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Microevolution
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Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population.[1] This change is due to five different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow, gene migration and genetic drift. This change happens over a relatively short (in evolutionary terms) amount of time compared to the changes termed 'macroevolution' which is where greater differences in the population occur.
Population genetics is the branch of biology that provides the mathematical structure for the study of the process of microevolution. Ecological genetics concerns itself with observing microevolution in the wild. Typically, observable instances of evolution are examples of microevolution; for example, bacterial strains that have antibiotic resistance.
Microevolution over time leads to speciation or the appearance of novel structure, sometimes classified as macroevolution.[2] Macro and microevolution describe fundamentally identical processes on different scales.[2][3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Difference from macroevolution
2 Four processes
2.1 Mutation
2.2 Selection
2.3 Genetic drift
2.4 Gene flow
3 Origin and extended use of the term
3.1 Origin
3.2 Use in creationism
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Difference from macroevolution[edit]
Macroevolution and microevolution describe fundamentally identical processes on different time scales.[5][2][page needed] Microevolution refers to small evolutionary changes (typically described as changes in allele frequencies) within a species or population.[6] while macroevolution is evolution on a scale of separated gene pools.[5] Macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species.[7]
Four processes[edit]
Mutation[edit]
Main article: Mutation
Duplication of part of a chromosome
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are caused by radiation, viruses, transposons and mutagenic chemicals, as well as errors that occur during meiosis or DNA replication.[8][9][10] Errors are introduced particularly often in the process of DNA replication, in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors can also be induced by the organism itself, by cellular processes such as hypermutation.
During the process of DNA replication, errors occasionally occur in the polymerization of the second strand. These errors, called mutations, can affect the phenotype of an organism, especially if they occur within the protein coding sequence of a gene. Error rates are usually very low—1 error in every 10–100 million bases—due to the "proofreading" ability of DNA polymerases.[11][12] (Without proofreading error rates are a thousandfold higher; because many viruses rely on DNA and RNA polymerases that lack proofreading ability, they experience higher mutation rates.) Processes that increase the rate of changes in DNA are called mutagenic: mutagenic chemicals promote errors in DNA replication, often by interfering with the structure of base-pairing, while UV radiation induces mutations by causing damage to the DNA structure.[13] Chemical damage to DNA occurs naturally as well, and cells use DNA repair mechanisms to repair mismatches and breaks in DNA—nevertheless, the repair sometimes fails to return the DNA to its original sequence.
In organisms that use chromosomal crossover to exchange DNA and recombine genes, errors in alignment during meiosis can also cause mutations.[14] Errors in crossover are especially likely when similar sequences cause partner chromosomes to adopt a mistaken alignment making some regions in genomes more prone to mutating in this way. These errors create large structural changes in DNA sequence—duplications, inversions or deletions of entire regions, or the accidental exchanging of whole parts between different chromosomes (called translocation).
Mutation can result in several different types of change in DNA sequences; these can either have no effect, alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning. Studies in the fly Drosophila melanogaster suggest that if a mutation changes a protein produced by a gene, this will probably be harmful, with about 70 percent of these mutations having damaging effects, and the remainder being either neutral or weakly beneficial.[15] Due to the damaging effects that mutations can have on cells, organisms have evolved mechanisms such as DNA repair to remove mutations.[8] Therefore, the optimal mutation rate for a species is a trade-off between costs of a high mutation rate, such as deleterious mutations, and the metabolic costs of maintaining systems to reduce the mutation rate, such as DNA repair enzymes.[16] Viruses that use RNA as their genetic material have rapid mutation rates,[17] which can be an advantage since these viruses will evolve constantly and rapidly, and thus evade the defensive responses of e.g. the human immune system.[18]
Mutations can involve large sections of DNA becoming duplicated, usually through genetic recombination.[19] These duplications are a major source of raw material for evolving new genes, with tens to hundreds of genes duplicated in animal genomes every million years.[20] Most genes belong to larger families of genes of shared ancestry.[21] Novel genes are produced by several methods, commonly through the duplication and mutation of an ancestral gene, or by recombining parts of different genes to form new combinations with new functions.[22][23]
Here, domains act as modules, each with a particular and independent function, that can be mixed together to produce genes encoding new proteins with novel properties.[24] For example, the human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for color vision and one for night vision; all four arose from a single ancestral gene.[25] Another advantage of duplicating a gene (or even an entire genome) is that this increases redundancy; this allows one gene in the pair to acquire a new function while the other copy performs the original function.[26][27] Other types of mutation occasionally create new genes from previously noncoding DNA.[28][29]
Selection[edit]
Main articles: Natural selection and Artificial selection
Selection is the process by which heritable traits that make it more likely for an organism to survive and successfully reproduce become more common in a population over successive generations.
It is sometimes valuable to distinguish between naturally occurring selection, natural selection, and selection that is a manifestation of choices made by humans, artificial selection. This distinction is rather diffuse. Natural selection is nevertheless the dominant part of selection.
Natural selection of a population for dark coloration.
The natural genetic variation within a population of organisms means that some individuals will survive more successfully than others in their current environment. Factors which affect reproductive success are also important, an issue which Charles Darwin developed in his ideas on sexual selection.
Natural selection acts on the phenotype, or the observable characteristics of an organism, but the genetic (heritable) basis of any phenotype which gives a reproductive advantage will become more common in a population (see allele frequency). Over time, this process can result in adaptations that specialize organisms for particular ecological niches and may eventually result in the speciation (the emergence of new species).
Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The term was introduced by Darwin in his groundbreaking 1859 book On the Origin of Species,[30] in which natural selection was described by analogy to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favored for reproduction. The concept of natural selection was originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, nothing was known of modern genetics. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical and molecular genetics is termed the modern evolutionary synthesis. Natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution.
Genetic drift[edit]
Main article: Genetic drift
Ten simulations of random genetic drift of a single given allele with an initial frequency distribution 0.5 measured over the course of 50 generations, repeated in three reproductively synchronous populations of different sizes. In general, alleles drift to loss or fixation (frequency of 0.0 or 1.0) significantly faster in smaller populations.
Genetic drift is the change in the relative frequency in which a gene variant (allele) occurs in a population due to random sampling. That is, the alleles in the offspring in the population are a random sample of those in the parents. And chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces. A population's allele frequency is the fraction or percentage of its gene copies compared to the total number of gene alleles that share a particular form.[31]
Genetic drift is an evolutionary process which leads to changes in allele frequencies over time. It may cause gene variants to disappear completely, and thereby reduce genetic variability. In contrast to natural selection, which makes gene variants more common or less common depending on their reproductive success,[32] the changes due to genetic drift are not driven by environmental or adaptive pressures, and may be beneficial, neutral, or detrimental to reproductive success.
The effect of genetic drift is larger in small populations, and smaller in large populations. Vigorous debates wage among scientists over the relative importance of genetic drift compared with natural selection. Ronald Fisher held the view that genetic drift plays at the most a minor role in evolution, and this remained the dominant view for several decades. In 1968 Motoo Kimura rekindled the debate with his neutral theory of molecular evolution which claims that most of the changes in the genetic material are caused by genetic drift.[33] The predictions of neutral theory, based on genetic drift, do not fit recent data on whole genomes well: these data suggest that the frequencies of neutral alleles change primarily due to selection at linked sites, rather than due to genetic drift by means of sampling error.[34]
Gene flow[edit]
Main article: Gene flow
Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations, which are usually of the same species.[35] Examples of gene flow within a species include the migration and then breeding of organisms, or the exchange of pollen. Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.
Migration into or out of a population can change allele frequencies, as well as introducing genetic variation into a population. Immigration may add new genetic material to the established gene pool of a population. Conversely, emigration may remove genetic material. As barriers to reproduction between two diverging populations are required for the populations to become new species, gene flow may slow this process by spreading genetic differences between the populations. Gene flow is hindered by mountain ranges, oceans and deserts or even man-made structures such as the Great Wall of China, which has hindered the flow of plant genes.[36]
Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules.[37] Such hybrids are generally infertile, due to the two different sets of chromosomes being unable to pair up during meiosis. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype.[38] The importance of hybridization in creating new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals,[39] with the gray tree frog being a particularly well-studied example.[40]
Hybridization is, however, an important means of speciation in plants, since polyploidy (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals.[41][42] Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis.[43] Polyploid hybrids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid inbreeding depression in small populations.[44]
Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common among bacteria.[45] In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species.[46] Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean beetle Callosobruchus chinensis may also have occurred.[47][48] An example of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which appear to have received a range of genes from bacteria, fungi, and plants.[49] Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms, allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains.[50] Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and prokaryotes, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria.[51]
Gene flow is the transfer of alleles from one population to another.
Migration into or out of a population may be responsible for a marked change in allele frequencies. Immigration may also result in the addition of new genetic variants to the established gene pool of a particular species or population.
There are a number of factors that affect the rate of gene flow between different populations. One of the most significant factors is mobility, as greater mobility of an individual tends to give it greater migratory potential. Animals tend to be more mobile than plants, although pollen and seeds may be carried great distances by animals or wind.
Maintained gene flow between two populations can also lead to a combination of the two gene pools, reducing the genetic variation between the two groups. It is for this reason that gene flow strongly acts against speciation, by recombining the gene pools of the groups, and thus, repairing the developing differences in genetic variation that would have led to full speciation and creation of daughter species.
For example, if a species of grass grows on both sides of a highway, pollen is likely to be transported from one side to the other and vice versa. If this pollen is able to fertilise the plant where it ends up and produce viable offspring, then the alleles in the pollen have effectively been able to move from the population on one side of the highway to the other.
Origin and extended use of the term[edit]
Origin[edit]
The term microevolution was first used by botanist Robert Greenleaf Leavitt in the journal Botanical Gazette in 1909, addressing what he called the "mystery" of how formlessness gives rise to form.[52]
..The production of form from formlessness in the egg-derived individual, the multiplication of parts and the orderly creation of diversity among them, in an actual evolution, of which anyone may ascertain the facts, but of which no one has dissipated the mystery in any significant measure. This microevolution forms an integral part of the grand evolution problem and lies at the base of it, so that we shall have to understand the minor process before we can thoroughly comprehend the more general one...
However, Leavitt was using the term to describe what we would now call developmental biology; it was not until Russian Entomologist Yuri Filipchenko used the terms "macroevolution" and "microevolution" in 1927 in his German language work, "Variabilität und Variation", that it attained its modern usage. The term was later brought into the English-speaking world by Theodosius Dobzhansky in his book Genetics and the Origin of Species (1937).[1]
Use in creationism[edit]
See also: Speciation
In young Earth creationism and baraminology a central tenet is that evolution can explain diversity in a limited number of created kinds which can interbreed (which they call "microevolution") while the formation of new "kinds" (which they call "macroevolution") is impossible.[3][53] This acceptance of "microevolution" only within a "kind" is also typical of old Earth creationism.[54]
Scientific organizations such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science describe microevolution as small scale change within species, and macroevolution as the formation of new species, but otherwise not being different from microevolution. In macroevolution, an accumulation of microevolutionary changes leads to speciation.[55] The main difference between the two processes is that one occurs within a few generations, whilst the other takes place over thousands of years (i.e. a quantitative difference).[56] Essentially they describe the same process; although evolution beyond the species level results in beginning and ending generations which could not interbreed, the intermediate generations could.
Opponents to creationism argue that changes in the number of chromosomes can be accounted for by intermediate stages in which a single chromosome divides in generational stages, or multiple chromosomes fuse, and cite the chromosome difference between humans and the other great apes as an example.[57] Creationists insist that since the actual divergence between the other great apes and humans was not observed, the evidence is circumstantial.
Describing the fundamental similarity between macro and microevolution in his authoritative textbook "Evolutionary Biology," biologist Douglas Futuyma writes,
One of the most important tenets of the theory forged during the Evolutionary Synthesis of the 1930s and 1940s was that "macroevolutionary" differences among organisms - those that distinguish higher taxa - arise from the accumulation of the same kinds of genetic differences that are found within species. Opponents of this point of view believed that "macroevolution" is qualitatively different from "microevolution" within species, and is based on a totally different kind of genetic and developmental patterning... Genetic studies of species differences have decisively disproved [this] claim. Differences between species in morphology, behavior, and the processes that underlie reproductive isolation all have the same genetic properties as variation within species: they occupy consistent chromosomal positions, they may be polygenic or based on few genes, they may display additive, dominant, or epistatic effects, and they can in some instances be traced to specifiable differences in proteins or DNA nucleotide sequences. The degree of reproductive isolation between populations, whether prezygotic or postzygotic, varies from little or none to complete. Thus, reproductive isolation, like the divergence of any other character, evolves in most cases by the gradual substitution of alleles in populations.
—  Douglas Futuyma, "Evolutionary Biology" (1998), pp.477-8[2]
Contrary to the claims of some antievolution proponents, evolution of life forms beyond the species level (i.e. speciation) has indeed been observed and documented by scientists on numerous occasions.[58] In creation science, creationists accepted speciation as occurring within a "created kind" or "baramin", but objected to what they called "third level-macroevolution" of a new genus or higher rank in taxonomy. There is ambiguity in the ideas as to where to draw a line on "species", "created kinds", and what events and lineages fall within the rubric of microevolution or macroevolution.[59]
See also[edit]
Punctuated equilibrium - due to gene flow, major evolutionary changes may be rare
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Jump up ^ Gladyshev EA, Meselson M, Arkhipova IR; Meselson; Arkhipova (May 2008). "Massive horizontal gene transfer in bdelloid rotifers". Science. 320 (5880): 1210–3. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1210G. doi:10.1126/science.1156407. PMID 18511688. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Baldo A, McClure M; McClure (1 September 1999). "Evolution and horizontal transfer of dUTPase-encoding genes in viruses and their hosts". J. Virol. 73 (9): 7710–21. PMC 104298  . PMID 10438861.
Jump up ^ Poole A, Penny D; Penny (2007). "Evaluating hypotheses for the origin of eukaryotes". BioEssays. 29 (1): 74–84. doi:10.1002/bies.20516. PMID 17187354.
Jump up ^ Leavitt, Robert Botanical Gazette 1909 vol.47 no.1 January A Vegetative Mutant, and the Principle of Homoeosis in Plants https://www.jstor.org/pss/2466778
Jump up ^ "Young Earth Creationism". National Center for Science Education. 17 October 2008. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Old Earth Creationism". National Center for Science Education. 17 October 2008. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
Jump up ^ [1], p. 12. American Association for the Advancement of Science
Jump up ^ Claim CB902: "Microevolution is distinct from macroevolution", TalkOrigins Archive
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 20 August 2011. Retrieved 29 July 2006.
Jump up ^ Complete sourced list of observed instances of speciation, TalkOrigins Archive
Jump up ^ Awbrey, Frank T. (1981). "Defining "Kinds" — Do Creationists Apply a Double Standard?". National Center for Science Education.
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Raymond
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the name. For other uses, see Raymond (disambiguation).
Raymond
Pronunciation
/ˈreɪmənd/
French pronunciation: [ʁɛmɔ̃]
Gender
Male
Language(s)
German
Origin
Word/name
Germanic
Meaning
"Counsellor, "Protector", "Wise Protector", "Mighty"
Region of origin
Northern Europe
Other names
Nickname(s)
Ray
Raymond is a male given name. It was borrowed into English from French (older French spellings were Reimund[1] and Raimund,[2] whereas the modern English and French spellings are identical). It originated as the Germanic Raginmund or Reginmund.[1] "Ragin" (Old German) and "regin" (Gothic) meant "counsel."[3] The Old High German "mund" originally meant "hand,"[4] but came to mean "protection."[5] This etymology suggests that the name originated in the Early Middle Ages, possibly from Latin.
Despite the German and French origins of the English name, some of its early uses in English documents appear in Latinized form. As a surname, its first recorded appearance in Britain appeared in 1086, during the reign of William the Conqueror, in the Domesday Book, with a reference to Giraldus Reimundus.[6]
The most commonly used names for baby boys based on "Ragin" in 2009 were, in descending order, Raymond, Ramiro, Rayner, Rein, Reingard, Reynard, and Reynold.[7] Its many other variants include Raiment, Raimo, Raimond, Raimondi, Raimondo, Raimund, Raimundo, Ramon, Ramón, Ramond, Ramondelli, Ramondenc, Ramondi, Ramondini, Ramondino, Ramondo, Ramondou, Ramonenc, Ramonic, Ramundi, Rayment, Raymonenc, Raymonencq, Raymont, Raymund, Redmond, Redmonds, Reim, Reimund, Reinmund, Rémon, Rémond, Remondeau, Remondon, Rémont, Reymond, Rimondi, and Rimondini.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Translations and Variations
2 People
2.1 Historical
2.2 Surname
2.3 Given name
2.4 Fictional characters
3 See also
4 References
Translations and Variations[edit]
Albanian: Rajmond
Ancient Germanic: Raginmund, Raimund
Arabic: ريمون (Rimun)
Basque: Erramun, Erramon
Belarusian: Райманд (Rajmand)
Bengali: রেমন্ড (Rēmanḍa)
Catalan: Ramon, Raimon
Chinese Simplified: 雷蒙德
Chinese Traditional: 雷蒙德
Croatian: Rajmund
Czech: Rajmund
Dutch: Remon, Ramone, Raemon, Raemonn, Ramond, Ramonte, Remone
English: Raymund, Ray, Raymon, Rayman, Raymann, Raymen, Raymone, Raymun, Raemonn, Redmond, Radmond, Radmund, Reddin, Redmund, Reimond, Reymon, Reymound, Reymund, Raimond, Raimonds
Estonian: Raimund, Raimond
Finnish: Raimo, Reima
French: Raymond, Raymonde (feminine), Reimonde
German: Raimund, Reimund
Greek: Ραϋμόνδος (Raf̱̈móndos, Raÿmóndos)
Gujarati: રેમન્ડ (Rēmanḍa)
Hebrew: ריימונד
Hindi: रेमंड (Rēmaṇḍa)
Indonesian: Raimundus
Irish: Réamann, Radmond, Redmond, Redmund
Italian: Raimondo, Raimondi, Raymondo, Reimondo, Reimundo
Japanese: レイモンド (Reimondo), レーモンド (Rēmondo)
Kannada: ರೇಮಂಡ್ (Rēmaṇḍ)
Marathi: रेमंड (Rēmaṇḍ)
Korean: 레이몬드 (Reimondeu)
Latin: Raimundus
Latvian: Raimonds
Limburgish: Remao, Mao
Lithuanian: Raimundas, Raimondas
Macedonian: Рејмонд (Rejmond)
Nepali: रेमंड (Rēmaṇḍa)
Persian: ریموند
Polish: Rajmund
Portuguese: Raimundo
Punjabi: ਰੇਮੰਡ (Rēmaḍa)
Romanian: Reimond
Russian: Раймонд (Raymond)
Serbian: Рејмонд (Rejmond)
Slovene: Rajmund
Spanish: Raimundo, Ramón, Ramon, Remon, Remone, Romone, Raymundo, Raemondo, Raimondo, Raimundo, Raimon, Raymondo, Reymundo, Reimundo, Mundo
Tamil: ரேமண்ட் (Rēmaṇṭ)
Telugu: రేమండ్ (Rēmaṇḍ)
Thai: เรย์มอนด์ (Rey̒ mxn d̒)
Ukrainian: Раймонд (Raymond)
Urdu: ریمنڈ
Yiddish: רייַמאָנד (Ryyamʼánd)
Yoruba: Remondi
People[edit]
Historical[edit]
Aristocracy:
Raymond I, Count of Toulouse (died 865)
Raymond II, Count of Toulouse (died 924)
Raymond III, Count of Toulouse (died 978)
Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse (c. 1041 or 1042–1105)
Raymond V, Count of Toulouse (1134–1198)
Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse (1156–1222)
Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse (1197–1249)
Raymond II of Tripoli (c. 1115–1152), Count of Tripoli from 1137 to 1152
Raymond III of Tripoli (c. 1142–1187), Count of Tripoli from 1152 to 1187
Raymond-Roupen (died 1219), Prince of Antioch
Raymond of Poitiers (c. 1115–1149), Prince of Antioch
Raymond Roger Trencavel (1185–1209)
Raymond of Burgundy (1070–1107), married to Queen Urraca of Castile
Saints:
Raymond of Penyafort (c. 1175–1275), medieval canon lawyer
Raymond Nonnatus (1204–1240), ransomer of hostages
Chronicler
Raymond of Aguilers (1096–1099), chronicler of the First Crusade
Surname[edit]
Alex Raymond (1909–1956), American comic strip artist
Alfred John Raymond (1856–1935), mayor of Brisbane
Allen Raymond, American political consultant
Antonin Raymond (1888–1976), Czech architect
Arthur Bugs Raymond (1882–1912), American Major League Baseball pitcher
Edward Burleson Raymond (1848–1914), American rancher, politician, banker and founder of Raymondville, Texas
Eleanor Raymond (1887–1989), American architect
Eric S. Raymond (born 1957), American software developer
Eugene Raymond (born 1923), South African Army major-general, Surgeon-General and physician
Gary Raymond (born 1935), British actor
Harold Tubby Raymond (1926–2017), American college football and baseball coach and player
Harry Raymond (footballer), English footballer from 1908 to 1924
Henry Jarvis Raymond (1820–1869), American journalist and politician; founder of The New York Times
Jade Raymond (born 1974), Canadian video game producer and television personality
James St. Raymond, American businessman and former state legislator
Janice Raymond (model) (born 1951), Playboy Playmate of the Month for December 1974
Jonathan Raymond, American writer
Lee Raymond (born 1938), American businessman, CEO and chairman of ExxonMobil (1999–2005)
Lisa Raymond (born 1973), American retired tennis player
Mason Raymond (born 1985), Canadian former National Hockey League player
Nathaniel Raymond (born 1977), American human rights investigator and anti-torture advocate
Oliver Raymond (c.1605 – 1679), English MP
Paul Raymond (publisher) (1925–2008), English pornographer
Richard Raymond (pianist) (born 1965), Canadian pianist
Richard Raymond (Texas politician) (born 1960)
Sophia Burrell née Raymond (1753–1802), English poet and dramatist
Thomas Lynch Raymond (1875–1928), twice mayor of Newark, New Jersey
Tito Raymond (born 1969), American bodybuilder
Usher (musician) (born Usher Raymond in 1978), musician
Given name[edit]
Raymond van Barneveld (born 1967), Dutch darts player
Raymond Bailey (1904–1980), American actor
Raymond Berry (born 1933), American former football player and member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame
Raymond Bessone (1911–1992), British celebrity hairdresser known as 'Mr Teasy-Weasy'
Raymond Blanc (born 1949), French chef
Ray Bolger (1904–1987), an American entertainer of stage and screen
Ray Bradbury (1920–2012), American science-fiction and fantasy author
Raymond Briggs (born 1934), English illustrator, cartoonist, graphic novelist, and author
Raymond Leo Burke, American prelate in the Roman Catholic Church
Raymond Burr (1917–1993), Canadian actor
Raymond Carver (1938–1988), American short story writer and poet
Raymond Cattell (1905–1998), psychologist
Raymond Chandler (1888–1959), American writer
Raymond Daniels (born 1980), American martial artist
Raymond Davis, Jr. (1914–2006), chemist and Nobel Prize winner in Physics
Raymond Domenech (born 1952), French former football and national team manager
Raymond E. Feist (born 1945), American writer, primarily of fantasy
Raymond Ch'ien Kuo Fung (錢果豐，born 1952), a president of MTR and chairman of Hang Seng Bank in Hong Kong
Raymond Gesteland, American geneticist
Raymond Gutierrez, Filipino host
Raymond Ho (何鍾泰，born 1939), a member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong (Legco)
Raymond Kaskey (born 1943), American sculptor
Raymond Kelly (born 1941), Commissioner of the New York Police Department
Raymond van de Klundert, also known as Ray Kluun (born 1964), Dutch novelist
Ray Kurzweil (born 1948), American author, inventor, and futurist
Raymond Lahey (born 1940), former bishop of the diocese of Antigonish
Raymond Lam (林峯，born 1979), Hong Kong singer and actor
Raymond Loewy (1893–1986), industrial designer
Raymond Massey (1896–1983), Canadian actor
Raymond McCreesh, Irish republican hunger striker who died in 1981
Raymond Murray (born 1913), US Marine Corps officer
Raymond Pettibon (born 1957), American artist
Raymond Queneau (1903–1976), French poet and novelist
Raymond Scott (1908–1994), American composer, band leader, pianist, engineer, recording studio maverick, and inventor
Raymond Smullyan (born 1919), American mathematician, concert pianist, logician, Taoist philosopher, and magician
Raymond Sudre (1870-1962), French sculptor.
Raymond Washington (1953–1979), founder of the notorious street gang the Crips
Raymond Williams (1921–1988), Welsh academic, novelist and critic
Raymond Wong (born 1948), Hong Kong actor and film producer
Raymond Wong Ho-yin (born 1975), Hong Kong actor
Teller (entertainer), one-half of the duo Penn & Teller, born Raymond Teller
Fictional characters[edit]
Raymond Barone, main character in the television sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond
Raymond Cocteau, mayor/governor/dictator of San Angeles in the 1990s movie Demolition Man
Raymond Shaw, main character in the film The Manchurian Candidate played in 1962 by Laurence Harvey and 2004 by Liev Schreiber.
Raymond Stantz, main character in the film Ghostbusters
Mondo Browne (Raymond Browne), African-American killer in the HBO drama series Oz
See also[edit]
Ray (disambiguation)
Raimond
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.behindthename.com/name/raymond
Jump up ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
Jump up ^ von Goethe, Johann Wolfgang. Reynard the Fox. p. xiv. , translated by Thomas James Arnold
Jump up ^ Winfred Philipp Lehmann (1986). A Gothic Etymological Dictionary. BRILL. p. 245. ISBN 90-04-08176-3.
Jump up ^ Jan Gonda (1975). Selected Studies: Indo-European linguistics. BRILL. p. 197. ISBN 90-04-04228-8.
Jump up ^ http://www.surnamedb.com/Surname/Raymond
Jump up ^ http://www.babynamespedia.com/search/m/ragin
Jump up ^ http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~alan/family/S-Raymond.html
Name list
This page or section lists people that share the same given name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article.
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text:
Adam's Bridge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Coordinates: 9°07′16″N 79°31′18″E / 9.1210°N 79.5217°E / 9.1210; 79.5217
Adam's Bridge as seen from the air, looking West
Adam's Bridge (ātām pālam; Sinhala: adamgay palama), also known as Rama's Bridge or Rama Setu (Irāmar pālam, Sanskrit: rāmasetu),[1] is a chain of limestone shoals, between Pamban Island, also known as Rameswaram Island, off the south-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu, India, and Mannar Island, off the north-western coast of Sri Lanka. Geological evidence suggests that this bridge is a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka.[2]
The bridge is 50 km (30 mi) long and separates the Gulf of Mannar (south-west) from the Palk Strait (northeast).[2] Some of the sandbanks are dry and the sea in the area is very shallow, being only 1 to 10 metres (3 to 30 ft) deep in places, which hinders navigation.[2] It was reportedly passable on foot up to the 15th century until storms deepened the channel: temple records seem to say that Adam's Bridge was completely above sea level until it broke in a cyclone in 1480.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Location
3 Transportation and navigation
4 Geological evolution
5 Age
6 Early surveys and dredging efforts
7 Sethusamudram shipping canal project
8 Disputed origins
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Name
The bridge was first mentioned in the ancient Indian Sanskrit epic Ramayana of Valmiki.[4] The name Rama's Bridge or Rama Setu (Sanskrit; setu: bridge) refers to the bridge built by the Vanara (ape men) army of Rama in Hindu theology with instructions from Nala,[5] which he used to reach Lanka and rescue his wife Sita from the Rakshasa king, Ravana.[4] The Ramayana attributes the building of this bridge to Rama in verse 2-22-76, naming it as Setubandhanam, a name that persists until today.[6]
The sea separating India and Sri Lanka is called Sethusamudram meaning "Sea of the Bridge". Maps prepared by a Dutch cartographer in 1747, available at the Thanjavur Saraswathi Mahal Library show this area as Ramancoil, a colloquial form of the Tamil Raman Kovil (or Rama's Temple).[7] Another map of Mughal India prepared by J. Rennel in 1788 retrieved from the same library called this area as "the area of the Rama Temple", referring to the temple dedicated to Rama at Rameswaram.[8] Many other maps in Schwartzberg's historical atlas[9][10] and other sources such as travel texts by Marco Polo call this area by various names such as Sethubandha and Sethubandha Rameswaram.[11][12][13][14][15]
The western world first encountered it in "historical works in the 9th century" by Ibn Khordadbeh in his Book of Roads and Kingdoms (c. 850), referring to it is Set Bandhai or "Bridge of the Sea".[16] Later, Alberuni described it. The earliest map that calls this area by the name Adam's bridge was prepared by a British cartographer in 1804.[2][4][17] Some early Islamic sources refer to a mountain in Sri Lanka as Adam's Peak, where Adam supposedly fell to earth and describes Adam as crossing from Sri Lanka to India on what became known as Adam's Bridge.[18]
Location
Historical map of Adam's Bridge and environs, before the cyclone of 1964
The bridge starts as a chain of shoals from the Dhanushkodi tip of India's Pamban Island and ends at Sri Lanka's Mannar Island. Pamban Island is semi-connected to the Indian mainland by 2 km long Pamban Bridge. Mannar Island is connected to mainland Sri Lanka by a causeway. The border between India and Sri Lanka is said to pass across one of the shoals constituting one of the shortest land borders in the world.[19] Ramasetu and neighbouring areas like Rameswaram, Dhanushkodi, Devipattinam and Thirupullani are mentioned in the context of various legends in Ramayana.[20][21][22]
Transportation and navigation
Rail bridge from the Indian mainland to Pamban Island
The Pamban railway bridge, which connects Pamban Island with the Indian mainland, was constructed in 1914.
Pamban Island (Tamil Nadu, India) with its small port of Rameswaram is about 2 km from mainland India. The Pamban Bridge crossing the Pamban channel links Pamban Island with mainland India. It refers to both: a road bridge and a cantilever railway bridge. Small boats would go below the 2,065-metre-long (6,775 ft) road bridge, and the railway bridge would open up.
The problem in navigation exists because big ships cannot travel in the shallow waters of the Pamban channel. Dredging in this channel would cost more than dredging a channel in the Rama Setu area, where the waters are comparatively deep and less earth would have to be dredged. Hence, in 2005, the Government of India approved a multi-million dollar Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project that aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Bay cutting across Rama Setu.[23] Various organizations have opposed the project based on religious, economic and environmental grounds and have sought the implementation of one of the alternative alignments considered during the earlier stages of the discussion.
A ferry service linked Dhanushkodi in India with Talaimannar in Sri Lanka. The service was part of the Indo-Ceylon Railway service during the British Rule. One could buy a railway ticket from Chennai to Colombo, whereby people travelled by rail from Chennai to Pamban island, go by ferry to Talaimannar, and then go again by rail to Colombo. In 1964, a cyclone completely destroyed Dhanushkodi, as a train was about to enter the station. The tracks and the pier were heavily damaged along the shores of Palk Bay and Palk Strait. Dhanushkodi was not rebuilt and the train then finished its journey at Rameswaram. There was a small ferry service from there to Talaimannar, but it was suspended around 1982 because of the fighting between Sri Lankan government forces and the separatist LTTE.
Geological evolution
Landsat 7 Image of Adam's Bridge
Landsat 5 image of Adam's Bridge
Considerable diversity of opinion and confusion exists about the nature and origin of this structure. In the 19th century, two major theories were prominent in explaining the structure. One considered it to be formed by the process of accretion and rising of the land, while the other surmised that it was established by the breaking away of Sri Lanka from the Indian mainland.[24] The friable calcareous ridges later broke into large rectangular blocks, which perhaps gave rise to the belief that the causeway is an artificial construction.[25]
According to V. Ram Mohan of the Centre of Natural Hazards and Disaster Studies of the University of Madras, "reconstruction of the geological evolution of the island chain is a challenging task and has to be carried out based on circumstantial evidence".[26] The lack of comprehensive field studies explains many of the uncertainties regarding the nature and origin of Adam's Bridge, which mostly consists of a series of parallel ledges of sandstone and conglomerates that are hard at the surface and grow coarse and soft as they descend to sandy banks.[27]
Studies have variously described the structure as a chain of shoals, coral reefs, a ridge formed in the region owing to thinning of the earth's crust, a double tombolo,[28] a sand spit, or barrier islands. One account mentions that this landform was formerly the world's largest tombolo that split into a chain of shoals by a slight rise in mean sea level a few thousand years ago.[29]
Based on satellite remote sensing data, but without actual field verification, the Marine and Water Resources Group of the Space Application Centre (SAC) of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) concludes that Adam's Bridge comprises 103 small patch reefs lying in a linear pattern.[27] The feature consists of the reef crest (flattened, emergent, especially during low tides, or nearly emergent segment of a reef), sand cays (accumulations of loose coral sands and beach rock) and intermittent deep channels. The coral reefs are variously designated by other studies as ribbon and atoll reefs.[30]
The geological process that gave rise to this structure has been attributed in one study to crustal down warping, block faulting, and mantle plume activity[31] while another theory attributes it to continuous sand deposition and the natural process of sedimentation leading to the formation of a chain of barrier islands related to rising sea levels.[30] Another theory affirms that the origin and linearity of Adam's Bridge might be due to the old shoreline (implying that the two landmasses of India and Sri Lanka were once connected)from which shoreline coral reefs developed.
Another study attributes the origin of the structure to longshore drifting currents which moved in an anticlockwise direction in the north and clockwise direction in the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar. The sand could have been dumped in a linear pattern along the current shadow zone between Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar with the later accumulation of corals over these linear sand bodies.[32] In a diametrically opposing view, another group of geologists propose a crustal thinning theory, block faulting and a ridge formed in the region owing to thinning and asserts that development of this ridge augmented the coral growth in the area and in turn coral cover acted as a `sand trapper'.[30]
The tombolo model affirms a constant sediment source and a high unidirectional or bi-directional (monsoonal) longshore current.[citation needed] One study tentatively concludes that there is insufficient evidence to indicate eustatic emergence and that the raised reef in southern India probably results from a local uplift.[33] Other studies also conclude that during periods of lowered sea level over the last 100,000 years, Adam's Bridge has provided an intermittent land connection between India and Sri Lanka, which according to famous ornithologists Sidney Dillon Ripley and Bruce Beehler supports the vicariance model for speciation in some birds of the Indian Subcontinent.[34]
Age
The studies under "Project Rameswaram" of the Geological Survey of India (GSI), which included dating of corals, indicate Rameswaram Island evolved beginning 125,000 years ago. Radiocarbon dating of samples in this study suggests the domain between Rameswaram and Talaimannar may have been exposed sometime between 7,000 and 18,000 years ago.[30] Thermoluminescence dating by GSI concludes that the sand dunes between Dhanushkodi and Adam's Bridge started forming about 500–600 years ago.[30]
An investigation by the Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS) of Bharathidasan University, Tiruchi, led by Professor S.M. Ramasamy dates the structure to 3,500 years.[35] In the same study, carbon dating of some ancient beaches between Thiruthuraipoondi and Kodiyakarai shows the Thiruthuraipoondi beach dates back to 6,000 years and Kodiyakarai around 1,100 years ago. Another study suggests that the appearance of the reefs and other evidence indicate their recency, and a coral sample gives a radiocarbon age of 4,020±160 years BP.[30]
Early surveys and dredging efforts
Pearl fishing in the Gulf of Mannar, c. 1926
Due to shallow waters, Adam's bridge presents a formidable hindrance to navigation through the Palk Strait. Though trade across the India-Sri Lanka divide has been active since at least the first millennium BC, it was limited to small boats and dinghies. Larger ocean-going vessels from the West have had to navigate around Sri Lanka to reach India's eastern coast.[36] Eminent British geographer Major James Rennell, who surveyed the region as a young officer in the late 18th century, suggested that a "navigable passage could be maintained by dredging the strait of Ramisseram [sic]". However, little notice was given to his proposal, perhaps because it came from "so young and unknown an officer", and the idea got revived only 60 years later.
In 1823, Sir Arthur Cotton (then an Ensign), was assigned to survey the Pamban channel, which separates the Indian mainland from the island of Rameswaram and forms the first link of Adam's Bridge. Geological evidence indicates that a land connection bridged this in the past, and some temple records suggest that violent storms broke the link in 1480. Cotton suggested that the channel could be dredged to enable passage of ships, but nothing was done until 1828 when Major Sim directed the blasting and removal of some rocks.[37][38]
A more detailed marine survey of Adam's Bridge was undertaken in 1837 by Lieutenants F. T. Powell, Ethersey, Grieve, and Christopher along with draughtsman Felix Jones, and operations to dredge the channel were recommenced the next year.[37][39] However, these and subsequent efforts in the 19th century did not succeed in keeping the passage navigable for any vessels except those with a light draft.[2]
Sethusamudram shipping canal project
Main article: Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project
Opposition parties demanded implementation of the Sethusamudram canal project using one of the five alternative alignments considered earlier by the Government, without damaging the structure of Adam's Bridge.
The government of India constituted nine committees before independence, and five committees since then, to suggest alignments for a Sethusamudram canal project. Most of them suggested land-based passages across Rameswaram island, and none recommended alignment across Adam's Bridge.[40] The Sethusamudram project committee in 1956 also strongly recommended to the Union government to use land passages instead of cutting Adam's Bridge because of the several advantages of land passage.[41]
In 2005, the Government of India approved a multi-million dollar Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project that aims to create a ship channel across the Palk Strait by dredging the shallow ocean floor near Dhanushkodi. The channel is expected to cut over 400 km (nearly 30 hours of shipping time) off the voyage around the island of Sri Lanka. This proposed channel's current alignment requires dredging through Adam's Bridge.
Indian political parties including the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)) and some Hindu organisations oppose dredging through the shoal on religious grounds. The contention is that Adam's Bridge is identified popularly as the causeway described in the Ramayana. The political parties and organizations suggest alternate alignment for the channel that avoids damage to Adam's Bridge.[42][43] The then state and central governments opposed such changes, with the Union Shipping Minister T. R Baalu, who belongs to the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and a strong supporter of the project maintaining that the current proposal was economically viable and environmentally sustainable and that there were no other alternatives.[44][45][46]
Opposition to dredging through this causeway also stems from concerns over its impact on the area's ecology and marine wealth, potential loss of thorium deposits in the area, and increased risk of damage due to tsunamis.[47] Some organisations completely oppose this project on economic and environmental grounds and claim that proper scientific studies were not conducted before undertaking this project.[48]
Disputed origins
A 19th-century painting depicting a scene from Ramayana, wherein monkeys are shown building a bridge to Lanka.
NASA satellite photo: India on top, Sri Lanka at the bottom of the photo
Certain historical inscriptions, old travel guides, old dictionary references and some old maps have been cited to support a religious and geographical belief that this is an ancient man-made bridge. In the Hindu epic, Ramayana, the bridge was created by Rama and Lakshmana with the assistance of Hanuman and the Vanara army to reach Lanka to find Rama's wife Sita who had been kidnapped by Ravana. In 2007, the Sri Lankan Tourism Development Authority sought to promote religious tourism from Hindu pilgrims in India by including the phenomenon as one of the points on its "Ramayana Trail", celebrating the legend of Prince Rama. Some Sri Lankan historians have condemned the undertaking as "a gross distortion of Sri Lankan history".[49] Vaishnava News Network and some other U.S.-based news services claimed to have found the remains of the bridge built by Rama and his Vanara army as narrated in Ramayana.[citation needed] Based on a study of 2002 NASA satellite images, they contended it was not a natural formation, but a human-made structure.[50] NASA distanced itself from the claims saying that the images reveal nothing more than a 30-km-long, naturally occurring chain of sandbanks.[51] It also clarified that "The images reproduced on the websites may well be ours, but their interpretation is certainly not ours. [...] Remote sensing images or photographs from orbit cannot provide direct information about the origin or age of a chain of islands, and certainly, cannot determine whether humans were involved in producing any of the patterns seen."[51]
In 2003, a team led by Professor S.M. Ramasamy, Centre for Remote Sensing (CRS), Bharathidasan University, Tiruchi said that the land/beaches between Ramanathapuram and Pamban were formed due to the longshore drifting currents. About 3,500 years ago, the currents moved in an anti-clockwise direction in the north and clockwise direction in the south of Rameswaram and Talaimannar. The team suggested that "as the carbon dating of the beaches roughly matches the dates of Ramayana, its link to the epic needs to be explored".[52] A former director of the Geological Survey of India, S. Badrinarayanan, said that such a natural formation would be impossible due to the presence of a loose sand layer under corals for the entire stretch. Corals typically form above rocks.[53][54] He suggests that a thorough analysis was not conducted by the Geological Survey of India before undertaking the SSCP project.
The Archaeological Survey of India and the government of India informed the Supreme Court of India in a 2007 affidavit that there was no historical proof of the bridge being built by Rama.[55] In a 2008 court case, a spokesman for the government stated the bridge was destroyed by Rama according to the scriptures,[56] this claim has been rejected by other observers.[57] In connection with the canal project, the Madras High Court in its verdict stated that the Rama Sethu is a man-made structure.[58]
In 2007, a publication of the National Remote Sensing Agency said that the structure "may be man-made".[59] The report from the Archaeological Survey of India found no evidence for it being man-made.[60]
See also
Ramanathaswamy Temple
Pamban channel
Kumari Kandam
Bimini Road
References
Jump up ^ also spelled Rama Setu, Ram Sethu, Ramasethu and variants.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Adam's bridge". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Archived from the original on 13 January 2008. Retrieved 2007-09-14.
Jump up ^ Garg, Ganga Ram (1992). "Adam's Bridge". Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. A–Aj. New Delhi: South Asia Books. p. 142. ISBN 81-7022-374-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World. McFarland & Company. p. 19. ISBN 0-7864-2248-3.
Jump up ^ GRIFFITH, M. A., RALPH T. H. "RÁMÁYAN OF VÁLMÍKI". Low Price Publications (January 1, 2003). Retrieved 23 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Valmiki Ramayan calls mythological bridge built by Lord Rama as Setubandhanam
Jump up ^ Jayalalitha quotes literary evidence for Ramar bridge
Jump up ^ Protests against shipping canal hot up
Jump up ^ Schwartzberg Atlas
Jump up ^ Schwartzberg Atlas
Jump up ^ Special Story Archived 5 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ News Today – An English evening daily published from Chennai
Jump up ^ Scrap the shipping channel project Archived 21 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Marco Polo (1854) The travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian; "...the celebrated chain of sand-banks and coral reefs named Rama's or Adam's Bridge."
Jump up ^ Rajarajan, R.K.K. (2014) Reflections on "Rāma-Setu" in South Asian Tradition. The Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society, Vol. 105.3: 1-14, ISSN 0047-8555. https://www.academia.edu/8779702/Reflections_on_R%C4%81ma-Setu_in_South_Asian_Tradition
Jump up ^ Horatio John Suckling, Ceylon: A General Description of the Island, Historical, Physical, Statistical, London (1876), p. 76.
Jump up ^ Ramar Sethu, a world heritage centre?
Jump up ^ Ricci, Ronit (2011). Islam Translated: Literature, Conversion, and the Arabic Cosmopolis of South and Southeast Asia. University of Chicago Press. p. 136. ISBN 9780226710884.
Jump up ^ Dhanuskodi: The Lost Land
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "Madurai Travels – Rameswaram". Madurai.com. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
Jump up ^ P. S. Suresh Kumar (Jun 15, 2002). "Shattered in 1964, still remains so". The Hindu.
Jump up ^ "Sethusamudram ship canal project". India Environment Portal. Retrieved July 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Tennent, James Emerson (1859). Ceylon: An Account of the Island Physical, Historical and Topographical. London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts. p. 13.
Jump up ^ Suess, Eduard (1906). The Face of the Earth (Vol. II). Translated by Hertha B. C. Sollas. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 512–513.
Jump up ^ "Ram Setu: Fact or fiction?". www.speakingtree.in. Retrieved 2017-12-14.
^ Jump up to: a b Bahuguna, Anjali; Nayak, Shailesh; Deshmukh, Benidhar (2003-12-01). "IRS views the Adams bridge (bridging India and Sri Lanka)". Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing. 31 (4): 237–239. doi:10.1007/BF03007343. ISSN 0255-660X.
Jump up ^ Double Tombolo reference by NASA
Jump up ^ "Tombolo | geology". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-12-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Myth vs Science". www.frontline.in. Retrieved 2017-12-13.
Jump up ^ Crustal downwarping, block faulting, and mantel plume activity view
Jump up ^ Ramasamy, S.M. (2003). "Facts and myths about Adam's Bridge" (PDF). GIS@development.
Jump up ^ D. R. Stoddart; C. S. Gopinadha Pillai (1972). "Raised Reefs of Ramanathapuram, South India". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. 56 (56): 111–125. doi:10.2307/621544. JSTOR 621544.
Jump up ^ Ripley, S. Dillon; Beehler, Bruce M. (November 1990). "Patterns of Speciation in Indian Birds". Journal of Biogeography. Journal of Biogeography. 17 (6): 639–648. doi:10.2307/2845145. JSTOR 2845145.
Jump up ^ CRS study point Ram Setu to 3500 years old
Jump up ^ Francis, Jr., Peter (2002). Asia's Maritime Bead Trade: 300 B.C. to the Present. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2332-X.
^ Jump up to: a b Hunter, Sir William Wilson (1886). The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Trübner & co. pp. 21–23.
Jump up ^ Digby, William (1900). General Sir Arthur Cotton, R. E., K. C. S. I.: His Life and Work. Hodder & Stoughton. pp. 15–16.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Llewellyn Styles (1885). Memoirs of hydrography. Keay. p. 52. ISBN 0-665-68425-8.
Jump up ^ Sethusamudram Corporation Limited–History Archived 14 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Use land based channel and do not cut through Adam bridge:Sethu samudram project committee report to Union Government". 30 September 2007. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-10-15. "In these circumstances we have no doubt, whatever that the junction between the two sea should be effected by a Canal; and the idea of cutting a passage in the sea through Adam's Bridge should be abandoned.
Jump up ^ "Ram Setu a matter of faith, needs to be protected: Lalu". NewKerela.com. 21 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
Jump up ^ "Rama is 'divine personality' says Gowda". MangaoreNews.com. 22 September 2007. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
Jump up ^ IndianExpress.com–Sethu: DMK chief sticks to his stand
Jump up ^ Latest India News @ NewKerala.Com, India[dead link]
Jump up ^ indianexpress.com
Jump up ^ "Thorium reserves to be disturbed if Ramar Sethu is destroyed". The Hindu. 5 August 2007. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
Jump up ^ Karunanidhi or T R Baalu's arguments are not based on scientific studies claims coastal action network convenor
Jump up ^ Kumarage, Achalie (23 July 2010). "Selling off the history via the 'Ramayana Trail'". Daily Mirror. Colombo: Wijeya Newspapers Ltd. Archived from the original on 25 July 2010. Retrieved 23 July 2010. the Tourism Authority is imposing an artificial [history] targeting a small segment of Indian travellers, specifically Hindu fundamentalists...
Jump up ^ "Hanuman bridge is myth: Experts". Times of India. 19 October 2002. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Kumar, Arun (14 September 2007). "Space photos no proof of Ram Setu: NASA". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 22 January 2008. Retrieved 2007-09-18. "The mysterious bridge was nothing more than a 30 km long, naturally occurring chain of sandbanks called Adam's bridge", [NASA official Mark] Hess had added. "NASA had been taking pictures of these shoals for years. Its images had never resulted in any scientific discovery in the area.
Jump up ^ "Rama's bridge is only 3,500 years old: CRS". Indian Express. 2 February 2003. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
Jump up ^ "Debate shifted over Ram from Ram Sethu". indianewstrack.com. 15 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
Jump up ^ Ram sethu should be manmade says former Geological survey of India director
Jump up ^ No evidence to prove existence of Ram, Centre to SC
Jump up ^ Ram himself destroyed Setu, govt tells SC
Jump up ^ "Because it is Ram Setu and not Nehru bridge".
Jump up ^ Ram Sethu Timeline
Jump up ^ Ram Sethu 'man-made', says government publication
Jump up ^ Ram Setu 'man-made', says government publication
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