hieronymus Bock 1498–1554
Valerius Cordus 1515–1544
William Turner 1515–1568
Rembert Dodoens 1517–1585
Andrea Cesalpino 1519–1603
Gaspard Bauhin 1560–1624
Joachim Jungius 1587–1657
John Ray 1623–1705
Nehemiah Grew 1628–1711
Marcello Malpighi 1628–1694
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort 1656–1708
Rudolf Jakob Camerarius 1665–1721
Stephen Hales 1677–1761
Bernard de Jussieu 1699–1777
Carolus Linnaeus 1707–1778
Michel Adanson 1727–1806
Jan Ingenhousz 1730–1799
Joseph Banks 1743–1820
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1749–1832
Carl Ludwig Willdenow 1765–1812
Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure 1767–1845
Alexander von Humboldt 1769–1859
Aimé Bonpland 1773–1858
Thomas Nuttall 1786–1859
Joakim Frederik Schouw 1789–1852
Matthias Jakob Schleiden 1804–1881
Alexander Braun 1805–1877
George Engelmann 1809–1884
Asa Gray 1810–1888
August Grisebach 1814–1879
Joseph Hooker 1817–1911
Gregor Mendel 1822–1884
Nathanael Pringsheim 1823–1894
Wilhelm Hofmeister 1824–1877
Julius von Sachs 1832–1897
Eugenius Warming 1841–1924
William Gilson Farlow 1844–1919
Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper 1856–1901
Nikolai Vavilov 1887–1943
Barbara McClintock 1902–1992
G. Ledyard Stebbins 1906–2000
Eugene Odum 1913–2002
Arthur Cronquist 1919–1992
Related
Botanical garden
Herbal
Plant taxonomy
History of plant systematics
Systems of plant taxonomy
Herbalism
History of agricultural science
History of agriculture
History of biochemistry
History of biology
History of biotechnology
History of ecology
History of evolutionary thought
History of genetics
History of geology
History of medicine
History of molecular biology
History of molecular evolution
History of paleontology
History of phycology
History of science
Natural philosophy
Philosophy of biology
Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
Category
Commons
[show]
v
t
e
Medicinal herbs and fungi
Herbs
Alfalfa
Aloe vera
Anise
Asthma-plant
Astragalus
Cannabis
medical use
Caraway
Cardamom
Chamomile
Chaparral
Fenugreek
Feverfew
Flaxseed
Ginger
Ginkgo
Ginseng
Goldenseal
Lemon balm
Liquorice
Marigold
Marsh-mallow
Neem
Opium poppy
Oregano
Peppermint
Purple coneflower
Rosemary
Sage
Star anise
Summer savory
Tea tree oil
Thyme
Turmeric
Umckaloabo
Valerian
Verbena
White willow
Yarrow
Za'atar
Fungi
Almond mushroom
Chaga mushroom
Echigoshirayukidake
Lingzhi mushroom
Maitake
Meshima
Morel mushroom
Shiitake
Regional practices
Chinese herbology
Indian herbology
Islamic herbology
Japanese herbology
Korean herbology
Related subjects
Alternative medicine
Doctrine of signatures
Herb garden
Herbal
Herbal tea
Herbalism
Homeopathy
Medicinal plants
List of plants used in herbalism
[show]
v
t
e
Traditional medicine
East Asian
Chinese
Japanese
Korean
Mongolian
Tibetan
South
and Southeast Asian
Ayurveda (Indian)
Jamu (Indonesian)
Dweep Unani
Siddha (South Indian)
Sri Lankan
Thai
Vietnamese
European
and Middle Eastern
Ancient Egyptian
Ancient Greek
Ancient Iranian
Byzantine
Irani
Roman
Islamic
Unani
African
Iboga
Muti
Nganga
Hausa
South Africa
Yorùbá
Americas
Aztec
Brazilian
Curandero
Kallawaya
Mapuche
Maya
Chumash
Other
Australian Bush
Western Europe
General
Alchemy
Alternative medicine
History
Ethnomedicine
Health care
Herbalism
Humorism
Naturopathy
Prehistoric
Shamanism
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Dietary supplements
Types
Amino acids
Bodybuilding supplement
Energy drink
Energy bar
Fatty acids
Herbal supplements
Minerals
Prebiotics
Probiotics (Lactobacillus
Bifidobacterium)
Protein bar
Vitamins
Vitamins and
chemical elements ("minerals")
Retinol (Vitamin A)
B vitamins: Thiamine (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Niacin (B3)
Pantothenic acid (B5)
Pyridoxine (B6)
Biotin (B7)
Folic acid (B9)
Cyanocobalamin (B12)
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
Ergocalciferol and Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D)
Tocopherol (Vitamin E)
Naphthoquinone (Vitamin K)
Calcium
Choline
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iodine
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Phosphorus
Potassium
Selenium
Sodium
Sulfur
Zinc
Other common ingredients
AAKG
β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate
Carnitine
Chondroitin sulfate
Cod liver oil
Copper gluconate
Creatine/Creatine supplements
Dietary fiber
Echinacea
Elemental calcium
Ephedra
Fish oil
Folic acid
Ginseng
Glucosamine
Glutamine
Grape seed extract
Guarana
Iron supplements
Japanese Honeysuckle
Krill oil
Lingzhi
Linseed oil
Lipoic acid
Milk thistle
Melatonin
Red yeast rice
Royal jelly
Saw palmetto
Spirulina
St John's wort
Taurine
Wheatgrass
Wolfberry
Yohimbine
Zinc gluconate
Related articles
Codex Alimentarius
Enzyte
Hadacol
Herbal tea
Nutraceutical
Multivitamin
Nutrition
Authority control
GND: 4774268-9
NDL: 00563413
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herbalism&oldid=842766778"
Categories:
Herbalism
Botany
History of botany
Biologically-based therapies
Dietary supplements
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1 Indonesian-language sources (id)
CS1 Hindi-language sources (hi)
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2017
All pages needing factual verification
Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from February 2017
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
Català
Deutsch
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Français
한국어
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
ಕನ್ನಡ
Lietuvių
Bahasa Melayu
日本語
Norsk
پښتو
Patois
Polski
Português
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Suomi
தமிழ்
Türkçe
Zazaki
Žemaitėška
中文
23 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 24 May 2018, at 14:50.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: b

value: sup

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug
mw-redirect
Pharmaceutical drug

values:
/wiki/Dietary_mineral
mw-redirect
Dietary mineral

values:
/wiki/Animal_shell
mw-redirect
Animal shell

values:
/wiki/Medicinal_plant
mw-redirect
Medicinal plant

values:
/wiki/Shang_Dynasty
mw-redirect
Shang Dynasty

values:
/wiki/Punica_granatum
mw-redirect
Punica granatum

values:
/wiki/Valeriana_officinalis
mw-redirect
Valeriana officinalis

values: National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health

values:
/wiki/End-stage_renal_disease
mw-redirect
End-stage renal disease

values:
/wiki/Thin_layer_chromatography
mw-redirect
Thin layer chromatography

values:
/wiki/Matricaria_recutita
mw-redirect
Matricaria recutita

values:
/wiki/Common_sage
mw-redirect
Common sage

values:
/wiki/Polar_solvent
mw-redirect
Polar solvent

values:
/wiki/Marrakesh,_Morocco
mw-redirect
Marrakesh, Morocco

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2017)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: List of herbs with known adverse effects

values:
/wiki/St._John%27s_Wort
mw-redirect
St. John's Wort

values:
/wiki/Alexandrian_senna
mw-redirect
Alexandrian senna

values:
/wiki/New_York_Attorney_General
mw-redirect
New York Attorney General

values: Edit section: Practitioners of herbalism

values:
/wiki/Napier_University
mw-redirect
Napier University

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)

values:
/wiki/Dietary_supplements
mw-redirect
Dietary supplements

values: Food and Drug Administration (United States)

values:
/wiki/Legal_status_of_cannabis
mw-redirect
Legal status of cannabis

values:
/wiki/Atomic_absorption
mw-redirect
Atomic absorption

values:
/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China
mw-redirect
People's Republic of China

values:
/wiki/Ayurvedic_medicine
mw-redirect
Ayurvedic medicine

values:
/wiki/Tibetan_Medicine
mw-redirect
Tibetan Medicine

values:
/wiki/Mataram_Kingdom
mw-redirect
Mataram Kingdom

values:
/wiki/Ayam_Kampung
mw-redirect
Ayam Kampung

values:
/wiki/Chicken_eggs
mw-redirect
Chicken eggs

values: Edit section: Herbal philosophy and spiritual practices

values: Template talk:Alternative medicine sidebar

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_Medicine
mw-redirect
Traditional Chinese Medicine

values:
/wiki/Supernatural_power
mw-redirect
Supernatural power

values: Edit section: Uses of herbal medicines by animals

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2017)

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words
mw-redirect
Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words

values:
/wiki/Lowland_gorilla
mw-redirect
Lowland gorilla

values: The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (February 2017)

values:
/wiki/Secondary_metabolites
mw-redirect
Secondary metabolites

values:
/wiki/Antifungal_medication
mw-redirect
Antifungal medication

values: European Directive on Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products

values:
/wiki/Herb_garden
mw-redirect
Herb garden

values:
/wiki/Integrative_medicine
mw-redirect
Integrative medicine

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F448106a

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17625521

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10930714

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26281720

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0717-3458

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.01109s169

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11250806

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20175810

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199906033402206

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10352166

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2337%2Fdiacare.25.2.324

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11815504

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24241097

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fecam%2Fnen023

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18955327

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19125379

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jep.2008.11.004

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3736%2Fjintegrmed2013016

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23506688

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11242573

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11297844

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2310%2F7200.2007.011

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17761132

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470319444.ch11

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17913230

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24120035

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9776969

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17526134

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11759460

values:
/wiki/Am_J_Med_Sci
mw-redirect
Am J Med Sci

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12640291

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Flt.20778

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16721764

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15867682

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fhumrep%2Fdep077

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19359338

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9528737

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17908423

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17969314

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11601931

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ctim.2011.09.004

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22305255

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.290.11.1505

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13129992

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22511890

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fpca.2378

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22678654

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fecam%2Fnem054

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18955214

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1096%2Ffj.02-0527hyp

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12554690

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.319.7216.1050

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10521203

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11695885

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1104%2Fpp.124.2.507

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11027701

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024933

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jep.2005.02.035

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15894123

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12083469

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1079%2FPNS2003257

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14506884

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1641%2FB570503

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1079%2FPNS2003243

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14506883

values: -moz-column-width: 35em; -webkit-column-width: 35em; column-width: 35em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
navbox-image
6
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Jardin_des_Plantes
mw-redirect
Jardin des Plantes

values: Herbarum Vivae Icones (page does not exist)

values: Libellus De Re Herbaria Novus (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/De_plantis_libri_XVI
mw-redirect
De plantis libri XVI

values: Stirpium Historiae (page does not exist)

values: Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes

values: Prodromus Theatrici Botanici (page does not exist)

values: Pinax theatri botanici (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Anatomy_of_Plants
mw-redirect
Anatomy of Plants

values: De Sexu Plantarum Epistola (page does not exist)

values: Éléments de botanique (page does not exist)

values: Vegetable Staticks (page does not exist)

values: Familles des Plantes (page does not exist)

values: Experiments Upon Vegetables (page does not exist)

values: Die Metamorphose der Pflantzen (page does not exist)

values: Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Végétale (page does not exist)

values: Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation (page does not exist)

values: Beyträge zur Anatomie der Pflanzen (page does not exist)

values: Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis

values: Die Vegetabilische Zelle (page does not exist)

values: Vergleichende Untersuchungen (page does not exist)

values: Die Vegetation der Erde (page does not exist)

values: Pflanzengeographie auf Physiologischer Grundlage (page does not exist)

values: An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Center_of_diversity
mw-redirect
Center of diversity

values: Timeline of biology and organic chemistry

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
navbox-image
7
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Thai_traditional_medicine
mw-redirect
Thai traditional medicine

values:
/wiki/Irani_traditional_medicine
mw-redirect
Irani traditional medicine

values:
/wiki/Arginine_alphaketoglutarate
mw-redirect
Arginine alphaketoglutarate

values:
/wiki/Creatine_supplements
mw-redirect
Creatine supplements

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4774268-9

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:CS1 Indonesian-language sources (id)

values: Category:CS1 Hindi-language sources (hi)

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2012

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2017

values: Category:All pages needing factual verification

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from February 2017

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Herbalism
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: تداوي بالأعشاب – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: گیاه‌درمانی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: जड़ी-बूटी चिकित्सा – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: צמחי מרפא – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jv
display: none;

values: ಗಿಡಮೂಲಿಕೆಗಳ ಔಷಧಿ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: يوناني درمل – Pashto

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ps
display: none;

values: Oerbal chriitment – Jamaican Creole English

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-jam
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Траварство – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values: மூலிகை மருத்துவம் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herboloji
Herboloji – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ettar
Ettar – Zazaki
diq
diq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-diq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Herbalism rootpage-Herbalism skin-vector action-view


text:
King of Comedy (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1983 American film, see The King of Comedy (film).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
King of Comedy
Hong Kong release poster
Traditional
喜劇之王
Simplified
喜剧之王
Mandarin
Xǐjù zhī wáng
Cantonese
hei2 kek6 zi1 wong4
Directed by
Stephen Chow
Lee Lik-chi
Produced by
Yeung Kwok-fai
Screenplay by
Stephen Chow
Tsang Kan-cheung
Erica Li
Cheng Man-fai
Fung Min-hun
Leung Ka-kit
Starring
Stephen Chow
Karen Mok
Ng Man-tat
Cecilia Cheung
Music by
Raymond Wong
Daisuke Hinata
Jonathan Platt
Cinematography
Horace Wong
Edited by
Hai Kit-wai
Yau Chi-wai
Production
company
The Star Overseas
Release date
13 February 1999 (1999-02-13)
Running time
90 minutes
Country
Hong Kong
Language
Cantonese
Box office
HK$29,848,860
King of Comedy (Chinese: 喜劇之王) is a 1999 Hong Kong comedy film directed by Lee Lik-chi and Stephen Chow. Unlike Chow's typical mo lei tau films, King of Comedy verges on comedy drama, describing the trials and tribulation that an aspiring actor experiences on his way to stardom. Some commentators[who?] say the story is based on Chow's early career, as he started off as a temporary actor, before becoming a successful and popular comedy actor over the course of a decade. The film does retain some of bizarre visual gags Chow is known for, such as Chow's character bleeding from the nose and eyes during a singing number. Jackie Chan plays a cameo role during the film.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Box office
4 Awards Nominations
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Wan Tin-sau (Chow) an actor who cannot seem to catch a break, since his only professional job is limited to being a movie extra and is often tormented on stage. As well as being an actor, he is also the head of his village's community centre.
One day a group of club girls come to ask Wan to help them act like innocent schoolgirls so they can make more money. One of the girls, Lau Piu-piu (Cecilia Cheung), although a little hardy at first due to how she was first forced into becoming a call girl due to her ex-boyfriend (who became abusive after high school) to make ends meet, becomes a better actress through Wan's instruction and falls in love with him. When both characters finally make love, Wan searches his home for enough money to pay Piu-piu for her "services", since he thinks she slept with him for money (not knowing it was for love). After Piu-piu leaves him in anger, he goes back to the film studio where he always harasses crew members for a role, and finally hits the big time, receiving a part as leading actor next to a legendary actress, Sister Cuckoo (Karen Mok). During this time, Wan reconciles with Piu-piu and he pledges to support her for the rest of his life.
Just as Wan is about to settle in the life of a movie star, his dreams of grandeur are crushed when his part is given to a highly sought after male lead. Luckily, he regains his confidence with the help of the misanthropic lunchman at the studio (Ng Man-tat), who is secretly a C.I.B. agent. Wan is used in an undercover operation, where he is disguised as a delivery boy and made to deliver a hidden gun and listening device inside Take-out food. Although the ruse is discovered and the C.I.B. undercover agent is shot, Wan takes up the gun and saves the day. The lunchman is rushed to the hospital and survives his wounds.
After a somewhat successful sting, Wan finally becomes famous through a performance of the Thunder Storm. The actors include Piu-piu, Sister Cuckoo, and his wanna-be Triad students. The end of the film involves a blatant marketing plug for Pringles brand potato chips. The entire cast of the play stands backstage rehearsing their lines while literally stuffing their mouths full of Pringles, with the logos of all five cans clearly facing towards the camera. At one point, Wan and one of his triad students argue over who should play the role of Bruce Lee's character, when another actor screams "don't fight, eat chips!" When the closing credits roll, a quick Pringles advertisement appears on the screen.
Cast[edit]
Stephen Chow --- Wan Tin-sau Terence Tsui Chi-Hung --- delivery boy
Karen Mok --- Sister Cuckoo / Cuckoo To Ben Yuen Foo-Wa --- Ben
Cecilia Cheung --- Lau Piu-piu Roderick Lam Chung-Kei --- Kee
Ng Man-Tat --- Mao Sunny Luk Kim-Ching --- Johnny
Johnson Lee --- Movie Director Hau Woon-Ling --- Hung's granny
Tin Kai-man --- student #3 / Hung's man Robert Sparks --- Hollywood Producer
Lee Siu-kei --- Brothe Kei Vincent Chik Miu-Chan --- C.I.B
Jackie Chan (uncredited) --- stunt double on set (cameo) Sherwin Ming Tak-Fung --- hitman in the church
Joe Cheng Cho --- informer Kong Foo-Keung --- hitman in the church
Alex Lam Chi-Sin --- Hung Choi Kwok-Ping --- hitman in the church
Cheng Man-Fai --- Hung's man Tsim Siu-Ling --- hitman in the church
Steven Fung Min-Hang --- Pui's first boyfriend Chan Po-Chun --- Peter
Clarence Hui Yuen --- nightclub mobster Sin Yan-Kau
Baat Leung-Gam --- Pierre Bruce Law Lai-Yin
Dai Lung --- Master Lung Mok Wai-Man
[1][2]
Box office[edit]
It grossed HK$29,848,860 in Hong Kong.
Awards Nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Nominee
Result
2000 19th Hong Kong Film Awards Best New Performer Cecilia Cheung Nominated
See also[edit]
Stephen Chow filmography
Jackie Chan filmography
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "King of Comedy (1999)". hkmdb. Retrieved June 2016
Jump up ^ "King of Comedy (1999). HKCinemagic. Retrieved June 2016
External links[edit]
King of Comedy at the Hong Kong Movie DataBase
King of Comedy (1999) at Hong Kong Cinemagic
King of Comedy at LoveHKFilm
King of Comedy on IMDb
[hide]
v
t
e
Films directed by Stephen Chow
From Beijing with Love (1994)
Forbidden City Cop (1996)
The God of Cookery (1996)
King of Comedy (1999)
Shaolin Soccer (2001)
Kung Fu Hustle (2004)
CJ7 (2008)
Journey to the West: Conquering the Demons (2013)
The Mermaid (2016)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=King_of_Comedy_(film)&oldid=787646497"
Categories:
1999 films
Hong Kong films
1990s romantic comedy films
1990s comedy-drama films
Hong Kong romantic comedy films
Hong Kong comedy-drama films
Cantonese-language films
Films directed by Stephen Chow
Films about actors
Films set in Hong Kong
Films shot in Hong Kong
Hidden categories:
Articles needing additional references from December 2016
All articles needing additional references
Use Hong Kong English from June 2014
All Wikipedia articles written in Hong Kong English
Use dmy dates from June 2014
Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from April 2010
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Français
한국어
Italiano
Bahasa Melayu
Polski
Tiếng Việt
吴语
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 June 2017, at 17:16.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

value: i

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: class href

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

value: span

value: small

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2010)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch

values:
/wiki/Extra_(actor)
mw-redirect
Extra (actor)

values:
/wiki/Role_(performing_arts)
mw-redirect
Role (performing arts)

values:
/wiki/Triad_society
mw-redirect
Triad society

values:
/wiki/Potato_chips
mw-redirect
Potato chips

values:
/wiki/Hong_Kong_Film_Awards
mw-redirect
Hong Kong Film Awards

values: Hong Kong Film Award for Best New Performer

values: background: #FDD; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0188766/
external text

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Hong Kong romantic comedy films

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2016

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Use Hong Kong English from June 2014

values: Category:All Wikipedia articles written in Hong Kong English

values: Category:Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from April 2010

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/King_of_Comedy_(film)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-King_of_Comedy_film rootpage-King_of_Comedy_film vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view