text:
Z1 (computer)
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Replica of the Z1 in the German Museum of Technology in Berlin
The Z1 was a mechanical computer designed by Konrad Zuse from 1935 to 1936 and built by him from 1936 to 1938.[1][2] It was a binary electrically driven mechanical calculator with limited programmability, reading instructions from punched celluloid film.
The Z1 was the first freely programmable computer in the world which used Boolean logic and binary floating-point numbers, however it was unreliable in operation.[3][4] It was completed in 1938 and financed completely from private funds. This computer was destroyed in the bombardment of Berlin in December 1943, during World War II, together with all construction plans.
The Z1 was the first in a series of computers that Zuse designed. Its original name was "V1" for VersuchsModell 1 (meaning Experimental Model 1). After WW2, it was renamed "Z1" to differentiate from the flying bombs designed by Robert Lusser.[5] The Z2 and Z3 were follow-ups based on many of the same ideas as the Z1.
Contents
[hide]
1 Design
2 Construction
3 Reconstruction
4 Quotation
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Design[edit]
Diagrams from Zuse's May 1936 patent for a binary switching element using a mechanism of flat sliding rods. The Z1 was based on such elements.
The Z1 contained almost all the parts of a modern computer, i.e. control unit, memory, micro sequences, floating-point logic and input–output devices. The Z1 was freely programmable via punched tape and a punched tape reader.[6] There was a clear separation between the punched tape reader, the control unit for supervising the whole machine and the execution of the instructions, the arithmetic unit, and the input and output devices. The input tape unit read perforations in 35-millimeter film.[7]
The Z1 was a 22-bit floating-point value adder and subtracter, with some control logic to make it capable of more complex operations such as multiplication (by repeated additions) and division (by repeated subtractions). The Z1's instruction set had nine instructions and it took between one and twenty cycles per instruction.
The Z1 had a 64-word floating-point memory, where each word of memory could be read from – and written to – by the control unit. The mechanical memory units were unique in their design and were patented by Konrad Zuse in 1936. The machine was only capable of executing instructions while reading from the punched tape reader, so the program itself was not loaded in its entirety into internal memory in advance.
The input and output were in decimal numbers, with a decimal exponent and the units had special machinery for converting these to and from binary numbers. The input and output instructions would be read or written as floating-point numbers. The program tape was 35 mm film with the instructions encoded in punched holes.
Construction[edit]
"Z1 was a machine of about 1000 kg weight, which consisted from some 20000 parts. It was a programmable computer, based on binary floating-point numbers and a binary switching system. It consisted completely of thin metal sheets, which Zuse and his friends produced using a jigsaw."[8] "The [data] input device was a keyboard...The Z1’s programs (Zuse called them Rechenpläne) were stored on punch tapes by means of an 8-bit code"[8]
Construction of the Z1 was privately financed. Zuse got money from his parents, his sister Lieselotte, some students of the fraternity AV Motiv (cf. Helmut Schreyer) and Kurt Pannke (a calculating machines manufacturer in Berlin) to do so.
Zuse constructed the Z1 in his parents' apartment; in fact, he was allowed to use the living room for his construction. In 1936, Zuse quit his job in airplane construction in order to build the Z1.
Zuse is said to have used "thin metal strips" and perhaps "metal cylinders" or glass plates to construct Z1. There were probably no commercial relays in it (although the Z3 is said to have used a few telephone relays). The only electrical unit was an electric motor to give the clock frequency of 1 Hz (cycle per second) to the machine.
'The memory was constructed from thin strips of slotted metal and small pins, and proved faster, smaller, and more reliable, than relays. The Z2 used the mechanical memory of the Z1, but used relay-based arithmetic. The Z3 was experimentally built entirely of relays. The Z4 was the first attempt at a commercial computer, reverting to the faster and more economical mechanical slotted metal strip memory, with relay processing, of the Z2, but the war interrupted the Z4 development.'[9]
The Z1 was never very reliable in operation due to poor synchronization due to internal and external stresses on the mechanical parts.
Reconstruction[edit]
Reconstruction of Z1
The original Z1 was destroyed by the Allied air raids in 1943, but in 1986 Zuse decided to rebuild the machine. He constructed thousands of elements of the Z1 again, and finished rebuilding the device in 1989. The rebuilt Z1 (pictured) is displayed at the German Museum of Technology in Berlin.
Quotation[edit]
Konrad Zuse: "There is a replica of this Model in the Museum of Traffic and Technology in Berlin. Back then it didn't function well, and in that regard the replica is very reliable -- it also doesn't work well."[10]
See also[edit]
History of computing hardware
Analytical Engine
Difference engine
Z2
Z3
Z4
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bauer, Friedrich L. (2009-11-05). Origins and Foundations of Computing: In Cooperation with Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 78. ISBN 9783642029929.
Jump up ^ Zuse, Konrad (1976). The Plankalkül. GMD. p. 21.
Jump up ^ Priestley, Mark (2011). A Science of Operations: Machines, Logic and the Invention of Programming. Springer. ISBN 978-1-84882-554-3.
Jump up ^ Rojas, Raúl (Spring 2006). "The Zuse Computers". RESURRECTION the Bulletin of the Computer Conservation Society (37). ISSN 0958-7403.
Jump up ^ OBITUARY : Konrad Zuse - People - News - The Independent
Jump up ^ Rojas, R (1997). "Konrad Zuse's Legacy: The Architecture of the Z1 and Z3" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 19 (2): 5–15. doi:10.1109/85.586067.
Jump up ^ "History of the Computer", G. A. Erskine, CERN, Geneva, Switzerland
^ Jump up to: a b Konrad Zuse - the first relay computer, History of Computers article
Jump up ^ Who Made the First Computer, Chris Malcolm, 2000
Jump up ^ Hans Dieter Hellige: Geschichten der Informatik - Visionen, Paradigmen, Leitmotive. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2004. ISBN 3-540-00217-0. P. 36.
Further reading[edit]
Zuse, Konrad (1993). The Computer - My Life. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-56453-5.
Rojas, Raul (2016-03-08). "The Design Principles of Konrad Zuse's Mechanical Computers". arXiv:1603.02396  [cs.OH]. Paper describes the design principles of Zuse Z1.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zuse Z1.
Zuse, Horst. "The life and work of Konrad Zuse". EPEmag. Archived from the original on April 18, 2010.
"Zuse Z1 detailed information". Horst Zuse. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
"An informative website about Zuse Z1".
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Computers designed by Konrad Zuse
Z1 (1938)
Z2 (1940)
Z3 (1941)
Z4 (1945)
Z5 (1953)
Z11 (1955)
Z22 (1955)
Z23 (1961)
Z25 (1963)
Z31 (1963)
Z64 (1961)
S1 (1942)
S2 (1943)
Authority control
GND: 4605696-8
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text:
Evening
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Sunset or Dusk.
For other uses, see Evening (disambiguation).
Dusk in Coquitlam, British Columbia, Canada
Evening in Parambikkulam, Kerala, India
View on the bay of Naples, overlooking Mount Vesuvius at 7:30 pm local solar/standard time
Evening is the period of time at the end of the day, usually from about 6pm to bedtime[1]. It is a daily astronomic event of variable time period between daytime and night, and the period in which the daylight is decreasing, after the afternoon and before night. There is no exact time for when evening begins and ends (equally true with night). Though the term is subjective, evening is typically understood to begin shortly before sunset [2] and during twilight (sunset and twilight vary throughout the year)[3], lasting until night – typically astronomical sunset. There can be no precise definition in terms of clock time, but it is socially considered to start around 6 pm. and to last until nighttime or bedtime.[4]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Significance for humans
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word is derived from the Old English ǣfnung, meaning "the coming of evening, sunset, time around sunset", which originated from 'æfnian' meaning "become evening, grow toward evening". The Old English, 'æfnian' originated from 'æfen'(eve), which meant 'the time between sunset and darkness', and was synonymous with even (Old English æfen) which meant the end of the day. The use of evening dates from the mid 15th century.[5]
Significance for humans[edit]
Some languages that use the time of day in greeting have a special greeting for evening, such as the English 'good evening'. Typically people do not leave somebody and say "good evening". Good Evening is a greeting. Even if it isn't night yet, when one greets someone, they can greet them with "good evening" and when they leave they say "good night", rather than saying "good evening" as a farewell, despite that it may still be night.[6] Many people greet someone with the shortened 'evening' rather than 'good evening'. Social and family activities are often held during this time, such as supper or more formal social gatherings and entertainment, such as parties, in particular dance parties.
See also[edit]
Crepuscular – animals that are active primarily in the early morning and the evening
Evening dress (disambiguation)
Vespers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/evening
Jump up ^ https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/evening
Jump up ^ https://www.timeanddate.com/sun/uk/london
Jump up ^ "Definition of evening in English". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
Jump up ^ https://www.etymonline.com/word/even?ref=etymonline_crossreference
Jump up ^ https://www.dealideal.net/single-post/2015/11/23/When-to-say-Good-Morning-Afternoon-Evening-Night-When-do-the-afternoon-end-and-the-evening-start
External links[edit]
Quotations related to Evening at Wikiquote
Media related to Evening at Wikimedia Commons
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Dawn–Twilight–Sunrise
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Ottoman wars in Europe
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Part of a series on the
Military of the
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The Ottoman wars in Europe were a series of military conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and various European states dating from the Late Middle Ages up through the early 20th century. The earliest conflicts began during the Byzantine–Ottoman wars in the 13th century, followed by the Bulgarian–Ottoman wars and the Serbian–Ottoman Wars in the 14th century. Much of this period was characterized by Ottoman expansion into the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire made further inroads into Central Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries, culminating in the peak of Ottoman territorial claims in Europe.
The Ottoman–Venetian Wars spanned four centuries, starting in 1423 and lasting until 1718. This period witnessed the fall of Negroponte in 1470, the fall of Famagusta (Cyprus) in 1571, the defeat of the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 (at that time the largest naval battle in history), the fall of Candia (Crete) in 1669, the Venetian reconquest of Morea (Peloponnese) in the 1680s and its loss again in 1715. The island of Corfu under Venetian rule remained the only Greek island not conquered by the Ottomans.[1]
In the late seventeenth century, European powers began to consolidate against the Ottomans and formed the Holy League, reversing a number of Ottoman land gains during the Great Turkish War of 1683–99. Nevertheless, Ottoman armies were able to hold their own against their European rivals until the second half of the eighteenth century.[2] In the nineteenth century the Ottomans were confronted with insurrection from their Serbian (1804–1817) and Greek (1821–1832) subjects. This occurred in tandem with the Russo-Turkish wars, which further destabilized the empire. The final retreat of Ottoman rule came with the First Balkan War (1912–1913), followed by the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres at the close of World War I.
Contents
[hide]
1 Rise (1299–1453)
1.1 Byzantine Empire
1.2 Bulgarian Empire
1.3 Serbian Empire
2 Growth (1453–1683)
2.1 Wars in Albania
2.2 Conquest of Bosnia
2.3 Croatia
2.4 Conquest of central parts of Hungarian Kingdom
2.5 Conquest of Serbia and the Vojvodina rebellion
2.6 1463–1503: Wars with Venice
2.7 1462–1483: Wallachian and Moldavian campaigns
2.8 1526–1566: Conquest of the Kingdom of Hungary
2.9 1522–1573: Rhodes, Malta and the Holy League
2.10 1570–1571: Conquest of Cyprus
2.11 1593–1669: Austria, Venice and Wallachia
2.12 1620–1621: Poland-Lithuania
2.13 1657–1683 Conclusion of Wars with Habsburgs
2.14 1672–1676: Poland-Lithuania
2.15 1683–1699: Great Turkish War – Loss of Hungary and the Morea
3 Stagnation (1699–1828)
3.1 18th century
3.2 19th century
4 Ottoman decline (1828–1908)
5 Dissolution (1908–22)
5.1 Italo-Turkish War
5.2 Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising
5.3 1912–13: Balkan Wars
5.4 World War I
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Rise (1299–1453)[edit]
See also: Rise of the Ottoman Empire and Socioeconomics of the Ottoman enlargement era
Byzantine Empire[edit]
Main article: Byzantine–Ottoman Wars
Conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror in 1453
After striking a blow to the weakened Byzantine Empire in 1356 (it is disputed that the year may have been 1358 due to a change in the Byzantine calendar), (see Suleyman Pasha) which provided it a basis for operations in Europe, the Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century.
Constantinople fell in 1453 after the Battle of Varna and the Second Battle of Kosovo.
The remaining Greek states fell in 1461 (Despotate of the Morea and Empire of Trebizond) (see: Ottoman Greece).
Bulgarian Empire[edit]
Main article: Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars
In the latter half of the 14th century, the Ottoman Empire proceeded to advance north and west in the Balkans, completely subordinating Thrace and much of Macedonia after the Battle of Maritsa in 1371. Sofia fell in 1382, followed by the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire Tarnovgrad in 1393, and the northwest remnants of the state after the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396.
Serbian Empire[edit]
Main article: Serbian-Ottoman Wars
A significant opponent was the young Serbian Empire, which was worn down by a series of campaigns, notably in the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, in which the leaders of both armies were killed, and which gained a central role in Serbian folklore as an epic battle and beginning of the end for Serbia. Much of Serbia fell to the Ottomans by 1459, the Kingdom of Hungary made a partial reconquest in 1480, but it fell again by 1499. Territories of Serbian Empire were divided between Ottoman Empire, Republic of Venice and Royal Hungary, with remaining territories being in some sort of a vassal status towards Hungary, until its own conquest.
Growth (1453–1683)[edit]
See also: Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire and Transformation of the Ottoman Empire
The defeat in 1456 at the Siege of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) held up Ottoman expansion into Catholic Europe for 70 years, though for one year (1480–1481) the Italian port of Otranto was taken, and in 1493 the Ottoman army successfully raided Croatia and Styria.[3]
Wars in Albania[edit]
Main article: History of the Albanian-Turkish Wars
Albanian assault on a Turkish encampment in 1457
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The Ottomans took much of Albania in the 1385 Battle of Savra. The 1444 League of Lezhë briefly restored one part of Albania, until Ottomans captured complete territory of Albania after capture of Shkodër in 1479 and Durrës in 1501.
The Ottomans faced the fiercest resistance from Albanians who gathered around their leader, George Castriot, son of a feudal nobleman, and managed to fend off Ottoman attacks for more than 25 years, culminating at the siege of Shkodra in 1478–79. It has been argued that Albanian resilience halted the Ottoman advance along the Eastern flank of the Western Civilization, saving the Italian peninsula from Ottoman conquest. Sultan Mehmet II died in 1481, merely two years after the collapse of the Albanian resistance and one year after he launched an Italian campaign.
Conquest of Bosnia[edit]
Main article: Ottoman conquest of Bosnia
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The Ottoman Empire first reached Bosnia in 1388 where they were defeated by Bosnian forces in the Battle of Bileća and then was forced to retreat.[4] After the fall of Serbia in 1389 Battle of Kosovo, where the Bosnians participated through Vlatko Vuković, the Turks began various offensives against the Kingdom of Bosnia. The Bosnians defended themselves but without much success. The Bosnians resisted strongly in the Bosnian Royal castle of Jajce (the siege of Jajce), where the last Bosnian king Stjepan Tomašević tried to repel the Turks. The Ottoman army conquered Jajce after a few months in 1463 and executed the last King of Bosnia, ending Medieval Bosnia.
The House of Kosača held Herzegovina until 1482.
Croatia[edit]
Main article: Croatian–Ottoman Wars
Croatian captain Petar Kružić led the defense of the Klis Fortress against a Turkish invasion and siege that lasted for more than two and a half decades. During this defense, an elite Croatian military faction of Uskoci was formed.
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After the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia into Ottoman hands in 1463, the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Croatia remained unprotected, the defense of which was left to Croatian gentry who kept smaller troops in the fortified border areas at their own expense. The Ottomans meanwhile reached the river Neretva and, having conquered Herzegovina (Rama) in 1482, they encroached upon Croatia, skillfully avoiding the fortified border towns. A decisive Ottoman victory at the Battle of Krbava field shook all of Croatia. However, it did not dissuade the Croats from making persistent attempts at defending themselves against the attacks of the superior Ottoman forces. After almost two hundred years of Croatian resistance against the Ottoman Empire, victory in the Battle of Sisak marked the end of Ottoman rule and the Hundred Years' Croatian-Ottoman War. The Viceroy's army, chasing the fleeing remnants at Petrinja in 1595, sealed the victory.
Conquest of central parts of Hungarian Kingdom[edit]
Main article: Ottoman–Hungarian Wars
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The Kingdom of Hungary, which at the time spanned the area from Croatia in the west to Transylvania in the east, was also gravely threatened by Ottoman advances. The origins of such a deterioration can be traced back to the fall of the Árpád ruling dynasty and their subsequent replacement with the Angevin and Jagiellonian kings. After a series of inconclusive wars over the course of 176 years, the kingdom finally crumbled in the Battle of Mohács of 1526, after which most of it was either conquered or brought under Ottoman suzerainty. (The 150-year Turkish Occupation, as it is called in Hungary, lasted until the late 17th century but parts of the Hungarian Kingdom were under Ottoman rule from 1421 and until 1718.)
Conquest of Serbia and the Vojvodina rebellion[edit]
Main article: List of Serbian–Turkish conflicts
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As a result of heavy losses inflicted by the Ottomans in the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, the Serbian Empire had dissolved into several principalities. In the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Serbian forces were again annihilated. Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, constant struggles took place between various Serbian kingdoms and the Ottoman Empire. The turning point was the fall of Constantinople to the Turks. In 1459, following the siege, the temporary Serbian capital of Smederevo fell. Montenegro was overrun by 1499. Belgrade was the last major Balkan city to endure Ottoman forces. Serbs, Hungarians, and European crusaders defeated the Turkish army in the Siege of Belgrade in 1456. After repelling Ottoman attacks for over 70 years, Belgrade finally fell in 1521, along with the greater part of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Vojvodina rebellion between 1526 and 1528 led to the proclamation of the Second Serbian Empire in Vojvodina, which was among the last Serbian territories to resist the Ottomans. The Serbian Despotate fell in 1459, thus marking the two-century-long Ottoman conquest of Serbian principalities.
1463–1503: Wars with Venice[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008)
Ottoman advances resulted in some of the captive Christians being carried deep into Turkish territory
The wars with the Republic of Venice began in 1463. A favorable peace treaty was signed in 1479 after the lengthy siege of Shkodra (1478–79). In 1480, now no longer hampered by the Venetian fleet, the Ottomans besieged Rhodes and captured Otranto.[5] War with Venice resumed from 1499 to 1503. In 1500, a Spanish–Venetian army commanded by Gonzalo de Córdoba took Kefalonia, temporarily stopping the Ottoman offensive on eastern Venetian territories. The offensive resumed after the Ottoman victory of Preveza, fought between an Ottoman fleet and that of a Christian alliance assembled by Pope Paul III in 1538.
1462–1483: Wallachian and Moldavian campaigns[edit]
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In 1462, Mehmed II was driven back by Wallachian prince Vlad III Dracula at The Night Attack. However, the latter was imprisoned by Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus. This caused outrage among many influential Hungarian figures and Western admirers of Vlad's success in the battle against the Ottoman Empire (and his early recognition of the threat it posed), including high-ranking members of the Vatican. Because of this, Matthias granted him the status of distinguished prisoner. Eventually, Dracula was freed in late 1475 and was sent with an army of Hungarian and Serbian soldiers to recover Bosnia from the Ottomans. There he defeated Ottoman forces for the first time. Upon this victory, Ottoman forces entered Wallachia in 1476 under the command of Mehmed II.[clarification needed] Vlad was killed and, according to some sources, his head was sent to Constantinople to discourage the other rebellions. (Bosnia was completely added to Ottoman lands in 1482.)
The Turkish advance was temporarily halted after Stephen the Great of Moldavia defeated the armies of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II at the Battle of Vaslui in 1475, one of the greatest defeats of the Ottoman Empire until that time. Stephen was defeated the next year at Războieni (Battle of Valea Albă), but the Ottomans had to retreat after they failed to take any significant castle (see siege of Cetatea Neamţului) as a plague started to spread in the Ottoman army. Stephen's search for European assistance against the Turks met with little success, even though he had "cut off the pagan's right-hand", as he put it in a letter.
1526–1566: Conquest of the Kingdom of Hungary[edit]
See also: List of campaigns of Suleiman the Magnificent
Ottoman soldiers in the territory of present-day Hungary
The Ottoman campaign in Hungary in 1566, Crimean Tatars as vanguard
After the Ottoman victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, only the southwestern part of the Kingdom of Hungary was actually conquered.[6] The Ottoman campaign continued between 1526 and 1556 with small campaigns and major summer invasions – troops would return south of the Balkan Mountains before winter. In 1529, they mounted their first major attack on the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy, attempting to conquer the city of Vienna (Siege of Vienna). In 1532, another attack on Vienna with 60,000 troops in the main army was held up by the small fort (800 defenders) of Kőszeg in western Hungary, fighting a suicidal battle.[7] The invading troops were held up until winter was close and the Habsburg Empire had assembled a force of 80,000 at Vienna. The Ottoman troops returned home through Styria, laying waste to the country.
In the meantime, in 1538, the Ottoman Empire invaded Moldavia. In 1541, another campaign in Hungary took Buda and Pest (which today together form the Hungarian capital Budapest) with a largely bloodless trick: after concluding peace talks with an agreement, troops stormed the open gates of Buda in the night. In retaliation for a failed Austrian counter-attack in 1542, the conquest of the western half of central Hungary was finished in the 1543 campaign that took both the most important royal ex-capital, Székesfehérvár, and the ex-seat of the cardinal, Esztergom. However, the army of 35–40,000 men was not enough for Suleiman to mount another attack on Vienna. A temporary truce was signed between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires in 1547, which was soon disregarded by the Habsburgs.
In the major but moderately successful campaign of 1552, two armies took the eastern part of central Hungary, pushing the borders of the Ottoman Empire to the second (inner) line of northern végvárs (border castles), which Hungary originally built as defence against an expected second Mongol invasion—hence, afterwards, borders on this front changed little. For Hungarians, the 1552 campaign was a series of tragic losses and some heroic (but pyrrhic) victories, which entered folklore—most notably the fall of Drégely (a small fort defended to the last man by just 146 men[8]), and the Siege of Eger. The latter was a major végvár with more than 2,000 men, without outside help. They faced two Ottoman armies, which were surprisingly unable to take the castle within five weeks. (The fort was later taken in 1596.) Finally, the 1556 campaign secured Ottoman influence over Transylvania (which had fallen under Habsburg control for a time), while failing to gain any ground on the western front, being tied down in the second (after 1555) unsuccessful siege of the southwestern Hungarian border castle of Szigetvár.
The Ottoman Empire conducted another major war against the Habsburgs and their Hungarian territories between 1566 and 1568. The 1566 Battle of Szigetvar, the third siege in which the fort was finally taken, but the aged Sultan died, deterring that year's push for Vienna.
1522–1573: Rhodes, Malta and the Holy League[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008)
The siege of Malta – Arrival of the Turkish Fleet by Matteo Perez d'Aleccio
Ottoman forces invaded and captured the island of Rhodes in 1522, after two previous failed attempts (see Siege of Rhodes).[9] The Knights of Rhodes were banished to Malta, which was in turn besieged in 1565.
After a siege of three months, the Ottoman army failed to control all of the Maltese forts. Delaying the Ottomans until bad weather conditions and the arrival of Sicilian reinforcements, made Ottoman commander Kızılahmedli Mustafa Pasha quit the siege. Around 22,000 to 48,000 Ottoman troops against 6,000 to 8,500 Maltese troops, the Ottomans failed to conquer Malta, sustaining about 10,000 losses, including one of the greatest Muslim corsair generals of the time, Dragut, and were repulsed. Had Malta fallen, Sicily and mainland Italy could have fallen under the threat of an Ottoman invasion. The victory of Malta during this event, which is nowadays known as the Great Siege of Malta, turned the tide and gave Europe hopes and motivation. It also marked the importance of the Knights of Saint John and their relevant presence in Malta to aid Christendom in its defence against the Muslim conquest.
The Ottoman naval victories of this period were in the Battle of Preveza (1538) and the Battle of Djerba (1560).
Battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571
The Mediterranean campaign, which lasted from 1570 to 1573, resulted in the Ottoman conquest of Cyprus. A Holy League of Venice, the Papal States, Spain, the Knights of Saint John in Malta and initially Portugal was formed against the Ottoman Empire during this period. The League's victory in the Battle of Lepanto (1571) briefly ended Ottoman predominance at sea.
1570–1571: Conquest of Cyprus[edit]
Main article: Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–73)
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In the summer of 1570, the Turks struck again, but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command of Lala Mustafa Pasha landed unopposed near Limassol on July 2, 1570, and laid siege to Nicosia. In an orgy of victory on the day that the city fell—September 9, every public building and palace was looted. Word of the superior Ottoman numbers spread, and a few days later Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. Famagusta, however, resisted and put up a defense that lasted from September 1570 until August 1571.
The fall of Famagusta marked the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus. Two months later, the naval forces of the Holy League, composed mainly of Venetian, Spanish, and Papal ships under the command of Don John of Austria, defeated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in one of the decisive battles of world history. The victory over the Turks, however, came too late to help Cyprus, and the island remained under Ottoman rule for the next three centuries.
In 1570, the Ottoman Empire first conquered Cyprus, and Lala Mustafa Pasha became the first Ottoman governor of Cyprus, challenging the claims of Venice. Simultaneously, the Pope formed a coalition between the Papal States, Malta, Spain, Venice and several other Italian states, with no real result. In 1573 the Venetians left, removing the influence of the Roman Catholic Church.
1593–1669: Austria, Venice and Wallachia[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008)
Turkish Empire, drawn by Hondius, just at the end of the Long War, 1606
Long War (15-Year War with Austria, 1593–1606) ends with status quo.
Michael the Brave campaign against the Ottoman Empire (1593–1601)
War with Venice 1645–1669 and the conquest of Crete (see Cretan War (1645–1669)).
Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) : failed Ottoman attempt to defeat and invade Austria.
1620–1621: Poland-Lithuania[edit]
Main articles: Polish-Ottoman War (1620–1621) and Polish-Ottoman War (1633–1634)
Was fought over Moldavia. The Polish army advanced into Moldavia and was defeated in the Battle of Ţuţora. The Next year, the Poles repelled the Turkish invasion in the Battle of Khotyn. Another conflict started in 1633 but was soon settled.
1657–1683 Conclusion of Wars with Habsburgs[edit]
Transylvania, the Eastern part of the former Hungarian Kingdom, gained semi-independence in 1526, while paying tribute to the Ottoman Empire. In 1657, Transylvania felt strong enough to attack the Tatars to the East (then the Empire's vassals), and later the Ottoman Empire itself, which had come to the Tatars' defence. The war lasted until 1662, ending in defeat for the Hungarians. The Western part of the Hungarian Kingdom (Partium) was annexed and placed under direct Ottoman control. At the same time, there was another campaign against Austria between 1663 and 1664. Despite being defeated in the Battle of Saint Gotthard on 1 August 1664 by Raimondo Montecuccoli, the Ottomans secured recognition of their conquest of Nové Zámky in the Peace of Vasvár with Austria, marking the greatest territorial extent of Ottoman rule in the former Hungarian Kingdom.[10]
1672–1676: Poland-Lithuania[edit]
Main article: Polish-Ottoman War (1672–1676)
The Polish-Ottoman War (1672–1676) ended with the Treaty of Żurawno, in which the Commonwealth ceded control of most of its Ukraine territories to the empire.
1683–1699: Great Turkish War – Loss of Hungary and the Morea[edit]
Main article: Great Turkish War
Battle of Vienna on 12 September 1683
The Great Turkish War started in 1683, with a grand invasion force of 140,000 men[11] marching on Vienna, supported by Protestant Hungarian noblemen rebelling against Habsburg rule. To stop the invasion, another Holy League was formed, composed of Austria and Poland (notably in the Battle of Vienna), Venetians and the Russian Empire. After winning the Battle of Vienna, the Holy League gained the upper hand and reconquered Hungary (Buda and Pest were retaken in 1686, the former under the command of a Swiss-born convert to Islam). At the same time, the Venetians launched an expedition into Greece, which conquered the Peloponnese. During the 1687 Venetian attack on the city of Athens (conquered by the Ottomans), the Ottomans turned the ancient Parthenon into an ammunitions storehouse. A Venetian mortar hit the Parthenon, detonating the Ottoman gunpowder stored inside and partially destroying it.[12][full citation needed]
The war ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. Prince Eugene of Savoy first distinguished himself in 1683 and remained the most important Austrian commander until 1718.[13][14]
Stagnation (1699–1828)[edit]
See also: Ottoman Old Regime and Tulip period
18th century[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008)
Austrian conquest of Belgrade: 1717 by Eugene of Savoy, during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18
The second Russo-Turkish War took place 1710–1711 near Prut. It was instigated by Charles XII of Sweden after the defeat at the Battle of Poltava, in order to tie down Russia with the Ottoman Empire and gain some breathing space in the increasingly unsuccessful Great Northern War. The Russians were severely beaten but not annihilated, and after the Treaty of Prut was signed the Ottoman Empire disengaged, allowing Russia to refocus its energies on the defeat of Sweden.
The Ottoman–Venetian War started in 1714. It overlapped with the Austro–Turkish_War_(1716–18), in which Austria conquered the remaining areas of the former Hungarian Kingdom, ending with the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.
Another war with Russia started in 1735. The Austrians joined in 1737; the war ended in 1739 with the Treaty of Belgrade (with Austria) and the Treaty of Niš (with Russia).
The fourth Russo-Turkish War started in 1768 and ended in 1774 with the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji.
Another war with Russia started in 1787 and a concurrent war with Austria followed in 1788; the Austrian war ended with the 1791 Treaty of Sistova, and the Russian war ended with the 1792 Treaty of Jassy.
An invasion of Egypt and Syria by Napoleon I of France took place in 1798–99, but ended due to British intervention.
Napoleon's capture of Malta on his way to Egypt resulted in the unusual alliance of Russia and the Ottomans resulting in a joint naval expedition to the Ionian Islands. Their successful capture of these islands led to the setting up of the Septinsular Republic.
19th century[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008)
Greek War of Independence
The First Serbian Uprising took place in 1804, followed by the Second Serbian Uprising in 1815; Serbia was fully liberated by 1867. Officially recognized independence followed in 1878.
The sixth Russo-Turkish War began in 1806 and ended in May 1812, just 13 days before Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
Moldavian-Wallachian (Romanian) Uprising (starting simultaneously with the Greek Revolution).
The Greek War of Independence, taking place from 1821 to 1832, in which the Great Powers intervened from 1827, including Russia (seventh Russo–Turkish war, 1828–1829), achieved independence for Greece; the Treaty of Adrianople ended the war.
Ottoman decline (1828–1908)[edit]
See also: Decline of the Ottoman Empire and Socioeconomics of the Ottoman reformation era
Ottoman capitulation at Nikopol, 1877
Bosnian rebellions 1831–1836, 1836–1837, 1841.
Albanian rebellions 1820–1822, 1830–1835, 1847.
War with Montenegro 1852–1853.
Eight Russo-Turkish war 1853–1856, Crimean War, in which the United Kingdom and France joined the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. Ended with the Treaty of Paris.
Second war with Montenegro in 1858–1859.
War with Montenegro, Bosnia and Serbia in 1862.
Cretan Uprising in 1866.
Bulgarian Rebellion in 1876.
The ninth and final Russo–Turkish war started in 1877, the same year the Ottomans withdrew from the Conference of Constantinople. Romania then declared its independence and waged war on Turkey, joined by Serbians and Bulgarians and finally the Russians (see also Russian Foreign Affairs after the Crimean War). Austria occupied Bosnia in 1878. The Russians and the Ottomans signed the Treaty of San Stefano in early 1878. After deliberations at the Congress of Berlin, which was attended by all the Great Powers of the time, the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 recognized several territorial changes.
Eastern Rumelia was granted some autonomy in 1878, rebelled and joined Bulgaria in 1885. Thessaly ceded to Greece in 1881, but after Greece attacked the Ottoman Empire to help the Second Cretan Uprising in 1897, Greece was defeated in Thessaly.
See also: Great Eastern Crisis
Dissolution (1908–22)[edit]
See also: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Socioeconomics of the Ottoman reformation era
Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Constantinople, 1908
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2008)
Italo-Turkish War[edit]
Main article: Italo-Turkish War
In 1911, Italy invaded Ottoman Tripolitania (During the Decolonisation of Africa, Tripolitania became Libya), which was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. The war ended with the annexation of the Tripolitania.
Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising[edit]
Macedonian insurrection from 1903. See Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising.
1912–13: Balkan Wars[edit]
Two Balkan Wars, in 1912 and 1913, involved further action against the Ottoman Empire in Europe. The Balkan League first conquered Macedonia and most of Thrace from the Ottoman Empire, and then fell out over the division of the spoils. Albania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912, after several rebellions and uprisings. This reduced Turkey's possessions in Europe (Rumelia) to their present borders in Eastern Thrace.
World War I[edit]
Main article: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I
World War I (1914-1918) became the ultimate cause of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, which formally ended in 1922. However, during wartime operations the Empire prevented the British Royal Navy from reaching Constantinople, stopping an Entente invasion in the Battle of Gallipoli (1915-1916). Nevertheless, under the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) the Empire ultimately fell.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Military history of the Ottoman Empire portal
Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars
Byzantine-Ottoman wars
Croatian–Ottoman Wars
Crimean Khanate
Fall of the Ottoman Empire
Foreign policy of the Russian Empire
Greco-Turkish War (disambiguation)
History of the Republic of Venice
History of the Serbian-Turkish wars
Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War
International relations 1648-1814
Military of the Ottoman Empire
Moldavian Magnate Wars
Ottoman Decline Thesis
Ottoman Navy
Ottoman wars in the Near East
Ottoman-Hungarian Wars
Ottoman–Habsburg wars
Ottoman–Persian Wars
Ottoman–Venetian Wars
Polish–Ottoman Wars
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Russo-Crimean Wars
Russo-Ottoman Wars
Timeline of Turkish history
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kakissis, Joanna, Athens & the Islands, (National Geographic Society, 2011), p. 224.
Jump up ^ Aksan, Virginia (2007). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged. Pearson Education Ltd. pp. 130–5. ISBN 978-0-582-30807-7.
Woodhead, Christine (2008). "New Views on Ottoman History, 1453–1839". The English Historical Review. Oxford University Press. 123: 983. the Ottomans were able largely to maintain military parity until taken by surprise both on land and at sea in the Russian war from 1768 to 1774.
Jump up ^ The End of Europe's Middle Ages - Ottoman Turks
Jump up ^ Finkel, Caroline, Osman's Dream, (Basic Books, 2004), 20.
Jump up ^ Ottoman Empire on the Offensive, 1300 - 1600
Jump up ^ The Battle of Mohacs, 1526
Jump up ^ Castles and History in Northern Transdanubia Archived October 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Hungary - Drégelypalánk
Jump up ^ Timeline: 1501 to 1600
Jump up ^ The years 1300 and later
Jump up ^ 1683 Siege of Vienna Archived October 22, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire - Alan Palmer
Jump up ^ Habsburg-Ottoman War, 1683–1699
Jump up ^ Decline of Islamaic and Ottoman Power
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For 20th-century battles before 1914 see List of Ottoman battles in the 20th century
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values: الحروب العثمانية في أوروبا – Arabic

values: Османски войни в Европа – Bulgarian

values: جنگ‌های عثمانی در اروپا – Persian

values: Османлиски војни во Европа – Macedonian

values: De osmanske krigene i Europa – Norwegian

values: Османские войны в Европе – Russian

values: Османско освајање Балканског полуострва – Serbian

values: Luettelo osmanien Euroopassa käymistä sodissa – Finnish

values: สงครามออตโตมันในยุโรป – Thai

values: Османські війни в Європі – Ukrainian

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