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Lost Generation
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For other uses, see Lost Generation (disambiguation).
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Lost Generation
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The Lost Generation was the generation that came of age during World War I. Demographers William Strauss and Neil Howe outlined their Strauss–Howe generational theory using 1883–1900 as birth years for this generation. The term was coined by Gertrude Stein and popularized by Ernest Hemingway, who used it as one of two contrasting epigraphs for his novel The Sun Also Rises. Hemingway credits the phrase to Gertrude Stein, who was then his mentor and patron.
Contents
[hide]
1 In literature
2 Literary themes
3 Other uses
4 Notable members
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
In literature[edit]
Gertrude Stein with Ernest Hemingway's son, Jack Hemingway (nicknamed Bumby) in 1924. Stein is credited with bringing the term "Lost Generation" into use.
In A Moveable Feast, published after Hemingway's and Stein's deaths, Hemingway claims that Stein heard the phrase from a garage owner who serviced Stein's car. When a young mechanic failed to repair the car quickly enough, the garage owner shouted at the boy, "You are all a "génération perdue."[1]:29 Stein, in telling Hemingway the story, added, "That is what you are. That's what you all are ... all of you young people who served in the war. You are a lost generation."[1]:29 [2]
Lost in this respect means disoriented, wandering, directionless—a recognition that there was great confusion and aimlessness among the war's survivors in the early post-war years."[3]
The 1926 publication of Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises popularized the term as Hemingway used it as an epigraph. The novel serves to epitomize the post-war expatriate generation.[4]:302 However, Hemingway later wrote to his editor Max Perkins that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been "battered" but were not lost.[5]:82
In his memoir A Moveable Feast, published after his death, he writes "I tried to balance Miss Stein's quotation from the garage owner with one from Ecclesiastes." A few lines later, recalling the risks and losses of the war, he adds: "I thought of Miss Stein and Sherwood Anderson and egotism and mental laziness versus discipline and I thought 'who is calling who a lost generation?'"[1]:29–30
Literary themes[edit]
The writings of the Lost Generation literary figures tended to have common themes. These themes mostly pertained to the writers' experiences in World War I and the years following it. It is said that the work of these writers was autobiographical based on their use of mythologized versions of their lives.[6] One of the themes that commonly appears in the authors' works is decadence and the frivolous lifestyle of the wealthy.[7] Both Hemingway and Fitzgerald touch on this theme throughout the novels The Sun Also Rises and The Great Gatsby. Another theme that is common for these authors was the death of the American dream, which is exhibited throughout many of their novels.[8] It is most prominent in The Great Gatsby, in which the character Nick Carraway comes to realize the corruption that surrounds him.
Other uses[edit]
The term is also used in a broader context for the generation of young people who came of age during and shortly after World War I, alternatively known as the World War I generation. Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe, well known for their generational theory, define the Lost Generation as the cohort born from 1883 to 1900, who came of age during World War I and the Roaring Twenties.[9] In Europe, they are mostly known as the "Generation of 1914", for the year World War I began.[10] In France, the country in which many expatriates settled, they were sometimes called the Génération au Feu, the "Generation in Flames".
If one goes by Strauss and Howe's birth years, the last U.S. member of the Lost Generation to live was Susannah Mushatt Jones, who was born on July 6, 1899 and died on May 12, 2016. This makes the generation fully ancestral in the United States. Nabi Tajima (born 4 August 1900) from Japan is believed to be the last living member of this generation.[11]
In Britain, the term was originally used for those who died in the war,[12] and often implicitly referred to upper-class casualties who were perceived to have died disproportionately, robbing the country of a future elite.[13] Many felt that "the flower of youth and the best manhood of the peoples [had] been mowed down,"[14] for example such notable casualties as the poets Isaac Rosenberg, Rupert Brooke, Edward Thomas and Wilfred Owen,[15] composer George Butterworth and physicist Henry Moseley.
Notable members[edit]
Sample members include Sinclair Lewis, who was the first American to receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, United States Army General George S. Patton, Russian-born composer Irving Berlin, American writer, reporter, and political commentator Walter Lippmann, Earl Warren, American theologian, ethicist, and commentator on politics Reinhold Niebuhr, Actress Mae West, American poet and satirist Dorothy Parker, Norman Rockwell a painter/illustrator, J. Edgar Hoover who was the first director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation of the United States, baseball player Babe Ruth whose career in Major League Baseball spanned 22 seasons from 1914 through 1935, Actor George Burns, American novelist and short story writer F. Scott Fitzgerald, American bass singer and actor who became involved with the Civil Rights Movement Paul Robeson, Actor Humphrey Bogart, Al Capone, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist Ernest Hemingway, entertainer Al Jolson, top Broadway star of the era and first star of "talking pictures", American musician, singer and occasional actor Louis Armstrong who was one of the most influential figures in jazz, U.S. politician Adlai Stevenson II, British-born film director Alfred Hitchcock, composers George Gershwin and Aaron Copland, and Italian born Nicola Sacco.[16]
Because the United States was a safe haven from the persecution, repression, and murder characteristic of fascist and Communist regimes, the United States often became a refuge for entrepreneurs, scientists (like Enrico Fermi), and creative people (like Bohuslav Martinů) who did much of their best work in America.[citation needed]
U.S. presidents were Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower. Notable international members were Benito Mussolini, Hideki Tojo, Marc Chagall, Vidkun Quisling, Adolf Hitler, Charles Chaplin, Charles de Gaulle, Ho Chi Minh, Jawaharlal Nehru, Maurice Chevalier, Nikita Khrushchev, Sergei Prokofiev, Joan Miró, and Mao Zedong.[17] Russian-born Golda Meir spent most of her formative years in the United States before becoming prime minister of Israel.
Sample cultural endowments are: The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald;[18] The Waste Land by T.S. Elliot; Babbitt (novel) by Sinclair Lewis; The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner; Monkey Business (film) starring the Marx Brothers; Creed of an Advertising Man by Bruce Barton; An American in Paris by George Gershwin; Ain't Misbehavin' by Duke Ellington; The Maltese Falcon by Dashiell Hammett; The Big Sleep by Raymond Chandler; The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway; the musical score of the ballet score Appalachian Spring by Aaron Copland; and The View from Eighty by Malcolm Cowley.[19]
See also[edit]
1920s portal
List of writers of the Lost Generation
List of generations
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Hemingway, Ernest (1996). A Moveable Feast. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-82499-X.
Jump up ^ Mellow, James R. (1991). Charmed Circle: Gertrude Stein and Company, p,273. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-47982-7.
Jump up ^ Hynes, Samuel (1990). A War Imagined: The First World War and English Culture. London: Bodley Head. p. 386. ISBN 0 370 30451 9.
Jump up ^ Mellow, James R. (1992). Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-37777-3.
Jump up ^ Baker, Carlos (1972). Hemingway, the writer as artist. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01305-5.
Jump up ^ "Hemingway, the Fitzgeralds, and the Lost Generation: An Interview with Kirk Curnutt | The Hemingway Project". www.thehemingwayproject.com. Retrieved 2016-03-30.
Jump up ^ "Lost Generation | Great Writers Inspire". writersinspire.org. Retrieved 2016-03-30.
Jump up ^ "American Lost Generation". InterestingArticles.com. Retrieved 2016-03-30.
Jump up ^ Howe, Neil; Strauss, William (1991). Generations: The History of Americas Future. 1584 to 2069. New York: William Morrow and Company. pp. 247–260. ISBN 0-688-11912-3.
Jump up ^ Wohl, Robert (1979). The generation of 1914. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-34466-2.
Jump up ^ Lekach, Sasha (2017-09-16). "World's oldest person dies, giving title to Japanese supercentenarian". TravelWireNews. Retrieved 2017-09-18.
Jump up ^ "The Lost Generation: the myth and the reality". Aftermath – when the boys came home. Retrieved 6 November 2009.
Jump up ^ Winter, J. M. (November 1977). "Britain's 'Lost Generation' of the First World War" (PDF). Population Studies. 31 (3): 449–466. doi:10.2307/2173368.
Jump up ^ Rosa Luxemburg et al., "A Spartacan Manifesto, The Nation, March 8, 1919, pp. 373-374
Jump up ^ "What was the 'lost generation'?". Schools Online World War One. BBC. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Strauss, William; Howe, Neil (1991). Generations: the history of America's future, 1584 to 2069. William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-11912-3.
Jump up ^ Strauss, William; Howe, Neil (1991). Generations: the history of America's future, 1584 to 2069. William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-11912-3.
Jump up ^ Lapsansky-Werner, Emma J. United States History: Modern America. Boston, MA: Pearson Learning Solutions, 2011. Print. Page 238
Jump up ^ Strauss, William; Howe, Neil (1991). Generations: the history of America's future, 1584 to 2069. William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-11912-3.
Further reading[edit]
Meyers, Jeffrey (1985). Hemingway: A Biography. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-42126-4.
Fitch, Noel Riley (1985). Sylvia Beach and the Lost Generation: A History of Literary Paris in the Twenties and Thirties. Norton. ISBN 0-393-30231-8.
External links[edit]
Writers of the Lost Generation discussed in Conversations from Penn State interview
[hide]
v
t
e
Social generations of Western society
Lost Generation
Interbellum Generation
G.I. Generation
Silent Generation
Baby boomers
Generation X
Millennials (Generation Y)
Generation Z
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text:
Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?
Artist
Paul Gauguin
Year
1897–1898
Medium
Oil on canvas
Dimensions
139 cm × 375 cm (55 in × 148 in)
Location
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? is a painting by French artist Paul Gauguin. Gauguin inscribed the original French title in the upper left corner: D'où Venons Nous / Que Sommes Nous / Où Allons Nous. The inscription the artist wrote on his canvas has no question mark, no dash, and all words are capitalized. In the upper right corner he signed and dated the painting: P. Gauguin / 1897.[1] The painting was created in Tahiti, and is in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Massachusetts, US.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Style and analysis
3 Reception and provenance
4 References and sources
5 Further reading
6 External links
Background[edit]
Gauguin had been a student at the Petit Séminaire de La Chapelle-Saint-Mesmin, just outside Orléans, from the age of eleven to the age of sixteen. His subjects there included a class in Catholic liturgy; the teacher for this class was the Bishop of Orléans, Félix-Antoine-Philibert Dupanloup. Dupanloup had devised his own catechism to be lodged in the minds of the young schoolboys, and to lead them towards proper spiritual reflections on the nature of life. The three fundamental questions in this catechism were: "Where does humanity come from?" "Where is it going to?", "How does humanity proceed?". Although in later life Gauguin was vociferously anticlerical, these questions from Dupanloup's catechism obviously had lodged in his mind, and "where?" became the key question that Gauguin asked in his art.[2][3]
Looking for a society more simple and elemental than that of his native France, Gauguin left for Tahiti in 1891. In addition to several other paintings that express his highly individualistic mythology, he completed this painting in 1897 or 1898. Gauguin considered it a masterpiece and the grand culmination of his thought. He was in despair when he undertook the painting, mourning the tragic death of his favourite daughter earlier in the year and oppressed by debts, and had planned to kill himself on finishing it. He subsequently made an unsuccessful attempt with an overdose of arsenic. Thomson thinks it quite possible that he only painted in the inscription while recovering from the attempt.[4][5][6]
Style and analysis[edit]
Gauguin indicated that the painting should be read from right to left, with the three major figure groups illustrating the questions posed in the title. The three women with a child represent the beginning of life; the middle group symbolizes the daily existence of young adulthood; and in the final group, according to the artist, "an old woman approaching death appears reconciled and resigned to her thoughts"; at her feet, "a strange white bird...represents the futility of words" or "the uselessness of vain words".[7] The blue idol in the background apparently represents what Gauguin described as "the Beyond." Of its entirety he said, "I believe that this canvas not only surpasses all my preceding ones, but that I shall never do anything better—or even like it."
The painting is an accentuation of Gauguin's trailblazing post-impressionistic style; his art stressed the vivid use of colors and thick brushstrokes, tenets of the impressionists (though the Impressionists focused on quick brushstrokes), while it aimed to convey an emotional or expressionistic strength. It emerged in conjunction with other avant-garde movements of the twentieth century, including cubism and fauvism.
Reception and provenance[edit]
In 1898, Gauguin sent the painting to Georges-Daniel de Monfreid in Paris. Monfreid passed it to Ambroise Vollard along with eight other thematically related pictures shipped earlier. They went on view at Vollard's gallery from November to December 1898.[8] The exhibition was a success, although D'où Venons Nous? received mixed reviews. The critic Andre Fontainas of the Mercure de France acknowledged a grudging respect for the work but thought the allegory impenetrable were it not for the inscription, and compared the painting unfavourably to the murals of Pierre Puvis de Chavannes who had died recently. Vollard had already purchased the other works as a job lot from Monfreid for 1,000 francs (Gauguin was furious when he found out),[9] but refrained from purchasing the larger monumental work and had difficulty selling it on.
Charles Morice (fr) two years later tried to raise a public subscription to purchase the painting for the nation. To assist this endeavour, Gauguin wrote a detailed description of the work concluding with the messianic remark that he spoke in parables: "Seeing they see not, hearing they hear not". The subscription nevertheless failed. Vollard eventually sold the painting for 2,500 francs (about $10,000 in year 2000 US dollars) in 1901 to Gabriel Frizeau (fr), of which Vollard's commission was perhaps as much as 500 francs.[10]
Subsequently, the painting was consigned and sold to several other Parisian and European merchants and collectors until it was purchased by the Marie Harriman Gallery in New York City in 1936. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, acquired it from the Marie Harriman Gallery on 16 April 1936.[1]
References and sources[edit]
References
^ Jump up to: a b Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Gayford pp. 99-100.
Jump up ^ Stuckey p. 129.
Jump up ^ Mathews pp. 225-6.
Jump up ^ Thomson p. 194.
Jump up ^ Boime p. 143.
Jump up ^ Boime p. 140.
Jump up ^ "Gauguin - Tahiti, The Workshop of the Tropics". musee-orsay.fr. Musée d'Orsay.
Jump up ^ Mathews p. 229.
Jump up ^ Thomson pp. 198-200.
Sources
Boime, Albert. (2008) Revelation of Modernism: Responses to the Cultural Crisis in Fin-de-Siécle. University of Missouri Press, ISBN 9780826266255
Gayford, Martin. (2006) The Yellow House: Van Gogh, Gauguin, and Nine Turbulent Weeks in Arles, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-670-91497-5.
Mathews, Nancy Mowll (2001). Paul Gauguin, an Erotic Life. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-09109-5
Stuckey, Charles. "Gauguin Inside Art" in Eric M. Zafran. Ed., Gauguin's Nirvana: Painters at Le Pouldu 1889-90. New Haven: Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, Hartford in association with Yale University Press, 2001, ISBN 0300089546.
Thomson, Belinda (1987). Gauguin. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20220-6.
Further reading[edit]
Rewald, John (1956; revised 1978). History of Post-Impressionism: From Van Gogh to Gauguin, London: Secker & Warburg.
Rewald, John. (1946) History of Impressionism.
External links[edit]
Media related to Paul Gauguin at Wikimedia Commons
[hide]
v
t
e
Paul Gauguin
Paintings
Study of a Nude (1880)
Still Life with Profile of Laval (1886)
Vision after the Sermon (1888)
The Painter of Sunflowers (1888)
Landscape near Arles (1888)
Fruits on a Table (1889)
The Flageolet Player on the Cliff (1889)
The Yellow Christ (1889)
The Green Christ (1889)
Christ on the Mount of Olives (1889)
Self-Portrait with Halo and Snake (1889)
Still Life with Head-Shaped Vase and Japanese Woodcut (1889)
Tahitian Women on the Beach (1891)
Vahine no te vi (1892)
Fatata te Miti (By the Sea) (1892)
Arearea (1892)
Spirit of the Dead Watching (1892)
When Will You Marry? (1892)
Aha Oe Feii? (1892)
Arii Matamoe (1892)
Merahi metua no Tehamana (1893)
Nave Nave Mahana (1896)
Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (1897/1898)
Two Tahitian Women (1899)
Other works
Jug in the Form of a Head, Self-Portrait (1889)
Soyez amoureuses vous serez heureuses (wood panel, 1889)
Objet décoratif carré avec dieux tahitiens (sculpture, 1893-1895)
Oviri (ceramic sculpture, 1895)
Periodicals
Le Sourire (1899-1900)
Exhibitions
Les XX, 1889
The Volpini Exhibition, 1889
Museums
Paul Gauguin Museum (Tahiti)
Paul Gauguin Cultural Center
People
Jean René Gauguin (son)
Flora Tristan (grandmother)
Émile Bernard
Vincent van Gogh
Meijer de Haan
Charles Laval
George-Daniel de Monfreid
Camille Pissarro
Émile Schuffenecker
Theo van Gogh
Ambroise Vollard
Related
Lust for Life (1956 film)
Rebel in Paradise (1960 film)
The Wolf at the Door (1986 film)
Paradise Found (2003 film)
Authority control
BNF: cb13750370t (data)
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