text:
Atmosphere (unit)
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Atmosphere
Unit of
Pressure
Symbol
atm
Unit conversions
1 atm in ... ... is equal to ...
SI units
101.325 kPa
U.S. customary units
14.69595 psi
The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa (1.01325 bar). It is sometimes used as a reference or standard pressure.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Pressure units and equivalencies
3 Other applications
4 See also
5 References
History[edit]
It was originally defined as the pressure exerted by 760 mm of mercury at 0 °C and standard gravity (g = 9.80665 m/s2).[1] It was used as a reference condition for physical and chemical properties, and was implicit in the definition of the Centigrade (later Celsius) scale of temperature by defining 100 °C as being the boiling point of water at this pressure. In 1954, the 10th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) adopted standard atmosphere for general use and affirmed its definition of being precisely equal to 1,013,250 dynes per square centimetre (101325 Pa).[2] This defined both temperature and pressure independent of the properties of particular substance. In addition (the CGPM noted) there had been some misapprehension that it "led some physicists to believe that this definition of the standard atmosphere was valid only for accurate work in thermometry."[2]
In chemistry and in various industries, the reference pressure referred to in “Standard Temperature and Pressure” (STP) was commonly 1 atm (101.325 kPa) but standards have since diverged; in 1982, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommended that for the purposes of specifying the physical properties of substances, “standard pressure” should be precisely 100 kPa (1 bar).[3]
Pressure units and equivalencies[edit]
Pressure units
v
t
e
Pascal
Bar
Technical atmosphere
Standard atmosphere
Torr
Pounds per square inch
(Pa)
(bar)
(at)
(atm)
(Torr)
(lbf/in2)
1 Pa
≡ 1 N/m2 10−5 6995101970000000000♠1.0197×10−5 6994986919999999999♠9.8692×10−6 6997750060000000000♠7.5006×10−3 6996145037700000000♠1.450377×10−4
1 bar
105 ≡ 100 kPa
≡ 106 dyn/cm2
7000101970000000000♠1.0197 6999986920000000000♠0.98692 7002750060000000000♠750.06 7001145037700000000♠14.50377
1 at
7004980665000000000♠9.80665×104 6999980665000000000♠0.980665 ≡ 1 kgf/cm2 6999967841100000000♠0.9678411 7002735559200000000♠735.5592 7001142233400000000♠14.22334
1 atm
7005101325000000000♠1.01325×105 7000101325000000000♠1.01325 7000103319999999999♠1.0332 1 ≡ 7002760000000000000♠760 7001146959500000000♠14.69595
1 Torr
7002133322399999999♠133.3224 6997133322400000000♠1.333224×10−3 6997135955100000000♠1.359551×10−3 ≡ 1/760 ≈ 6997131578900000000♠1.315789×10−3 ≡ 1 Torr
≈ 1 mmHg
6998193367800000000♠1.933678×10−2
1 lbf/in2
7003689480000000000♠6.8948×103 6998689480000000000♠6.8948×10−2 6998703069000000000♠7.03069×10−2 6998680460000000000♠6.8046×10−2 7001517149300000000♠51.71493 ≡ 1 lbf /in2
A pressure of 1 atm can also be stated as:
≡ 1.01325 bar
≡ 101325 pascal (Pa) or 101.325 kilopascal (kPa)
≡ 1013.25 millibars (mbar or mb)
≡ 760 torr (Torr)[n 1]
≈ 760.001 mmHg, 0 °C, subject to revision as more precise measurements of mercury’s density become available[n 2][n 3]
≈ 29.9213 inHg, 0 °C, subject to revision as more precise measurements of mercury’s density become available[n 3]
≈ 1.033 227 452 799 886 kgf/cm²
≈ 1.033 227 452 799 886 technical atmosphere
≈ 1033.227 452 799 886 cm H2O, 4 °C[n 2]
≈ 406.782 461 732 2385 in H2O, 4 °C[n 2]
≈ 14.695 948 775 5134 pounds-force per square inch (psi)
≈ 2116.216 623 673 94 pounds-force per square foot (psf)
= 1 ata (atmosphere absolute). The ata unit is used in place of atm to indicate that the pressure shown is the total ambient pressure, compared to vacuum, of the system being calculated or measured.[4] For example, for underwater pressures, a pressure of 3.1 ata would mean that the 1 atm of the air above water is included in this value and the pressure due to water would total 2.1 atm.
Notes:
Jump up ^ Torr and mm-Hg, 0°C are often taken to be identical. For most practical purposes (to 5 significant digits), they are interchangeable.
^ Jump up to: a b c This is the customarily accepted value for cm–H2O, 4 °C. It is precisely the product of 1 kg-force per square centimeter (one technical atmosphere) times 1.013 25 (bar/atmosphere) divided by 0.980 665 (one gram-force). It is not accepted practice to define the value for water column based on a true physical realization of water (which would be 99.997 495% of this value because the true maximum density of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water is 0.999 974 95 kg/l at 3.984 °C). Also, this “physical realization” would still ignore the 8.285 cm–H2O reduction that would actually occur in a true physical realization due to the vapor pressure over water at 3.984 °C.
^ Jump up to: a b NIST value of 13.595 078(5) g/ml assumed for the density of Hg at 0 °C
Other applications[edit]
Scuba divers and others use the word atmosphere and "atm" in relation to pressures that are relative to mean atmospheric pressure at sea level (1.013 bar).[citation needed] For example, a partial pressure of oxygen is calibrated typically using air at sea level, so is expressed in units of atm.
The old European unit technical atmosphere (at) is equal to 1 kilogram-force per square centimetre (kgf/cm2), 7004980665000000000♠98066.5 Pa.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Standard conditions for temperature and pressure
Atmospheric pressure
International Standard Atmosphere
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Resnick, Robert; Halliday, David (1960). Physics for Students of Science and Engineering Part 1. New York: Wiley. p. 364.
^ Jump up to: a b BIPM Definition of the standard atmosphere
Jump up ^ IUPAC.org, Gold Book, Standard Pressure
Jump up ^ Scuba Diving & Other Fun Activities, The Difference Between An ATM & An ATA
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atmosphere_(unit)&oldid=834256161"
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text:
Lake Superior
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Lake Superior (disambiguation).
Lake Superior
Lac Supérieur (French)
ᑭᑦᒉᐁ-ᑲᒣᐁ, Gitchi-Gami (Ojibwe)
Lake Superior and the other Great Lakes
Location
North America
Group
Great Lakes
Coordinates
47°42′N 87°30′W / 47.7°N 87.5°W / 47.7; -87.5 (Lake Superior)Coordinates: 47°42′N 87°30′W / 47.7°N 87.5°W / 47.7; -87.5 (Lake Superior)
Lake type
Glacial
Primary inflows
Nipigon, St. Louis, Pigeon, Pic, White, Michipicoten, Kaministiquia Rivers
Primary outflows
St. Marys River
Catchment area
49,300 sq mi (127,700 km2)[1]
Basin countries
United States
Canada
Max. length
350 mi (560 km)[2]
Max. width
160 mi (260 km)[2]
Surface area
31,700 sq mi (82,100 km2)[1]
Average depth
483 ft (147 m)[1]
Max. depth
1,333 ft (406 m)[1][3]
Water volume
2,900 cu mi (12,000 km3)[1]
Residence time
191 years
Shore length1
1,729 mi (2,783 km) plus 997 mi (1,605 km) for islands[4]
Surface elevation
601.71 ft (183 m) (2013 average)[5]
Islands
Isle Royale, Apostle Islands, Michipicoten Island, Slate Islands
Settlements
Thunder Bay, Ontario
Duluth, Minnesota
Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
Marquette, Michigan
Superior, Wisconsin
Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan
1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure.
Lake Superior (French: Lac Supérieur; Ojibwe: ᑭᑦᒉᐁ-ᑲᒣᐁ, Gitchi-Gami) is the largest of the Great Lakes of North America. The lake is shared by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north, the US state of Minnesota to the west, and Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the south. It is generally considered the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area. It is the world's third-largest freshwater lake by volume and the largest by volume in North America.[6] The furthest north and west of the Great Lakes chain, Superior has the highest elevation of all five great lakes and drains into the St. Mary's River.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Hydrography
2.1 Tributaries and outlet
2.2 Water levels
2.3 Climate change
3 Geography
3.1 Great Lakes Circle Tour
4 Climate
5 Geology
6 History
6.1 Shipping
6.2 Shipwrecks
7 Ecology
8 See also
8.1 General
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Name[edit]
The Ojibwe name for the lake is gichi-gami (pronounced as gitchi-gami and kitchi-gami in other dialects),[7] meaning "great sea." Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote the name as "Gitche Gumee" in The Song of Hiawatha, as did Gordon Lightfoot in his song, "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald". According to other sources, the actual Ojibwe name is Ojibwe Gichigami ("Ojibwe's Great Sea") or Anishinaabe Gichigami ("Anishinaabe's Great Sea").[8] The 1878 dictionary by Father Frederic Baraga, the first one written for the Ojibway language, gives the Ojibwe name as Otchipwe-kitchi-gami (reflecting Ojibwe Gichigami).[7]
The first French explorers approaching the great inland sea by way of the Ottawa River and Lake Huron during the 17th century referred to their discovery as le lac supérieur. Properly translated, the expression means "Upper Lake," that is, the lake above Lake Huron. The lake was also called Lac Tracy (named for Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy) by 17th century Jesuit missionaries.[9] The British, upon taking control of the region from the French in the 1760s following the French and Indian War, anglicized the lake's name to Superior, "on account of its being superior in magnitude to any of the lakes on that vast continent."[10]
Hydrography[edit]
Lake Superior bathymetric map.[11][12][13] The deepest point, roughly off its southeastern shore, is marked with "×".[14] The deep trenches in its eastern part may have originated from tunnel valleys.[15][16]
Lake Superior empties into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River and the Soo Locks. Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world in area (if Lakes Michigan and Huron are taken separately; see Lake Michigan–Huron), and the third largest in volume, behind Lake Baikal in Siberia and Lake Tanganyika in East Africa. The Caspian Sea, while larger than Lake Superior in both surface area and volume, is brackish; though presently isolated, prehistorically the Caspian has been repeatedly connected to and isolated from the Mediterranean via the Black Sea.
Lake Superior deepest point[14] on the bathymetric map.[11]
Lake Superior has a surface area of 31,700 square miles (82,103 km2),[1] which is approximately the size of South Carolina or Austria. It has a maximum length of 350 statute miles (560 km; 300 nmi) and maximum breadth of 160 statute miles (257 km; 139 nmi).[2] Its average depth is 80.5 fathoms (483 ft; 147 m) with a maximum depth of 222.17 fathoms (1,333 ft; 406 m).[1][2][3] Lake Superior contains 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 km³) of water.[1] There is enough water in Lake Superior to cover the entire land mass of North and South America to a depth of 30 centimetres (12 in).[a] The shoreline of the lake stretches 2,726 miles (4,387 km) (including islands).[1]
American limnologist J. Val Klump was the first person to reach the lowest depth of Lake Superior on July 30, 1985, as part of a scientific expedition, which at 122 fathoms 1 foot (733 ft or 223 m) below sea level is the second-lowest spot in the continental interior of the United States and the third-lowest spot in the interior of the North American continent after Iliamna Lake in Alaska (942 feet [287 m] below sea level) and Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories of Canada at (1,503 feet [458 m] below sea level). (Though Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States and deeper than Lake Superior, Crater Lake's elevation is higher and consequently its deepest point is 4,229 feet (1,289 m) above sea level.)
While the temperature of the surface of Lake Superior varies seasonally, the temperature below 110 fathoms (660 ft; 200 m) is an almost constant 39 °F (4 °C).[citation needed] This variation in temperature makes the lake seasonally stratigraphic. Twice per year, however, the water column reaches a uniform temperature of 39 °F (4 °C) from top to bottom, and the lake waters thoroughly mix. This feature makes the lake dimictic. Because of its volume, Lake Superior has a retention time of 191 years.[17][18]
Annual storms on Lake Superior regularly feature wave heights of over 20 feet (6 m).[19] Waves well over 30 feet (9 m) have been recorded.[20]
Tributaries and outlet[edit]
Lake Superior basin
The lake is fed by over 200 rivers. The largest include the Nipigon River, the St. Louis River, the Pigeon River, the Pic River, the White River, the Michipicoten River, the Bois Brule River and the Kaministiquia River. Lake Superior drains into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River. There are rapids at the river's upper (Lake Superior) end where the river bed has a relatively steep gradient. The Soo Locks were built to enable ships to bypass the rapids and to overcome the 25-foot (8 m) height difference between Lakes Superior and Huron.
Water levels[edit]
Lake Superior in winter, as seen from Duluth, Minnesota in December 2004
A frozen Duluth Harbor Entrance
The lake's average surface elevation is 600 feet (183 m)[2][17] above sea level. Until approximately 1887 the natural hydraulic conveyance through the St. Marys River rapids determined outflow from Lake Superior. By 1921 development in support of transportation and hydroelectric power resulted in gates, locks, power canals and other control structures completely spanning St. Marys rapids. The regulating structure is known as the Compensating Works and is operated according to a regulation plan known as Plan 1977-A. Water levels, including diversions of water from the Hudson Bay watershed, are regulated by the International Lake Superior Board of Control which was established in 1914 by the International Joint Commission.
Lake Superior's water level was at a new record low in September 2007, slightly less than the previous record low in 1926.[21] However, the water levels returned within a few days.[22]
Historic high water The lake's water level fluctuates from month to month, with the highest lake levels in October and November. The normal high-water mark is 1.17 feet (0.36 m) above datum (601.1 ft or 183.2 m). In the summer of 1985, Lake Superior reached its highest recorded level at 2.33 feet (0.71 m) above datum.[23] The winter of 1986 set new high-water records through the winter and spring months (January to June), ranging from 1.33 feet (0.41 m) to 1.833 feet (0.559 m) above Chart Datum.[23]
Historic low water The lake's lowest levels occur in March and April. The normal low-water mark is 0.33 feet (0.10 m) below datum (601.1 ft or 183.2 m). In the winter of 1926 Lake Superior reached its lowest recorded level at 1.58 feet (0.48 m) below datum.[23] Additionally, the entire first half of the year (January to June) included record low months. The low water was a continuation of the dropping lake levels from the previous year, 1925, which set low-water records for October through December. During the nine-month period October 1925 to June 1926 water levels ranged from 1.58 feet (0.48 m) to 0.33 feet (0.10 m) below Chart Datum.[23] In the summer of 2007 monthly historic lows were set; August at 0.66 feet (0.20 m), September at 0.58 feet (0.18 m).[23]
Climate change[edit]
According to a study by professors at the University of Minnesota Duluth, Lake Superior may have warmed faster than its surrounding area.[24] Summer surface temperatures in the lake appeared to have increased by about 4.5 °F (2.5 °C) since 1979, compared with an approximately 2.7 °F (1.5 °C) increase in the surrounding average air temperature. The increase in the lake's surface temperature may be related to the decreasing ice cover. Less winter ice cover allows more solar radiation to penetrate and warm the water. If trends continue, Lake Superior, which freezes over completely once every 20 years, could routinely be ice-free by 2040.[25] This would be a significant departure from historical records as, according to Hubert Lamb, Samuel Champlain reported ice along the shores of Lake Superior in June 1608.[26] Warmer temperatures could actually lead to more snow in the lake effect snow belts along the shores of the lake, especially in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. However, two recent consecutive winters (2013–2014 and 2014–2015) brought unusually high ice coverage to the Great Lakes, and on March 6, 2014 overall ice coverage peaked at 92.5%, the second-highest in recorded history.[27]
Geography[edit]
Brooklyn Museum, Lake Superior, Walter Shirlaw
The largest island in Lake Superior is Isle Royale in the state of Michigan. Isle Royale contains several lakes, some of which also contain islands. Other well-known islands include Madeline Island in the state of Wisconsin, Michipicoten Island in the province of Ontario, and Grand Island (the location of the Grand Island National Recreation Area) in the state of Michigan.
The larger cities on Lake Superior include the twin ports of Duluth, Minnesota and Superior, Wisconsin; Thunder Bay, Ontario; Marquette, Michigan; and the twin cities of Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Duluth-Superior, at the western end of Lake Superior, is the most inland point on the St. Lawrence Seaway and the most inland port in the world.
Among the scenic places on the lake are Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, Isle Royale National Park, Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park, Pukaskwa National Park, Lake Superior Provincial Park, Grand Island National Recreation Area, Sleeping Giant (Ontario) and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore.
Great Lakes Circle Tour[edit]
The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[28]
Climate[edit]
Lake Superior's size reduces the severity of the seasons of its humid continental climate (more typically seen in locations like Nova Scotia).[29] The water surface's slow reaction to temperature changes, seasonally ranging between 32 and 55 °F (0–13 °C) around 1970,[30] helps to moderate surrounding air temperatures in the summer and winter, and creates lake effect snow in colder months. The hills and mountains that border the lake hold moisture and fog, particularly in the fall.
The lake's surface temperature has risen by 4.5 °F (2.5 °C) since 1979.[31]
Bedrock geologic map of the U.S. area bordering Lake Superior: Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan
North American cratons and basement rock, showing the formation of the Midcontinent Rift containing today's Lake Superior
Geology[edit]
The rocks of Lake Superior's northern shore date back to the early history of the earth. During the Precambrian (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago) magma forcing its way to the surface created the intrusive granites of the Canadian Shield.[32] These ancient granites can be seen on the North Shore today. It was during the Penokean orogeny, part of the process that created the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone, that many valuable metals were deposited. The region surrounding the lake has proved to be rich in minerals. Copper, iron, silver, gold and nickel are or were the most frequently mined. Examples include the Hemlo gold mine near Marathon, copper at Point Mamainse, silver at Silver Islet and uranium at Theano Point.
The mountains steadily eroded, depositing layers of sediments that compacted and became limestone, dolostone, taconite and the shale at Kakabeka Falls.
The continent was later riven, creating one of the deepest rifts in the world.[33] The lake lies in this long-extinct Mesoproterozoic rift valley, the Midcontinent Rift. Magma was injected between layers of sedimentary rock, forming diabase sills. This hard diabase protects the layers of sedimentary rock below, forming the flat-topped mesas in the Thunder Bay area.
Amethyst formed in some of the cavities created by the Midcontinent Rift and there are several amethyst mines in the Thunder Bay area.[34]
Basaltic columns along Lake Superior
Lava erupted from the rift and formed the black basalt rock of Michipicoten Island, Black Bay Peninsula, and St. Ignace Island.
During the Wisconsin glaciation 10,000 years ago, ice covered the region at a thickness of 1.25 miles (2 km). The land contours familiar today were carved by the advance and retreat of the ice sheet. The retreat left gravel, sand, clay and boulder deposits. Glacial meltwaters gathered in the Superior basin creating Lake Minong, a precursor to Lake Superior.[35] Without the immense weight of the ice, the land rebounded, and a drainage outlet formed at Sault Ste. Marie, which would become known as St. Mary's River.
History[edit]
Pictographs at Lake Superior Provincial Park, Ontario
The first people came to the Lake Superior region 10,000 years ago after the retreat of the glaciers in the last Ice Age. They are known as the Plano, and they used stone-tipped spears to hunt caribou on the northwestern side of Lake Minong.
The next documented people are known as the Shield Archaic (c. 5000–500 BC). Evidence of this culture can be found at the eastern and western ends of the Canadian shore. They used bows and arrows, dugout canoes, fished, hunted, mined copper for tools and weapons, and established trading networks. They are believed to be the direct ancestors of the Ojibwe and Cree.[36]
The Laurel people (c. 500 BC to AD 500) developed seine net fishing, evidence being found at rivers around Superior such as the Pic and Michipicoten.
Another culture known as the Terminal Woodland Indians (c. AD 900–1650) has been found. They were Algonkian people who hunted, fished and gathered berries. They used snow shoes, birch bark canoes and conical or domed lodges. At the mouth of the Michipicoten River, nine layers of encampments have been discovered. Most of the Pukaskwa Pits were likely made during this time.[36]
The Anishinaabe, which includes the Ojibwe or Chippewa, have inhabited the Lake Superior region for over five hundred years and were preceded by the Dakota, Fox, Menominee, Nipigon, Noquet and Gros Ventres. They called Lake Superior either Ojibwe Gichigami ("the Ojibwe's Great Sea") or Anishnaabe Gichgamiing ("the Anishinaabe's Great Sea"). After the arrival of Europeans, the Anishinaabe made themselves the middle-men between the French fur traders and other Native peoples. They soon became the dominant Native American nation in the region: they forced out the Sioux and Fox and won a victory against the Iroquois west of Sault Ste. Marie in 1662. By the mid-18th century, the Ojibwe occupied all of Lake Superior's shores.[37]
Reconstructed Great Hall, Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota
In the 18th century, the fur trade in the region was booming, with the Hudson's Bay Company having a virtual monopoly. In 1783, however, the North West Company was formed to rival the Hudson's Bay Company. The North West Company built forts on Lake Superior at Grand Portage, Fort William, Nipigon, the Pic River, the Michipicoten River, and Sault Ste. Marie. But by 1821, with competition taking too great a toll on both, the companies merged under the Hudson's Bay Company name.
Many towns around the lake are either current or former mining areas, or engaged in processing or shipping. Today, tourism is another significant industry; the sparsely populated Lake Superior country, with its rugged shorelines and wilderness, attracts tourists and adventurers.
Shipping[edit]
Vintage stereoscopic photo titled, "Ice blockade in Marquette Harbor, June 1873
Lake Superior has been an important link in the Great Lakes Waterway, providing a route for the transportation of iron ore as well as grain and other mined and manufactured materials. Large cargo vessels called lake freighters, as well as smaller ocean-going freighters, transport these commodities across Lake Superior.
Because of ice, the Lake is closed to shipping from mid-January to late March. Exact dates for the shipping season vary each year,[38] depending on weather conditions that form and break the ice.
Shipwrecks[edit]
See also: Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes, List of shipwrecks of Isle Royale, and Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
According to shipwreck historian Frederick Stonehouse, the southern shore of Lake Superior between Grand Marais, Michigan, and Whitefish Point is known as the "Graveyard of the Great Lakes" and more ships have been lost around the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior.[39] These shipwrecks are now protected by the Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve.
Storms that claimed multiple ships include the Mataafa Storm in 1905 and the Great Lakes Storm of 1913.
Wreckage of SS Cyprus—a 420-foot (130 m) ore carrier that sank on October 11, 1907, during a Lake Superior storm in 77 fathoms (460 ft or 140 m) of water—was located in August 2007. All but Charles G. Pitz of Cyprus's 23 crew perished . The ore carrier sank in Lake Superior on her second voyage, while hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York. Built in Lorain, Ohio, Cyprus was launched August 17, 1907.[40]
In 1918 the last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, French minesweepers Inkerman and Cerisoles, vanished in a Lake Superior storm. With 78 crewmembers dead, their sinking marked the largest loss of life on Lake Superior to date.
SS Edmund Fitzgerald was the latest major shipwreck on Lake Superior, sinking 15 nautical miles (28 km; 17 mi) from Whitefish Point in a storm on November 10, 1975. The wreck was immortalized by Gordon Lightfoot in his ballad "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald". All 29 crew members perished when the ship sank, and no bodies were ever recovered. Edmund Fitzgerald was swallowed up so intensely by Lake Superior that the 729-foot (222 m) ship split in half; her two pieces are approximately 170 feet (52 m) apart in a depth of 91 fathoms 4 feet (550 ft or 170 m).
According to legend, "Lake Superior seldom gives up her dead".[41] This is because of the unusually low temperature of the water, estimated at under 36 °F (2 °C) on average around 1970.[30] Normally, bacteria feeding on a sunken decaying body will generate gas inside the body, causing it to float to the surface after a few days. However, Lake Superior's water is cold enough year-round to inhibit bacterial growth, and bodies tend to sink and never resurface.[42] This is alluded to in Lightfoot's "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" ballad. Fitzgerald adventurer Joe MacInnis reported that, in July 1994, explorer Frederick Shannon's Expedition 94 to the wreck of Edmund Fitzgerald discovered and filmed a man's body near the port side of her pilothouse, not far from the open door, "fully clothed, wearing an orange life jacket, and lying face down in the sediment."[43]
Ecology[edit]
Bedrock shoreline, Neys Provincial Park, Ontario
Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan
Over 80 species of fish have been found in Lake Superior. Species native to the lake include: banded killifish, bloater, brook trout, burbot, cisco, lake sturgeon, lake trout, lake whitefish, longnose sucker, muskellunge, northern pike, pumpkinseed, rock bass, round whitefish, smallmouth bass, walleye, white sucker and yellow perch. In addition, many fish species have been either intentionally or accidentally introduced to Lake Superior: Atlantic salmon, brown trout, carp, chinook salmon, coho salmon, freshwater drum, pink salmon, rainbow smelt, rainbow trout, round goby, ruffe, sea lamprey and white perch.[44][45]
Lake Superior has fewer dissolved nutrients relative to its water volume than the other Great Lakes and so is less productive in terms of fish populations and is an oligotrophic lake. This is a result of the underdeveloped soils found in its relatively small watershed.[17] However, nitrate concentrations in the lake have been continuously rising for more than a century. They are still much lower than levels considered dangerous to human health; but this steady, long-term rise is an unusual record of environmental nitrogen buildup. It may relate to anthropogenic alternations to the regional nitrogen cycle, but researchers are still unsure of the causes of this change to the lake's ecology.[46]
As for other Great Lakes fish, populations have also been affected by the accidental or intentional introduction of foreign species such as the sea lamprey and Eurasian ruffe. Accidental introductions have occurred in part by the removal of natural barriers to navigation between the Great Lakes. Overfishing has also been a factor in the decline of fish populations.[6]
See also[edit]
North Shore of Lake Superior
South Shore of Lake Superior
General[edit]
Great Lakes
Great Lakes Areas of Concern
Great Lakes census statistical areas
Great Lakes Commission
Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal
Great Lakes Storm of 1913
International Boundary Waters Treaty
List of cities along the Great Lakes
Seiche
Shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm
Sixty Years' War for control of the Great Lakes
Third Coast
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ North America (2.47×107 km²) and South America (1.78×107 km²) combined cover 4.26×107 km². Lake Superior's volume (1.20×104 km³) over 4.26×107 km² gives a depth of 0.282 m.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts". U.S. Government. May 25, 2011. Archived from the original on October 29, 2010. Retrieved November 9, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1". United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 11, 2011. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, John W., ed. (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. p. 64. ISBN 0-14-303820-6.
Jump up ^ "Shorelines of the Great Lakes". Michigan Department of Environmental Quality. Archived from the original on April 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Great Lakes Water Levels" (PDF). US Army Corps of Engineers. The link also has daily elevations for the current month.
^ Jump up to: a b "Superior Pursuit: Facts About the Greatest Great Lake—Minnesota Sea Grant". University of Minnesota. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Kitchi-Gami Almanac: The Name". lakesuperior.com. January 1, 2006.
Jump up ^ Chisholm, Barbara & Gutsche, Andrea (1998). Under the Shadow of the Gods: A Guide to the History of the Canadian Shore of Lake Superior (1st ed.). Transcontinental Printing.
Jump up ^ "Great Lakes Atlas". Environment Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1995.
Jump up ^ Stewart, George R. (1945). Names on the Land, A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. p. 83.
^ Jump up to: a b National Geophysical Data Center (1999). "Bathymetry of Lake Superior". National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. Retrieved 2015-03-23.
(the general reference to NGDC because this lake was never published, compilation of Great Lakes Bathymetry at NGDC has been suspended).
Jump up ^ National Geophysical Data Center (1999). "Bathymetry of Lake Huron". National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V5G15XS5. Retrieved March 23, 2015. (only small portion of this map)
Jump up ^ Hastings, D. & Dunbar, P.K. (1999). "Global Land One-Kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1". National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS. Retrieved March 16, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "About Our Great Lakes: Tour". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL). Retrieved December 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Wright, H. E., Jr. (1973). Black, Robert Foster; Goldthwait, Richard Parker; Willman, Harold, eds. "Tunnel Valleys, Glacial Surges, and Subglacial Hydrology of the Superior Lobe, Minnesota". Geological Society of America Memoirs. Geological Society of America Memoirs. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America Inc. 136: 251–276. doi:10.1130/MEM136-p251. ISBN 0813711363. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Regis, Robert S.; Jennings-Patterson, Carrie; Wattrus, Nigel & Rausch, Deborah (March 24–25, 2003). Relationship of deep troughs in the eastern Lake Superior basin and large-scale glaciofluvial landforms in the central upper peninsula of Michigan. North-Central Section 37th Annual Meeting. Kansas City, Missouri: The Geological Society of America. Paper No. 19-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Lake Superior". Minnesota Sea Grant, University of Minnesota. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
Jump up ^ Lake Superior's Natural Processes | Minnesota Sea Grant. Seagrant.umn.edu (October 15, 2014). Retrieved on 2015-11-17.
Jump up ^ "The fall storm season." (Website.) National Weather Service, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved on September 25, 2007
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xiii.
Jump up ^ "Lake Superior hits record lows". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Associated Press. October 1, 2007. Archived from the original on June 10, 2008. Retrieved 2007-10-06.
Jump up ^ Current Great Lakes Water Levels. Great Lakes Information Network. Retrieved on October 23, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Monthly bulletin of Lake Levels for The Great Lakes; September 2009; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Detroit District
Jump up ^ Marshall, Jessica (May 30, 2007). "Global warming is shrinking the Great Lakes". New Scientist. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Lake Superior warming faster than surrounding climate". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. Associated Press. June 4, 2007. Archived from the original on April 9, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-25. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Lamb, Hubert H. (1995). "The little ice age". Climate, history and the modern world. London: Routledge. p. 241. ISBN 0-415-12734-3.
Jump up ^ Extensive Great Lakes Ice Coverage to Limit Severe Weather, Pose Challenges to Shipping Industry. Accuweather.com. Retrieved on November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Great Lakes Circle Tour". Great-lakes.net. Retrieved November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Highway 17: A Scenic Route along the northern Lake Superior shore". Thekingshighway.ca. February 18, 2012. Retrieved 2015-11-17. [self-published source]
^ Jump up to: a b Derecki, J. A. (July 1980). "NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL-29: Evaporation from Lake Superior" (PDF). Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. p. 37. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Global warming is shrinking the Great Lakes". New Scientist. September 25, 2007. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007.
Jump up ^ Geology of National Parks, Second Edition, Ann G. Harris, Kendall Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, Iowa, 1977, p. 200
Jump up ^ Linder, Douglas O. (2006). "'Simply Superior: The World's Greatest Lake' Lake Superior facts". Law.umkc.edu. Archived from the original on November 5, 2005. Retrieved November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Ontario Amethyst: Ontario's Mineral Emblem". Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines. Archived from the original on August 12, 2007. Retrieved August 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xv.
^ Jump up to: a b Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xvi.
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xvii.
Jump up ^ "Paul R. Treggurtha: Last trip for the Tregurtha this year". Duluth Shipping News. January 12, 2015. Retrieved January 21, 2015. Another trip here was planned but has apparently been canceled, making this her last and 41st visit this season. Last year, without a late start due to ice, the Tregurtha was here 49 times.
Jump up ^ Stonehouse, Frederick (1998) [1985]. Lake Superior's Shipwreck Coast. Gwinn, MI: Avery Color Studios. p. 267. ISBN 0-932212-43-3.
Jump up ^ "Century-old shipwreck discovered: Ore carrier went down in Lake Superior on its second voyage". MSNBC. Associated Press. September 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Kohl, Cris (1998). The 100 Best Great Lakes Shipwrecks. Vol. II. Seawolf Communications. p. 430. ISBN 0-9681437-3-3.
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche (1998), p. xxxiv.
Jump up ^ MacInnis, Joseph (1998). Fitzgerald's Storm: The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald. Berkeley, CA, USA: Thunder Bay Press. p. 101. ISBN 1-882376-53-6.
Jump up ^ "Lake Superior Fish Species". Minnesota Sea Grant, University of Minnesota. Retrieved June 3, 2009.
Jump up ^ Minnesota 2009 fishing regulations, p. 23
Jump up ^ Sterner, Robert W.; Anagnostou, Eleni; Brovold, Sandra; Bullerjahn, George S.; Finlay, Jacques C.; Kumar, Sanjeev; McKay, R. Michael L.; Sherrell, Robert M. (2007). "Increasing stoichiometric imbalance in North America's largest lake: Nitrification in Lake Superior". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (10): L10406. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3410406S. doi:10.1029/2006GL028861.
Further reading[edit]
Burt, Williams A., and Hubbard, Bela Reports on the Mineral Region of Lake Superior (Buffalo: L. Danforth, 1846), 113 pages.
Grady, Wayne. The Great Lakes: The Natural History of a Changing Region.Greystone Books, D&M Publishers INC, 2007
Hyde, Charles K., and Ann and John Mahan. The Northern Lights: Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8143-2554-8 ISBN 9780814325544.
Oleszewski, Wes, Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses, (Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios, Inc., 1998) ISBN 0-932212-98-0.
Penrod, John, Lighthouses of Michigan, (Berrien Center, Michigan: Penrod/Hiawatha, 1998) ISBN 978-0-942618-78-5 ISBN 9781893624238
Penrose, Laurie and Bill, A Traveler's Guide to 116 Michigan Lighthouses (Petoskey, Michigan: Friede Publications, 1999). ISBN 0-923756-03-5 ISBN 9780923756031
Sims, P.K. and L.M.H. Carter, eds. Archean and Proterozoic Geology of the Lake Superior Region, U.S.A., 1993 [U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1556]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 1996.
Splake, T. Kilgore. Superior Land Lights. Battle Creek, MI: Angst Productions, 1984
Stonehouse, Frederick. Marquette Shipwrecks. Marquette, MI: Harboridge Press, 1974
Wagner, John L., Michigan Lighthouses: An Aerial Photographic Perspective, (East Lansing, Michigan: John L. Wagner, 1998) ISBN 1-880311-01-1 ISBN 9781880311011
Wright, Larry and Wright, Patricia, Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia Hardback (Erin: Boston Mills Press, 2006) ISBN 1-55046-399-3
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. "[ Record Low Water Levels Expected on Lake Superior]." August 2007
Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. "Great Lakes Sensitivity to Climatic Forcing: Hydrological Models." NOAA, 2006
"America"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton Mining Gazette; Vol. 29; June 8, 1928
Stonehouse, Frederick; Isle Royale Shipwrecks; Marquette, Michigan; Arery Color Studios; 1977
"Cumberland" & "Wreck of Sidewheel Steamer Cumberland"; Detroit, Michigan; Detroit Free Press; January 29, 1974
"S.S.George M. Cox Wrecked"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton Mining Gazette; May 28, 1933
Holdon, Thom "Reef of the Three C's"; Duluth, Minnesota; Lake Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 2, #4; July/August 1977
Holdon, Thom; "Above and Below: Steamer America"; Duluth, Minnesota; Lake Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 3, #3 & #4; May/June & July/August 1978
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lake Superior.
Geographic data related to Lake Superior at OpenStreetMap
Lake Superior NOAA nautical chart #14961 online
International Lake Superior Board of Control[permanent dead link]
EPA's Great Lakes Atlas
EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Factsheet #1
Great Lakes Coast Watch
Parks Canada - Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area
Minnesota Sea Grant Lake Superior Page
Lake Superior Bathymetry
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IBM mainframe utility programs
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
IBM mainframe utility programs are Utility software supplied with IBM mainframe operating systems such as MVS to carry out various tasks associated with datasets, etc.
The following list describes utilities distributed with OS/360 and successors. No VSE or VM utilities are included.
Contents
[hide]
1 History/Common JCL
2 Dataset utilities
2.1 IDCAMS
2.2 IEBCOMPR
2.3 IEBCOPY
2.4 IEBDG
2.5 IEBEDIT
2.6 IEBGENER
2.7 IEBIMAGE
2.8 IEBISAM
2.9 IEBPTPCH
2.10 IEBUPDTE
3 Scheduler utilities
3.1 IEFBR14
4 System utilities
4.1 ICKDSF
4.2 IEHDASDR
4.3 IEHINITT
4.4 IEHLIST
4.5 IEHMOVE
4.6 IEHPROGM
5 Supporting programs
5.1 SORT
5.2 Compilers/Linker
5.3 DFSMS
6 References
7 See also
8 External links
History/Common JCL[edit]
Many of these utilities were designed by IBM users, through the group SHARE, and then modified or extended by IBM from versions originally written by a user.
These utilities are usually invoked via Job Control Language (JCL). They tend to use common JCL DD identifiers for their data sets:
DDNAME
Usual function
SYSIN input file for the 'commands' for the utility. Often set to DUMMY if the default action is desired
SYSUT1 input file
SYSUT2 output file
SYSUT3 work (spill) file for input (SYSUT1) (often not used)
SYSUT4 work (spill) file for output (SYSUT2) (often not used)
SYSPRINT output file for printed output from the utility
SYSOUT output file for messages from the utility
SYSUDUMP output file for a system 'dump' if the program fails
Dataset utilities[edit]
IDCAMS[edit]
IDCAMS ("Access Method Services") generates and modifies Virtual Storage Access Method (VSAM) and Non-VSAM datasets. IDCAMS was introduced along with VSAM in OS/VS; the "Access Method" reference derives from the initial "VSAM replaces all other access methods" mindset of OS/VS. IDCAMS probably has the most functionality of all the utility programs, performing many functions, for both VSAM and non-VSAM files.
Example:
//XXXXXXXW JOB XXXXXXX,AAAA,CLASS=G,MSGCLASS=1,NOTIFY=&SYSUID //STEP001 EXEC PGM=IDCAMS //SYSIN DD * REPRO INFILE(FILE01) OUTFILE(FILE02) /* //FILE01 DD DSN=PROD.FILE1.INPUT,disp=shr ..... //FILE02 DD DSN=PROD.FILE2.OUTPUT, // DISP=(NEW,CATLG,DELETE), // UNIT=DASD, // SPACE=(TRK,(100,10),RLSE), // DCB=(RECFM=FB,BLKSIZE=0,LRECL=80) //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=* //SYSOUT DD SYSOUT=* //SYSUDUMP DD SYSOUT=* //*
In the example above, SYSIN control cards are coming from an in-stream file, but you can instead point to any sequential file or a PDS member containing control cards or a temporary data-set, if you wish. Example of using SYSIN files would be something like this:
//SYSIN DD DSN=PROD.MYFILE.REPRO,DISP=SHR
or this:
//SYSIN DD DSN=PROD.MYLIB.CNTLLIB(REPRO), // DISP=SHR
IEBCOMPR[edit]
IEBCOMPR compares records in sequential or partitioned data sets.
The IEBCOMPR utility is used to compare two sequential or partitioned datasets. This data set comparison is performed at the logical record level. Therefore, IEBCOMPR is commonly used to verify that a backup copy of a data set is correct (exact match to the original).
During processing, IEBCOMPR compares each record from each data set, one by one. If the records are unequal, IEBCOMPR lists the following information in the SYSOUT:
The record and block numbers in question.
The names of the DD statements in which the inconsistency occurred.
The unequal records.
When comparing sequential data sets, IEBCOMPR considers the data sets equal if the following conditions are met:
The data sets contain the same number of records.
The corresponding records and keys are identical.
For partitioned data sets, IEBCOMPR considers the data sets equal if the following conditions are met:
The directory entries for the two partitioned data sets match - that is, the names are the same, and the number of entries are equal.
The corresponding members contain the same number of records.
The corresponding records and keys are identical.
If ten unequal comparisons are encountered during processing, IECOMPR terminates with the appropriate message.
//XXXXXXXW JOB XXXXXXX,AAAA.A.A,CLASS=G,MSGCLASS=1,NOTIFY=XXXXX //STEP01 EXEC PGM=IEBCOMPR,ACCT=PJ00000000 // INCLUDE MEMBER=@BATCHS //*SYSIN DD DUMMY //SYSIN DD * COMPARE TYPORG=PO /* //SYSUT1 DD DSN=XXXXXXX.OLDFILE,UNIT=DASD,DISP=SHR //SYSUT2 DD DSN=XXXXXXX.NEWFILE,UNIT=DASD,DISP=SHR //SYSUT# DD
Note: IEBCOMPR is not a very flexible or user-friendly compare program. It can't restrict the comparison to only certain columns, it can't ignore differences in white space, it doesn't tell you where in the record the difference occurs, and it halts after 10 differences. On the other hand, it is fast, and it is present on all IBM mainframes. So it is very useful when an exact match is expected, such as comparing load modules that have not been reblocked, or checking that a copy worked properly. For comparisons of programs or reports, the ISPF SuperC (ISRSUPC) compare program is often used instead.
IEBCOPY[edit]
IEBCOPY copies, compresses and merges partitioned data sets. It can also select or exclude specified members during the copy operation, and rename or replace members.
Some of the tasks that IEBCOPY can perform include the following:
Creating an unload of a partitioned data set (PDS) to a PS dataset, for backup or transmission.
+
Copying a PDS in place to reclaim the unused space from deleted members; also called compressing a PDS.
Copying selected members to another PDS.
Renaming selected members of a PDS.
Merging multiple partitioned data sets into a single PDS.
Altering, copying and reblocking load modules.
Members that are already present in another PDS will not get replaced unless the R option is specified.
For the IEBCOPY utility, the required job control statements for a copy are as follows:
//stepname EXEC PGM=IEBCOPY //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=class //MYDD1 DD DSN=xxxx.ppp.psps,DISP=SHR //MYDD2 DD DSN=xxxx.ppp.pssp,DISP=SHR //SYSIN DD * COPY INDD=MYDD1,OUTDD=MYDD2 SELECT MEMBER=(MEM1,MEM2,MEM3)/ EXCLUDE MEMBER=(SF,DF,SA)
The MYDD1 and MYDD2 DD statements are names chosen by the user for the partitioned input and output data sets, respectively; The defaults are SYSUT1 and SYSUT2. You can use any valid DDNAME for these two DD statements. These DDNAMEs are specified in the utility control statements to tell IEBCOPY the name of the input and output data sets. You only need one DD statement for a PDS to be compressed.
IEBDG[edit]
IEBDG ('Data Generator') creates test datasets consisting of patterned data.
Example:
//XXXXXXXW JOB XXXXXXX,AAAA,CLASS=G,MSGCLASS=1,NOTIFY=&SYSUID //********************************************************************** //* CREATION OF A DATASET To BE USED LATER ON //********************************************************************** //CRSTEP EXEC PGM=IEFBR14 //DDCREA DD DSN=&SYSUID..MVSUT.SEQOUT,DISP=(NEW,CATLG) //********************************************************************** //* CREATION OF THE TESTDATA //********************************************************************** //STEP1 EXEC PGM=IEBDG //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=* //SEQOUT DD DSN=&SYSUID..MVSUT.SEQOUT,DISP=OLD //SYSIN DD DATA DSD OUTPUT=(SEQOUT) FD NAME=FIELD1,LENGTH=30,STARTLOC=1,FORMAT=AL,ACTION=TL FD NAME=FIELD2,LENGTH=30,STARTLOC=31,FORMAT=AL,ACTION=TR FD NAME=FIELD3,LENGTH=10,STARTLOC=71,PICTURE=10, X P'1234567890',INDEX=1 CREATE QUANTITY=500,NAME=(FIELD1,FIELD2,FIELD3),FILL=X'FF' END /* //********************************************************************** //* PRINTING THE TEST DATA TO SYSOUT //********************************************************************** //STEP2 EXEC PGM=IEBGENER //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=* //SYSUT1 DD DSN=*.STEP1.SEQOUT,DISP=SHR //SYSIN DD DUMMY //SYSUT2 DD SYSOUT=* //********************************************************************** //* DELETE THE CREATED DATASET, EVEN IF PREVIOUS STEPS ABENDED //********************************************************************** //DLSTEP EXEC PGM=IEFBR14,COND=EVEN //DDDEL DD DSN=&SYSUID..MVSUT.SEQOUT,DISP=(OLD,DELETE,DELETE) //
IEBEDIT[edit]
IEBEDIT selectively copies portions of JCL.
An example of an IEBEDIT program:
//IEBEDITJ JOB ACCT,'',CLASS=P,MSGCLASS=T,MSGLEVEL=(1,1),NOTIFY=&SYSUID //STEP0001 EXEC PGM=IEBEDIT //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=* //SYSUT1 DD DSN=xxxxx.yyyyy.zzzzz,DISP=SHR //SYSUT2 DD SYSOUT=(*,INTRDR) //SYSIN DD * EDIT TYPE=INCLUDE,STEPNAME=(STEP10,STEP5,STEP15) /* //
In this example, data set xxxxx.yyyyy.zzzzz should contain job(s) (which should include steps named STEP5, STEP10, and STEP15). This IEBEDIT routine copies the selected steps of the job onto the SYSUT2 output file (in this example, the internal reader.
The syntax of the EDIT statement is:
[label] EDIT [START=jobname] [,TYPE={POSITION|INCLUDE|EXCLUDE}] [,STEPNAME=(namelist)] [,NOPRINT]
START=jobname specifies the name of the input job to which the EDIT statement applies. Each EDIT statement must apply to a separate job. If START is specified without TYPE and STEPNAME, the JOB statement and all job steps for the specified job are included in the output.
Default: If START is omitted and only one EDIT statement is provided, the first job encountered in the input data set is processed. If START is omitted from an EDIT statement other than the first statement, processing continues with the next JOB statement found in the input data set.
TYPE={POSITION|INCLUDE|EXCLUDE} specifies the contents of the output data set. These values can be coded:
POSITION specifies that the output is to consist of a JOB statement, the job step specified in the STEPNAME parameter, and all steps that follow that job step. All job steps preceding the specified step are omitted from the operation. POSITION is the default.
INCLUDE specifies that the output data set is to contain a JOB statement and all job steps specified in the STEPNAME parameter.
EXCLUDE specifies that the output data set is to contain a JOB statement and all job steps belonging to the job except those steps specified in the STEPNAME parameter.
STEPNAME=(namelist) specifies the names of the job steps that you want to process.
namelist can be a single job step name, a list of step names separated by commas, or a sequential range of steps separated by a hyphen (for example, STEPA-STEPE). Any combination of these may be used in one namelist. If more than one step name is specified, the entire namelist must be enclosed in parentheses.
When coded with TYPE=POSITION, STEPNAME specifies the first job step to be placed in the output data set. Job steps preceding this step are not copied to the output data set.
When coded with TYPE=INCLUDE or TYPE=EXCLUDE, STEPNAME specifies the names of job steps that are to be included in or excluded from the operation. For example, STEPNAME=(STEPA,STEPF-STEPL,STEPZ) indicates that job steps STEPA, STEPF through STEPL, and STEPZ are to be included in or excluded from the operation.
If STEPNAME is omitted, the entire input job whose name is specified on the EDIT statement is copied. If no job name is specified, the first job encountered is processed.
NOPRINT specifies that the message data set is not to include a listing of the output data set.
Default: The resultant output is listed in the message data set.
See here for more info: [1]
IEBGENER[edit]
IEBGENER copies records from a sequential dataset, or creates a partitioned dataset.
Some of the tasks that IEBGENER can perform include the following:
Creating a backup of a sequential data set or a member of a PDS.
Changing the physical block size or logical record length of a sequential data set.
Creating an edited data set.
Printing a sequential data set or a member of a PDS.
Creating partitioned output data set from sequential input data set.
An example of an IEBGENER program to copy one dataset to another:
//IEBGENER JOB ACCT,'DATA COPY',MSGCLASS=J,CLASS=A //STEP010 EXEC PGM=IEBGENER //SYSUT1 DD DSN=xxxxx.yyyyy.zzzzz,DISP=SHR //SYSUT2 DD DSN=aaaaa.bbbbb.ccccc,DISP=(,CATLG), // UNIT=SYSDA,SPACE=(TRK,(5,5),RLSE), // DCB=(RECFM=FB,LRECL=1440) //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=* //SYSIN DD DUMMY
For straight copy tasks, the sort program can often do these faster than IEBGENER. Thus many mainframe shops make use of an option that automatically routes such tasks to the sort ICEGENER program instead of IEBGENER.
On some systems it is possible to send email from a batch job by directing the output to the "SMTP" external writer. On such systems, the technique is as follows:
//IEBGENER JOB ACCT,'DATA COPY',MSGCLASS=J,CLASS=A //NORMRC EXEC PGM=IEBGENER //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=* //SYSUT1 DD *,LRECL=80 HELO <SYSTEMID> MAIL FROM:<USERID@SYSTEMID> RCPT TO:<USERID@SYSTEMID> DATA From: <USERID@SYSTEMID> To: <USERID@SYSTEMID> Subject: Test Mail TEST MAIL FROM MAINFRAME . QUIT /* //SYSUT2 DD SYSOUT=(B,SMTP),LRECL=80 //SYSIN DD DUMMY
It is also possible to attach files while sending the email from Mainframe.
IEBIMAGE[edit]
IEBIMAGE manipulates several types of definitions (AKA images) for the IBM 3800 laser printing subsystem and the IBM 4248 printer. Common uses are for forms control buffers (FCBs), character arrangement tables, character definitions and images of forms to be printed on the output along with the text, for company logos to be printed on the page, or just to print 'graybar' pages (alternating gray & white horizontal backgrounds, to match the previous greenbar paper). With this utility, many different forms or logos could be stored as images, and printed when needed, all using the same standard blank paper, thus eliminating the need to stock many preprinted forms, and the need for operators to stop the printer and change paper.
IEBISAM[edit]
IEBISAM unloads, loads, copies and prints ISAM datasets.
Extracted from IBM manual SC26-7414-08 z/OS DFSMSdfp Utilities: The IEBISAM program is no longer distributed. Starting in z/OS V1R7, ISAM data sets can no longer be processed (created, opened, copied or dumped). ISAM data sets that are still in use must be converted to VSAM key-sequenced data sets.
Prior to z/OS V1R7, you could use access method services to allocate a VSAM key-sequenced data set and copy an ISAM data set into it.
IEBPTPCH[edit]
IEBPTPCH ("PrinT and PunCH") prints or punches records from a sequential or partitioned dataset.
Some of the tasks that IEBPTPCH can perform include the following:
Printing or punching an entire data set, sequential or partitioned (PDS).
Printing or punching selected PDS members.
Printing or punching selected records from a sequential or partitioned data set.
Printing or punching a PDS directory.
Printing or punching an edited version of a sequential data set or PDS.
Check for empty dataset
//IEBPTPCH JOB // EXEC PGM=IEBPTPCH //SYSIN DD * PRINT MAXFLDS=2 TITLE ITEM=('Name',22), ITEM=('GPA',50) TITLE ITEM=(' ',1) RECORD FIELD=(25,1,,22), FIELD=(4,51,,50) /* //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=* //SYSUT1 DD * Person 1 307 C Meshel Hall 3.89 Second person 123 Williamson Hall 2.48 3rd person 321 Maag Library 1.52 /* //SYSUT2 DD SYSOUT=* //
Empty dataset check: If dataset to be checked is empty then RC=4 else 0.
//IEBPTPCH JOB // EXEC PGM=IEBPTPCH //SYSUT1 DD DSN=<filename>,DISP=SHR //SYSUT2 DD DUMMY, // DCB=(BLKSIZE=<block size>,RECFM=FA) //SYSIN DD * PRINT TYPORG=PS /* //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=* //
IEBUPDTE[edit]
IEBUPDTE ("UPDaTE") incorporates changes to sequential or partitioned datasets. The UNIX patch utility is a similar program, but uses different input format markers (e..g, "./ INSERT ..." in MVS becomes "@@..." in Unix Patch).
Some programmers pronounce it "I.E.B. up-ditty".
The IEBUPDTE utility is used to maintain source libraries. Some of the functions that IEBUPDTE can perform include the following:
Creating and updating libraries
Modifying sequential data sets or PDS members
Changing the organization of a data set from sequential to partitioned or from partitioned to sequential.
IEBUPDTE is commonly used to distribute source libraries from tape to DASD.
IEBUPDTE uses the same job control statements required by most IEB-type utilities. The only exceptions are as follow:
IEBUPDTE accepts a PARM parameter coded on the EXEC statement, NEW or MOD. NEW indicates that the utility control statements and the input data are contained in the SYSIN DD statement, so no SYSUT1 DD statement is needed. MOD indicates that the SYSIN DD statement contains only utility control statements, without input data. Therefore, the SYSUT1 DD statement is required to define the input data set.
IEBUPDTE reads the input data set from either the SYSUT1 DD statement or from the SYSIN DD statement.
The job control used by IEUPDTE are as follows:
//stepname EXEC PGM=IEUPDTE,PARM=NEW //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=class //SYSUT1 DD ... //SYSUT2 DD ... //SYSIN DD ...
Scheduler utilities[edit]
IEFBR14[edit]
Main article: IEFBR14
IEFBR14 is a dummy program, normally inserted in JCL when the only desired action is allocation or deletion of datasets.
An example of an IEFBR14 step:
//IEFBR14 JOB ACCT,'DELETE DATASET' //STEP01 EXEC PGM=IEFBR14 //DELDD DD DSN=xxxxx.yyyyy.zzzzz, // DISP=(MOD,DELETE,DELETE),UNIT=DASD
The calling sequence for OS/360 contained the return address in Register 14. A branch to Register 14 would thus immediately exit the program. However, before and after executing this program, the operating system would allocate & deallocate datasets as specified in the DD statements, so it is commonly used as a quick way to set up or remove datasets.
It consisted initially as a single instruction a "Branch to Register" 14. The mnemonic used in the IBM Assembler was BR and hence the name: IEF BR 14. IEF is, of course, the "prefix" of OS/360's "job management" subsystem.
This single instruction program had an error in it — it didn't set the return code. Hence a second instruction had to be added to clear the return code so that it would exit with the correct status.
There was an additional error reported and fixed by IBM on this now two instruction program. This error was due to the IEFBR14 program not being link-edited as reenterable (simultaneously usable by more than one caller).
Some hackers have taken IEFBR14 and changed the BR 14 instruction to BR 15, thereby creating "the shortest loop in the world", as register 15 contains the address of the IEFBR14 module itself, and a BR 15 instruction would simply re-invoke the module, forever.
System utilities[edit]
These utilities are normally used by systems programmers in maintaining the operation of the system, rather than by programmers in doing application work on the system.
ICKDSF[edit]
ICKDSF ("Device Support Facility") installs, initializes and maintains DASD, either under an operating system, or standalone.
IEHDASDR[edit]
IEHDASDR (“Direct Access Storage Dump and Restore”), an older program not found in the current z/OS manuals, dumps datasets from disk to a printer or backup and restores them from backups. IEHDASDR was removed in MVS/XA.[1]
IEHINITT[edit]
IEHINITT ("INITialize Tape") initializes tapes by writing tape labels. Multiple tapes may be labeled in one run of the utility. IBM standard or ASCII labels may be written.
An example of an IEHINITT program:
//IEHINITT JOB ACCT,'LABEL TAPES',MSGCLASS=J,CLASS=A //STEP0001 EXEC PGM=IEHINITT,REGION=8M //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=A //LABEL DD DCB=DEN=2,UNIT=(3490,1,DEFER) //SYSIN DD * LABEL INITT SER=123450,NUMBTAPE=3 /*
This example will label 3 tapes on a 3490 magnetic tape unit. Each tape will receive an IBM standard label. The VOLSER will be incremented by one for each tape labeled. Each tape will be rewound and unloaded after being labeled.
IEHLIST[edit]
IEHLIST is a utility used to list entries in a Partitioned Dataset (PDS) directory or to list the contents of a Volume Table of Contents (VTOC).
The IEHLIST utility is used to list the entries contained in any one of the following:
PDS directory
VTOC
Catalog (OS CVOL)
An example of an IEHLIST program:
//IEHLIST JOB ACCT,'LIST PDS',MSGCLASS=J,CLASS=A //STEP0001 EXEC PGM=IEHLIST,REGION=8M //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=A //PDS1 DD DSN=xxxx.yyyy.zzzz,DISP=OLD //SYSIN DD * LISTPDS DSNAME=xxxx.yyyy.zzzz,FORMAT /*
This job will produce a formatted listing of the PDS directory of the PDS named xxxx.yyyy.zzzz.
An example of an IEHLIST program to list a VTOC is very similar:
//IEHLIST JOB ACCT,'LIST VTOC',MSGCLASS=J,CLASS=A //STEP0001 EXEC PGM=IEHLIST,REGION=8M //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=A //VOL1 DD VOL=SER=vvvvvv,DISP=OLD //SYSIN DD * LISTVTOC VOL=vvvvvv,FORMAT /*
IEHMOVE[edit]
IEHMOVE moves or copies collections of data. However, DFSMS (System Managed Storage) environments are now common, and IBM does not recommend using the IEHMOVE utility in those. A move differs from a copy in that during a move the original data set is deleted, or scratched. Some of the tasks that IEHMOVE can perform include the following:
Moving or copying sequential and partitional data sets
Moving or copying multi- volume data sets
Moving an entire volume of data sets
On the surface, IEHMOVE may seen redundant to the IEBGENER and IEBCOPY utilities. However, IEHMOVE is more powerful. The main advantage of using IEHMOVE is that you do not need to specify space or DCB information for the new data sets. This is because IEHMOVE allocates this information based on the existing data sets.
Another advantage of IEHMOVE is that you can copy or move groups of data sets as well as entire volumes of data. Because of the ease in moving groups of data sets or volumes, the IEHMOVE utility is generally favored by system programmers.
A sample IEHMOVE job:
//stepname EXEC PGM=IEHMOVE,PARM='LINECNT=xx,POWER=n' //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=class //SYSUT1 DD UNIT=aaaa,VOL=SER=bbbbbb,DISP=OLD //anyname1 DD UNIT=cccc,VOL=SER=dddddd,DISP=OLD //anyname2 DD UNIT=eeee,VOL=SER=ffffff,DISP=OLD //SYSIN DD ...
The DD statements for IEHMOVE, other than SYSPRINT and SYSIN, refer to DASD or tape volumes instead of individual data sets. However, referencing volumes can pose a problem, since specifying DISP=OLD gains exclusive access to a volume. Therefore, while your IEHMOVE job runs, that entire volume (and all datasets on it) is unavailable to other users. This is acceptable for private volumes, such as tape volumes or mountable volumes, but unacceptable public volumes, such as DASD volumes.
The SYSUT1 DD statement specifies a DASD volume where three work data set required by IEHMOVE are allocated. You must specify unit and volume information for this DD statement.
IEHMOVE was one of the first systems to be developed in PL/S.
In this example, three sequential data sets (SEQSET1, SEQSET2, and SEQSET3) are moved from a disk volume to three separate disk volumes. Each of the three receiving volumes is mounted when it is required by IEHMOVE. The source data sets are not cataloged. Space is allocated by IEHMOVE.
//MOVEDS JOB ... //STEP1 EXEC PGM=IEHMOVE //SYSPRINT DD SYSOUT=A //SYSUT1 DD UNIT=disk,VOLUME=SER=333333,DISP=OLD //DD1 DD UNIT=(disk,,DEFER),DISP=OLD, // VOLUME=(PRIVATE,,SER=(222222)) //DD2 DD UNIT=(disk,,DEFER),DISP=OLD, // VOLUME=(PRIVATE,,SER=(222333)) //DD3 DD UNIT=(disk,,DEFER),DISP=OLD, // VOLUME=(PRIVATE,,SER=(222444)) //DD4 DD VOLUME=(PRIVATE,RETAIN,SER=(444444)), // UNIT=disk,DISP=OLD //SYSIN DD * MOVE DSNAME=SEQSET1,TO=disk=222222,FROM=disk=444444 MOVE DSNAME=SEQSET2,TO=disk=222333,FROM=disk=444444 MOVE DSNAME=SEQSET3,TO=disk=222444,FROM=disk=444444 /*
IEHPROGM[edit]
IEHPROGM builds and maintains system control data. It is also used for renaming and scratching (deleting) a data set.
Some of the tasks that IEHPROGM can perform include the following:
Deleting (scratching) a data set or PDS member
Renaming a data set or PDS member
Cataloging or uncataloging a data set
Maintaining data set passwords
For cataloging:
//SYSIN DD * CATLG DSNNAME=data-set-name, VOL=device-name=volume-numbeR /* //
Supporting programs[edit]
The following programs are not technically utilities — they are not supplied with the Operating System, but are sold as separate packages. Still, as they are standard items required for programming the computer, nearly all shops will have them installed.
SORT[edit]
The Sort/Merge utility is program to sort records in a file into a specified order, or merge pre-sorted files. It is very frequently used; often the most commonly used application program in a mainframe shop. Modern sort/merge programs also can select or omit certain records, summarize records, remove duplicates, reformat records, and produce simple reports. Sort/merge is important enough that there are multiple companies each selling their own sort/merge package for IBM mainframes.
IBM's own sort/merge program, IERRCO00 (alias SORT), supported only IBM's first-generation disk drives (2311 and 2314) and tapes (2400). Support for second-generation disk drives was provided by IBM program products such as 5734-SM1 and the later 5740-SM1 (DFSORT, alias ICEMAN, also SORT).
SORT is frequently executed as a stand-alone program, where it normally reads input from a file identified by DD SORTIN and writes sorted output to a file identified by DD SORTOUT. It is also often called from another application, via the COBOL SORT verb or calls to PL/I PLISRTx routines, where it may use either SORTIN or SORTOUT files or be passed records to be sorted by the caller and/or pass sorted records back to the caller one at a time.
The operation of SORT is directed by control statements, which are largely compatible among various IBM and third-party sort programs. The SORT or MERGE statement defines the sort keys— the fields on which the data is to be sorted or merged. This statement identifies the position, length, and data type of each key. The RECORD statement describes the format and length of the records in the input file. Other statements allow the user to specify which records should be included or excluded from the sort and specify other transformations to be performed on the data.
Keys can be any combination of EBCDIC or ASCII character data, zoned or packed decimal, signed or unsigned fixed-point binary, or hexadecimal floating-point. Keys can be located anywhere in the record and do not have to be contiguous. Sorting can be specified on any combination of ascending and descending sequence by key.[2]
Compilers/Linker[edit]
Each programming language used in a computer shop will have one or more associated compilers that translate a source program into a machine-language object module. Then the object module from the compiler must be processed by the linkage editor, IEWL, to create an executable load module.
IGYCRCTL is a common example of a compiler; it is the compiler for the current IBM Enterprise COBOL for z/OS product. (There have been several previous IBM COBOL compilers over the years, with different names.) There are many other compilers for various other programming languages.
DFSMS[edit]
Further information: Hierarchical storage management
DFSMS (Storage Management System) is a set of programs that allows the operating system itself to take over many of the tasks of managing storage, tasks that were previously performed manually by systems programmers. The storage administrator defines classes of storage, and rules defining dataset assignment into these classes. Then the user (programmer) just needs to specify the class for each data file (often by using shop standard naming rules). From then on, the system manages the datasets automatically, taking care of assigning datasets to appropriate storage volumes, providing backup and recovery, migrating datasets up or down between secondary and tertiary storage as needed, and balancing usage of system resources.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ GC28-1143-2, MVS/XA Conversion Notebook, May 1984, page 1-1
Jump up ^ IBM Corporation. DFSORT Application Programming Guide (PDF). Retrieved March 28, 2017.
See also[edit]
Syncsort
Easytrieve
External links[edit]
IBM: z/OS 1.8 DFSMSdfp utilities manual
IBM: z/OS 1.8 IDCAMS utility manual
IBM: z/OS 1.8 ADRDSSU utility manual
MVS UTILITIES
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