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Urinary system
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Urinary system
1. Human urinary system: 2. Kidney, 3. Renal pelvis, 4. Ureter, 5. Urinary bladder, 6. Urethra. (Left side with frontal section)
7. Adrenal gland
Vessels: 8. Renal artery and vein, 9. Inferior vena cava, 10. Abdominal aorta, 11. Common iliac artery and vein
Transparent: 12. Liver, 13. Large intestine, 14. Pelvis
Urinary system in the male. Urine flows from the kidneys via the ureters into the bladder where it is stored. When urinating, urine flows through the urethra (longer in males, shorter in females) to exit the body
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Systema urinarium
MeSH
D014551
TA
A08.0.00.000
FMA
7159
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for the eventual removal of urine.[1] The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which leave the kidneys via the renal vein. Each kidney consists of functional units called nephrons. Following filtration of blood and further processing, wastes (in the form of urine) exit the kidney via the ureters, tubes made of smooth muscle fibres that propel urine towards the urinary bladder, where it is stored and subsequently expelled from the body by urination (voiding). The female and male urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.[2]
Urine is formed in the kidneys through a filtration of blood. The urine is then passed through the ureters to the bladder, where it is stored. During urination, the urine is passed from the bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body.
800–2,000 milliliters (mL) of urine are normally produced every day in a healthy human. This amount varies according to fluid intake and kidney function.
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Development
1.2 Microanatomy
2 Function
2.1 Urine formation
2.1.1 Regulation of concentration and volume
2.2 Urination
3 Clinical significance
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
3D
3D model of urinary system
The urinary system refers to the structures that produce and transport urine to the point of excretion. In the human urinary system there are two kidneys that are located between the dorsal body wall and parietal peritoneum on both the left and right sides.
The formation of urine begins within the functional unit of the kidney, the nephrons. Urine then flows through the nephrons, through a system of converging tubules called collecting ducts. These collecting ducts then join together to form the minor calyces, followed by the major calyces that ultimately join the renal pelvis. From here, urine continues its flow from the renal pelvis into the ureter, transporting urine into the urinary bladder. The anatomy of the human urinary system differs between males and females at the level of the urinary bladder. In males, the urethra begins at the internal urethral orifice in the trigone of the bladder, continues through the external urethral orifice, and then becomes the prostatic, membranous, bulbar, and penile urethra. Urine exits through the external urethral meatus. The female urethra is much shorter, beginning at the bladder neck and terminating in the vaginal vestibule.
Development[edit]
Main article: Development of the urinary system
Microanatomy[edit]
See also: Urothelium
Under microscopy, the urinary system is covered in a unique lining called urothelium, a type of transitional epithelium. Unlike the epithelial lining of most organs, transitional epithelium can flatten and distend. Urothelium covers most of the urinary system, including the renal pelvis, ureters, and bladder.
Function[edit]
The main functions of the urinary system and its components are to
Regulate blood volume and composition (e.g. sodium, potassium and calcium)
Regulate blood pressure.
Regulate pH homeostasis of the blood.
Contributes to the production of red blood cells by the kidney.
Helps synthesize calcitrol the (active form of Vitamin D).
Stores waste product (mainly urea and uric acid) before it and other products are removed from the body.
Urine formation[edit]
Average urine production in adult humans is about 1–2 litres (L) per day, depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health. Producing too much or too little urine requires medical attention. Polyuria is a condition of excessive urine production (> 2.5 L/day). Oliguria when < 400 mL (millilitres) are produced, and anuria one of < 100 mL per day.
The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood in the kidneys. In a healthy human the kidney receives between 12 and 30% of cardiac output, but it averages about 20% or about 1.25 L/min.
The basic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Its chief function is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine.
In the first part of the nephron, Bowman's capsule filters blood from the circulatory system into the tubules. Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients facilitate filtration across a semipermeable membrane. The filtrate includes water, small molecules, and ions that easily pass through the filtration membrane. However larger molecules such as proteins and blood cells are prevented from passing through the filtration membrane. The amount of filtrate produced every minute is called the glomerular filtration rate or GFR and amounts to 180 litres per day. About 99% of this filtrate is reabsorbed as it passes through the nephron and the remaining 1% becomes urine.
The urinary system is regulated by the endocrine system by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone.[3]
Regulation of concentration and volume[edit]
The urinary system is under influence of the circulatory system, nervous system, and endocrine system.
Aldosterone plays a central role in regulating blood pressure through its effects on the kidney. It acts on the distal tubules and collecting ducts of the nephron and increases reabsorption of sodium from the glomerular filtrate. Reabsorption of sodium results in retention of water, which increases blood pressure and blood volume. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a neurohypophysial hormone found in most mammals. Its two primary functions are to retain water in the body and vasoconstriction. Vasopressin regulates the body's retention of water by increasing water reabsorption in the collecting ducts of the kidney nephron.[4] Vasopressin increases water permeability of the kidney's collecting duct and distal convoluted tubule by inducing translocation of aquaporin-CD water channels in the kidney nephron collecting duct plasma membrane.[5]
Urination[edit]
Main article: Urination
Urination is the ejection of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. In healthy humans (and many other animals), the process of urination is under voluntary control. In infants, some elderly individuals, and those with neurological injury, urination may occur as an involuntary reflex. Physiologically, micturition involves coordination between the central, autonomic, and somatic nervous systems. Brain centers that regulate urination include the pontine micturition center, periaqueductal gray, and the cerebral cortex. In placental mammals the male ejects urine through the penis, and the female through the vulva.
Clinical significance[edit]
Main article: Urologic disease
Further information: Urinary tract infection
Urologic disease can involve congenital or acquired dysfunction of the urinary system. A urinary tract obstruction is a urologic disease that can cause urinary retention.
Diseases of the kidney tissue are normally treated by nephrologists, while diseases of the urinary tract are treated by urologists. Gynecologists may also treat female urinary incontinence.
Diseases of other bodily systems also have a direct effect on urogenital function. For instance it has been shown that protein released by the kidneys in diabetes mellitus sensitises the kidney to the damaging effects of hypertension.[6]
Diabetes also can have a direct effect in urination due to peripheral neuropathies which occur in some individuals with poorly controlled diabetes.[7]
Urinary incontinence can result from a weakening of the pelvic floor muscles caused by factors such as pregnancy, childbirth, aging and being overweight. Pelvic floor exercises known as Kegel exercises can help in this condition by strengthening the pelvic floor. There can also be underlying medical reasons for urinary incontinence which are often treatable. In children the condition is called enuresis.
Some cancers also target the urinary system, including bladder cancer, kidney cancer, ureteral cancer, and urethral cancer. Due to the role and location of these organs, treatment is often complicated.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Major systems of the human body
Medicine portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Urinary Tract & How It Works | NIDDK". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.
Jump up ^ C. Dugdale, David (16 September 2011). "Female urinary tract". MedLine Plus Medical Encyclopedia.
Jump up ^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins; Charles William McLaughlin; Susan Johnson; Maryanna Quon Warner; David LaHart; Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
Jump up ^ Caldwell HK, Young WS III, Lajtha A, Lim R (2006). "Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Genetics and Behavioral Implications" (PDF). Handbook of Neurochemistry and Molecular Neurobiology: Neuroactive Proteins and Peptides (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer. pp. 573–607. ISBN 0-387-30348-0.
Jump up ^ Nielsen S, Chou CL, Marples D, Christensen EI, Kishore BK, Knepper MA (February 1995). "Vasopressin increases water permeability of kidney collecting duct by inducing translocation of aquaporin-CD water channels to plasma membrane". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92 (4): 1013–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.4.1013. PMC 42627  . PMID 7532304.
Jump up ^ Baba, T; Murabayashi, S; Tomiyama, T; Takebe, K (1990). "Uncontrolled hypertension is associated with a rapid progression of nephropathy in type 2 diabetic patients with proteinuria and preserved renal function". The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine. 161 (4): 311–8. doi:10.1620/tjem.161.311. PMID 2256104.
Jump up ^ "Peripheral Neuropathy". Patient UK. Retrieved 2014-03-20.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Human Physiology has a page on the topic of: The Urinary System
The Wikibook Anatomy and Physiology of Animals has a page on the topic of: Urinary System
Library resources about
Urinary system
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v
t
e
Anatomy of the urinary system
Kidneys
Layers
Fascia
Capsule
Cortex
column
Medulla
sinus
pyramids
medullary interstitium
Lobe
Cortical lobule
Medullary ray
Nephron
Circulation
Arteries
Renal artery
segmental
interlobar
arcuate
interlobular
afferent
Veins
Renal vein
Peritubular capillaries
Vasa recta
arcuate
interlobar
efferent
Nephron
Renal corpuscle
Glomerulus
Bowman's capsule
Glomerular basement membrane
Podocyte
Filtration slits
Mesangium
Intraglomerular mesangial cell
Renal tubule
Proximal convoluted tubule
Loop of Henle
Descending
Thin ascending
Thick ascending
Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting duct system
Connecting tubule
Papillary duct
Tubular fluid
Renal papilla
Minor calyx
Major calyx
Renal pelvis
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
Macula densa
Juxtaglomerular cells
Mesangium
Extraglomerular mesangial cell
Ureters
Ureteropelvic junction
Bladder
Apex
Uvula
Neck
Median umbilical ligament
Muscular layer
Trigone
Detrusor
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Urethra
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External sphincter
male
female
Internal sphincter
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GND: 4023494-0
NDL: 00563231
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The end of Roman rule in Britain was the transition from Roman Britain to post-Roman Britain. Roman rule ended in different parts of Britain at different times, and under different circumstances.
In 383, the usurper Magnus Maximus withdrew troops from northern and western Britain, probably leaving local warlords in charge. Around 410, the Romano-British expelled the magistrates of the usurper Constantine III, ostensibly in response to his failures to use the Roman garrison he had stripped from Britain to protect the island. Roman Emperor Honorius replied to a request for assistance with the Rescript of Honorius, telling the Roman cities to see to their own defence, a tacit acceptance of temporary British self-government. Honorius was fighting a large-scale war in Italy against the Visigoths under their leader Alaric, with Rome itself under siege. No forces could be spared to protect distant Britain. Though it is likely that Honorius expected to regain control over the provinces soon, by the mid-6th century Procopius recognised that Roman control of Britannia was entirely lost.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Chronology
2.1 383–388
2.2 389–406
2.3 407–410
3 Interpretative variations
4 Factual disputes
5 Notes
6 References
7 Further reading
Background[edit]
The Eastern and Western Roman Empire of Theodosius I in 395
By the early 5th century, the Roman Empire could no longer defend itself against either internal rebellion or the external threat posed by expanding Germanic tribes in Northern Europe. This situation and its consequences governed the eventual permanence of Britain's detachment from the rest of the Empire.
In the late 4th century, the empire was controlled by members of a dynasty that included the Emperor Theodosius I. This family retained political power within itself and formed alliances by intermarriage with other dynasties, at the same time engaging in internecine power struggles and fighting off outside contenders (called "usurpers") attempting to replace the ruling dynasty with one of their own. These internal machinations drained the Empire of both military and civilian resources. Many thousands of soldiers were lost in battling attempted coups by figures such as Firmus, Magnus Maximus and Eugenius.
The Empire's historical relationship with Germanic tribes was sometimes hostile, at other times cooperative, but ultimately fatal, as it was unable to prevent those tribes from assuming a dominant role in the relationship. By the early 5th century, as a result of severe losses and depleted tax income, the Western Roman Empire's military forces were dominated by Germanic troops, and Romanised Germans played a significant role in the empire's internal politics. Various Germanic and other tribes beyond the frontiers were able to take advantage of the Empire's weakened state, both to expand into Roman territory and, in some cases, to move their entire populations into lands once considered exclusively Roman, culminating in various successful migrations from 406 onwards. The crossing of the Rhine caused intense fear in Britannia, prone as it was to being cut off from the Empire by raids on the primary communications route from Italy, to Trier to the Channel Coast. In the event, this was much more than just another raid.
Chronology[edit]
383–388[edit]
In 383, the Roman general then assigned to Britain, Magnus Maximus, launched his successful bid for imperial power,[1] crossing to Gaul with his troops. He killed the Western Roman Emperor Gratian and ruled Gaul and Britain as Augustus (i.e., as a "sub-emperor" under Theodosius I). 383 is the last date for any evidence of a Roman presence in the north and west of Britain,[2] perhaps excepting troop assignments at the tower on Holyhead Mountain in Anglesey and at western coastal posts such as Lancaster. These outposts may have lasted into the 390s, but they were a very minor presence,[3] intended primarily to stop attacks and settlement by groups from Ireland.
Coins dated later than 383 have been excavated along Hadrian's Wall, suggesting that troops were not stripped from it, as once thought[4] or, if they were, they were quickly returned as soon as Maximus had won his victory in Gaul. In the De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, written c. 540, Gildas attributed an exodus of troops and senior administrators from Britain to Maximus, saying that he left not only with all of its troops, but also with all of its armed bands, governors, and the flower of its youth, never to return.[5]
Raids by Saxons, Picts, and the Scoti of Ireland had been ongoing in the late 4th century, but these increased in the years after 383. There were also large-scale permanent Irish settlements made along the coasts of Wales under circumstances that remain unclear.[6][7][8][9] Maximus campaigned in Britain against both the Picts and Scoti,[10][11] with historians differing on whether this was in the year 382 or 384 (i.e., whether the campaign was before or after he became Augustus). Welsh legend relates that before launching his usurpation, Maximus made preparations for an altered governmental and defence framework for the beleaguered provinces. Figures such as Coel Hen were said to be placed into key positions to protect the island in Maximus' absence. As such claims were designed to buttress Welsh genealogy and land claims, they should be viewed with some scepticism.
In 388, Maximus led his army across the Alps into Italy in an attempt to claim the purple. The effort failed when he was defeated in Pannonia at the Battle of the Save (in modern Croatia) and at the Battle of Poetovio (at Ptuj in modern Slovenia). He was then executed by Theodosius.[12]
389–406[edit]
With Maximus' death, Britain came back under the rule of Emperor Theodosius I until 392, when the usurper Eugenius would successfully bid for imperial power in the Western Roman Empire, surviving until 394 when he was defeated and killed by Theodosius. When Theodosius died in 395, his 10-year-old son Honorius succeeded him as Western Roman Emperor. The real power behind the throne, however, was Stilicho, the son-in-law of Theodosius' brother and the father-in-law of Honorius.
Britain was suffering raids by the Scoti, Saxons, and Picts and, sometime between 396 and 398, Stilicho allegedly ordered a campaign against the Picts,[13] likely a naval campaign intended to end their seaborne raids on the east coast of Britain.[14] He may also have ordered campaigns against the Scoti and Saxons at the same time,[15] but either way this would be the last Roman campaign in Britain of which there is any record.[16]
In 401 or 402 Stilicho faced wars with the Visigothic king Alaric and the Ostrogothic king Radagaisus. Needing military manpower, he stripped Hadrian's Wall of troops for the final time.[15][17][18] 402 is the last date of any Roman coinage found in large numbers in Britain, suggesting either that Stilicho also stripped the remaining troops from Britain, or that the Empire could no longer afford to pay the troops who were still there.[19] Meanwhile, the Picts, Saxons and Scoti continued their raids, which may have increased in scope. In 405, for example, Niall of the Nine Hostages is described as having raided along the southern coast of Britain.[20]
407–410[edit]
On the last day of December 406 (or, perhaps, 405[21]), the Alans, Vandals, and Suebi living east of Gaul crossed the Rhine, possibly when it was frozen over, and began widespread devastation.[20][22]
As there was no effective Roman response, the remaining Roman military in Britain feared that a Germanic crossing of the Channel into Britain was next, and dispensed with imperial authority – an action perhaps made easier by the high probability that the troops had not been paid for some time.[3] Their intent was to choose a commander who would lead them in securing their future but their first two choices, Marcus and Gratian, did not meet their expectations and were killed. Their third choice was the soldier Constantine III.[23]
Coin of Constantine III.
In 407 Constantine took charge of the remaining troops in Britain, led them across the Channel into Gaul, rallied support there, and attempted to set himself up as Western Roman Emperor.[20] Honorius' loyalist forces south of the Alps were preoccupied with fending off the Visigoths and were unable to put down the rebellion swiftly, giving Constantine the opportunity to extend his new empire to include Spain.[24][25]
In 409 Constantine's control of his empire fell apart. Part of his military forces were in Spain, making them unavailable for action in Gaul, and some of those in Gaul were swayed against him by loyalist Roman generals. The Germans living west of the Rhine River rose against him, perhaps encouraged by Roman loyalists,[26][27] and those living east of the river crossed into Gaul.[28] Britain, now without any troops for protection and having suffered particularly severe Saxon raids in 408 and 409, viewed the situation in Gaul with renewed alarm. Perhaps feeling they had no hope of relief under Constantine, both the Romano-Britons and some of the Gauls expelled Constantine's magistrates in 409 or 410.[29][30][31] The Byzantine historian Zosimus (fl. 490's – 510's) directly blamed Constantine for the expulsion, saying that he had allowed the Saxons to raid, and that the Britons and Gauls were reduced to such straits that they revolted from the Roman Empire, 'rejected Roman law, reverted to their native customs, and armed themselves to ensure their own safety'.[32]
It has been suggested[by whom?] that when Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration in 409 he might have been referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A later appeal for help by the British communities was, according to Zosimus, rejected by the Emperor Honorius in 410 AD. In the text called the Rescript of Honorius of 411, the Western Emperor Honorius tells the British civitates to look to their own defence as his regime was still fighting usurpers in the south of Gaul and trying to deal with the Visigoths who were in the very south of Italy. The first reference to this rescript is written by the sixth-century Byzantine scholar Zosimus and is located randomly in the middle of a discussion of southern Italy; no further mention of Britain is made, which has led some, though not all, modern academics to suggest that the rescript does not apply to Britain, but to Bruttium in Italy.[33][34][35]
Historian Christopher Snyder wrote that protocol dictated that Honorius address his correspondences to imperial officials, and the fact that he did not implies that the cities of Britain were now the highest Roman authority remaining on the island.[36] The idea that there may have been larger-scale political formations still intact on the island has not been completely discredited however.
At the time that the Rescript was sent, Honorius was holed up in Ravenna by the Visigoths and was unable to prevent their Sack of Rome (410).[36] He was certainly in no position to offer any relief to anyone. As for Constantine III, he was not equal to the intrigues of imperial Rome and by 411 his cause was spent. His son was killed along with those major supporters who had not turned against him, and he himself was assassinated.[37]
Interpretative variations[edit]
There are various interpretations that characterise the events in a way that supports a particular thesis without taking issue with the basic chronology.
The historian Theodor Mommsen (Britain, 1885) said that "It was not Britain that gave up Rome, but Rome that gave up Britain ...", arguing that Roman needs and priorities lay elsewhere. [38] His position has retained scholarly support over the passage of time.
Michael Jones (The End of Roman Britain, 1998) took the opposite view, saying that it was Britain that left Rome, arguing that numerous usurpers based in Britain combined with poor administration caused the Romano-Britons to revolt.
Factual disputes[edit]
Romano-British or Anglo-Saxon belt fittings in the Quoit Brooch Style from the Mucking Anglo-Saxon cemetery, early 5th century, using a mainly Roman style for very early Anglo-Saxon clients
Regarding the events of 409 and 410 when the Romano-Britons expelled Roman officials and sent a request for aid to Honorius, Michael Jones (The End of Roman Britain, 1998) offered a different chronology to the same end result: he suggested that the Britons first appealed to Rome and when no help was forthcoming, they expelled the Roman officials and took charge of their own affairs.[39]
One theory that occurs in some modern histories concerns the Rescript of Honorius, holding that it refers to the cities of the Bruttii (who lived at the "toe" of Italy in modern Calabria), rather than to the cities of the Britons.[40][41][42] The suggestion is based on the assumption that the source (Zosimus) or a copyist made an error and actually meant Brettia when Brettania was written, and noting that the passage that contains the Rescript is otherwise concerned with events in northern Italy.
Criticisms of the suggestion range from treating the passage in the way it was written by Zosimus and ignoring the suggestion,[43] to simply noting its speculative nature,[44] to a discussion of problems with the suggestion (e.g., 'why would Honorius write to the cities of the Bruttii rather than to his own provincial governor for that region?', and 'why does far-off southern Italy belong in a passage about northern Italy any more than far-off Britain?').[45][46] The theory also contradicts the account of Gildas, who provides independent support that the reference is to Britain by repeating the essence of Zosimus' account and clearly applying it to Britain.[47]
E. A. Thompson ("Britain, A.D. 406–410", in Britannia, 8 (1977), pp. 303–318) offered a more provocative theory to explain the expulsion of officials and appeal for Roman aid. He suggested that a revolt consisting of dissident peasants, not unlike the Bagaudae of Gaul, also existing in Britain, and when they revolted and expelled the Roman officials, the landowning class then made an appeal for Roman aid.[48] There is no textual proof that that was so, though it might be plausible if the definition of 'bagaudae' is changed to fit the circumstances. There is no need to do this, as any number of rational scenarios already fit the circumstances.[49] There is the possibility that some form of bagaudae existed in Britain, but were not necessarily relevant to the events of 409 and 410. The alleged ubiquity of Pelagianism amongst the British population may have contributed to such a movement if it had existed, not to mention large-scale purges amongst the British elite over previous decades. Among the works that mention but skirt the issue is Koch's Celtic Culture (2005), which cites Thompson's translation of Zosimus and goes on to say "The revolt in Britain may have involved bacaudae or peasant rebels as was the case in Armorica, but this is not certain."[50]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:13, An Age of Tyrants. Snyder cites Zosimus 4.35.2-6 and 37.1-3, and Orosius (7.34.9-10), with the latter saying that Maximus was an unwilling usurper.
Jump up ^ Frere 1987:354, Britannia, The End of Roman Britain. Specifically, Frere refers to Wales, the western Pennines, and the fortress at Deva; he then goes on to suggest that the same was true north of Hadrian's Wall, referring to the lands of the Damnonii, Votadini, and the Novantae.
^ Jump up to: a b Higham 1992:75, Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons, "Britain Without Rome".
Jump up ^ Frere 1987:354, Britannia, The End of Roman Britain. Frere notes that excavation of coins dated after 383 suggests that Maximus did not strip the Wall of troops.
Jump up ^ Giles 1841:13, The Works of Gildas, The History, ch. 14
Jump up ^ Laing 1975:93, Early Celtic Britain and Ireland, Wales and the Isle of Man.
Jump up ^ Miller, Mollie (1977), "Date-Guessing and Dyfed", Studia Celtica, 12, Cardiff: University of Wales, pp. 33–61
Jump up ^ Coplestone-Crow, Bruce (1981), "The Dual Nature of Irish Colonization of Dyfed in the Dark Ages", Studia Celtica, 16, Cardiff: University of Wales, pp. 1–24
Jump up ^ Meyer, Kuno (1896), "Early Relations Between Gael and Brython", in Evans, E. Vincent, Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, Session 1895–1896, I, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 55–86
Jump up ^ Mattingly 2006:232, An Imperial Possession. The Gallic Chronicle of 452 is cited as giving the year 382/383.
Jump up ^ Frere 1987:354, In "Britannia, The End of Roman Britain," Frere suggests that Maximus would return to Britain in 384, after he became Augustus, to campaign against the Scoti and Picts.
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:13, Age of Tyrants. Snyder cites Sozomen 7.13, and Orosius 7.35.3-4.
Jump up ^ Snyder 2003:62, The Britons. The date is given as 398. Stilicho himself was suppressing revolts in Africa at the time.
Jump up ^ Frere 1987:355, Britannia, "The End of Roman Britain".
^ Jump up to: a b Jones & Mattingly 1990:307, An Atlas of Roman Britain.
Jump up ^ Mattingly 2006:238, An Imperial Possession.
Jump up ^ Snyder 2003:62–63, The Britons. Stilicho had ordered measures for new fortifications in Britain prior to removing the troops.
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:18, An Age of Tyrants. Snyder notes that the sometimes confused effort of Gildas to relate history may contain references to Stilicho's actions in Britain. In De Excidio, ch. 16-18, he talks of campaigns against the Scoti, Saxons and Picts, and then mistakenly says that that is when Hadrian's Wall was built, followed by the removal of troops.
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:18, An Age of Tyrants.
^ Jump up to: a b c Frere 1987:357, Britannia.
Jump up ^ Michael Kulikowski, "Barbarians in Gaul, Usurpers in Britain" Britannia 31 (2000:325-345).
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:18, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:19, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Frere 1987:358, Britannia.
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:19–20, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Snyder 2003:79, The Britons.
Jump up ^ Higham 1992:72, Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons, "Britain Without Rome".
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:20–21, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Frere 1987:358–359, Britannia.
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:20, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Higham 1992:71–72, Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons, "Britain Without Rome".
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:22, An Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Birley, Anthony Richard The Roman Government of Britain OUP Oxford (29 Sep 2005) ISBN 978-0199252374 pp.461-463 [1]
Jump up ^ Halsall, Guy Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376-568 Cambridge University Press; illustrated edition (20 Dec 2007) ISBN 978-0521434911, pp. 217-18
Jump up ^ Discussion in Martin Millett, The Romanization of Britain, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and in Philip Bartholomew 'Fifth-Century Facts' Britannia vol. 13, 1982, p. 260
^ Jump up to: a b Snyder 1998:21, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:21–22, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Mommsen, Theodor (1885), "Britain", in Dickson, William P. (translator), The Provinces of the Roman Empire, I, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (published 1887), p. 211
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:25, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Birley, Anthony (2005) The Roman Government of Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-925237-8, pp. 461–463
Jump up ^ Halsall, Guy Barbarian migrations and the Roman West, 376-568 Cambridge University Press; illustrated edition (20 Dec 2007) ISBN 978-0-521-43491-1 pp.217-218
Jump up ^ Discussion in Martin Millett, The Romanization of Britain, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990) and in Philip Bartholomew 'Fifth-Century Facts' Britannia vol. 13, 1982 p. 260
Jump up ^ Frere 1987:359, Britannia, "The End of Roman Britain".
Jump up ^ Higham 1992:73, Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons, "Britain Without Rome".
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:24, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Woolf, Alex (2003), "The Britons: from Romans to Barbarians", in Goetz, Hans Werner; Jarnut, Jörg; Pohl, Walter, Regna and Gentes, Brill, pp. 346–347, ISBN 90-04-12524-8 . Woolf cites the argument of E. A. Thompson but does not choose sides, saying that the issue is neither provable nor disprovable.
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:18, Age of Tyrants. Gildas (De Excidio, 18.1) is quoted as saying "The Romans therefore informed our country that they could not go on being bothered with such troublesome expeditions. ... Rather, the British should stand alone, get used to arms, fight bravely, and defend with all their powers their land."
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:22, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Snyder 1998:23–24, Age of Tyrants.
Jump up ^ Koch, John T., ed. (2005), "Civitas", Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABL-CLIO (published 2006), pp. 450–451, ISBN 978-1-85109-440-0
References[edit]
Frere, Sheppard Sunderland (1987), Britannia: A History of Roman Britain (3rd, revised ed.), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, ISBN 0-7102-1215-1
Giles, John Allen, ed. (1841), "The Works of Gildas", The Works of Gildas and Nennius, London: James Bohn
Higham, Nicholas (1992), Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons, London: B. A. Seaby, ISBN 1-85264-022-7
Jones, Barri; Mattingly, David (1990), An Atlas of Roman Britain, Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers (published 2007), ISBN 978-1-84217-067-0
Laing, Lloyd (1975), The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 400–1200 AD, Frome: Book Club Associates (published 1977)
Mattingly, David (2006), An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, London: Penguin Books (published 2007), ISBN 978-0-14-014822-0
Snyder, Christopher A. (1998), An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, ISBN 0-271-01780-5
Snyder, Christopher A. (2003), The Britons, Malden: Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 978-0-631-22260-6
Further reading[edit]
Speed, Gavin (2014). Towns in the dark? : urban transformations from late Roman Britain to Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford, UK: Archaeopress Archaeology. ISBN 9781784910044.
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One- and two-tailed tests
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A two-tailed test applied to the normal distribution.
A one-tailed test, showing the p-value as the size of one tail.
In statistical significance testing, a one-tailed test and a two-tailed test are alternative ways of computing the statistical significance of a parameter inferred from a data set, in terms of a test statistic. A two-tailed test is appropriate if the estimated value may be more than or less than the reference value, for example, whether a test taker may score above or below the historical average. A one-tailed test is appropriate if the estimated value may depart from the reference value in only one direction, for example, whether a machine produces more than one-percent defective products. Alternative names are one-sided and two-sided tests; the terminology "tail" is used because the extreme portions of distributions, where observations lead to rejection of the null hypothesis, are small and often "tail off" toward zero as in the normal distribution or "bell curve", pictured on the right.
Contents
1 Applications
2 Coin flipping example
3 History
4 Specific tests
5 See also
6 References
Applications[edit]
One-tailed tests are used for asymmetric distributions that have a single tail, such as the chi-squared distribution, which are common in measuring goodness-of-fit, or for one side of a distribution that has two tails, such as the normal distribution, which is common in estimating location; this corresponds to specifying a direction. Two-tailed tests are only applicable when there are two tails, such as in the normal distribution, and correspond to considering either direction significant.[1][2][3]
In the approach of Ronald Fisher, the null hypothesis H0 will be rejected when the p-value of the test statistic is sufficiently extreme (vis-a-vis the test statistic's sampling distribution) and thus judged unlikely to be the result of chance. In a one-tailed test, "extreme" is decided beforehand as either meaning "sufficiently small" or meaning "sufficiently large" – values in the other direction are considered not significant. In a two-tailed test, "extreme" means "either sufficiently small or sufficiently large", and values in either direction are considered significant.[4] For a given test statistic there is a single two-tailed test, and two one-tailed tests, one each for either direction. Given data of a given significance level in a two-tailed test for a test statistic, in the corresponding one-tailed tests for the same test statistic it will be considered either twice as significant (half the p-value), if the data is in the direction specified by the test, or not significant at all (p-value above 0.05), if the data is in the direction opposite that specified by the test.
For example, if flipping a coin, testing whether it is biased towards heads is a one-tailed test, and getting data of "all heads" would be seen as highly significant, while getting data of "all tails" would be not significant at all (p = 1). By contrast, testing whether it is biased in either direction is a two-tailed test, and either "all heads" or "all tails" would both be seen as highly significant data. In medical testing, while one is generally interested in whether a treatment results in outcomes that are better than chance, thus suggesting a one-tailed test; a worse outcome is also interesting for the scientific field, therefore one should use a two-tailed test that corresponds instead to testing whether the treatment results in outcomes that are different from chance, either better or worse.[5] In the archetypal lady tasting tea experiment, Fisher tested whether the lady in question was better than chance at distinguishing two types of tea preparation, not whether her ability was different from chance, and thus he used a one-tailed test.
Coin flipping example[edit]
Main article: Checking whether a coin is fair
In coin flipping, the null hypothesis is a sequence of Bernoulli trials with probability 0.5, yielding a random variable X which is 1 for heads and 0 for tails, and a common test statistic is the sample mean (of the number of heads) X ¯ . {\displaystyle {\bar {X}}.} If testing for whether the coin is biased towards heads, a one-tailed test would be used – only large numbers of heads would be significant. In that case a data set of five heads (HHHHH), with sample mean of 1, has a 1 / 32 = 0.03125 ≈ 0.03 {\displaystyle 1/32=0.03125\approx 0.03} chance of occurring, (5 consecutive flips with 2 outcomes - ((1/2)^5 =1/32), and thus would have p ≈ 0.03 {\displaystyle p\approx 0.03} and would be significant (rejecting the null hypothesis) if using 0.05 as the cutoff. However, if testing for whether the coin is biased towards heads or tails, a two-tailed test would be used, and a data set of five heads (sample mean 1) is as extreme as a data set of five tails (sample mean 0), so the p-value would be 2 / 32 = 0.0625 ≈ 0.06 {\displaystyle 2/32=0.0625\approx 0.06} and this would not be significant (not rejecting the null hypothesis) if using 0.05 as the cutoff.
History[edit]
p-value of chi-squared distribution for different number of degrees of freedom
The p-value was introduced by Karl Pearson[6] in the Pearson's chi-squared test, where he defined P (original notation) as the probability that the statistic would be at or above a given level. This is a one-tailed definition, and the chi-squared distribution is asymmetric, only assuming positive or zero values, and has only one tail, the upper one. It measures goodness of fit of data with a theoretical distribution, with zero corresponding to exact agreement with the theoretical distribution; the p-value thus measures how likely the fit would be this bad or worse.
Normal distribution, showing two tails
The distinction between one-tailed and two-tailed tests was popularized by Ronald Fisher in the influential book Statistical Methods for Research Workers[7], where he applied it especially to the normal distribution, which is a symmetric distribution with two equal tails. The normal distribution is a common measure of location, rather than goodness-of-fit, and has two tails, corresponding to the estimate of location being above or below the theoretical location (e.g., sample mean compared with theoretical mean). In the case of a symmetric distribution such as the normal distribution, the one-tailed p-value is exactly half the two-tailed p-value:[7]
Some confusion is sometimes introduced by the fact that in some cases we wish to know the probability that the deviation, known to be positive, shall exceed an observed value, whereas in other cases the probability required is that a deviation, which is equally frequently positive and negative, shall exceed an observed value; the latter probability is always half the former.
—  Ronald Fisher, Statistical Methods for Research Workers
Fisher emphasized the importance of measuring the tail – the observed value of the test statistic and all more extreme – rather than simply the probability of specific outcome itself, in his The Design of Experiments (1935).[8] He explains this as because a specific set of data may be unlikely (in the null hypothesis), but more extreme outcomes likely, so seen in this light, the specific but not extreme unlikely data should not be considered significant.
Specific tests[edit]
If the test statistic follows a Student's t-distribution in the null hypothesis – which is common where the underlying variable follows a normal distribution with unknown scaling factor, then the test is referred to as a one-tailed or two-tailed t-test. If the test is performed using the actual population mean and variance, rather than an estimate from a sample, it would be called a one-tailed or two-tailed Z-test.
The statistical tables for t and for Z provide critical values for both one- and two-tailed tests. That is, they provide the critical values that cut off an entire region at one or the other end of the sampling distribution as well as the critical values that cut off the regions (of half the size) at both ends of the sampling distribution.
See also[edit]
Paired difference test, when two samples are being compared
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kock, N. (2015). One-tailed or two-tailed P values in PLS-SEM? International Journal of e-Collaboration, 11(2), 1-7.
Jump up ^ Mundry, R., & Fischer, J. (1998). Use of statistical programs for nonparametric tests of small samples often leads to incorrect P values: Examples from Animal Behaviour. Animal behaviour, 56(1), 256-259.
Jump up ^ Pillemer, D. B. (1991). One-versus two-tailed hypothesis tests in contemporary educational research. Educational Researcher, 20(9), 13-17.
Jump up ^ John E. Freund, (1984) Modern Elementary Statistics, sixth edition. Prentice hall. ISBN 0-13-593525-3 (Section "Inferences about Means", chapter "Significance Tests", page 289.)
Jump up ^ J M Bland, D G Bland (BMJ, 1994) Statistics Notes: One and two sided tests of significance
Jump up ^ Pearson, Karl (1900). "On the criterion that a given system of deviations from the probable in the case of a correlated system of variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from random sampling" (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. Series 5. 50 (302): 157–175. doi:10.1080/14786440009463897.
^ Jump up to: a b Fisher, Ronald (1925). Statistical Methods for Research Workers. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. ISBN 0-05-002170-2.
Jump up ^ Fisher, Ronald A. (1971) [1935]. The Design of Experiments (9th ed.). Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-844690-9.
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Innova Discs
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guidelines for companies and organizations. Please help to establish notability by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond its mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be established, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted.
Find sources: "Innova Discs" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
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Innova is a company founded in 1983 to produce equipment for the growing number of disc golf players. In that year, Dave Dunipace created and patented the Eagle, the world's first disc designed specifically for the sport of disc golf.[1] Innova discs are used by top professionals. Twelve-time world champion Ken Climo endorses and uses Innova Discs.[2]
In addition to discs, Innova manufactures other disc golfing equipment including bags, accessories, and their DISCatcher targets which were introduced in 1995.[3] Their 60+ golf discs are manufactured using various molds and plastics. Innova manufactures discs in 4 distinct lines of plastic with distinct flight characteristics: Star, Champion, Pro, and DX. There are also subtypes related to the main 4: Echo star, Gstar, Starlite, Champion Edition, Blizzard Champion, Glow Champion, R-Pro, XT-Pro, KC-Pro, KC-Glow, MC-Pro, JK-Pro, Yeti-pro Proline and Glow DX.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Disc ratings
2 Sponsored players [5]
3 References
4 External links
Disc ratings[edit]
Innova uses a numeric scale to rate the performance of its discs. The ratings represent:
Speed - Speed is the rating of the throw speed at which is required to throw the disc on the line the other flight numbers suggest, and is largely determined by the thickness of the rim, with 2.6 cm being the thickest allowed for PDGA approved play, but it has also been described as how easily the disc cuts through the air. Ratings range from 1 to 14, with 14 being the "fastest" drivers and 1 being the "slowest" putt and approach discs.
Glide - The glide of a disc is best described as how much it is affected by wind. Ratings range from 1 to 6. A disc with a glide of 1 will be relatively unaffected by winds and will tend to fly on the thrower's power more than anything. A disc with a glide of 6 will be very sensitive to crosswinds and headwinds, but will ride a tailwind much further than it could be thrown via force alone.
Turn - The turn of a disc (also known as high speed stability) describes how hard a disc will fight against its natural inclination to fade (see below) during the flight. Turn is rated from -5 to +1. A -5 rated disc will turn from a straight line of flight very easily with relatively little power behind it, while a +1 is unlikely to turn at all and will usually begin fading earlier in the flight.
Fade - The fade of a disc (also known as low speed stability) is the degree to which a disc will fall to one side as it loses speed. The direction of the fade depends on how it is thrown. For example, for a right handed person throwing in the traditional backhand style, the disc will fade to the left, but when thrown forehand, it will fade to the right. Fade is rated from 0 to 5, with a 5 rated disc fading hard and early, and a 0 rated disc barely fading off of its original line of flight at all.
Sponsored players [5][edit]
Star Team
Hall of Fame
Team Champion
The Masters
International Team
Crew Team
Jennifer Allen Alan Beaver Gregg Barsby Kevin McCoy Karl Johan Nybo Zoe Andyke
Philo Brathwaite 'Crazy' John Brooks Sarah Cunningham Brian McRee Pasi Koivu Melodie Bailey
Steve Brinster Ken Climo Christian Dietrich Mike Moser Jalle Stoor Robert Bainbridge
Jeremy Koling Gregg Hosfeld Alex Geisinger JD Ramirez Eveliina Salonen Anthony Barela
Hannah Leatherman Carlton Howard Calvin Heimburg Jay Reading Hannele Määttä Kyle Crabtree
Paul McBeth Juliana Korver Avery Jenkins George Smith Markus Källström Holly Finley
Des Reading Anni Kreml David Wiggins Jr Dean Tannock Martin Hendel Devin Frederick
Nathan Sexton Stan McDaniel Joe Rovere Peter Shive William Gummesson Jessica Hill
Joe Mela Brian Schweberger Andre Johnsen Erica Johnson
Jim Oates Madison Walker Tetsuya 'T2' Kikuchi Dustin Keegan
Fred Salaz Jessica Weese Marco Lehousse Izak McDonald
Barry Schultz Lisa Fajkus Peter Lunde Max Nichols
Johnny Sias James Conrad Jon Henry Marthinsen Karina Nowels
Tita Ugalde Espen Møkkelgjerd Scott Withers
Dr. Rick Voakes Kasper Skovly
Steve Wisecup Maxime Tanghe
Lavone Wolfe Hemi Te-Awhitu
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "About Innova Discs". Retrieved April 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "12x World Champion Ken Climo". Retrieved April 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Disc Golf Course growth". Retrieved April 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Innova Discs Plastic Types". Retrieved April 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ http://www.innovadiscs.com/team-innova/
External links[edit]
Innova

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(Hey Won't You Play) Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song
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"(Hey Won't You Play) Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song"
Single by B.J. Thomas
from the album Reunion
Released
January 1975
Format
7"
Recorded
1974
Genre
Country, pop
Length
3:23
Label
ABC Records 12054
Songwriter(s)
Larry Butler, Chips Moman
Producer(s)
Chips Moman
B.J. Thomas singles chronology
"Rock and Roll Lullaby"
(1972) "(Hey Won't You Play) Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song"
(1975) "Help Me Make it (To My Rocking Chair)"
(1975)
"Rock and Roll Lullaby"
(1972) "(Hey Won't You Play) Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song"
(1975) "Help Me Make it (To My Rocking Chair)"
(1975)
"(Hey Won't You Play) Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song" is an American country and pop song made famous by B.J. Thomas. It won the 1976 Grammy Award for Best Country Song, awarded to its songwriters, Larry Butler and Chips Moman.
Bowing at #99 on the Billboard Hot 100 on February 1, 1975, the hit became Thomas' second #1 single, on April 26, 1975. Including the parenthetical part, the title was the longest of any song to top the Hot 100, until 1981 when a medley by Stars On 45 hit #1. It also topped Billboard's Easy Listening chart and was the last of his four Number Ones on that chart.[1] It also hit #1 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart.[2] Billboard ranked it as the No. 17 song for 1975.[3]
Although he would not have any major country hits for another eight years, this hit paved the way for Thomas' future success as a mainstream artist in that genre.
In 1976, the song was performed by the Muppets on The Muppet Show. In 1979, Larry Butler produced a cover version by Kenny Rogers and Dottie West for their album Classics. Alvin and the Chipmunks and Butler covered the song for the 1981 album Urban Chipmunk.
"(Hey Won't You Play) Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song" was certified gold for sales of one million units by the Recording Industry Association of America.[4]
Chart performance[edit]
Chart (1975)
Peak
position
U.S. Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks 1
U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles 1
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 1
Canadian RPM Adult Contemporary Tracks 1
Canadian RPM Country Tracks 2
Canadian RPM Top Singles 3
New Zealand Singles Chart 3
Preceded by
"I've Been This Way Before" by Neil Diamond Billboard Easy Listening Singles number-one single B.J Thomas
March 22, 1975 (one week) Succeeded by
"Amourese" by Helen Reddy
Preceded by
"Philadelphia Freedom"
by Elton John Billboard Hot 100 number-one single
April 26, 1975 (one week) Succeeded by
"He Don't Love You (Like I Love You)" by Tony Orlando and Dawn
Preceded by
"She's Actin' Single (I'm Drinkin' Doubles)" by Gary Stewart Billboard Hot Country Singles
number-one single
May 17, 1975 (one week) Succeeded by
"I'm Not Lisa" by Jessi Colter
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2002). Top Adult Contemporary: 1961-2001. Record Research. p. 242.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). The Billboard Book Of Top 40 Country Hits: 1944-2006, Second edition. Record Research. p. 343.
Jump up ^ Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1975
Jump up ^ "Searchable Database - Search: B.J. Thomas". RIAA. Archived from the original on 2013-09-05. Retrieved 2013-12-10.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
t
e
B. J. Thomas
Albums
On My Way
Longhorns & Londonbridges
Reunion
You Gave Me Love (When Nobody Gave Me a Prayer)
Love Shines
The Living Room Sessions
Singles
"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry"
"Hooked on a Feeling"
"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head"
"I Just Can't Help Believing"
"Most of All"
"Long Ago Tomorrow"
"Rock and Roll Lullaby"
"(Hey Won't You Play) Another Somebody Done Somebody Wrong Song"
"Don't Worry Baby"
"I Recall a Gypsy Woman"
"Whatever Happened to Old-Fashioned Love"
"New Looks from an Old Lover"
"Two Car Garage"
"Night Life"
"As Long As We Got Each Other"
Book:B. J. Thomas
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=(Hey_Won%27t_You_Play)_Another_Somebody_Done_Somebody_Wrong_Song&oldid=802273116"
Categories:
1975 singles
B. J. Thomas songs
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Billboard Hot Country Songs number-one singles
Billboard Adult Contemporary number-one singles
Songs written by Chips Moman
Song recordings produced by Chips Moman
RPM Adult Contemporary number-one singles
ABC Records singles
Songs written by Larry Butler (producer)
1975 songs
Songs about music
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This page was last edited on 25 September 2017, at 02:40.
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