text:
Constitutional monarchy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Part of the Politics series
Basic forms of government
Power structure
Separation
Associated state
Dominion
Chiefdom
Federalism
Federation
Confederation
Devolution
Integration
Empire
Hegemony
Unitary state
Administrative division
Power source
Democracy
power of many
Direct
Representative
Semi
others
Oligarchy
power of few
Aristocracy
Military junta
Plutocracy
Stratocracy
Timocracy
Theocracy
Kritarchy
Particracy
Autocracy
power of one
Despotism
Illiberal democracy
Semi-authoritarian
Dictatorship
Hybrids
Anocracy
Power ideology
Monarchy vs. republic
socio-political ideologies
Absolute
Constitutional
Directorial
Legalist
Parliamentary
Semi-presidential
Presidential
Authoritarian vs. libertarian
socio-economic ideologies
Capitalism
Colonialism
Communism
Distributism
Feudalism
Socialism
Anarchism vs. statism
civil-liberties ideologies
Anarchy
Minarchy
Totalitarianism
Global vs. local
geo-cultural ideologies
Central
City-state
National unity
World
Politics portal
v
t
e
Part of a series of articles on
Monarchy
Central concepts[show]
Monarch
Monarchism
Divine right of kings
Mandate of Heaven
Types[show]
Absolute
Composite
Constitutional
Diarchy
Dual
Elective
Emirate
Ethnarch
Federal
Hereditary
Legalist (Chinese)
Non-sovereign
Popular
Regency
Tetrarch
Universal
History[show]
Birth of the Roman Empire
Magna Carta
Foundation of the Ottoman Empire
Glorious Revolution
French Revolution
Trienio Liberal
First French Empire
Liberal Wars
Second French Empire
Italian unification
Meiji Restoration
German unification
5 October 1910 Revolution
Proclamation of the Republic in Brazil
Xinhai Revolution
Russian Revolution
Siamese revolution of 1932
Birth of the Italian Republic
Spanish transition to democracy
Iranian Revolution
Modern Cambodia
Nepalese Civil War
Related topics[show]
Aristocracy
Autocracy
Crowned republic
Conservatism
Thomas Hobbes
Legitimists
Oligarchy
Philosopher king
Primogeniture
Royalism
Regicide
Regnal number
Royal family
Ultra-royalist
Politics portal
v
t
e
A constitutional monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign exercises their authorities in accordance with a written or unwritten constitution.[1] Constitutional monarchy differs from absolute monarchy (in which a monarch holds absolute power), in that constitutional monarchs are bound to exercise their powers and authorities within the limits prescribed within an established legal framework. Constitutional monarchies range from countries such as Morocco, where the constitution grants substantial discretionary powers to the sovereign, to countries such as Japan where the monarch retains no formal authorities.
A constitutional monarchy may refer to a system in which the monarch acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution, whether written or unwritten.[2] While most monarchs may hold formal authority and the government may legally operate in the monarch's name, in the form typical in Europe the monarch no longer personally sets public policy or chooses political leaders. Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as "a sovereign who reigns but does not rule".[3]
In addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation. However, the exercise of such powers is largely strictly in accordance with either written constitutional principles or unwritten constitutional conventions, rather than any personal political preference imposed by the sovereign. In The English Constitution, British political theorist Walter Bagehot identified three main political rights which a constitutional monarch may freely exercise: the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn. Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence however, such as through certain reserve powers, and may also play an important political role.
The United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms are all constitutional monarchies in the Westminster tradition of constitutional governance. Three states – Malaysia, Cambodia and the Holy See – are elective monarchies, wherein the ruler is periodically selected by a small electoral college.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Constitutional and absolute monarchy
2.1 England and the United Kingdom
2.2 Continental Europe
3 Modern constitutional monarchy
4 List of current constitutional monarchies
5 Former constitutional monarchies
6 Unique constitutional monarchies
7 See also
8 References
8.1 Citations
8.2 Sources
9 Further reading
History[edit]
The oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites. They were an ancient Anatolian people that lived during the Bronze Age whose king or queen had to share their authority with an assembly, called Panku, equivalent to a modern-day deliberative assembly of a legislature. These were scattered noble families that worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape.[4][5]
The most recent[update] country to move from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy was Bhutan, between 2007 and 2008 (see Politics of Bhutan, Constitution of Bhutan and Bhutanese democracy).
Constitutional and absolute monarchy[edit]
England and the United Kingdom[edit]
In the Kingdom of England, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 led to a constitutional monarchy restricted by laws such as the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701, although limits on the power of the monarch ('a limited monarchy') are much older than that (see Magna Carta). At the same time, in Scotland the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, which placed similar limits on the Scottish monarchy.
Although Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when in 1707 she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill, Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies. For instance George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister in 1801.[6] The sovereign's influence on the choice of Prime Minister gradually declined over this period, William IV being the last monarch to dismiss a Prime Minister, when in 1834 he removed Lord Melbourne as a result of Melbourne's choice of Lord John Russell as Leader of the House of Commons.[7][8] Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power but this diminished over the course of her reign. In 1839 she became the last sovereign to keep a Prime Minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbourne's administration.[9] By the end of her reign, however, she could do nothing to block the unacceptable (to her) premierships of William Gladstone, although she still exercised power in appointments to the Cabinet, for example in 1886 preventing Gladstone's choice of Hugh Childers as War Secretary in favor of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman.[10]
Today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial.[11] Instead, the British Parliament and the Government – chiefly in the office of Prime Minister – exercise their powers under 'Royal (or Crown) Prerogative': on behalf of the monarch and through powers still formally possessed by the Monarch.[12][13]
No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the Queen.[14] With few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the Government.
Continental Europe[edit]
Constitutional monarchy originated in continental Europe, with Poland developing the first constitution for a monarchy with the Constitution of May 3, 1791; it was the third constitution in the world just after the first republican Constitution of the United States. Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the early years of the French Revolution, but much more widely afterwards. Napoleon Bonaparte is considered the first monarch proclaiming himself as an embodiment of the nation, rather than as a divinely-appointed ruler; this interpretation of monarchy is germane to continental constitutional monarchies. German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, in his work Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820), gave the concept a philosophical justification that concurred with evolving contemporary political theory and the Protestant Christian view of natural law.[15] Hegel's forecast of a constitutional monarch with very limited powers whose function is to embody the national character and provide constitutional continuity in times of emergency was reflected in the development of constitutional monarchies in Europe and Japan.[16]
Modern constitutional monarchy[edit]
As originally conceived, a constitutional monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though his or her power was limited by the constitution and the elected parliament. Some of the framers of the US Constitution may have envisioned the president as an elected constitutional monarch, as the term was then understood, following Montesquieu's account of the separation of powers.[17]
The present-day concept of a constitutional monarchy developed in the United Kingdom, where the democratically elected parliaments, and their leader, the prime minister, exercise power, with the monarchs having ceded power and remaining as a titular position. In many cases the monarchs, while still at the very top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of "servants of the people" to reflect the new, egalitarian position. In the course of France's July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled "King of the French" rather than "King of France."
Following the Unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model. In the constitutional monarchy established under the Constitution of the German Empire which Bismarck inspired, the Kaiser retained considerable actual executive power, while the Imperial Chancellor needed no parliamentary vote of confidence and ruled solely by the imperial mandate. However this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germany's defeat in the First World War. Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered as a constitutional monarchy, in that there was a king as the titular head of state while actual power was held by Benito Mussolini under a constitution. This eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946. After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain.
Nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance. In both cases, the titular head of state—monarch or president—serves the traditional role of embodying and representing the nation, while the government is carried on by a cabinet composed predominantly of elected Members of Parliament.
However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament. These are: the Royal Prerogative under which the monarch may exercise power under certain very limited circumstances; Sovereign Immunity under which the monarch may do no wrong under the law because the responsible government is instead deemed accountable; and the monarch may not be subject to the same taxation or property use restrictions as most citizens. Other privileges may be nominal or ceremonial (e.g., where the executive, judiciary, police or armed forces act on the authority of or owe allegiance to the Crown).
Today slightly more than a quarter of constitutional monarchies are Western European countries, including the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Luxembourg, Monaco, Liechtenstein and Sweden. However, the two most populous constitutional monarchies in the world are in Asia: Japan and Thailand. In these countries the prime minister holds the day-to-day powers of governance, while the monarch retains residual (but not always insignificant) powers. The powers of the monarch differ between countries. In Denmark and in Belgium, for example, the Monarch formally appoints a representative to preside over the creation of a coalition government following a parliamentary election, while in Norway the King chairs special meetings of the cabinet.
In nearly all cases, the monarch is still the nominal chief executive, but is bound by convention to act on the advice of the Cabinet. Only a few monarchies (most notably Japan and Sweden) have amended their constitutions so that the monarch is no longer even the nominal chief executive.
There are sixteen constitutional monarchies under Queen Elizabeth II, which are known as Commonwealth realms.[18] Unlike some of their continental European counterparts, the Monarch and her Governors-General in the Commonwealth realms hold significant "reserve" or "prerogative" powers, to be wielded in times of extreme emergency or constitutional crises, usually to uphold parliamentary government. An instance of a Governor-General exercising such power occurred during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, when the Australian Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed by the Governor-General. The Australian senate had threatened to block the Government's budget by refusing to pass the necessary appropriation bills. On November 11, 1975, Whitlam intended to call a half-Senate election in an attempt to break the deadlock. When he sought the Governor-General's approval of the election, the Governor-General instead dismissed him as Prime Minister, and shortly thereafter installed leader of the opposition Malcolm Fraser in his place. Acting quickly before all parliamentarians became aware of the change of government, Fraser and his allies secured passage of the appropriation bills, and the Governor-General dissolved Parliament for a double dissolution election. Fraser and his government were returned with a massive majority. This led to much speculation among Whitlam's supporters as to whether this use of the Governor-General's reserve powers was appropriate, and whether Australia should become a republic. Among supporters of constitutional monarchy, however, the experience confirmed the value of the monarchy as a source of checks and balances against elected politicians who might seek powers in excess of those conferred by the constitution, and ultimately as a safeguard against dictatorship.
In Thailand's constitutional monarchy, the monarch is recognized as the Head of State, Head of the Armed Forces, Upholder of the Buddhist Religion, and Defender of the Faith. The former King, Bhumibol Adulyadej, was the longest reigning monarch in the world and in all of Thailand's history, prior to passing away on 13 October 2016.[19] Bhumibol has reigned through several political changes in the Thai government. He has played an influential role in each incident, often acting as mediator between disputing political opponents. (See Bhumibol's role in Thai Politics.) Among the powers retained by the monarch under the constitution, lèse majesté protects the image of the monarch and enables him to play a role in politics. It carries strict criminal penalties for violators. Generally, the Thai people are reverent of Bhumibol. Much of his social influence arises from this reverence and from the socio-economic improvement efforts undertaken by the royal family.
In both the United Kingdom and elsewhere, a frequent debate centers on when it is appropriate for a monarch to use his or her political powers. When a monarch does act, political controversy can often ensue, partially because the neutrality of the crown is seen to be compromised in favor of a partisan goal, while some political scientists champion the idea of an "interventionist monarch" as a check against possible illegal action by politicians. For instance, the monarch of the United Kingdom can theoretically exercise an absolute veto over legislation by withholding royal assent. However, no monarch has done so since 1708, and it is widely believed that this and many of the monarch's other political powers are lapsed powers.
There are currently 44 monarchies, and most of them are constitutional monarchies.
List of current constitutional monarchies[edit]
See also: List of current monarchies
Antigua and Barbuda
Australia
Bahamas
Bahrain
Barbados
Belgium
Belize
Bhutan
Cambodia
Canada
Denmark
Grenada
Jamaica
Japan
Jordan
Lesotho
Liechtenstein
Luxembourg
Kuwait
Malaysia
Monaco
Morocco
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Papua New Guinea
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Solomon Islands
Spain
Sweden
Thailand
Tonga
Tuvalu
United Kingdom
Former constitutional monarchies[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Anglo-Corsican Kingdom was a brief period in the history of Corsica (1794–1796) when the island broke with Revolutionary France and sought military protection from Great Britain. Corsica became an independent kingdom under George III of the United Kingdom, but with its own elected parliament and a written constitution guaranteeing local autonomy and democratic rights.
Brazil from 1822, with the proclamation of independence and rise of the Empire of Brazil by Pedro I of Brazil to 1889, when Pedro II was deposed by a military coup.
Kingdom of Bulgaria until 1946 when Tsar Simeon was deposed by the communist assembly.
Many Commonwealth republics were constitutional monarchies for some period after their independence, including Fiji (1970–87), Gambia (1965–70), Ghana (1957–60), Guyana (1966–70), and Trinidad and Tobago (1962–76).
The Grand Principality of Finland was a constitutional monarchy though its ruler, Alexander I, was simultaneously an autocrat and absolute ruler in Russia.
France, several times during the 19th century. Napoléon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor of the French in what was ostensibly a constitutional monarchy, though modern historians often coin his reign as an absolute monarchy.[citation needed] The Bourbon Restoration (under Louis XVIII and Charles X), the July Monarchy (under Louis-Philippe), and the Second Empire (under Napoleon III) were also constitutional monarchies, although the power of the monarch varied considerably between them.
The German Empire from 1871 to 1918, (as well as earlier confederations, and the monarchies it consisted of) was also a constitutional monarchy—see Constitution of the German Empire.
Greece until 1973 when Constantine II was deposed by the military government. The decision was formalized by a plebiscite December 8, 1974.
Hawaii, which was an absolute monarchy from its founding in 1810, transitioned to a constitutional monarchy in 1840 when King Kamehameha III promulgated the kingdom's first constitution. This constitutional form of government continued until the monarchy was overthrown in an 1893 coup.
The Kingdom of Hungary. In 1848–1849 and 1867–1918 as part of Austria-Hungary. In the interwar period (1920–1944) Hungary remained a constitutional monarchy without a reigning monarch.
Iceland. The Act of Union, a December 1, 1918 agreement with Denmark, established Iceland as a sovereign kingdom united with Denmark under a common king. Iceland abolished the monarchy and became a republic on June 17, 1944 after the Icelandic constitutional referendum, May 24, 1944.
Iran under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi was a constitutional monarchy, which had been originally established during the Persian Constitutional Revolution in 1906.
Italy until June 2, 1946, when a referendum proclaimed the end of the Kingdom and the beginning of the Republic.
Korean Empire[citation needed] proclaimed in October 1897 to the Annexation of Korea by Japan on August 20, 1910. It succeeded the Joseon Dynasty.
The Kingdom of Laos was a constitutional monarchy until 1975, when Sisavang Vatthana was forced to abdicate by the communist Pathet Lao.
Malta was a constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II as Queen of Malta, represented by a Governor-General appointed by her, for the first ten years of independence from 21 September 1964 to the declaration of the Republic of Malta on 13 December 1974.
Mexico was twice an Empire. The First Mexican Empire was from July 21, 1822, to March 19, 1823, with Agustín de Iturbide serving as emperor. Then, with the help of the Austrian and Spanish crowns, Napoleon III of France installed Maximilian of Habsburg as Emperor of Mexico. This attempt to create a European-style monarchy lasted three years, from 1864 to 1867.
Montenegro until 1918 when it merged with Serbia and other areas to form Yugoslavia.
Nepal until May 28, 2008, when King Gyanendra was deposed, and the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal was declared.
Ottoman Empire from 1876 till 1878 and again from 1908 until the dissolution of the empire in 1922.
The Kingdom of Afghanistan was a constitutional monarchy under Mohammad Zahir Shah until 1973.
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formed after the Union of Lublin in 1569 and lasting until the final partition of the state in 1795, operated much like many modern European constitutional monarchies (into which it was officially changed by the establishment of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, which historian Norman Davies calls "the first constitution of its kind in Europe").[20] The legislators of the unified state truly did not see it as a monarchy at all, but as a republic under the presidency of the King. Poland–Lithuania also followed the principle of "Rex regnat et non gubernat", had a bicameral parliament, and a collection of entrenched legal documents amounting to a constitution along the lines of the modern United Kingdom. The King was elected, and had the duty of maintaining the people's rights.
Portugal was a monarchy since 1139 and a constitutional monarchy from 1822 to 1828, and again from 1834 until 1910, when Manuel II was overthrown by a military coup. From 1815 to 1825 it was part of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves which was a constitutional monarchy for the years 1820–23.
Kingdom of Romania From its establishment in 1881 until 1947 when Michael I was forced to abdicate by the communists.
Kingdom of Serbia until 1918, when it merged with the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs into the unitary Yugoslav Kingdom, that was led by the Serbian Karadjordjevic dynasty.
Yugoslavia from 1918 (as Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) until 1929 and from then (as Kingdom of Yugoslavia) until 1944 when under pressure from the Allies Peter II recognized the communist government.
Unique constitutional monarchies[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Andorra is the only monarchy where the head of state is vested jointly in two individuals ("Co-Princes"): the Bishop of Urgell and the President of France.
Andorra, Monaco and Liechtenstein are the only countries with a reigning Prince.
Belgium is the only explicit popular monarchy, the formal title of its King being King of the Belgians rather than King of Belgium.
Japan is the only country remaining with an Emperor.
Luxembourg is the only country with a Grand Duke.
Malaysia is the only federal country with an elective monarchy, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, being selected from among nine state rulers who are also constitutional monarchs themselves.
See also[edit]
Australian Monarchist League
Monarchism
Figurehead
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Blum, Cameron & Barnes 1970, pp. 267–268.
Jump up ^ Kurian 2011, p. [page needed].
Jump up ^ Bogdanor 1996, pp. 407–422.
Jump up ^ "The Hittites", smie.co, September 12, 2008 [better source needed]
Jump up ^ Akurgal 2001, p. 118.
Jump up ^ Hague, William (2004). William Pitt the Younger (1st ed.). London: HarperCollins. pp. 469–72. ISBN 0007147198.
Jump up ^ Hurd, Douglas (2007). Robert Peel - a biography (1st ed.). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 169–70. ISBN 9780297848448.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, L.G. (1997). Lord Melbourne 1779-1848 (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 147. ISBN 0198205929.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, L.G. (1997). Lord Melbourne 1779-1848 (1st ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 241–2. ISBN 0198205929.
Jump up ^ Wilson, John (1973). CB - A life of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1st ed.). London: Constable and Company Limited. pp. 161–2. ISBN 009458950X. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Royal Household staff 2015a.
Jump up ^ Dunt 2015.
Jump up ^ Parliamentary staff 2010.
Jump up ^ Sear 2001, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Hegel 1991, p. [page needed].
Jump up ^ Hegel 1991, p. [page needed].
Jump up ^ Montesquieu 1924, p. [page needed].
Jump up ^ Royal Household staff 2015b.
Jump up ^ Dewan, Angela. "Thai King Bhumibol Adulyadej dies at 88". CNN Regions+. CNN. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Davies 1996, p. 699.
Sources[edit]
Akurgal, Ekrem (2001), The Hattian and Hittite civilizations, Ankara: Turkish Ministry of Culture, p. 118, ISBN 975-17-2756-1
Blum, Jerome; Cameron, Rondo; Barnes, Thomas G. (1970), The European World, 1, Boston: Little, Brown, pp. 267–268, OCLC 76819
Bogdanor, Vernon (1996), "The Monarchy and the Constitution", Parliamentary Affairs, 49 (3): 407–422, doi:10.1093/pa/49.3.407 — excerpted from Bogdanor, Vernon (1995), The Monarchy and the Constitution, Oxford University Press
Boyce, Peter (2008), The Queen's Other Realms, Annandale: Federation Press, p. 1, ISBN 978-1-86287-700-9
Davies, Norman (1996), Europe: A History, Oxford University Press, p. 699, ISBN 0-19-820171-0
Dunt, Ian, ed. (2015), Monarchy - Background, politics.co.uk, retrieved September 13, 2011
Hegel, G. W. F. (1991) [1820], Wood, Allen W., ed., Elements of the Philosophy of Right, translated by Nisbet, H.B., Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-34438-7 — originally published as Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel, Philosophie des Rechts.
Kurian, George Thomas (2011), "Constitutional Monarchy", The Encyclopedia of Political Science, CQ Press, doi:10.4135/9781608712434, ISBN 9781933116440
McCannon, John (2006), Barron's how to Prepare for the AP World History Examination (2nd, illustrated ed.), Barron's Educational Serie, pp. 177–178, ISBN 9780764132711 — England and the Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries were parliamentary democracies.
Montesquieu, Charles-Louis, Baron de, (1924), The Spirit of Laws, Legal Classics Library
Orr, Campbell, ed. (2002), Queenship in Britain, 1660-1837: Royal Patronage, Court Culture, and Dynastic Politics (illustrated ed.), Manchester University Press, p. 3, ISBN 9780719057694
Crown Prerogative, Official website of the British Parliament, April 21, 2010, retrieved September 13, 2011
Patmore, Glenn (2009), Choosing the Republic, University of New South Wales (UNSW) Press, p. 105, ISBN 1-74223-015-6
What is constitutional monarchy?, Official website of the British Monarchy, December 12, 2015
What is a Commonwealth realm?, Official website of the British Monarchy, December 12, 2015, archived from the original on 2010-12-02
Schmitt, Carl (2008) [1928], Seitzer, Jeffrey (translator), ed., Constitutional Theory (illustrated ed.), Duke University Press, pp. 313–314, ISBN 9780822340119
Sear, Chris (2001), Research Paper 01/116 (PDF), Official website of the British Parliament
Further reading[edit]
Locke, John (2003) [1690], hapiro, Ian S, ed., Two Treatises of Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration (with essays by John Dunn, Ruth W. Grant and Ian Shapiro ed.), New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-10017-5
Authority control
GND: 4165088-8
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_monarchy&oldid=809038952"
Categories:
Monarchy
Hidden categories:
Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2015
All articles lacking reliable references
Articles lacking reliable references from December 2015
Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL
Articles containing potentially dated statements from June 2013
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Articles needing additional references from December 2015
All articles needing additional references
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Acèh
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Къарачай-малкъар
ქართული
Kurdî
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Limburgs
Lumbaart
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
მარგალური
مصرى
Bahasa Melayu
Монгол
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Татарча/tatarça
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Vèneto
Tiếng Việt
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 6 November 2017, at 19:38.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values: padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;background:#efefef;padding-top:0.2em;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;

value: li

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none

values: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;text-align:left;border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;;padding:0.4em 0.2em 0.6em;

values: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;text-align:left;border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;;padding-top:0.3em;border-top:none;

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;padding:0 0 1.4em;

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0px 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/5_October_1910_Revolution
mw-redirect
5 October 1910 Revolution

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0.1em;text-align:center;

values:
/wiki/Thomas_Macaulay
mw-redirect
Thomas Macaulay

values:
/wiki/Commonwealth_realms
mw-redirect
Commonwealth realms

values:
plainlinks noprint asof-tag update
display:none;

values: Edit section: Constitutional and absolute monarchy

values: Edit section: England and the United Kingdom

values:
/wiki/Catholic_Emancipation_in_Britain
mw-redirect
Catholic Emancipation in Britain

values:
/wiki/Lord_Melbourne
mw-redirect
Lord Melbourne

values:
/wiki/Sir_Henry_Campbell-Bannerman
mw-redirect
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman

values:
/wiki/Royal_Prerogative
mw-redirect
Royal Prerogative

values: Constitutional conventions of the United Kingdom

values:
/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States
mw-redirect
Constitution of the United States

values:
/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte
mw-redirect
Napoleon Bonaparte

values: Edit section: Modern constitutional monarchy

values:
/wiki/Executive_branch
mw-redirect
Executive branch

values:
/wiki/Baron_de_Montesquieu
mw-redirect
Baron de Montesquieu

values:
/wiki/First_World_War
mw-redirect
First World War

values:
/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy
mw-redirect
Parliamentary democracy

values:
/wiki/Member_of_Parliament
mw-redirect
Member of Parliament

values:
/wiki/Sovereign_Immunity
mw-redirect
Sovereign Immunity

values:
/wiki/Monarchy_of_Japan
mw-redirect
Monarchy of Japan

values:
/wiki/Political_scientist
mw-redirect
Political scientist

values: Edit section: List of current constitutional monarchies

values: -moz-column-width: 18em; -webkit-column-width: 18em; column-width: 18em;

values: Edit section: Former constitutional monarchies

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values:
/wiki/Revolutionary_France
mw-redirect
Revolutionary France

values:
/wiki/Commonwealth_republic
mw-redirect
Commonwealth republic

values:
/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Finland
mw-redirect
Grand Principality of Finland

values:
/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France
mw-redirect
Napoleon I of France

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Greek_plebiscite,_1974
mw-redirect
Greek plebiscite, 1974

values: 1840 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2016)

values:
/wiki/Savang_Vatthana
mw-redirect
Savang Vatthana

values:
/wiki/Napoleon_III_of_France
mw-redirect
Napoleon III of France

values:
/wiki/Maximilian_of_Habsburg
mw-redirect
Maximilian of Habsburg

values:
/wiki/Mohammad_Zahir_Shah
mw-redirect
Mohammad Zahir Shah

values: United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves

values: Edit section: Unique constitutional monarchies

values:
/wiki/Bishop_of_Urgell
mw-redirect
Bishop of Urgell

values: States and federal territories of Malaysia

values: This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2015)

values: This claim needs references to better sources. (December 2015)

values: noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/76819

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1093%2Fpa%2F49.3.407

values:
/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel
mw-redirect
G. W. F. Hegel

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.4135%2F9781608712434

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4165088-8

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2015

values: Category:All articles lacking reliable references

values: Category:Articles lacking reliable references from December 2015

values: Category:Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from June 2013

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2015

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: Konstitutionelle Monarchie – Alemannisch

values: ملكية دستورية – Arabic

values: Конституцион монархия – Bashkir

values: Канстытуцыйная манархія – Belarusian

values: Канстытуцыйная манархія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: Конституционна монархия – Bulgarian

values: Үндэһэн хуулита хаанта засагта улас – Russia Buriat

values: Βασιλευόμενη Κοινοβουλευτική Δημοκρατία – Greek

values: پادشاهی مشروطه – Persian

values: 입헌군주제 – Korean

values: Սահմանադրական միապետություն – Armenian

values: संवैधानिक राजशाही – Hindi

values: מונרכיה חוקתית – Hebrew

values: Конституциялы монархия – Karachay-Balkar

values: კონსტიტუციური მონარქია – Georgian

values: Konstitutionell Monarchie – Luxembourgish

values: Уставна монархија – Macedonian

values: ഭരണഘടനാപരമായ രാജവാഴ്ച – Malayalam

values: संवैधानिक राजेशाही – Marathi

values: კონსტიტუციური მონარქია – Mingrelian

values: Үндсэн хуульт хаант засаг – Mongolian

values: Konstitusjonelt monarki – Norwegian Nynorsk

values: ਸੰਵਿਧਾਨਕ ਬਾਦਸ਼ਾਹੀ – Punjabi

values: Конституционная монархия – Russian

values: Constitutional monarchy – Simple English

values: پاشایەتی دەستووری – Central Kurdish

values: Уставна монархија – Serbian

values: அரசியல்சட்ட முடியாட்சி – Tamil

values: Конституцияле монархия – Tatar

values: ราชาธิปไตยภายใต้รัฐธรรมนูญ – Thai

values: Конституційна монархія – Ukrainian

values: آئینی بادشاہت – Urdu

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Constitutional_monarchy rootpage-Constitutional_monarchy vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Tomb of the Unknowns
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Tomb of the Unknowns is a monument dedicated to U.S. service members who have died without their remains being identified. It is also known as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, but it has never been officially named. It is located in Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia, United States of America. The World War I "Unknown" is a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the Victoria Cross, and several other foreign nations' highest service awards. The U.S. Unknowns who were interred are also recipients of the Medal of Honor, presented by U.S. Presidents who presided over their funerals.[1][2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Tomb of 1921
2 Tomb of 1931
3 The Unknown of World War I
4 The Unknowns of World War II and Korea
5 The Unknown of Vietnam
5.1 Identification of the Unknown
5.2 Redesignation of the crypt
6 Tomb guards
6.1 Weapons
6.2 Walking the mat
6.3 Changing of the Guard
6.4 Dedication
7 Damage and repair to the Tomb Monument
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Tomb of 1921[edit]
Tomb as of November 11, 1922. The Tomb of 1931 would occupy this same location.
On March 4, 1921, the United States Congress approved the burial of an unidentified American serviceman from World War I in the plaza of the new Memorial Amphitheater. On November 11, 1921, the unknown soldier brought back from France was interred below a three-level marble tomb. The bottom two levels are six marble sections each and the top at least nine blocks with a rectangular opening in the center of each level through which the unknown remains were placed through the tomb and into the ground below. A stone, rather than marble, slab covers the rectangular opening.[4][5][6]
Tomb of 1931[edit]
Since 1921 the intent was to place a superstructure on top of the Tomb, but it was not until July 3, 1926, that Congress authorized the completion of the Tomb and the expenditure of $50,000 (with a completed cost of $48,000). A design competition was held and won by architect Lorimer Rich[nb 1] and sculptor Thomas Hudson Jones. An appropriation from Congress for the work was secured and on December 21, 1929, a contract for completion of the Tomb itself was entered into. The Tomb would consist of seven pieces of marble in four levels (cap, die, base and sub-base) of which the die is the largest block with the sculpting on all four sides.[4][7]
Quarrying the Yule marble (3.9 miles south of Marble, Colorado by the Vermont Marble Company) was a one-year process beginning in 1930. The cap was quarried on the first attempt but the base required three tries. The large middle block also required three tries. In late January 1931, the 56 ton middle block was lifted out of the quarry. The quarrying involved 75 men. When the block was separated from the mountain inside the quarry it weighed 124 tons. A wire saw was then brought into the quarry to cut the block down to 56 tons.
On February 3, the block reached the marble mill site (in the town of Marble) after a four-day trip from the quarry. Here it was crated, then shipped to Vermont on February 8. The block was sawn to final size in West Rutland, Vermont and fabricated by craftsmen in Proctor, Vermont before it was shipped by train to Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia.[8] By September, all 7 blocks were on the grounds of the Tomb site, at Arlington.
Assembly began in September 1931. An imperfection was found in the base requiring three more quarryings. By the end of December 1931, the assembly was completed. Finishing work followed with the carvings on the die block by the Piccirilli Brothers under the direction of the sculptor Thomas Jones.[4][9] (The brothers also carved the Lincoln statue for the Lincoln Memorial). The Tomb was completed without formal ceremony on April 9, 1932.[10]
The Tomb[nb 2] was placed at the head of the grave of the World War I Unknown. West of this grave are the crypts of Unknowns from World War II (south) and Korea (north). Between the two lies a crypt that once contained an Unknown from Vietnam (middle). His remains were positively identified in 1998 through DNA testing as First Lieutenant Michael Blassie, United States Air Force and were removed. Those three graves are marked with white marble slabs flush with the plaza.
The Tomb has a flat-faced form and is relieved at the corners and along the sides by neo-classical pilasters set into the surface with objects and inscription carved into the sides. The 1931 symbolism[9] of the objects on the north, south and east sides changed over time.[4][7]
North and South panel with 3 wreaths on each side represent (in 1931) "a world of memories" but later the six major battles engaged in by American forces in France; Ardennes, Belleau Wood, Château-Thierry, Meusse-Argonne, Oisiu-Eiseu, and Somme. Each wreath has 38 leaves and 12 berries.
East panel that faces Washington, D.C., are three Greek figures representing Peace, Victory, and "American Manhood" but later "Valor" instead of "American Manhood"
Western panel is inscribed the words (centered on the panel):
HERE RESTS IN
HONORED GLORY
AN AMERICAN
SOLDIER
KNOWN BUT TO GOD
Tomb Dimensions[nb 3] as of 2004[11] (xxx)* 1931 die block dimension coming out of the quarry.[8]
Level
Length
Width
Height
Cubic Feet
Tons
Cap 12'-5.4" 6'-6.7" 1'-3.3" 100.69 8.56
Die 12'-3.0" (14'-0")* 6'-6.4" (7'-4.8")* 5'-2.1" (6"-0")* 385.43 (621.6)* 32.76 (52.84)*
Base 13'-10.0" 7'-11.9" 1'-11.1" 198.64 16.88
Sub-Base 14'-10.4" 9'-0.2" 1'-10.9" 255.81 21.74
The Unknown of World War I[edit]
The World War I Unknown arriving at the Washington Navy Yard, 1921 (colorized)
On Memorial Day, 1921, four unknown servicemen were exhumed from four World War I American cemeteries in France. U.S. Army Sgt. Edward F. Younger, who was wounded in combat, highly decorated for valor and received the Distinguished Service Cross in "The Great War" selected the Unknown of World War I from four identical caskets at the city hall in Châlons-en-Champagne, France, on October 24, 1921.[6] Younger selected the World War I Unknown by placing a spray of white roses on one of the caskets. He chose the third casket from the left. The chosen Unknown was transported to the United States aboard the USS Olympia. Those remaining were interred in the Meuse Argonne Cemetery, France.[6]
The World War I Unknown lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda from his arrival in the United States until Armistice Day, 1921. On November 11, 1921, President Warren G. Harding officiated at the interment ceremonies at the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery. During the ceremony, the World War I Unknown was awarded the Victoria Cross by Admiral of the Fleet Lord Beatty, on behalf of King George V of the United Kingdom.[12] (The United Kingdom Victoria Cross was placed with the soldier. Earlier, on March 4, 1921, the British Unknown Warrior was conferred the U.S. Medal of Honor by General of the Armies John Pershing.) In 1928, the Unknown Soldier was presented the Silver Buffalo Award for distinguished service to America's youth by the Boy Scouts of America.[13]
The Unknowns of World War II and Korea[edit]
The Korean War Unknown joins the two candidates from World War II aboard the USS Canberra
On August 3, 1956, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed a bill to select and pay the tribute to the Unknowns of World War II and the Korean War. The selection ceremonies and the interment of these Unknowns took place in 1958. The World War II Unknown was selected from remains exhumed from cemeteries in Europe, Africa, Hawaii, and the Philippines.[14]
Two Unknowns from World War II, one from the European Theater and one from the Pacific Theater, were placed in identical caskets and taken aboard the USS Canberra, a guided-missile cruiser resting off the Virginia Capes. Navy Hospital Corpsman 1st Class William R. Charette, then the U.S. Navy's only active-duty Medal of Honor recipient who was an enlisted man, selected the World War II Unknown. The remaining casket received a solemn burial at sea.[14]
Four unknown Americans who died in the Korean War were disinterred from the National Cemetery of the Pacific in Hawaii. Army Master Sergeant Ned Lyle made the final selection.[14]
Both caskets arrived in Washington on May 28, 1958, where they lay in the Capitol Rotunda until the morning of May 30, when they were carried on caissons to Arlington National Cemetery. President Eisenhower awarded each the Medal of Honor, and the Unknowns of World War II and the Korean War were interred in the plaza beside their World War I comrade.[14]
The Unknown of Vietnam[edit]
The designation of the Vietnam Unknown has proven to be difficult. With improvements in DNA testing it is possible, though unlikely, that the recovered remains for every unknown soldier killed in the Vietnam War will be identified.
The Vietnam Unknown service member was designated by Medal of Honor recipient U.S. Marine Corps Sgt. Maj. Allan Jay Kellogg, Jr., during a ceremony at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, May 17, 1984.
Each branch of the Armed Services took part in the transportation to Honor the unknown. The Marines from Marine Barracks Hawaii consisted of an Honor Guard of 9 enlisted men and Lt. Denis Muller. The Vietnam Unknown was transported aboard the fast frigate USS Brewton, where the Marines stood guard over the casket during the seven day ocean voyage to Naval Air Station Alameda, California where the debarkation ceremony turned the unknown over to the USAF on May 24. The next day, the remains of the Vietnam Unknown were then flown from Travis Air Force Base, California, arriving at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland. Once there the remains were turned over to the US Army, where the remains were taken to Fort McNair for placement upon the horse-drawn wagon which later carried the Unknown to the Capital Rotunda for display before interment. While on display for public viewing, all branches of the US Armed Forces stood in Honor, Guarding the casket of the Unknown for 2 weeks.
The Tomb guards stood at death watch for the entire day as thousands of people braved the dreary weather to pay their respects.
The presidential wreath was brought forward toward President Reagan during the interment ceremony for the Unknown Serviceman of the Vietnam Era at the Tomb of the Unknowns on May 28, 1984.
Many Vietnam veterans and President Ronald Reagan and Nancy Reagan visited the Vietnam Unknown in the U.S. Capitol. An Army caisson carried the Vietnam Unknown from the Capitol to the Memorial Amphitheater at Arlington National Cemetery on Memorial Day, May 28, 1984.
President Reagan presided over the funeral, and presented the Medal of Honor to the Vietnam Unknown, and also acted as next of kin by accepting the interment flag at the end of the ceremony. The interment flags of all Unknowns at the Tomb of the Unknowns are on view in the Memorial Display Room.
Identification of the Unknown[edit]
In 1994, Ted Sampley, a POW/MIA activist, determined that the remains of the Vietnam Unknown were likely those of Air Force 1st Lt. Michael Joseph Blassie, who was shot down near An Lộc, Vietnam, in 1972. Sampley published an article in his newsletter and contacted Blassie's family, who attempted to pursue the case with the Air Force's casualty office without result. In January 1998 CBS News broadcast a report based on Sampley's investigation which brought political pressure to support the identification of the remains.[15] The body was exhumed on May 14, 1998. Based on mitochondrial DNA testing, Department of Defense scientists confirmed the remains were those of Blassie. The identification was announced on June 30, 1998, and on July 10, Blassie's remains arrived home to his family in St. Louis, Missouri; he was reinterred at Jefferson Barracks National Cemetery on July 11.[16][nb 4]
Redesignation of the crypt[edit]
The slab over the crypt that once held the remains of the Vietnam Unknown has since been replaced. The original inscription of "Vietnam" and the dates of the conflict has been changed to "Honoring and Keeping Faith with America's Missing Servicemen" as a reminder of the commitment of the Armed Forces to the fullest possible accounting of missing service members.
Tomb guards[edit]
The tomb guards are soldiers of the United States Army. The first military guards were troopers from the 3rd Cavalry, "Brave Rifles", who were posted nearby on Fort Myer. Since April 6, 1948, (known then as "Army Day"), when the regiment was reactivated, it has been guarded by soldiers from 3rd Infantry Regiment, "The Old Guard". The Old Guard is also posted to Fort Myer, Virginia, adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery. It is considered one of the highest honors to serve as a Sentinel at the Tomb of the Unknowns. Fewer than 20 percent of all volunteers are accepted for training and of those only a fraction pass training to become full-fledged Tomb Guards. This attrition rate has made the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge the second least-awarded qualification badge of the United States military (the first being the Astronaut Badge).[17]
The soldier "walking the mat" does not wear rank insignia, so as not to outrank the Unknowns, whatever their ranks may have been. Non-commissioned officers (usually the Relief Commander and Assistant Relief Commanders), do wear insignia of their rank when changing the guard only. They have a separate uniform (without rank) that is worn when they actually guard the Unknowns or are "posted."
The duties of the sentinels are not purely ceremonial. The sentinels will confront people who cross the barriers at the tomb or who they perceive to be disrespectful or excessively loud.
Weapons[edit]
Over the years there have been several different types of weapons used by the Tomb Guards. The changes in weapons reflect the changes in the Army, including M1903 Springfield rifle, M1 Garand and M14 rifles, M1911 and M9 pistols. Tomb Guards currently carry M14 rifles, which are unloaded and affixed to ceremonial rifle stocks. These rifles are cleaned daily and kept ready for use at all times.[18]
Walking the mat[edit]
There is a meticulous routine that the guard follows when watching over the graves.[19] The Tomb Guard:
Marches 21 steps south down the black mat laid across the Tomb.
Turns and faces east, toward the Tomb, for 21 seconds.
Turns and faces north, changes weapon to outside shoulder, and waits 21 seconds.
Marches 21 steps down the mat.
Turns and faces east for 21 seconds.
Turns and faces south, changes weapon to outside shoulder, and waits 21 seconds.
Repeats the routine until the soldier is relieved of duty at the Changing of the Guard.
After each turn, the Guard executes a sharp "shoulder-arms" movement to place the weapon on the shoulder closest to the visitors to signify that the Guard stands between the Tomb and any possible threat.
Out of respect for the interred, the sentinels command silence at the tombs. If the guard walking the mat must vocally confront a disturbance from spectators, or a threat, the routine is interrupted, and remains so until the disturbance is under control. The sentinel will exit the mat, place the weapon in port arms position, and confront the disturbance. Once under control, the sentinel then walks on the pavement to the other side of the mat, turns to shoulder arms, and continues the routine.
Twenty-one was chosen because it symbolizes the highest military honor that can be bestowed—the 21-gun salute.
The mat is usually replaced twice per year: before Memorial Day and before Veterans Day. This is required because of the wear on the rubber mat by the special shoes worn by Tomb Guards. The sentinels have metal plates built into the soles and inner parts of their shoes to allow for a more rugged sole and to give the signature click of the heel during maneuvers. The sentinels wear sunglasses because of the bright reflection from the marble surrounding the Tomb and the Memorial Amphitheater.
On the ground not covered by the mat, a rust pattern in the tile can be seen that corresponds to the precise steps taken during the changing of the guard. The metal from the guards' boots causes the brown rust markings on the stone. On the mat itself, footprints caused by standing guard are also visible.
Changing of the Guard[edit]
Changing of the Guard, 2005.
While Arlington National Cemetery is open, during the day in summer months from April 1 to September 30, the guard is changed every half hour. During the winter months, from October 1 to March 31, the guard is changed every hour. After the cemetery closes to the public (7 p.m. to 8 a.m. April through September, and 5 p.m. to 8 a.m. October through March), the guard is changed every 2 hours. The ceremony can be witnessed by the public whenever Arlington National Cemetery is open.[20][21]
The guard change is very symbolic, but also conducted in accordance with Army regulations. The relief commander or assistant relief commander, along with the oncoming guard, are both required for a guard change to take place. The relief commander orders the guard being relieved to "pass on your orders" to the oncoming guard. The guard being relieved will say to the oncoming guard, "Post and orders remain as directed." The oncoming guard's response is always, "Orders acknowledged." During changes when the public is witnessing the ceremony, the commander will inform the public that the ceremony is about to take place and that those in attendance should remain "silent and standing" throughout the entire event.
Dedication[edit]
A civilian guard was first posted at the Tomb on November 17, 1925, to prevent, among other things, families from picnicking on the flat marble slab with views of the city. A military guard was first posted on March 25, 1926. The first 24-hour guard was posted on midnight, July 2, 1937. The Tomb of the Unknowns has been guarded continuously, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, since that time.[22] Inclement weather,[23][24] terrorist attacks,[25] et cetera, do not cause the watch to cease.[26]
Since 1948, the Tomb Guards, a special platoon within the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard) work on a team rotation of 24 hours on, 24 hours off, for five days, taking the following four days off. A guard takes an average of six hours to prepare his uniform – heavy wool, regardless of the time of year – for the next day's work. In addition to preparing the uniform, guards also conduct physical training, Tomb Guard training, participate in field exercises, cut their hair before the next work day, and at times are involved in regimental functions as well. Tomb Guards are required to memorize 17 pages of information about Arlington National Cemetery and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, including the locations of nearly 300 graves and who is buried in each one.[20]
A special Army decoration, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guard Identification Badge is authorized for wear after passing a detailed test of 100 questions (from a pool of more than 300), a uniform test with two gigs (errors) or fewer (measured to the 1/64"), and a test on the guard changing sequence. After serving honorably for a period of nine months, and having passed the sequence of tests, a Tomb Guard is permanently awarded the Badge. Since the first award on February 7, 1958, fewer than 650 soldiers have completed training and been awarded this Badge, including four women. A small number of Tomb Guard Identification Badges have also been retroactively awarded to soldiers who served as Guards before 1959. Those numbers make the Badge the second rarest award currently issued in the United States Army; only the Army Astronaut Badge is rarer.[nb 5]
The badge was designed in 1956 and first issued to members of the Honor Guard at the Tomb of the Unknowns on February 7, 1958. The badge was first issued only as a temporary wear item, meaning the soldiers could only wear the badge during their tenure as members of the Honor Guard. Upon leaving the duty, the badge was returned and reissued to incoming soldiers. In 1963, a regulation was enacted that allowed the badge to be worn as a permanent part of the military uniform, even after the soldier's completion of duty at the Tomb of the Unknowns.
Damage and repair to the Tomb Monument[edit]
The crack can be seen underneath the words "An American" and above the word "Soldier."
Cracking and weathering are causing concerns for the long-term preservation of the Tomb Monument. A November 1963 report first recorded horizontal cracking of the monument's marble die block. Though this was the first time that the damage was documented, the report made it clear that the cracks had become visible some time before that date.[27]
In 1963–1964, there were two cracks—referred to as "primary" and "secondary"—extending approximately 34 feet around the die block. By 1974, they had extended to 40 feet. They grew another 4.6 feet over the next 15 years. Inspection has determined that the cracks have increased horizontally since 1990. Analysis also indicates that the cracks are not surficial but extend partially through the block and will eventually extend all the way through.[27]
The 1990 report documented deterioration of the marble's surface. As much as 2.85 mm of the marble surface has been lost through weathering. The study projected that before 2010, the Tomb Monument will have been weathered enough to have a negative effect on the experience of the visitors and concludes the only solutions are to enclose or replace the monument.[27]
Several options have been considered to deal with the damage. Officials at Arlington National Cemetery determined that proper repair can return the Tomb Monument to an acceptable appearance. However, because the cracks will continue to lengthen and widen, continuous grouting, regrouting, touch-up, monitoring, and maintenance would be required. Therefore, a report commissioned by Arlington National Cemetery and published in June 2006 confirmed the Cemetery's conclusion that "replacement of the three pieces of the Tomb Monument is the preferred alternative". A final decision was scheduled to be made on September 30, 2007.[27]
The National Trust for Historic Preservation objects to the plan to replace the authentic Tomb Monument. The Trust expressed concern that Arlington National Cemetery seeks to replace the existing monument with marble from the original quarry, which experts agree is likely eventually to crack.[28]
The Trust has observed that the Cemetery's own 1990 report recommended that the monument be repaired and that the Cemetery, in fact, commissioned Oehrlein Architects to repair the stone. In 2007, Mary Oehrlein informed Congressional staff members that: "The existing monument can easily be repaired, as was done 17 years ago, using conventional conservation methods to re-grout the cracks. Once repaired, the fault lines would be virtually invisible from the public viewing areas."[29][30]
On September 26, 2007, U.S. Senator Daniel Akaka announced that an amendment crafted together with Senator Jim Webb will be added to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008 (H.R. 1585) that would require a report on the plans of the Secretary of the Army and the Secretary of Veterans Affairs to replace the monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns. The secretaries would be required to advise Congress on the current efforts to maintain and preserve the monument. Additionally, they would have to provide an assessment on the feasibility and advisability of repairing rather than replacing the Tomb Monument. Finally, if the secretaries choose replacement, they would have to report those plans and detail how they intend to dispose of the current monument. Once the report is provided, the secretaries are prevented from taking action to replace the monument for at least 180 days. The Akaka-Webb amendment was included in the bill by unanimous consent of the Senate.[31] An amendment to the Fiscal Year 2008 Defense Authorization Bill authorized a review of the monument's condition. The bill also authorized repair, but not replacement, of the monument.[32] Final passage of the National Defense Authorization Act for 2008 (H.R. 4986) was signed by President Bush on January 28, 2008.
October 21, 2011: Completed repair of the cracks in the Tomb.
In 2003 John Haines, a retired car dealer, offered to donate a large slab of marble to the Arlington National Cemetery to replace the existing marble. Haines paid $31,000 for the marble slab.[33] The marble was not removed from the quarry, however, because imperfections were found and the block was rejected.
In June 2009 Arlington National Cemetery and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers announced that the monument was to be repaired, not replaced.[34] In 2010, the cracks were filled but the repairs lasted only a few months.[35] As of June 2011, the cemetery was struggling to repair the cracks in the monument, one of which measured 28.4 feet (8.7 m) long, with another at 16.2 feet (4.9 m).[36] In September 2011, the cracks were filled again[35] and on October 21, 2011, inspection by the Corps of Engineers and other experts pronounced the repairs a success.[37]
See also[edit]
Civil War Unknowns Monument
Tomb of the Unknown Confederate Soldier
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier - for list of similar memorials in other countries
Tomb of the Unknown Revolutionary War Soldier
World War I memorials
Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
The Unknown Warrior - London, UK
The Unknown Soldier - Paris, France
Military rites
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Syracuse University Archives has an extensive collection of Lorimer Rich (1914 Syracuse graduate) papers pertaining to his architect design work of the Tomb, including 44 numbered drawings of the Tomb. http://archives.syr.edu/collections/alumni/rich_box.html Archived February 18, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Many sources reference the 1931 Tomb as a sarcophagus, but it is not: in a sarcophagus, the remains are placed in a hollowed-out portion of the stone; the marble in the Tomb was not hollowed out and the remains are underneath the Tomb.
Jump up ^ 1931 body block tonnage calculated in 2004 is different (by 5.9%) from the other source amount of 56 tons and can not be explained with certainty. Sub-base cubic footage and tons was calculated from the source dimensions because cubic feet and tons were not included in the source data table. Per cubic foot, the marble weighs 170 pounds.
Jump up ^ The identification took place after Blassie's family lobbied the Pentagon to perform the DNA testing. His remains (6 partial bones) had originally been recovered several months after his aircraft had been shot down and were not sufficient to allow for positive identification at the time. CNN.com "Home at last for a fallen hero". June 11, 1998. Also see: U.S. National Library of Medicine – Visible Proofs, "Michael Blassie unknown no more", May 23, 2006
Jump up ^ The Tomb Guard Identification Badge is the only badge awarded by the United States Army that can be revoked after a soldier has left the military. The Regimental Commander of the 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment has the authority to revoke a Badge from any Guard (past or present) for any act that would bring discredit upon the Tomb of the Unknowns. "Army Regulation 600-8-22 – "Military Awards" (11 December 2006); para. 8-40f" (PDF). Department of the Army. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved June 9, 2011.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Arlington National Cemetery: The Tomb of the Unknowns". Arlingtoncemetery.mil. Retrieved February 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ Congressional Medal of Honor Recipients - World War I Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (archived from the original on October 22, 2006).
Jump up ^ World War I Unknown Soldier, Arlington National Cemetery website.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Quartermaster Review September – October 1963". United States Army. Retrieved November 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Configuration of 1921 Tomb". Library of Congress. Retrieved November 15, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Unknown Soldier of World War I". The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921-1969. United States Army. Retrieved May 28, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "History of the Tomb". Society of the Honor Guard Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Archived from the original on November 16, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Marble, Colorado: City of Stone"; by Duane Vandenbusche and Rex Myers; Golden Bell Press; Denver, Colorado; 6th printing February 1996
^ Jump up to: a b "The Vermont Marble Museum". Vermont Marble Company. April 1931. Archived from the original on December 27, 2011. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Dedication photo". Syracuse University Archives. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Digital Scan of the Tomb, 2004". Direct Dimensions Inc, Owing Mills, Maryland. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Victoria Cross". The British Army 212 (Yorkshire) Field Hospital (volunteers) website. Archived from the original on December 29, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Silver Buffalo Award Winners 1929-1926". Boy Scouts of America National Council. Retrieved August 12, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Quartermaster Review (January–February 1964)". United States Army. Archived from the original on October 20, 2011. Retrieved November 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Robert M. Poole (2009). On hallowed ground: the story of Arlington National Cemetery. Walker & Company. pp. 301–302. ISBN 0-8027-1548-6.
Jump up ^ Memorial day tribute: holiday holds special meaning for Blassie family - LaVonne Johnson, Citizen Airman. June 2003.
Jump up ^ McVeigh, Alex (February 11, 2009). "First Tomb Badge recipient laid to rest". The Official Home Page Of The United States Army.
Jump up ^ "Who Are The Tomb Guards". tombguard.org. Archived from the original on April 15, 2012. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Changing of the Guard". Arlington, Virginia: Arlington National Cemetery. Archived from the original on January 22, 2013. Retrieved January 21, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Frequently Asked Questions". Society of the Honor Guard – Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Visiting Arlington National Cemetery". Retrieved September 23, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Tomb of the Unknown Soldier FAQ". Society of the Honor Guard Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. Retrieved October 29, 2012.
Jump up ^ Still Vigilant at the Tomb of the Unknowns Despite Irene - ABC News
Jump up ^ PHOTO: Despite Sandy, Soldiers Stand Guard At Tomb Of The Unknown Soldier : The Two-Way : NPR
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20091014110013/http://www.tombguard.org/Nov01_Jan02.pdf
Jump up ^ The Sentinel, "Post and Orders Remain as Directed" (PDF). August 2002 – September 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 24, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Arlington National Cemetery Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Repair or Replacement Project (draft)" (PDF). June 1, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 27, 2007. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Take Action for Historic Preservation". Nationaltrust.org. Retrieved September 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ Crack Mars Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, ABC News May 28, 2006.
Jump up ^ John Paul Woodley, Jr., Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works); William F. Tuerk, Under Secretary for Memorial Affairs, Department of Veterans Affairs (2008). "Report on Alternative Measures To Address Cracks in the Monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns at Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia". Congressional Record. Retrieved February 25, 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Akaka-Webb Amendment to Halt Replacement of the Monument at the Tomb of the Unknowns is Approved by Senate". September 26, 2007. Archived from the original on January 12, 2008. Retrieved September 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ Ruane, Michael E., "Bid to Replace Tomb Monument Stalls", Washington Post, January 30, 2008, p. A03.
Jump up ^ Nancy Lofholm, Marble for Unknowns tomb just sits, Denver Post, August 18, 2008.
Jump up ^ McMichael, William (June 26, 2009). "Tomb of Unknowns to be repaired, not replaced". Army Times. Army Times Publishing Company. Retrieved June 27, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b video by Army Corps of Engineers, Norfolk District
Jump up ^ Davenport, Christian, "Repairs On Persistent Cracks At Tomb Of Unknowns Delayed", Washington Post, June 9, 2011, p. B1.
Jump up ^ Army Corps of Engineers photos and text
Further reading[edit]
The Last Salute: Civil and Military Funeral, 1921-1969, CHAPTER I, The Unknown Soldier of World War I, State Funeral, 23 October–11 November 1921 by B. C. Mossman and M. W. Stark. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History, 1991. CMH Pub 90-1.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tomb of the Unknowns.
Official U.S. Army Tomb Guard and Tomb of the Unknowns website
Arlington Cemetery official site
Arlington Historical Society
Arlington Convention and Visitors Service official website
Snopes's article on the Tomb of the Unknowns
Society of the Honor Guard - Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
Video of the Changing of the Guard at the Tomb of the Unknowns, by Dover Lodge #489
video of a changing of the guard
The short film Interment Ceremony Of The Vietnam Unknown (1985) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
Historic film footage of November 11, 1921 interment ceremony for the World War I Unknown Soldier at the tomb of 1921
The Unknowns - 2016 Documentary film
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tomb_of_the_Unknowns&oldid=801764912"
Categories:
Arlington National Cemetery
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Military monuments and memorials in the United States
World War I memorials in the United States
American recipients of the Victoria Cross
American World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross
Monuments and memorials in Virginia
Marble sculptures in Virginia
1931 sculptures
Tombs of Unknown Soldiers
Tombs in the United States
1921 establishments in the United States
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Español
Français
Polski
Edit links
This page was last edited on 21 September 2017, at 18:15.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

attrs: href title

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/U.S._Presidents
mw-redirect
U.S. Presidents

value: sup

value: p

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Memorial_Amphitheater
mw-redirect
Memorial Amphitheater

values:
/wiki/Yule_marble
mw-redirect
Yule marble

values: Edit section: The Unknown of World War I

values: Distinguished Service Cross (United States)

values:
/wiki/USS_Olympia_(CL-15)
mw-redirect
USS Olympia (CL-15)

values: Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery and Memorial

values:
/wiki/George_V_of_the_United_Kingdom
mw-redirect
George V of the United Kingdom

values:
/wiki/John_Pershing
mw-redirect
John Pershing

values: Edit section: The Unknowns of World War II and Korea

values:
/wiki/USS_Canberra_(CA-70)
mw-redirect
USS Canberra (CA-70)

values:
/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations
mw-redirect
European Theater of Operations

values:
/wiki/Hospital_Corpsman
mw-redirect
Hospital Corpsman

values:
/wiki/National_Cemetery_of_the_Pacific
mw-redirect
National Cemetery of the Pacific

values:
/wiki/Master_Sergeant#United_States
mw-redirect
Master Sergeant

values:
/wiki/Caisson_(military)
mw-redirect
Caisson (military)

values:
/wiki/DNA_testing
mw-redirect
DNA testing

values:
/wiki/Sergeant_Major
mw-redirect
Sergeant Major

values: Edit section: Identification of the Unknown

values:
/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri
mw-redirect
St. Louis, Missouri

values: Edit section: Redesignation of the crypt

values: 3rd US Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard)

values:
/wiki/Astronaut_Badge
mw-redirect
Astronaut Badge

values:
/wiki/M1903_Springfield_rifle
mw-redirect
M1903 Springfield rifle

values:
/wiki/Guard_Mounting
mw-redirect
Guard Mounting

values:
/wiki/Veterans_Day_(United_States)
mw-redirect
Veterans Day (United States)

values: Edit section: Damage and repair to the Tomb Monument

values: National Trust for Historic Preservation

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.tombguard.org/tombblue.html

values:
nofollow
http://vermont-marble.com/blog/2010/02/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.tombguard.org/weapons.html

values:
nofollow
https://tombguard.org/society/faq/
external text

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
/wiki/Washington_Post
mw-redirect
Washington Post

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://www.arlingtoncemetery.mil/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.tombguard.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.dover489.org/?p=797

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.theunknownsmovie.com

values: Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery

values: Category:Military monuments and memorials in the United States

values: Category:World War I memorials in the United States

values: Category:American recipients of the Victoria Cross

values: Category:American World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross

values: Category:Monuments and memorials in Virginia

values: Category:1921 establishments in the United States

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Unknowns
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: Grób Nieznanych Żołnierzy na Narodowym Cmentarzu w Arlington – Polish

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Tomb_of_the_Unknowns rootpage-Tomb_of_the_Unknowns vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view