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Computer program
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For the TV program, see The Computer Programme.
C-language "Hello, World" source code. This first known "Hello, world" snippet from the seminal book The C Programming Language originates from Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie in 1974.
A computer program is a collection of instructions[1] for performing a specific task that is designed to solve a specific class of problems. The instructions of a program are designed to be executed by a computer and it is required that a computer is able to execute programs in order for it to function.
The instructions of a computer program are often specified by a computer programmer. A computer programmer does this by means of the application of a programming language. From the program in its human-readable form of source code, a compiler can derive machine code, which are computer program instructions that—as a result of being specified in a language that a computer can understand—are able to be directly executed by the computer they have been provided to. Alternatively, a computer program may be executed with the aid of an interpreter.
The method applied by a computer to execute the instructions of a computer program is called an algorithm. A collection of computer programs, libraries, and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines, such as application software and system software.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early programmable machines
1.2 Analytical Engine
1.3 Universal Turing machine
1.4 Early programmable computers
1.5 Later computers
2 Computer programming
2.1 Programming languages
2.1.1 Imperative languages
2.1.2 Declarative languages
2.2 Compilation and interpretation
3 Storage and execution
3.1 Simultaneous execution
3.2 Self-modifying programs
4 Functional categories
4.1 Application software
4.2 Utility programs
4.3 Operating system
4.4 Boot program
4.5 Embedded programs
4.6 Microcode programs
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
History[edit]
See also: History of computing, History of programming languages, and History of software
Early programmable machines[edit]
The earliest programmable machines preceded the invention of the digital computer. In 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard devised a loom that would weave a pattern by following a series of perforated cards. Patterns could be woven and repeated by arranging the cards.[2]
Analytical Engine[edit]
Lovelace's diagram from Note G, the first published computer algorithm
In 1837, Charles Babbage was inspired by Jacquard's loom to attempt to build the Analytical Engine.[2] The names of the components of the calculating device were borrowed from the textile industry. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled. The device would have had a "store"—memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each. Numbers from the "store" would then have then been transferred to the "mill" (analogous to the CPU of a modern machine), for processing. It was programmed using two sets of perforated cards—one to direct the operation and the other for the input variables.[2] [3] However, after more than 17,000 pounds of the British government's money, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together.[4]
During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea. The memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine. This note is recognized by some historians as the world's first written computer program.[5]
Universal Turing machine[edit]
In 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine—a theoretical device that can model every computation that can be performed on a Turing complete computing machine.[6] It is a finite-state machine that has an infinitely long read/write tape. The machine can move the tape back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm. The machine starts in the initial state, goes through a sequence of steps, and halts when it encounters the halt state.[7] This machine is considered by some to be the origin of the stored-program computer—used by John von Neumann (1946) for the "Electronic Computing Instrument" that now bears the von Neumann architecture name.[8]
Early programmable computers[edit]
The Z3 computer, invented by Konrad Zuse (1941) in Germany, was a digital and programmable computer.[9] A digital computer uses electricity as the calculating component. The Z3 contained 2,400 relays to create the circuits. The circuits provided a binary, floating-point, nine-instruction computer. Programming the Z3 was through a specially designed keyboard and punched tape.
The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (Fall 1945) was a Turing complete, general-purpose computer that used 17,468 vacuum tubes to create the circuits. At its core, it was a series of Pascalines wired together.[10] Its 40 units weighed 30 tons, occupied 1,800 square feet (167 m2), and consumed $650 per hour (in 1940s currency) in electricity when idle.[10] It had 20 base-10 accumulators. Programming the ENIAC took up to two months.[10] Three function tables were on wheels and needed to be rolled to fixed function panels. Function tables were connected to function panels using heavy black cables. Each function table had 728 rotating knobs. Programming the ENIAC also involved setting some of the 3,000 switches. Debugging a program took a week.[10] The ENIAC featured parallel operations. Different sets of accumulators could simultaneously work on different algorithms. It used punched card machines for input and output, and it was controlled with a clock signal. It ran for eight years, calculating hydrogen bomb parameters, predicting weather patterns, and producing firing tables to aim artillery guns.
The Manchester Baby (June 1948) was the first electronic stored-program computer.[11] Programming transitioned away from moving cables and setting dials; instead, a computer program was stored in memory as numbers. It was limited to eight instruction types, and program steps were entered by switches.
Later computers[edit]
Switches for manual input on a Data General Nova 3, manufactured in the mid-1970s
Computers manufactured until the 1970s had front-panel switches for programming. The computer program was written on paper for reference. An instruction was represented by a configuration of on/off settings. After setting the configuration, an execute button was pressed. This process was then repeated. Computer programs also were manually input via paper tape or punched cards. After the medium was loaded, the starting address was set via switches and the execute button pressed.[12]
In 1961, the Burroughs B5000 was built specifically to be programmed in the ALGOL 60 language. The hardware featured circuits to ease the compile phase.[13]
In 1964, the IBM System/360 was a line of six computers each having the same instruction set architecture. The Model 30 was the smallest and least expensive. Customers could upgrade and retain the same application software.[14] Each System/360 model featured multiprogramming. With operating system support, multiple programs could be in memory at once. When one was waiting for input/output, another could compute. Each model also could emulate other computers. Customers could upgrade to the System/360 and retain their IBM 7094 or IBM 1401 application software.[14]
Computer programming[edit]
Main article: Computer programming
Computer programming is the process of writing or editing source code. Editing source code involves testing, analyzing, refining, and sometimes coordinating with other programmers on a jointly developed program. A person who practices this skill is referred to as a computer programmer, software developer, and sometimes coder.
The sometimes lengthy process of computer programming is usually referred to as software development. The term software engineering is becoming popular as the process is seen as an engineering discipline.
Programming languages[edit]
Main article: Programming language
A computer program written in the imperative programming style
Computer programs can be categorized by the programming language paradigm used to produce them. Two of the main paradigms are imperative and declarative.
Imperative languages[edit]
Imperative programming languages specify a sequential algorithm using declarations, expressions, and statements:[15]
A declaration couples a variable name to a datatype – for example: var x: integer;
An expression yields a value – for example: 2 + 2 yields 4
A statement might assign an expression to a variable or use the value of a variable to alter the program's control flow – for example: x := 2 + 2; if x = 4 then do_something();
One criticism of imperative languages is the side effect of an assignment statement on a class of variables called non-local variables.[16]
Declarative languages[edit]
Declarative programming languages describe what computation should be performed and not how to compute it. Declarative programs omit the control flow and are considered sets of instructions. Two broad categories of declarative languages are functional languages and logical languages. The principle behind functional languages (like Haskell) is to not allow side effects, which makes it easier to reason about programs like mathematical functions.[16] The principle behind logical languages (like Prolog) is to define the problem to be solved – the goal – and leave the detailed solution to the Prolog system itself.[17] The goal is defined by providing a list of subgoals. Then each subgoal is defined by further providing a list of its subgoals, etc. If a path of subgoals fails to find a solution, then that subgoal is backtracked and another path is systematically attempted.
Compilation and interpretation[edit]
A computer program in the form of a human-readable, computer programming language is called source code. Source code may be converted into an executable image by a compiler or executed immediately with the aid of an interpreter.
Compilers are used to translate source code from a programming language into either object code or machine code.[18] Object code needs further processing to become machine code, and machine code consists of the central processing unit's native instructions, ready for execution. Compiled computer programs are commonly referred to as executables, binary images, or simply as binaries – a reference to the binary file format used to store the executable code.
Interpreters are used to execute source code from a programming language line-by-line. The interpreter decodes each statement and performs its behavior. One advantage of interpreters is that they can easily be extended to an interactive session. The programmer is presented with a prompt, and individual lines of code are typed in and performed immediately.
The main disadvantage of interpreters is computer programs run slower than when compiled. Interpreting code is slower because the interpreter must decode each statement and then perform it. However, software development may be faster using an interpreter because testing is immediate when the compiling step is omitted. Another disadvantage of interpreters is an interpreter must be present on the executing computer. By contrast, compiled computer programs need no compiler present during execution.
Just in time compilers pre-compile computer programs just before execution. For example, the Java virtual machine Hotspot contains a Just In Time Compiler which selectively compiles Java bytecode into machine code - but only code which Hotspot predicts is likely to be used many times.
Either compiled or interpreted programs might be executed in a batch process without human interaction.
Scripting languages are often used to create batch processes. One common scripting language is Unix shell, and its executing environment is called the command-line interface.
No properties of a programming language require it to be exclusively compiled or exclusively interpreted. The categorization usually reflects the most popular method of language execution. For example, Java is thought of as an interpreted language and C a compiled language, despite the existence of Java compilers and C interpreters.
Storage and execution[edit]
In the 1950s, computer programs were stored on perforated paper tape
Typically, computer programs are stored in non-volatile memory until requested either directly or indirectly to be executed by the computer user. Upon such a request, the program is loaded into random-access memory, by a computer program called an operating system, where it can be accessed directly by the central processor. The central processor then executes ("runs") the program, instruction by instruction, until termination. A program in execution is called a process.[19] Termination is either by normal self-termination or by error – software or hardware error.
Simultaneous execution[edit]
See also: Process (computing) and Multiprocessing
Many operating systems support multitasking which enables many computer programs to appear to run simultaneously on one computer. Operating systems may run multiple programs through process scheduling – a software mechanism to switch the CPU among processes often so users can interact with each program while it runs.[20] Within hardware, modern day multiprocessor computers or computers with multicore processors may run multiple programs.[21]
Multiple lines of the same computer program may be simultaneously executed using threads. Multithreading processors are optimized to execute multiple threads efficiently.
Self-modifying programs[edit]
Main article: Self-modifying code
A computer program in execution is normally treated as being different from the data the program operates on. However, in some cases, this distinction is blurred when a computer program modifies itself. The modified computer program is subsequently executed as part of the same program. Self-modifying code is possible for programs written in machine code, assembly language, Lisp, C, COBOL, PL/1, and Prolog.
Functional categories[edit]
Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines. The main functional categories are application software and system software. System software includes the operating system which couples computer hardware with application software.[22] The purpose of the operating system is to provide an environment in which application software executes in a convenient and efficient manner.[22] In addition to the operating system, system software includes embedded programs, boot programs, and micro programs. Application software designed for end users have a user interface. Application software not designed for the end user includes middleware, which couples one application with another. Application software also includes utility programs. The distinction between system software and application software is under debate.
Application software[edit]
Main article: Application software
Example of an app: GCalctool, a software calculator
There are many types of application software:
The word app came to being in 21st century. It is a clipping of the word "application". They have been designed for many platforms, but the word was first used for smaller mobile apps. Desktop apps are traditional computer programs that run on desktop computers. Mobile apps run on mobile devices. Web apps run inside a web browser. Both mobile and desktop apps may be downloaded from the developers' website or purchased from app stores such as Microsoft Store, Apple App Store, Mac App Store, Google Play or Intel AppUp.
An application suite consists of multiple applications bundled together. Examples include Microsoft Office, LibreOffice, and iWork. They bundle a word processor, spreadsheet, and other applications.
Enterprise applications bundle accounting, personnel, customer, and vendor applications. Examples include enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain management software.
Enterprise infrastructure software supports the enterprise's software systems. Examples include databases, email servers, and network servers.
Information worker software are designed for workers at the departmental level. Examples include time management, resource management, analytical, collaborative and documentation tools. Word processors, spreadsheets, email and blog clients, personal information system, and individual media editors may aid in multiple information worker tasks.
Media development software generates print and electronic media for others to consume, most often in a commercial or educational setting. These produce graphics, publications, animations, and videos.
Product engineering software is used to help develop large machines and other application software. Examples includes computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE), and integrated development environments.
Entertainment Software can refer to video games, movie recorders and players, and music recorders and players.
Utility programs[edit]
Utility programs are application programs designed to aid system administrators and computer programmers.
Operating system[edit]
See also: Operating system
An operating system is a computer program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer hardware. [22]
In the 1950s, the programmer, who was also the operator, would write a program and run it.[12] After the program finished executing, the output may have been printed, or it may have been punched onto paper tape or cards for later processing.[12] More often than not the program did not work. [23] The programmer then looked at the console lights and fiddled with the console switches. If less fortunate, a memory printout was made for further study.[23] In the 1960s, programmers reduced the amount of wasted time by automating the operator's job.[23] A program called an operating system was kept in the computer at all times.[23]
Originally, operating systems were programmed in assembly; however, modern operating systems are typically written in C.
Boot program[edit]
A stored-program computer requires an initial computer program stored in its read-only memory to boot. The boot process is to identify and initialize all aspects of the system, from processor registers to device controllers to memory contents.[24] Following the initialization process, this initial computer program loads the operating system and sets the program counter to begin normal operations.
Embedded programs[edit]
The microcontroller on the right of this USB flash drive is controlled with embedded firmware.
Independent of the host computer, a hardware device might have embedded firmware to control its operation. Firmware is used when the computer program is rarely or never expected to change, or when the program must not be lost when the power is off.[23]
Microcode programs[edit]
Main article: Microcode
Microcode programs control some central processing units and some other hardware. This code moves data between the registers, buses, arithmetic logic units, and other functional units in the CPU. Unlike conventional programs, microcode is not usually written by, or even visible to, the end users of systems, and is usually provided by the manufacturer, and is considered internal to the device.
See also[edit]
Automatic programming
Firmware
Killer application
Software
Software bug
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rochkind, Marc J. (2004). Advanced Unix Programming, Second Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 1.1.2.
^ Jump up to: a b c McCartney, Scott (1999). ENIAC – The Triumphs and Tragedies of the World's First Computer. Walker and Company. p. 16. ISBN 0-8027-1348-3.
Jump up ^ Bromley, Allan G. (1998). "Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, 1838" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (4).
Jump up ^ Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1990). Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 15. ISBN 0-13-854662-2.
Jump up ^ J. Fuegi; J. Francis (October–December 2003), "Lovelace & Babbage and the creation of the 1843 'notes'", Annals of the History of Computing, 25 (4): 16, 19, 25, doi:10.1109/MAHC.2003.1253887
Jump up ^ Rosen, Kenneth H. (1991). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. McGraw-Hill, Inc. p. 654. ISBN 0-07-053744-5.
Jump up ^ Linz, Peter (1990). An Introduction to Formal Languages and Automata. D. C. Heath and Company. p. 234. ISBN 0-669-17342-8.
Jump up ^ Davis, Martin (2000), Engines of Logic: Mathematicians and the origin of the Computer (1st ed.), New York NY: W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-32229-7, (pb.)
Jump up ^ "History of Computing".
^ Jump up to: a b c d McCartney, Scott (1999). ENIAC – The Triumphs and Tragedies of the World's First Computer. Walker and Company. p. 102. ISBN 0-8027-1348-3.
Jump up ^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), "Computing's Golden Jubilee", Resurrection, The Computer Conservation Society (20), ISSN 0958-7403, retrieved 19 April 2008
^ Jump up to: a b c Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 6. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
Jump up ^ Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1990). Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 20. ISBN 0-13-854662-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1990). Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 21. ISBN 0-13-854662-2.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Leslie B. (1993). Comparative Programming Languages, Second Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 75. ISBN 0-201-56885-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilson, Leslie B. (1993). Comparative Programming Languages, Second Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 213. ISBN 0-201-56885-3.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Leslie B. (1993). Comparative Programming Languages, Second Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 244. ISBN 0-201-56885-3.
Jump up ^ "What is a Compiler?". Retrieved 2012-01-10.
Jump up ^ Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 97. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
Jump up ^ Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 100. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
Jump up ^ Akhter, Shameem (2006). Multi-Core Programming. Richard Bowles (Intel Press). pp. 11–13. ISBN 0-9764832-4-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 1. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (1990). Structured Computer Organization, Third Edition. Prentice Hall. p. 11. ISBN 0-13-854662-2.
Jump up ^ Silberschatz, Abraham (1994). Operating System Concepts, Fourth Edition. Addison-Wesley. p. 30. ISBN 0-201-50480-4.
Further reading[edit]
Knuth, Donald E. (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 1, 3rd Edition. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-89683-4.
Knuth, Donald E. (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2, 3rd Edition. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-89684-2.
Knuth, Donald E. (1997). The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3, 3rd Edition. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-89685-0.
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President of Mexico
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President of the
United Mexican States
Presidente de los
Estados Unidos Mexicanos
Seal of the Federal Government of Mexico
Mexican Presidential Standard
Incumbent
Enrique Peña Nieto
since December 1, 2012 (2012-12-01)
Executive branch of the Mexican Government
Office of the President of Mexico
Residence
Los Pinos
Seat
Mexico City
Appointer
Federal Electoral Tribunal
Term length
Six years (sexenio)
Single term
Constituting instrument
Constitution of Mexico
Inaugural holder
Guadalupe Victoria
Formation
October 10, 1824
Salary
MXN$208,570.92 per month, before taxes.[1]
Website
en.presidencia.gob.mx
The President of Mexico (Spanish: Presidente de México), officially known as the President of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos)[2], is the head of state and government of Mexico. Under the Constitution, the president is also the Supreme Commander of the Mexican armed forces. The current President is Enrique Peña Nieto, who took office on December 1, 2012. Andrés Manuel López Obrador won the presidential election on July 1, 2018 to become President-elect.
Currently, the office of the President is considered to be revolutionary, in that the powers of office are derived from the Revolutionary Constitution of 1917. Another legacy of the Revolution is its ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single six-year term, called a sexenio. No one who has held the post, even on a caretaker basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the President closely follow the presidential system of government.
Contents
1 Requirements to hold office
2 Presidential elections
2.1 President-elect
3 Presidential powers
4 Oath of office
5 Presidential sash and flag
6 Presidential residence
7 Succession
8 Living former Presidents
9 List of Presidents of Mexico
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Requirements to hold office[edit]
Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the executive branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president, as well as the qualifications for the office. He is vested with the "supreme executive power of the Union".
To be eligible to serve as president, Article 82 of the Constitution specifies that the following requirements must be met:
Be a natural-born citizen of Mexico ("mexicano por nacimiento") able to exercise full citizenship rights, with at least one parent who is a natural-born citizen of Mexico.
Be a resident of Mexico for at least twenty (20) years.
Be thirty-five years of age or older at the time of the election.
Be a resident of Mexico for the entire year prior to the election (although absences of 30 days or fewer are explicitly stated not to interrupt residency).
Not be an official or minister of any church or religious denomination.
Not be in active military service during the six months prior to the election.
Not be a secretary of state or under-secretary of state, attorney general, governor of a State, or head of the government of Mexico City, unless "separated from the post" (resigned or been granted permanent leave of absence) at least six months prior to the election.
Not have been president already, even in a provisional capacity (see Succession below).
The ban on any sort of presidential re-election dates back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the end of the Mexican Revolution. It is so entrenched in Mexican politics that it has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow Deputies and Senators to run for a second consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election. However, the president remained barred from re-election, even if it is nonsuccessive.
Presidential elections[edit]
The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1928, and has been set at six years since 1928. The president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a simple plurality of the national vote is elected; there is no runoff election.
The most recent former President, Felipe Calderón, won with 36.38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56 percent above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (who contested the official results). Former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the popular vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48% of the vote, and his predecessor Carlos Salinas won with a majority of 50%. The current president, Enrique Peña Nieto won 38% of the popular vote.[3]
The history of Mexico has not been a peaceful one. After the fall of dictator Porfirio Díaz in 1910 because of the Mexican Revolution, there was no stable government until 1929, when all the revolutionary leaders united in one political party: the National Revolutionary Party, which later changed its name to the Party of the Mexican Revolution, and is now the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional). From then until 1988, the PRI ruled Mexico as a virtual one-party state.
Toward the end of his term, the incumbent president in consultation with party leaders, selected the PRI's candidate in the next election in a procedure known as "the tap of the finger" (Spanish: el dedazo). Until 1988, the PRI's candidate was virtually assured of election, winning by margins well over 70 percent of the vote—results that were usually obtained by massive electoral fraud. In 1988, however, the PRI ruptured and the dissidents formed the National Democratic Front with rival center-left parties (now the PRD). Discontent with the PRI, and the popularity of the Front's candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas led to worries that PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari would not come close to a majority, and might actually be defeated. While the votes were being counted, the tabulation system mysteriously shut down. The government declared Salinas the winner, leading to stronger than ever allegations of electoral fraud.[4]
The PRI enacted a strict internal discipline and government presence in the country, and electoral fraud became common. After the country regained its peace, this pattern of fraud continued, with the opposition losing every election until the later part of the 20th century. The first presidential election broadly considered legitimate was the one held in 1994, when the PRI's Ernesto Zedillo took office, and in his term several reforms were enacted to ensure fairness and transparency in elections. Partly as a consequence of these reforms, the 1997 federal congressional election saw the first opposition Chamber of Deputies ever, and the 2000 elections saw Vicente Fox of a PAN/PVEM alliance become the first opposition candidate to win an election since 1911. This historical defeat was accepted on election night by the PRI in the voice of President Zedillo; while this calmed fears of violence, it also fueled questions about the role of the president in the electoral process and to whom the responsibility of conceding defeat should fall in a democratic election.
The role of unions in the new balance of power and future elections is documented in works like historian Enrique Krauze's Analysis of the Corporative System.
President-elect[edit]
After the presidential election, political parties may issue challenges to the election. These challenges are heard by the Electoral Tribunal of the Federal Judicial Power; after it has heard and ruled on them, the Tribunal must either declare the election invalid, or certify the results of the elections in accordance to their rulings. Once the Tribunal declares the election valid, it issues a "Certificate of Majority" (Constancia de Mayoría) to the candidate who obtained a plurality. That candidate then becomes President-elect. The final decision is made in September, two months after the election is carried out.[5]
Presidential powers[edit]
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The 1917 Constitution borrowed heavily from the Constitution of the United States, providing for a clear separation of powers while giving the president wider powers than his American counterpart. However, this has only recently become the case in practice.
For the first 71 years after the enactment of the 1917 Constitution, the president exercised nearly absolute control over the country. Much of this power came from the de facto monopoly status of the PRI. As mentioned above, he effectively chose his successor as president by personally nominating the PRI's candidate in the next election. In addition, the unwritten rules of the PRI allowed him to designate party officials and candidates all the way down to the local level. He thus had an important (but not exclusive) influence over the political life of the country (part of his power had to be shared with unions and other groups, but as an individual he had no peers). This, and his constitutional powers, made some political commentators describe the president as a six-year dictator, and to call this system an "imperial presidency". The situation remained largely unchanged until the early 1980s, when a grave economic crisis created discomfort both in the population and inside the party, and the president's power was no longer absolute but still impressive.
An important characteristic of this system is that the new president was effectively chosen by the old one (since the PRI candidate was assured of election) but once he assumed power, the old one lost all power and influence ("no reelection" is a cornerstone of Mexican politics). In fact, tradition called for the incumbent president to fade into the background during the campaign to elect his successor. This renewed command helped maintain party discipline and avoided the stagnation associated with a single man holding power for decades, prompting Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa to call Mexico's political system "the perfect dictatorship", since the president's powers were cloaked by democratic practice.
With the democratic reforms of recent years and fairer elections, the president's powers have been limited in fact as well as in name. Vargas Llosa, during the Fox administration, called this new system "The Imperfect Democracy". The current rights and powers of the president of Mexico are established, limited and enumerated by Article 89 of the Constitution which include the following:
Promulgate and execute the laws enacted by the Congress, providing in the administrative sphere to its exact observance;
Appoint and remove freely the Secretaries of State, remove the ambassadors, consuls general and senior employees of the Treasury, appoint and remove freely all other employees of the Union whose appointment or removal is not otherwise in the Constitution or in laws;
Appoint, with Senate approval, ambassadors, consuls general, superior employees of the Treasury and members of collegial bodies of regulation in telecommunications, energy and economic competition;
Appoint, with the approval of the Senate, the colonels and other senior officers of the Army, Navy and Air Force;
Preserve national security, under the terms of the respective law, and have all of the permanent Armed Forces i.e. Army, Navy and Air Force for internal security and external defense of the Federation;
Having the National Guard to the same objects, in the terms that prevents Section IV of Article 76;
Declare war on behalf of the United Mexican States with consent from the Congress of the Union;
Intervene in the appointment of the Attorney General of the Republic and delete it, in terms of the provisions of Article 102, Section A, of this Constitution;
Conduct foreign policy and conclude international treaties and finish, denounce, suspend, modify, amend, remove reservations and issuing interpretative statements thereon, and submitting to the approval of the Senate. In conducting such a policy, the Chief Executive shall observe the following normative principles: self-determination of peoples; nonintervention; the peaceful settlement of disputes; the prohibition of the threat or use of force in international relations; the legal equality of States; international cooperation for development; respect, protection and promotion of human rights and the struggle for international peace and security;
Convene Congress into special session, when agreed by the Standing Committee;
Provide the judiciary the aid they need for the expeditious exercise of its functions;
Enable all classes of ports, establish maritime and border customs and designate their location;
Grant, according to law, pardons to criminals convicted of crimes jurisdiction of the federal courts;
Grant exclusive privileges for a limited time, in accordance with the respective law, to discoverers, inventors or perfectors in any branch of industry;
When the Senate is not in session, the President of the Republic may make appointments mentioned in sections III, IV and IX, with the approval of the Standing Committee;
At any time, opt for a coalition government with one or more of the political parties represented in Congress.
To submit to the Senate, the three candidates for the appointment of judges of the Supreme Court and submit their resignations to the approval of licenses and Senate itself;
Objecting the appointment of commissioners body that sets the guarantor Article 6. of this Constitution made by the Senate, under the terms established in this Constitution and the law;
The others expressly conferred by this Constitution.
A decree is a legislative instrument that has an expiration date and that is issued by one of the three branches of government. Congress may issue decrees, and the President may issue decrees as well. However, they have all the power of laws, but cannot be changed except by the power that issued them. Decrees are very limited in their extent. One such decree is the federal budget, which is issued by Congress. The president's office may suggest a budget, but at the end of the day, it is Congress that decrees how to collect taxes and how to spend them. A Supreme Court ruling on Vicente Fox's veto of the 2004 budget suggests that the President may have the right to veto decrees from Congress.
Since 1997, the Congress has been plural, usually with opposition parties having a majority. Major reforms (tax, energy) have to pass by Congress, and the ruling President usually found his efforts blocked: the PRI's Zedillo by opposing PAN/PRD congressmen, and later the PAN's Fox by the PRI and PRD. The PAN would push the reforms it denied to the PRI and vice versa. This situation, novel in a country where Congress was +90% dominated by the president's party for most of the century, has led to a legal analysis of the president's power. Formerly almost a dictator (because of PRI's party discipline), the current times show the president's power as somewhat limited. In 2004, President Fox threatened to veto the budget approved by Congress, claiming the budget overstepped his authority to lead the country, only to learn no branch of government had the power to veto a decree issued by another branch of government (although a different, non jurisprudence-setting ruling stated he could return the budget with observations).
Oath of office[edit]
Upon taking office, the President raises his/her right arm to shoulder-level and takes the following oath:
Protesto guardar y hacer guardar la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos y las leyes que de ella emanen, y desempeñar leal y patrióticamente el cargo de Presidente de la República que el pueblo me ha conferido, mirando en todo por el bien y prosperidad de la Unión; y si así no lo hiciere que la Nación me lo demande.
Translation:
I affirm to follow and uphold the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States and the laws that emanate from it, and to perform the office of President of the Republic which the people have conferred upon me with loyalty and patriotism, in all actions looking after the good and prosperity of the Union; and if I do not fulfill these obligations, may the Nation demand it of me.
Presidential sash and flag[edit]
Ensign of the President, for use aboard naval vessels
The Mexican Presidential sash has the colors of the Mexican flag in three bands of equal width, with red on top, white in the center, and green on the bottom, worn from right shoulder to left waist; it also includes the National Seal, in gold thread, to be worn chest-high. During the swearing-in ceremony of a newly elected President, the outgoing President turns in the sash to the current President of Congress, who in turn gives it to the new President after the latter has sworn the oath of office. The sash is the symbol of the Executive Federal Power, and may only be worn by the current President.
According to Article 35 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem, the President must wear the sash at the swearing-in ceremony, when he makes his annual State of the Union report to Congress, during the commemoration of the Grito de Dolores on September 15 of each year, and when he receives the diplomatic credentials of accredited foreign ambassadors and ministers. He is also expected to wear it "in those official ceremonies of greatest solemnity". The sash is worn from right shoulder to left hip, and should be worn underneath the coat except during the swearing-in ceremony, when both the out-going and incoming president wear it over their coat (Article 36).
In addition to the Presidential Sash, each president receives a Presidential Flag; the flag has imprinted the words Estados Unidos Mexicanos in golden letters and the national coat of arms also in gold.
Presidential residence[edit]
The President's official residence and main workplace is Los Pinos, located inside the Bosque de Chapultepec (Chapultepec Park). The President has the right to use this residence for the six-year term of office.
The National Palace, a building facing the Mexico City Zócalo, is officially the seat of the Executive Power, but is used only for ceremonies or national holidays such as Independence Day or Revolution Day. Some areas of the historic building are open to the public, and others hold some government offices.
The President also has the use of Chapultepec Castle, formerly an Imperial palace of the Second Mexican Empire, and afterwards the official residence of Mexican Presidents until the Presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas.
Succession[edit]
Article 84 of the Mexican Constitution states that "in case of absolute absence of a President" the following should happen:
Until Congress names a Substitute or Interim President, the Secretary of the Interior (Secretario de Gobernación) assumes executive powers provisionally (Presidente Provisional), but cannot make changes to the cabinet without advice and consent from the Senate. He must also provide an official report of his actions within ten days of leaving the post. Congress must elect an Interim or Substitute President within 60 days of the original absence. The Secretary of the Interior is not required to meet all requirements for the Presidency; specifically, he is not required to meet the age or residency requirements, nor the requirement to not hold certain government positions (Secretary of state, under-secretary of state, etc.)
If Congress is not in session, then the Permanent Commission calls Congress to an extraordinary session, at which point the process continues as below.
If the absence (death, impeachment, etc.) should occur in the first two years of the term, Congress (if in session, or after being called to extraordinary session by the Permanent Commission) must elect, by a majority of votes in a secret ballot with a quorum of at least two-thirds of its members, an Interim President (Presidente Interino). Congress must also call for elections in no less than 14 months and no more than 18 months after the absence of the President occurs; the person who wins those elections will be President for the remainder of the original six-year presidential term.
If the absence should occur in the last four years of the term, Congress (if in session, or after being called to extraordinary session by the Permanent Commission) will select a Substitute President (Presidente Substituto) by a majority of votes in a secret ballot as above. The Substitute President will be President of the United Mexican States until the end of the original six-year presidential term, at which point regular elections are held.
No person who has already served as President, whether elected, Provisional, Interim, or Substitute, can be designated as Provisional, Interim, or Substitute President.
The designation of the Secretary of the Interior as the immediate successor dates to August 2012, when the changes to the Constitution were published in the Official Diary.
The succession provisions have come into play only twice since the current constitution was enacted. In 1928, after the assassination of president-elect Álvaro Obregón, Congress appointed Emilio Portes Gil as Interim President; Portes Gil served in the position for 14 months while new elections were called. Pascual Ortiz Rubio was elected President in the special elections that followed in 1930, but he resigned in 1932. Abelardo L. Rodríguez was then appointed Interim President to fill out the remainder of Ortiz Rubio's term (under current law Rodríguez would be Substitute President, but at the time there was no distinction between Interim, Substitute, and Provisional Presidents).
Living former Presidents[edit]
There are five living former presidents. The most recent former president to die was Miguel de la Madrid (1982–1988), on 1 April 2012.
Luis Echeverría
(1970–1976)
(1922-01-17) January 17, 1922 (age 96)
Carlos Salinas de Gortari
(1988–1994)
(1948-04-03) April 3, 1948 (age 70)
Ernesto Zedillo
(1994–2000)
(1951-12-27) December 27, 1951 (age 66)
Vicente Fox
(2000–2006)
(1942-07-02) July 2, 1942 (age 76)
Felipe Calderón
(2006–2012)
(1962-08-18) August 18, 1962 (age 55)
Former presidents of Mexico continue to carry the title "President" until death but are rarely referred by it; they are commonly called ex-Presidents. They are also given protection by the Estado Mayor Presidencial. Former presidents are also given a lifelong pension, which they can refuse, as in the case of Ernesto Zedillo.
Contrary to what happens in many other countries, former presidents of Mexico do not continue to be important national figures once out of office, and usually lead a discreet life. This is partly because they do not want to interfere with the government of the new president and partly because they may not have a good public image. This tradition can be traced back to the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas. Former president Plutarco Elías Calles had personally selected Cárdenas as his successor, and had hoped to control things from behind the scenes as he had for the last five years. However, when Cárdenas showed he was going to rule in fact as well as in name, Calles publicly criticized him, prompting Cárdenas to have Calles escorted out of the country by military police. Cárdenas himself remained silent on the policies of his successor Manuel Ávila Camacho, establishing a tradition that former presidents do not interfere with their successors.
For example, Ernesto Zedillo holds important offices in the United Nations and in the private sector, but outside of Mexico. It is speculated he lives in a self-imposed exile to avoid the hatred of some of his fellow members of the PRI for having acknowledged the PRI's defeat in the 2000 presidential election. Carlos Salinas also lived in a self-imposed exile in Ireland, but returned to Mexico. He campaigned intensely to have his brother, Raúl Salinas, freed after he was jailed in the early days of Zedillo's term, accused of drug trafficking and planning the assassination of José Francisco Ruiz Massieu. Carlos Salinas also wrote a book on neo-liberal Mexico, secured a position with the Dow Jones Company in the United States, and worked as a professor at several prestigious universities in that country. Felipe Calderón was given a contract to work as a professor for Harvard University in 2013, but he returned to Mexico in 2014. It was rumored that he would look after the then newly created Humanist Party;[6] this fact was eventually denied by his wife.[7]
Along with Felipe Calderón, two other surviving former presidents, Luis Echeverría and Vicente Fox, still live in Mexico. On June 30, 2006, Echeverría was placed under house arrest under charges of genocide for his role as Secretary of the Interior during the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre.[8] The house arrest was lifted in 2009.
List of Presidents of Mexico[edit]
Main article: List of heads of state of Mexico
See also[edit]
Mexico portal
List of Tenochtitlan rulers
Emperor of Mexico
References[edit]
Jump up ^ At an exchange rate of 17.95 pesos to one dollar, approximately $11,619 per month; the salary after taxes is listed as MXN$147,651.22 (US$11,391.99). "Portal de Obligaciones de Transparencia". 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2012-12-02.
Jump up ^ Article 80, Constitution of Mexico. "Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos" (PDF) (in Spanish). Cámara de Diputados. p. 55. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 January 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Enrique Pena Nieto wins Mexican presidential election". The Daily Telegraph (London). Retrieved 12 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Buckman, Robert T. (2007). The World Today Series: Latin America 2007. Harpers Ferry, West Virginia: Stryker-Post Publications. ISBN 1-887985-84-0.
Jump up ^ "About Us". Electoral Tribunal of the Federal Judicial Branch. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Felipe Calderón regresa a México para "supervisar" al Partido Humanista". SDP Noticias. Retrieved 2014-07-07.
Jump up ^ "Felipe Calderón regresó a México, confirma su esposa". Proceso. Retrieved 2014-07-10.
Jump up ^ "Echeverría, bajo prisión preventiva domiciliaria - El Universal - México". El Universal. Retrieved 2012-09-19.
External links[edit]
President of México - Official government website
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Kaboodle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the 1980s Australian series, see Kaboodle (TV series).
Look up kaboodle or caboodle in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Kaboodle is a spelling derivation of the English word "caboodle", meaning a group, bunch, lot, pack, or collection of things or people. "Two bottles of Prosecco creates the items to Kaboodle." - Kane[1] Caboodle is further derived from boodle or booty.[2]
This spelling of "kaboodle" has come into popular usage in culture and commerce, often found as part of the idiomatic expression "the whole kit and kaboodle", which can be loosely interpreted to mean "everything and more".[3]
In popular culture[edit]
In the original Star Trek episode "The Trouble with Tribbles", Mr. Scott says: "Before they went into warp, I transported the whole kit and kaboodle into their engine room, where they'll be no tribble at all."
Kitten Kaboodle was a character in an anti-cat story written by Charles Schulz's Snoopy in June 1974. "Secretly, Kitten Kaboodle wished she were a dog. She was aware of the natural superiority of a dog, and it bothered her." Linus to Snoopy: "I think your anti-cat stories show too much prejudice.... I think you're going to make a lot of enemies.... Not everybody hates cats, you know!" Snoopy, in thought balloon: "I find that hard to believe."[4]
Kaboodle was the name of Mrs. Dabney's cat in a 2010 episode of Good Luck Charlie (season 1, episode 12, "Kit and Kaboodle")
In the Series K of QI, the second episode is named Kit and Kaboodle.
"How much for the whole caboodle? " Steve Buscemi in the first season, episode one of Boardwalk Empire.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Caboodle". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. Retrieved May 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Whole kit and kaboodle". World Wide Words. April 10, 1999. Retrieved May 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ "kaboodle - Idioms - by the Free Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia". Cambridge Dictionary of American Idioms. idioms.thefreedictionary.com. 2006. Retrieved May 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Peanuts Comic Strip, June 13, 1974, on GoComics.com". www.gocomics.com. Retrieved Sep 16, 2012.
This vocabulary-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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