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Brawl Stars
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Brawl Stars
Developer(s)
Supercell
Publisher(s)
Supercell
Platform(s)
iOS
Genre(s)
Strategy
Mode(s)
Multiplayer
Brawl Stars is a freemium mobile real-time strategy video game developed and published by Supercell. On June 14, 2017, Supercell announced the game via livestream video on YouTube. It received an iOS soft launch in the Canadian App Store the following day, June 15, 2017. It was released in Finland, Sweden and Norway App Stores on January 19, 2018.[1] It is yet to be released on Android devices or in other countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 Gameplay
1.1 Supers
1.2 Star Powers
2 Items
2.1 Currency
2.2 Trophies
2.3 Experience
3 Game Modes
4 Brawlers
5 References
6 External links
Gameplay[edit]
Gameplay of the Bounty mode in Brawl Stars. The four brawlers in this picture are Ricochet (top left), Crow (middle), Piper (below the Crow), and Jessie (bottom).
In Brawl Stars, players are ranked by their level and total trophies. Players collect brawlers and select one to use each game. Brawlers, unlike Clash Royale cards, come in six rarity types: Common, Rare, Super Rare, Epic, Mythic and Legendary. There are currently nineteen brawlers in the game, and only two of which are legendaries. Players get brawlers from Brawl Boxes which can be acquired for 100 keys or with gems. Big Boxes can only be acquired using gems. Players can join bands to play alongside other players. Brawl Stars can be played in seven game modes: Bounty, Brawl Ball, Gem Grab, Heist, Showdown, Robo Rumble and Boss Fight .[2]
Supers[edit]
In Brawl Stars, attacking a person on the opposing team will build up that person's super meter. The super meter can be distinguished as a blue button with a skull on it and a yellow ribbon that loops around it. The yellow ribbon grows larger the more you attack. Once the yellow ribbon is maxed out, the super meter and the skull will begin to glow, indicating that the player can use it. Note that attacking after having a complete super will no longer build the super up any farther. The super attack is, like the name suggests, an extra powerful attack that can be used to decimate the opposing team when used correctly. However, sometimes a super is not always about killing. There are supers, like with Poco and Pam, which heal other players. Supers are what distinguished each brawler correctly, and makes it worth it to diversify who you play with.
Star Powers[edit]
In Brawl Stars, each brawler has their own unique Star Power, which is a passive ability that could be purchased or found in boxes once the player has reached level 9 on the brawler.
Items[edit]
Currency[edit]
There are currently five currencies in Brawl Stars: Coins, Gems, Power Points, Tickets, and Keys. Keys are used to buy Brawl Boxes which contain brawlers, coins, power points, or tickets. Keys are received by entering new events, winning battles, leveling up brawlers and ranking up. Gems are used to buy Brawl Boxes, coin boosters, and skins for decorating brawlers and can only be obtained by purchasing them from the in-game shop with real money. Power Points and Coins are collected from Brawl Boxes and are used to upgrade brawlers. It takes 2780 upgrade tokens to max out a brawler, and 750-800 dollars real money (as of September 2017) to max out the game on the first day of playing.[3] Tickets are found in Brawl Boxes and are used to enter special events.
Trophies[edit]
In Brawl Stars, each brawler has their own trophies which determine their rank. Trophies can be gained or lost. Players gain trophies if they win the round (or last long enough in Showdown) and lose trophies if they lose the round(or do not last long enough on Showdown). Trophies cannot be earned in Boss Fight or Robo Rumble. The number of trophies players win or lose depends on their trophy range. See the table below.
Trophy Range
Trophies won if Victory
[hide]Trophies lost if Defeat
0-19 6 0
20-39 6 1
40-69 6 2
70-99 5 2
100-129 5 3
130-199 5 4
200-399 5 5
400-499 5 6
500-599 4 6
600-699 3 6
700-799 3 7
800-899 2 7
900-999 2 8
Experience[edit]
In Brawl Stars, players earn experience at the end of each match unless they collected all the experience. When they reach a full bar of experience, they level up.
Game Modes[edit]
Bounty is a 3 vs 3 team deathmatch game mode in which players on each team try to get a higher amount of bounty than the other team. At the start of the game, each player starts off with two bounty. There will be a star in the middle of the map that allows the team who reaches it first to gain an extra star for their team. The more kills a player has, the higher their bounty is (highest is 7). If a player is killed, the player's bounty is given to the other team and the player spawns again with their bounty reset to two.
Gem Grab is a 3 vs 3 game mode in which players try to collect gems that spawn from a mine in the middle of the map once every 5-6 seconds. Each player's gem count is displayed on top of their name. If a player with gems is killed, they drop all their gems onto the ground, and the gems can now be collected by other players on either team. The objective is for a team to collect 10 gems, and if a team does so, a 16-second timer is activated. If the team keeps their 10 gems for 16 seconds, they win the game. If both teams have the same amount of gems, then one team must collect at least 1 more to win.
Heist is a 3 vs 3 game mode in which one team has a safe containing gems to defend, and one team has to break open the safe in 2 minutes and 30 seconds using various attacks and strategies.
Brawl Ball is a 3 vs 3 soccer-like game mode, in which each team tries to score 2 goals. The first team to score 2 goals wins. If the score is tied after the first 2 minutes and 30 seconds of play, everything on the field will break and a one minute, sudden-death overtime period begins.
Showdown is a deathmatch played with 10 players. During the game, the map is filled with boxes for players to break. After a while, poisonous gas will surround the field, reducing the size of the battlefield. The last player standing wins the game.[4][5]
Robo Rumble is played with one team of three vs continuously sprouting robots. This is a special event. Players need tickets to play. Robo Rumble occurs every other week.
Boss Fight is a 5 vs 1 game mode where one player is boss and the other five players are trying to kill the boss as fast as they can. The boss is bigger and has more health and does more damage then the rest of the players. But the boss can't heal unless it is a special move of theirs. This is a special event. Players need tickets to play. Boss Fight occurs every other week.
Brawlers[edit]
Brawl Stars, like many Supercell games, has a diverse cast of characters. One notable feature is that they all have some sort of Western United States spin to them.
Shelly is the poster brawler for Brawl Stars and is provided during the tutorial. She is a common brawler and has a medium to low range shotgun, though it has significant spread. Her Super is the same as her regular attack, except it deals significantly more damage, is orange in color instead of blue, and has knockback. It can also break blocks, making it good for opening up areas.
Dynamike is a common brawler. He throws two sticks of dynamite, allowing him to do heavy AOE damage. His throw also allows him to damage brawlers over walls. His Super is a giant barrel of explosives that can deal a very large amount of damage, often enough to kill or severely wound an enemy brawler. It can also break walls and bushes.
Colt is a common brawler, who has the attack power of Shelly but the range of Jessie. He does not have much health, but his damage output makes up for it. His Super is a buffed version of his regular attack, which is larger and can destroy blocks such as rocks and walls.
Nita is a common brawler who looks like small innocent child, but is deceptively the opposite. According to her character description, she is the youngest of her Native American tribal shamans. Her attack is a shockwave tremor, which is short range but deals a lot of damage. She is most notable for her Super, summoning a massive familiar bear, which has a lot of health and will endlessly pursue the other team. When the bear attacks, it builds her Super.
El Primo is a Mexican common brawler based off the lucha libre fighting in Mexico. He was struck by a meteor in his early days, giving him superhuman strength and power. El Primo is an extremely short range character, as he uses his fists as a primary form of attack. El Primo is a tank, meaning that he can take a lot of hits, and this is likely due to the fact that he has a short range, so he has to take a lot of hits before he is within attacking range of another person. His Super is a giant dropkick where he jumps high into the air and crashes into his foes, which can deal a lot of damage to fragile characters. Although the Super was intended for clearing up clusters of players, players have found ulterior uses for it. For example, a popular use for this attack is to quickly maneuver away from opponents when he has little health. El Primo is immune to all attacks when the air, although in the brief period where he is stunned from landing, he is quite susceptible to a lot of attacks. It can also be used to destroy obstructing blocks.
Jessie is a cowgirl rare brawler in Brawl Stars. She is long range character, though she has little to no spread in her attack. She only fires one projectile, though if it hits a player, it will angle itself to hit another player, so she is good when the opposing team is grouped close together. Her Super is quite unique in that it is a turret with its own separate health, similar to Torbjorn in Overwatch. The turret acts like a normal turret and will keep on firing at a player so long as they are in range and are not in grass. The turret will not stop firing until its health is reduced to 0.
Brock is long ranged rare brawler that fires rockets. His rockets do a large amount of damage, but they travel slower than Piper's bullets, so it is hard to hit people. Unlike Piper, his rockets do the same amount of damage no matter how far he is from an enemy. His Super is a rain of rockets that do a lot of damage to anyone that is inside. It can also break walls and bushes.
Bull is a rare brawler who acts as a tank, similarly to El Primo. He uses a double barreled shotgun that does a lot of damage, but has short range. If a brawler is in close range, he can usually kill them in 2-3 shots. His Super is a charge that breaks walls along the way, and does damage to anyone that is in his path. It is commonly used to close the distance between him and an enemy brawler, or to get to safety.
Barley is a rare brawler that is similar to Dynamike in that he throws projectiles. He is a robot bartender that throws damaging bottles of liquid. Once the bottle hits the ground, the liquid stays on the ground for a few seconds, causing brawlers inside of the liquid to take damage. One downside is that his bottles have a long airtime, so enemy brawlers can get out of the way. However, due to the persistent nature of the liquid, he is good for controlling chokepoints and forming a barrier. His super is 5 flaming bottles that last for a while and does a lot of damage to anyone inside of it.
Ricochet is a super-rare robot brawler that has a unique bouncing attack. His bullets can bounce of walls, so he is useful to get players hiding behind a wall. Also, he has a very long range and fires many bullets. One downside is how fragile he is. His Super is a buffed version of his normal attack that fires more bullets.
Poco is a super-rare brawler in Brawl Stars. His main attack is a strum from his guitar that deals a shock wave of music that spreads out, making him a great AOE attacker. The shock wave does not pass through walls. His health is above average. Perhaps the most notable feature of Poco is his Super, which releases a large shock wave of music, healing Poco and his teammates that pass through the wave. The Super does not deal any damage and cannot heal enemy players.
Bo is a super-rare brawler. He is an archer that fires three arrows. He has a good amount of health and range. With his Super, he fires three explosive traps that become hidden. Anyone who walks into them and does not have enough time to escape it will suffer a lot of damage, and might be knocked into another trap. This makes Bo a very effective character at controlling chokepoints.
Darryl is a super-rare brawler. He is a robotic tank character, who is very similar to Bull. He wields two shotguns that have short range. His super is similar to Bull's, but instead of charging through everything, he rolls and bounces off walls. This leads to trapping an enemy brawler between two walls and bouncing off of the walls to hit the brawler many times very effective. He is much less predictable than Bull, which might lead him right next to an enemy.
Piper is an epic brawler in Brawl Stars. She is a sniper-like brawler and her main attack is a white bullet which travels fast and deal more damage the farther she is from her target. To account for this, though, it takes a lot of time for her to reload. Her health is not too much more than that of Colt. Her Super launches her into the air, dropping three bombs at her feet that deal significant damage. Her time in the air is lengthened, like Crow, making her an easy target if not positioned well after she lands.
Pam is an epic brawler. She is the mother of Jessie, and uses a gun that fires scrap metal. It is not very precise or damaging, but she is able to fire a lot at a far range. Similar to Jessie, her Super is a healing station that she makes that can constantly heal any teammates inside of the healing station's range. This is very powerful in Bounty and Gem Grab, because a brawler can quickly heal when in danger, instead of hiding to wait for the healing to start.
Tara is a mythic brawler. Her attack is throwing three tarot cards that do a good amount of damage. Her Super is special in that she can throw a "black hole" that can cause the enemy brawlers in the range to get sucked to the center. This is highly effective with AOE attacks such as Dynamike's Super or Brock's Super. It can be used to drag brawlers closer, so more cards can hit the enemy brawler closer, or farther, if she needs to escape.
Mortis is a mythic brawler. His attack is unique in that he dashes forward and swipes with a shovel. Most of the time, his attack is used to get to a location faster than anyone else, which is useful in picking up gems or the ball in Brawl Ball. His Super is a swarm of bats that take health away from an enemy brawler and gives it to Mortis.
Spike is a legendary brawler. He is a cactus that throws high damaging small cacti. When the cactus hits something, or travels the maximum distance, it splits into spikes that can additionally damage brawlers. This means he can hit brawlers around a corner with the splitting ability of his cactus. His super is throwing a cactus grenade that slows every enemy brawler that is trapped in it, while doing damage. This makes brawlers that are trapped very vulnerable to attacks.
Crow is a legendary brawler. He is a crow that throws three poisoned knives. The knives themselves to a large amount of damage, but what is special is that they do poison DOT. This is useful to finish off brawlers that barely managed to escape, or not allow them to hide in bushes, because they are constantly taking damage for a while. His super is jumping up into the air while throwing a ring of knives around him, then throwing another ring when he lands. This can be used to make a getaway while damaging enemy brawlers, or to get closer to brawlers to damage them. He also has the fastest normal movement speed in the game.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "AMA! Ask the Brawl Stars Dev Team Anything! • r/Brawlstars". reddit. Retrieved 2018-04-03.
Jump up ^ Torres, Ida (17 June 2017). "Brawl Stars is an upcoming game from the makers of Clash Royale". androidcommunity.com. Android Community. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "WHY HASN'T BRAWL STARS GONE GLOBAL? The TRUTH... 7:28". YouTube.com.
Jump up ^ Ferrera, Jessica (22 June 2017). "'Brawl Stars' Release Date: Supercell Announces 'Epic Multiplayer' Game on iOS, Android". christianpost.com. The Christian Post. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Game Modes". supercell.helpshift.com. Supercell. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
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Substrate-level phosphorylation
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Substrate-level phosphorylation exemplified with the conversion of ADP to ATP
Substrate-level phosphorylation is a metabolic reaction that results in the formation of ATP or GTP by the direct transfer of a phosphoryl (PO3) group to ADP or GDP from another phosphorylated compound.
Unlike oxidative phosphorylation, oxidation and phosphorylation are not coupled in the process of substrate-level phosphorylation, and reactive intermediates are most often gained in the course of oxidation processes in catabolism. Most ATP is generated by oxidative phosphorylation in aerobic or anaerobic respiration while substrate-level phosphorylation provides a quicker, less efficient source of ATP, independent of external electron acceptors. This is the case in human erythrocytes, which have no mitochondria, and in oxygen-depleted muscle.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Glycolysis
3 Mitochondria
3.1 Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
3.2 Succinate-CoA ligase
3.3 Monofunctional C1-tetrahydrofolate synthase
4 Other mechanisms
5 Importance of substrate-level phosphorylation in anoxia
6 Oxidative phosphorylation
7 References
Overview[edit]
Substrate-level phosphorylation occurs in the cytoplasm of cells during glycolysis and in mitochondria either during the Krebs cycle or by MTHFD1L (EC 6.3.4.3), an enzyme interconverting ADP + phosphate + 10-formyltetrahydrofolate to ATP + formate + tetrahydrofolate (reversibly), under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In the pay-off phase of glycolysis, a net of 2 ATP are produced by substrate-level phosphorylation.
Glycolysis[edit]
Main article: Glycolysis
The first substrate-level phosphorylation occurs after the conversion of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and Pi and NAD+ to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate via glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is then dephosphorylated via phosphoglycerate kinase, producing 3-phosphoglycerate and ATP through a substrate-level phosphorylation.
The second substrate-level phosphorylation occurs by dephosphorylating phosphoenolpyruvate, catalyzed by pyruvate kinase, producing pyruvate and ATP.
During the preparatory phase, each 6-carbon glucose molecule is broken into two 3-carbon molecules. Thus, in glycolysis dephosphorylation results in the production of 4 ATP. However, the prior preparatory phase consumes 2 ATP, so the net yield in glycolysis is 2 ATP. 2 molecules of NADH are also produced and can be used in oxidative phosphorylation to generate more ATP.
Mitochondria[edit]
ATP can be generated by substrate-level phosphorylation in mitochondria in a pathway that is independent from the proton motive force. In the matrix there are three reactions capable of substrate-level phosphorylation, utilizing either phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase or succinate-CoA ligase, or monofunctional C1-tetrahydrofolate synthase.
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase[edit]
Mitochondrial phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase is thought to participate in the transfer of the phosphorylation potential from the matrix to the cytosol and vice versa.[1][2][3][4][5]. However, it is strongly favored towards GTP hydrolysis, thus it is not really considered as an important source of intra-mitochondrial substrate-level phosphorylation.
Succinate-CoA ligase[edit]
Succinate-CoA ligase is a heterodimer composed of an invariant α-subunit and a substrate-specific ß-subunit, encoded by either SUCLA2 or SUCLG2. This combination results in either an ADP-forming succinate-CoA ligase (A-SUCL, EC 6.2.1.5) or a GDP-forming succinate-CoA ligase (G-SUCL, EC 6.2.1.4). The ADP-forming succinate-CoA ligase is potentially the only matrix enzyme generating ATP in the absence of a proton motive force, capable of maintaining matrix ATP levels under energy-limited conditions, such as transient hypoxia.
Monofunctional C1-tetrahydrofolate synthase[edit]
This enzyme is encoded by MTHFD1L and reversibly interconverts ADP + phosphate + 10-formyltetrahydrofolate to ATP + formate + tetrahydrofolate.
Other mechanisms[edit]
In working skeletal muscles and the brain, Phosphocreatine is stored as a readily available high-energy phosphate supply, and the enzyme creatine phosphokinase transfers a phosphate from phosphocreatine to ADP to produce ATP. Then the ATP releases giving chemical energy. This is sometimes erroneously considered as substrate-level phosphorylation, although it is a transphosphorylation.
Importance of substrate-level phosphorylation in anoxia[edit]
During anoxia, provision of ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation in the matrix is important not only as a mere means of energy, but also to prevent mitochondria from straining glycolytic ATP reserves by maintaining the adenine nucleotide translocator in ‘forward mode’ carrying ATP towards the cytosol [6],[7],[8].
Oxidative phosphorylation[edit]
Main article: Oxidative phosphorylation
An alternative method used to create ATP is through oxidative phosphorylation, which takes place during cellular respiration. This process utilizes the oxidation of NADH to NAD+, yielding 3 ATP, and of FADH2 to FAD, yielding 2 ATP. The potential energy stored as an electrochemical gradient of protons (H+) across the inner mitochondrial membrane is required to generate ATP from ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate molecule), a key difference from substrate-level phosphorylation. This gradient is exploited by ATP synthase acting as a pore, allowing H+ from the mitochondrial intermembrane space to move down its electrochemical gradient into the matrix and coupling the release of free energy to ATP synthesis. Conversely, electron transfer provides the energy required to actively pump H+ out of the matrix.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lambeth DO, Tews KN, Adkins S, Frohlich D, Milavetz BI (2004). "Expression of two succinyl-CoA synthetases with different nucleotide specificities in mammalian tissues". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 279 (35): 36621–4. doi:10.1074/jbc.M406884200. PMID 15234968.
Jump up ^ Ottaway JH, McClellan JA, Saunderson CL (1981). "Succinic thiokinase and metabolic control". The International Journal of Biochemistry. 13 (4): 401–10. doi:10.1016/0020-711x(81)90111-7. PMID 6263728.
Jump up ^ Lambeth DO (2002). "What is the function of GTP produced in the Krebs citric acid cycle?". IUBMB Life. 54 (3): 143–4. doi:10.1080/15216540214539. PMID 12489642.
Jump up ^ Wilson DF, Erecińska M, Schramm VL (1983). "Evaluation of the relationship between the intra- and extramitochondrial ATP/ADP ratios using phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 258 (17): 10464–73. PMID 6885788.
Jump up ^ Johnson JD, Mehus JG, Tews K, Milavetz BI, Lambeth DO (1998). "Genetic evidence for the expression of ATP- and GTP-specific succinyl-CoA synthetases in multicellular eucaryotes". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 273 (42): 27580–6. doi:10.1074/jbc.273.42.27580. PMID 9765291.
Jump up ^ Forward operation of adenine nucleotide translocase during F0F1-ATPase reversal: critical role of matrix substrate-level phosphorylation. Chinopoulos C, Gerencser AA, Mandi M, Mathe K, Töröcsik B, Doczi J, Turiak L, Kiss G, Konràd C, Vajda S, Vereczki V, Oh RJ, Adam-Vizi V. FASEB J. 2010 Jul;24(7):2405-16. doi: 10.1096/fj.09-149898. PMID: 20207940
Jump up ^ Mitochondrial consumption of cytosolic ATP: not so fast. Chinopoulos C. FEBS Lett. 2011 May 6;585(9):1255-9. doi: 10.1016/j.febslet.2011.04.004. PMID: 21486564
Jump up ^ The "B space" of mitochondrial phosphorylation. Chinopoulos C. J Neurosci Res. 2011 Dec;89(12):1897-904. doi: 10.1002/jnr.22659. PMID: 21541983
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Scientific theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A scientific theory is an explanation of some aspect of the natural world that can be repeatedly tested, in accordance with the scientific method, by using a predefined protocol of observations and experiments.[1][2] Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and are a comprehensive form of scientific knowledge.[3]
It is important to note that the definition of a "scientific theory" (often contracted to "theory" for the sake of brevity, including in this page) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of the word "theory".[4][Note 1] In everyday non-scientific speech, "theory" can imply that something is an unsubstantiated and speculative guess, conjecture, idea, or, hypothesis;[4] such a usage is the opposite of the word "theory" in science. These different usages are comparable to the differing, and often opposing, usages of the term "prediction" in science versus "prediction" in vernacular speech, denoting a mere hope.
The strength of a scientific theory is related to the diversity of phenomena it can explain. As additional scientific evidence is gathered, a scientific theory may be rejected or modified if it does not fit the new findings; in such circumstances, a more accurate theory is then desired. In certain cases, the less-accurate unmodified scientific theory can still be treated as a theory if it is useful (due to its sheer simplicity) as an approximation under specific conditions (e.g., Newton's laws of motion as an approximation to special relativity at velocities that are small relative to the speed of light).
Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions.[5][disputed – discuss] They describe the causes of a particular natural phenomenon and are used to explain and predict aspects of the physical universe or specific areas of inquiry (for example, electricity, chemistry, astronomy). Scientists use theories as a foundation to gain further scientific knowledge, as well as to accomplish goals such as inventing technology or curing disease.
As with other forms of scientific knowledge, scientific theories are both deductive and inductive[6][7] in nature and aim for predictive power and explanatory capability.
Paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and science historian Stephen Jay Gould said, “...facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty. Facts are the world′s data. Theories are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts.”[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
2 Characteristics
2.1 Essential criteria
2.2 Other criteria
2.3 Definitions from scientific organizations
3 Formation
4 Modification and improvement
4.1 Unification
4.2 Example: Relativity
5 Theories and laws
6 About theories
6.1 Theories as axioms
6.2 Theories as models
6.2.1 Differences between theory and model
6.3 Assumptions in formulating theories
7 Descriptions
7.1 From philosophers of science
7.2 Analogies and metaphors
8 In physics
9 Examples
10 Further reading
11 References
12 Notes
Types[edit]
Albert Einstein described two types of scientific theories, "Constructive theories" and "principle theories". Constructive theories are constructive models for a phenomen: for example, kinetic energy. Principal theories are empirical generalisations such as Newton's laws of motion.[9]
Characteristics[edit]
Essential criteria[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Typically for any theory to be accepted within most academia there is one simple criterion. The essential criterion is that the theory must be observable and repeatable. The aforementioned criterion is essential to prevent fraud and perpetuate science itself.
The tectonic plates of the world were mapped in the second half of the 20th century. Plate tectonic theory successfully explains numerous observations about the Earth, including the distribution of earthquakes, mountains, continents, and oceans.
The defining characteristic of all scientific knowledge, including theories, is the ability to make falsifiable or testable predictions. The relevance and specificity of those predictions determine how potentially useful the theory is. A would-be theory that makes no observable predictions is not a scientific theory at all. Predictions not sufficiently specific to be tested are similarly not useful. In both cases, the term "theory" is not applicable.
A body of descriptions of knowledge can be called a theory if it fulfills the following criteria:
It makes falsifiable predictions with consistent accuracy across a broad area of scientific inquiry (such as mechanics).
It is well-supported by many independent strands of evidence, rather than a single foundation.
It is consistent with preexisting experimental results and at least as accurate in its predictions as are any preexisting theories.
These qualities are certainly true of such established theories as special and general relativity, quantum mechanics, plate tectonics, the modern evolutionary synthesis, etc.
Other criteria[edit]
In addition, scientists prefer to work with a theory that meets the following qualities:
It can be subjected to minor adaptations to account for new data that do not fit it perfectly, as they are discovered, thus increasing its predictive capability over time.[citation needed]
It is among the most parsimonious explanations, economical in the use of proposed entities or explanatory steps as per Occam's razor. This is because for each accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there may be an extremely large, perhaps even incomprehensible, number of possible and more complex alternatives, because one can always burden failing explanations with ad hoc hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified; therefore, simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable.[10][11][12]
Definitions from scientific organizations[edit]
The United States National Academy of Sciences defines scientific theories as follows:
The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word. It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence. Many scientific theories are so well established that no new evidence is likely to alter them substantially. For example, no new evidence will demonstrate that the Earth does not orbit around the sun (heliocentric theory), or that living things are not made of cells (cell theory), that matter is not composed of atoms, or that the surface of the Earth is not divided into solid plates that have moved over geological timescales (the theory of plate tectonics)...One of the most useful properties of scientific theories is that they can be used to make predictions about natural events or phenomena that have not yet been observed.[13]
From the American Association for the Advancement of Science:
A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Such fact-supported theories are not "guesses" but reliable accounts of the real world. The theory of biological evolution is more than "just a theory". It is as factual an explanation of the universe as the atomic theory of matter or the germ theory of disease. Our understanding of gravity is still a work in progress. But the phenomenon of gravity, like evolution, is an accepted fact.
Note that the term theory would not be appropriate for describing untested but intricate hypotheses or even scientific models.
Formation[edit]
The first observation of cells, by Robert Hooke, using an early microscope.[14] This led to the development of cell theory.
The scientific method involves the proposal and testing of hypotheses, by deriving predictions from the hypotheses about the results of future experiments, then performing those experiments to see whether the predictions are valid. This provides evidence either for or against the hypothesis. When enough experimental results have been gathered in a particular area of inquiry, scientists may propose an explanatory framework that accounts for as many of these as possible. This explanation is also tested, and if it fulfills the necessary criteria (see above), then the explanation becomes a theory. This can take many years, as it can be difficult or complicated to gather sufficient evidence.
Once all of the criteria have been met, it will be widely accepted by scientists (see scientific consensus) as the best available explanation of at least some phenomena. It will have made predictions of phenomena that previous theories could not explain or could not predict accurately, and it will have resisted attempts at falsification. The strength of the evidence is evaluated by the scientific community, and the most important experiments will have been replicated by multiple independent groups.
Theories do not have to be perfectly accurate to be scientifically useful. For example, the predictions made by classical mechanics are known to be inaccurate in the relatistivic realm, but they are almost exactly correct at the comparatively low velocities of common human experience.[15] In chemistry, there are many acid-base theories providing highly divergent explanations of the underlying nature of acidic and basic compounds, but they are very useful for predicting their chemical behavior.[16] Like all knowledge in science, no theory can ever be completely certain, since it is possible that future experiments might conflict with the theory's predictions.[17] However, theories supported by the scientific consensus have the highest level of certainty of any scientific knowledge; for example, that all objects are subject to gravity or that life on Earth evolved from a common ancestor.[18]
Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence. For example, certain tests may be unfeasible or technically difficult. As a result, theories may make predictions that have not yet been confirmed or proven incorrect; in this case, the predicted results may be described informally with the term "theoretical". These predictions can be tested at a later time, and if they are incorrect, this may lead to the revision or rejection of the theory.
Modification and improvement[edit]
If experimental results contrary to a theory's predictions are observed, scientists first evaluate whether the experimental design was sound, and if so they confirm the results by independent replication. A search for potential improvements to the theory then begins. Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory's existing framework.[19] Over time, as successive modifications build on top of each other, theories consistently improve and greater predictive accuracy is achieved. Since each new version of a theory (or a completely new theory) must have more predictive and explanatory power than the last, scientific knowledge consistently becomes more accurate over time.
If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required. Since scientific knowledge is usually durable, this occurs much less commonly than modification.[17] Furthermore, until such a theory is proposed and accepted, the previous theory will be retained. This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts. For example, it was known in 1859 that the observed perihelion precession of Mercury violated Newtonian mechanics,[20] but the theory remained the best explanation available until relativity was supported by sufficient evidence. Also, while new theories may be proposed by a single person or by many, the cycle of modifications eventually incorporates contributions from many different scientists.[21]
After the changes, the accepted theory will explain more phenomena and have greater predictive power (if it did not, the changes would not be adopted); this new explanation will then be open to further replacement or modification. If a theory does not require modification despite repeated tests, this implies that the theory is very accurate. This also means that accepted theories continue to accumulate evidence over time, and the length of time that a theory (or any of its principles) remains accepted often indicates the strength of its supporting evidence.
Unification[edit]
In quantum mechanics, the electrons of an atom occupy orbitals around the nucleus. This image shows the orbitals of a hydrogen atom (s, p, d) at three different energy levels (1, 2, 3). Brighter areas correspond to higher probability density.
In some cases, two or more theories may be replaced by a single theory that explains the previous theories as approximations or special cases, analogous to the way a theory is a unifying explanation for many confirmed hypotheses; this is referred to as unification of theories.[22] For example, electricity and magnetism are now known to be two aspects of the same phenomenon, referred to as electromagnetism.[23]
When the predictions of different theories appear to contradict each other, this is also resolved by either further evidence or unification. For example, physical theories in the 19th century implied that the Sun could not have been burning long enough to allow certain geological changes as well as the evolution of life. This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun.[24] Contradictions can also be explained as the result of theories approximating more fundamental (non-contradictory) phenomena. For example, atomic theory is an approximation of quantum mechanics. Current theories describe three separate fundamental phenomena of which all other theories are approximations;[25] the potential unification of these is sometimes called the Theory of Everything.[22]
Example: Relativity[edit]
In 1905, Albert Einstein published the principle of special relativity, which soon became a theory.[26] Special relativity predictively aligned the Newtonian principle of Galilean invariance, also termed Galilean relativity, with the electromagnetic field.[27] By omitting from special relativity the luminiferous aether, Einstein stated time dilation and length contraction to be expected by an observer measuring an object in relative motion inertial—that is, an objecting exhibiting constant velocity, which is speed with direction, when measured by its observer—and thereby duplicated the Lorentz transformation and the Lorentz contraction that had been inserted into electrodynamic theory as dynamical consequences of the aether's properties hypothesized to resolve experimental riddles. Elegant, special relativity yielded its own consequences,[28] such as the equivalence of mass and energy transforming into one another and the resolution of the paradox that an excitation of the electromagnetic field could be viewed in one reference frame as electricity, but in another as magnetism.
Einstein sought to generalize the invariance principle to all reference frames, whether inertial or accelerating.[29] Rejecting Newtonian gravitation—a central force acting instantly at a distance—Einstein presumed a gravitational field. In 1907, Einstein's equivalence principle inferred that a free fall within a uniform gravitational field is equivalent to inertial motion.[29] By extending special relativity's effects into three dimensions, length contraction became space contraction in general relativity, whose 4D spacetime is the gravitational field that local alters geometrically and sets all local objects' pathways. And even massless energy exerts gravitational motion on local objects by "curving" the geometrical "surface" of 4D spacetime. Yet unless vast, the relativistic effects of energy, whether by speed or mass in the vicinity—where space is contracted and time is slowed—are negligible when merely predicting motion. Although general relativity is embraced as the more explanatory theory via scientific realism, Newton's theory remains successful as merely a predictive theory via instrumentalism. To calculate trajectories, engineers and NASA still uses Newton's equations, which are simpler to operate.[17]
Theories and laws[edit]
See also: Scientific law
Both scientific laws and scientific theories are produced from the scientific method through the formation and testing of hypotheses, and can predict the behavior of the natural world. Both are typically well-supported by observations and/or experimental evidence.[30] However, scientific laws are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions.[31] Scientific theories are broader in scope, and give overarching explanations of how nature works and why it exhibits certain characteristics. Theories are supported by evidence from many different sources, and may contain one or several laws.[32]
A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that will eventually graduate into scientific laws when enough data and evidence have been accumulated. A theory does not change into a scientific law with the accumulation of new or better evidence. A theory will always remain a theory; a law will always remain a law.[30][33][34] Both theories and laws could potentially be falsified by countervailing evidence.[35]
Theories and laws are also distinct from hypotheses. Unlike hypotheses, theories and laws may be simply referred to as scientific fact.[36][37] However, in science, theories are different from facts even when they are well supported.[38] For example, evolution is both a theory and a fact.[4]
About theories[edit]
Theories as axioms[edit]
The logical positivists thought of scientific theories as statements in a formal language. First-order logic is an example of a formal language. The logical positivists envisaged a similar scientific language. In addition to scientific theories, the language also included observation sentences ("the sun rises in the east"), definitions, and mathematical statements. The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts. In this view, theories function as axioms: predicted observations are derived from the theories much like theorems are derived in Euclidean geometry. However, the predictions are then tested against reality to verify the theories, and the "axioms" can be revised as a direct result.
The phrase "the received view of theories" is used to describe this approach. Terms commonly associated with it are "linguistic" (because theories are components of a language) and "syntactic" (because a language has rules about how symbols can be strung together). Problems in defining this kind of language precisely, e.g., are objects seen in microscopes observed or are they theoretical objects, led to the effective demise of logical positivism in the 1970s.
Theories as models[edit]
Main article: Scientific model
The semantic view of theories, which identifies scientific theories with models rather than propositions, has replaced the received view as the dominant position in theory formulation in the philosophy of science.[39][40][41] A model is a logical framework intended to represent reality (a "model of reality"), similar to the way that a map is a graphical model that represents the territory of a city or country.[42][43]
Precession of the perihelion of Mercury (exaggerated). The deviation in Mercury's position from the Newtonian prediction is about 43 arc-seconds (about two-thirds of 1/60 of a degree) per century.[44][45]
In this approach, theories are a specific category of models that fulfill the necessary criteria (see above). One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model. A model of the solar system, for example, might consist of abstract objects that represent the sun and the planets. These objects have associated properties, e.g., positions, velocities, and masses. The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time. This model can then be tested to see whether it accurately predicts future observations; astronomers can verify that the positions of the model's objects over time match the actual positions of the planets. For most planets, the Newtonian model's predictions are accurate; for Mercury, it is slightly inaccurate and the model of general relativity must be used instead.
The word "semantic" refers to the way that a model represents the real world. The representation (literally, "re-presentation") describes particular aspects of a phenomenon or the manner of interaction among a set of phenomena. For instance, a scale model of a house or of a solar system is clearly not an actual house or an actual solar system; the aspects of an actual house or an actual solar system represented in a scale model are, only in certain limited ways, representative of the actual entity. A scale model of a house is not a house; but to someone who wants to learn about houses, analogous to a scientist who wants to understand reality, a sufficiently detailed scale model may suffice.
Differences between theory and model[edit]
Main article: Conceptual model
Several commentators[46] have stated that the distinguishing characteristic of theories is that they are explanatory as well as descriptive, while models are only descriptive (although still predictive in a more limited sense). Philosopher Stephen Pepper also distinguished between theories and models, and said in 1948 that general models and theories are predicated on a "root" metaphor that constrains how scientists theorize and model a phenomenon and thus arrive at testable hypotheses.
Engineering practice makes a distinction between "mathematical models" and "physical models"; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a computer aided design tool. The component parts are each themselves modelled, and the fabrication tolerances are specified. An exploded view drawing is used to lay out the fabrication sequence. Simulation packages for displaying each of the subassemblies allow the parts to be rotated, magnified, in realistic detail. Software packages for creating the bill of materials for construction allows subcontractors to specialize in assembly processes, which spreads the cost of manufacturing machinery among multiple customers. See: Computer-aided engineering, Computer-aided manufacturing, and 3D printing
Assumptions in formulating theories[edit]
An assumption (or axiom) is a statement that is accepted without evidence. For example, assumptions can be used as premises in a logical argument. Isaac Asimov described assumptions as follows:
...it is incorrect to speak of an assumption as either true or false, since there is no way of proving it to be either (If there were, it would no longer be an assumption). It is better to consider assumptions as either useful or useless, depending on whether deductions made from them corresponded to reality...Since we must start somewhere, we must have assumptions, but at least let us have as few assumptions as possible.[47]
Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists). However, theories do not generally make assumptions in the conventional sense (statements accepted without evidence). While assumptions are often incorporated during the formation of new theories, these are either supported by evidence (such as from previously existing theories) or the evidence is produced in the course of validating the theory. This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested.
Conventional assumptions, without evidence, may be used if the theory is only intended to apply when the assumption is valid (or approximately valid). For example, the special theory of relativity assumes an inertial frame of reference. The theory makes accurate predictions when the assumption is valid, and does not make accurate predictions when the assumption is not valid. Such assumptions are often the point with which older theories are succeeded by new ones (the general theory of relativity works in non-inertial reference frames as well).
The term "assumption" is actually broader than its standard use, etymologically speaking. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and online Wiktionary indicate its Latin source as assumere ("accept, to take to oneself, adopt, usurp"), which is a conjunction of ad- ("to, towards, at") and sumere (to take). The root survives, with shifted meanings, in the Italian sumere and Spanish sumir. The first sense of "assume" in the OED is "to take unto (oneself), receive, accept, adopt". The term was originally employed in religious contexts as in "to receive up into heaven", especially "the reception of the Virgin Mary into heaven, with body preserved from corruption", (1297 CE) but it was also simply used to refer to "receive into association" or "adopt into partnership". Moreover, other senses of assumere included (i) "investing oneself with (an attribute)", (ii) "to undertake" (especially in Law), (iii) "to take to oneself in appearance only, to pretend to possess", and (iv) "to suppose a thing to be" (all senses from OED entry on "assume"; the OED entry for "assumption" is almost perfectly symmetrical in senses). Thus, "assumption" connotes other associations than the contemporary standard sense of "that which is assumed or taken for granted; a supposition, postulate" (only the 11th of 12 senses of "assumption", and the 10th of 11 senses of "assume").
Descriptions[edit]
From philosophers of science[edit]
Karl Popper described the characteristics of a scientific theory as follows:[5]
It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verifications, for nearly every theory—if we look for confirmations.
Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory.
Every "good" scientific theory is a prohibition: it forbids certain things to happen. The more a theory forbids, the better it is.
A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific. Irrefutability is not a virtue of a theory (as people often think) but a vice.
Every genuine test of a theory is an attempt to falsify it, or to refute it. Testability is falsifiability; but there are degrees of testability: some theories are more testable, more exposed to refutation, than others; they take, as it were, greater risks.
Confirming evidence should not count except when it is the result of a genuine test of the theory; and this means that it can be presented as a serious but unsuccessful attempt to falsify the theory. (I now speak in such cases of "corroborating evidence".)
Some genuinely testable theories, when found to be false, might still be upheld by their admirers—for example by introducing post hoc (after the fact) some auxiliary hypothesis or assumption, or by reinterpreting the theory post hoc in such a way that it escapes refutation. Such a procedure is always possible, but it rescues the theory from refutation only at the price of destroying, or at least lowering, its scientific status, by tampering with evidence. The temptation to tamper can be minimized by first taking the time to write down the testing protocol before embarking on the scientific work.
Popper summarized these statements by saying that the central criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its "falsifiability, or refutability, or testability".[5] Echoing this, Stephen Hawking states, "A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements: It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements, and it must make definite predictions about the results of future observations." He also discusses the "unprovable but falsifiable" nature of theories, which is a necessary consequence of inductive logic, and that "you can disprove a theory by finding even a single observation that disagrees with the predictions of the theory".[48]
Several philosophers and historians of science have, however, argued that Popper's definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements is wrong[49] because, as Philip Kitcher has pointed out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of "theory", observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have "falsified" Newton's celestial mechanics. Rather, people suggested that another planet influenced Uranus' orbit—and this prediction was indeed eventually confirmed.
Kitcher agrees with Popper that "There is surely something right in the idea that a science can succeed only if it can fail."[50] He also says that scientific theories include statements that cannot be falsified, and that good theories must also be creative. He insists we view scientific theories as an "elaborate collection of statements", some of which are not falsifiable, while others—those he calls "auxiliary hypotheses", are.
According to Kitcher, good scientific theories must have three features:[50]
Unity: "A science should be unified…. Good theories consist of just one problem-solving strategy, or a small family of problem-solving strategies, that can be applied to a wide range of problems."
Fecundity: "A great scientific theory, like Newton's, opens up new areas of research…. Because a theory presents a new way of looking at the world, it can lead us to ask new questions, and so to embark on new and fruitful lines of inquiry…. Typically, a flourishing science is incomplete. At any time, it raises more questions than it can currently answer. But incompleteness is not vice. On the contrary, incompleteness is the mother of fecundity…. A good theory should be productive; it should raise new questions and presume those questions can be answered without giving up its problem-solving strategies."
Auxiliary hypotheses that are independently testable: "An auxiliary hypothesis ought to be testable independently of the particular problem it is introduced to solve, independently of the theory it is designed to save." (For example, the evidence for the existence of Neptune is independent of the anomalies in Uranus's orbit.)
Like other definitions of theories, including Popper's, Kitcher makes it clear that a theory must include statements that have observational consequences. But, like the observation of irregularities in the orbit of Uranus, falsification is only one possible consequence of observation. The production of new hypotheses is another possible and equally important result.
Analogies and metaphors[edit]
The concept of a scientific theory has also been described using analogies and metaphors. For instance, the logical empiricist Carl Gustav Hempel likened the structure of a scientific theory to a "complex spatial network:"
Its terms are represented by the knots, while the threads connecting the latter correspond, in part, to the definitions and, in part, to the fundamental and derivative hypotheses included in the theory. The whole system floats, as it were, above the plane of observation and is anchored to it by the rules of interpretation. These might be viewed as strings which are not part of the network but link certain points of the latter with specific places in the plane of observation. By virtue of these interpretive connections, the network can function as a scientific theory: From certain observational data, we may ascend, via an interpretive string, to some point in the theoretical network, thence proceed, via definitions and hypotheses, to other points, from which another interpretive string permits a descent to the plane of observation.[51]
Michael Polanyi made an analogy between a theory and a map:
A theory is something other than myself. It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms. Mathematical theory reaches the highest perfection in this respect. But even a geographical map fully embodies in itself a set of strict rules for finding one's way through a region of otherwise uncharted experience. Indeed, all theory may be regarded as a kind of map extended over space and time.[52]
A scientific theory can also be thought of as a book that captures the fundamental information about the world, a book that must be researched, written, and shared. In 1623, Galileo Galilei wrote:
Philosophy [i.e. physics] is written in this grand book—I mean the universe—which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometrical figures, without which it is humanly impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one is wandering around in a dark labyrinth.[53]
The book metaphor could also be applied in the following passage, by the contemporary philosopher of science Ian Hacking:
I myself prefer an Argentine fantasy. God did not write a Book of Nature of the sort that the old Europeans imagined. He wrote a Borgesian library, each book of which is as brief as possible, yet each book of which is inconsistent with every other. No book is redundant. For every book there is some humanly accessible bit of Nature such that that book, and no other, makes possible the comprehension, prediction and influencing of what is going on…Leibniz said that God chose a world which maximized the variety of phenomena while choosing the simplest laws. Exactly so: but the best way to maximize phenomena and have simplest laws is to have the laws inconsistent with each other, each applying to this or that but none applying to all.[54]
In physics[edit]
In physics, the term theory is generally used for a mathematical framework—derived from a small set of basic postulates (usually symmetries—like equality of locations in space or in time, or identity of electrons, etc.)—that is capable of producing experimental predictions for a given category of physical systems. A good example is classical electromagnetism, which encompasses results derived from gauge symmetry (sometimes called gauge invariance) in a form of a few equations called Maxwell's equations. The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed "laws of electromagnetism," reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them. Within electromagnetic theory generally, there are numerous hypotheses about how electromagnetism applies to specific situations. Many of these hypotheses are already considered to be adequately tested, with new ones always in the making and perhaps untested. An example of the latter might be the radiation reaction force. As of 2009, its effects on the periodic motion of charges are detectable in synchrotrons, but only as averaged effects over time. Some researchers are now considering experiments that could observe these effects at the instantaneous level (i.e. not averaged over time).[55][56]
Examples[edit]
Note that many fields of inquiry do not have specific named theories, e.g. developmental biology. Scientific knowledge outside a named theory can still have a high level of certainty, depending on the amount of evidence supporting it. Also note that since theories draw evidence from many different fields, the categorization is not absolute.
Biology: cell theory, modern evolutionary synthesis, germ theory, particulate inheritance theory, dual inheritance theory
Chemistry: collision theory, kinetic theory of gases, Lewis theory, molecular theory, molecular orbital theory, transition state theory, valence bond theory
Physics: atomic theory, Big Bang theory, Dynamo theory, perturbation theory, theory of relativity (successor to classical mechanics), quantum field theory
Other: Climate change theory (from climatology),[57] plate tectonics theory (from geology), theories of the origin of the Moon, theories for the Moon illusion
Further reading[edit]
Sellers, Piers (August 17, 2016). "Space, Climate Change, and the Real Meaning of Theory". The New Yorker. Retrieved August 18, 2016. , essay by British/American meteorologist and a NASA astronaut on anthopogenic global warming and "theory"
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Per NAS 2008: "The formal scientific definition of theory is quite different from the everyday meaning of the word. It refers to a comprehensive explanation of some aspect of nature that is supported by a vast body of evidence."
Jump up ^ National Academy of Sciences, 1999
Jump up ^ "The Structure of Scientific Theories" in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jump up ^ Schafersman, Steven D. "An Introduction to Science".
^ Jump up to: a b c National Academy of Sciences, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Popper, Karl (1963), Conjectures and Refutations, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, UK. Reprinted in Theodore Schick (ed., 2000), Readings in the Philosophy of Science, Mayfield Publishing Company, Mountain View, Calif.
Jump up ^ https://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic265890.files/Critical_Thinking_File/07_The_Scientific_Method.pdf
Jump up ^ Andersen, Hanne and Hepburn, Brian, "Scientific Method", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/scientific-method/
Jump up ^ The Devil in Dover, p. 98
Jump up ^ https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/einstein-philscience/#PriTheTheDis
Jump up ^ Alan Baker (2010) [2004]. "Simplicity". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. California: Stanford University. ISSN 1095-5054.
Jump up ^ Courtney A, Courtney M (2008). "Comments Regarding "On the Nature Of Science"" (PDF). Physics in Canada. 64 (3): 7–8. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Elliott Sober, Let's Razor Occam's Razor, pp. 73–93, from Dudley Knowles (ed.) Explanation and Its Limits, Cambridge University Press (1994).
Jump up ^ National Academy of Sciences (2008), Science, Evolution, and Creationism.
Jump up ^ Hooke, Robert (1635–1703). Micrographia, Observation XVIII.
Jump up ^ Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip S.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1973). Gravitation, p. 1049. New York: W. H.Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-0344-0.
Jump up ^ See Acid–base reaction.
^ Jump up to: a b c American Association for the Advancement of Science, Project 2061
Jump up ^ See, for example, Common descent and Evidence for common descent.
Jump up ^ For example, see the article on the discovery of Neptune; the discovery was based on an apparent violation of the orbit of Uranus as predicted by Newtonian mechanics. This explanation did not require any modification of the theory, but rather modification of the hypothesis that there were only seven planets in the Solar System.
Jump up ^ U. Le Verrier (1859), (in French), "Lettre de M. Le Verrier à M. Faye sur la théorie de Mercure et sur le mouvement du périhélie de cette planète", Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences (Paris), vol. 49 (1859), pp. 379–83.
Jump up ^ For example, the modern theory of evolution (the modern evolutionary synthesis) incorporates significant contributions from R. A. Fisher, Ernst Mayr, J. B. S. Haldane, and many others.
^ Jump up to: a b Weinberg S (1993). Dreams of a Final Theory: The Scientist's Search for the Ultimate Laws of Nature.
Jump up ^ Maxwell, J. C., & Thompson, J. J. (1892). A treatise on electricity and magnetism. Clarendon Press series. Oxford: Clarendon.
Jump up ^ John N. Bahcall, nobelprize.org
Jump up ^ The strong force, the electroweak force, and gravity. The electroweak force is the unification of electromagnetism and the weak force. All observed causal interactions are understood to take place through one or more of these three mechanisms, although most systems are far too complicated to account for these except through the successive approximations offered by other theories.
Jump up ^ Albert Einstein (1905) "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper", Annalen der Physik 17: 891; English translation On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies by George Barker Jeffery and Wilfrid Perrett (1923); Another English translation On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies by Megh Nad Saha (1920).
Jump up ^ Schwarz, John H (Mar 1998). "Recent developments in superstring theory". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (6): 2750–57. PMC 19640  . PMID 9501161. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.6.2750.
Jump up ^ See Tests of special relativity. Also, for example: Sidney Coleman, Sheldon L. Glashow, Cosmic Ray and Neutrino Tests of Special Relativity, Phys. Lett. B405 (1997) 249–52, found here. An overview can be found here.
^ Jump up to: a b Roberto Torretti, The Philosophy of Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 289–90.
^ Jump up to: a b Scientific Laws and Theories
Jump up ^ See the article on Physical law, for example.
Jump up ^ Definitions from the NCSE
Jump up ^ Harding (1999).
Jump up ^ William F. McComas (30 December 2013). The Language of Science Education: An Expanded Glossary of Key Terms and Concepts in Science Teaching and Learning. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 107. ISBN 978-94-6209-497-0.
Jump up ^ http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistry101/a/lawtheory.htm
Jump up ^ Gould, Stephen Jay (1981-05-01). "Evolution as Fact and Theory". Discover. 2 (5): 34–37.
Jump up ^ Further examples are here, and in the article on Evolution as fact and theory.
Jump up ^ National Center for Science Education http://ncse.com/evolution/education/theory-fact. Retrieved 25 March 2015. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Suppe, Frederick (1998). "Understanding Scientific Theories: An Assessment of Developments, 1969–1998" (PDF). Philosophy of Science. The University of Chicago Press. 67: S102–S115. doi:10.1086/392812. Retrieved 14 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Halvorson, Hans (2012). "What Scientific Theories Could Not Be" (PDF). Philosophy of Science. The University of Chicago Press. 79 (2): 183–206. doi:10.1086/664745. Retrieved 14 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Frigg, Roman (2006). "Scientific Representation and the Semantic View of Theories" (PDF). Theoria. The University of Chicago Press. 55 (2): 183–206. Retrieved 14 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Hacking, Ian (1983). Representing and Intervening. Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science. Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Box, George E.P. & Draper, N.R. (1987). Empirical Model-Building and Response Surfaces. Wiley. p. 424
Jump up ^ Lorenzo Iorio (2005). "On the possibility of measuring the solar oblateness and some relativistic effects from planetary ranging". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 433: 385–93. Bibcode:2005A&A...433..385I. arXiv:gr-qc/0406041  . doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20047155.
Jump up ^ Myles Standish, Jet Propulsion Laboratory (1998)
Jump up ^ For example, Reese & Overto (1970); Lerner (1998); also Lerner & Teti (2005), in the context of modeling human behavior.
Jump up ^ Isaac Asimov, Understanding Physics (1966) pp. 4–5.
Jump up ^ Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-38016-8.
Jump up ^ Hempel. C.G. 1951 "Problems and Changes in the Empiricist Criterion of Meaning" in Aspects of Scientific Explanation. Glencoe: the Free Press. Quine, W.V.O 1952 "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" reprinted in From a Logical Point of View. Cambridge: Harvard University Press
^ Jump up to: a b Philip Kitcher 1982 Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism, pp. 45–48. Cambridge: The MIT Press
Jump up ^ Hempel CG 1952. Fundamentals of Concept Formation in Empirical Science. (Volume 2, #7 of Foundations of the Unity of Science. Toward an International Encyclopedia of Unified Science). University of Chicago Press, p. 36.
Jump up ^ Polanyi M. 1958. Personal Knowledge. Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, p. 4.
Jump up ^ Galileo Galilei, The Assayer, as translated by Stillman Drake (1957), Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo pp. 237–38.
Jump up ^ Hacking I. 1983. Representing and Intervening. Cambridge University Press, p. 219.
Jump up ^ Koga J and Yamagiwa M (2006). Radiation reaction effects in ultrahigh irradiance laser pulse interactions with multiple electrons.
Jump up ^ http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHPAEN000013000011113106000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes&ref=no
Jump up ^ Plass, G.N., 1956, The Carbon Dioxide Theory of Climatic Change, Tellus VIII, 2. (1956), pp. 140–54.
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