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Sanitation in ancient Rome
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Ancient Roman latrines
Sanitation in ancient Rome was a complex system similar in many ways to modern sanitation systems. During the Dark Ages, the technical knowledge of the Roman system was lost and has subsequently been investigated by modern-era historians and archeologists.
Contents
[hide]
1 Sewer systems
2 Public latrines
3 Aqueducts
4 See also
5 References
5.1 Bibliography
6 External links
Sewer systems[edit]
The latrines are the best-preserved feature at Housesteads Roman Fort on Hadrian's Wall. The soldiers sat on wooden boards with holes, which covered one big trench. Water ran in a big ditch at the soldiers' feet.
A system of eleven Roman aqueducts provided the inhabitants of Rome with water of varying quality, the best being reserved for potable supplies. Poorer-quality water was used in public baths and in latrines. Latrine systems have been found in many places, such as Housesteads, a Roman fort on Hadrian's Wall, in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and elsewhere that flushed waste away with a stream of water. It is commonly believed the Romans used sea sponges on a stick & dipped in vinegar after defecation, but the practice is only attested to once.[citation needed]
The Romans had a complex system of sewers covered by stones, much like modern sewers. Waste flushed from the latrines flowed through a central channel into the main sewage system and thence into a nearby river or stream. However, it was not uncommon for Romans to throw waste out of windows into the streets (at least according to Roman satirists). Despite this, Roman waste management is admired for its innovation.
It is estimated that the first sewers of ancient Rome were built between 800 and 735 BC. Drainage systems evolved slowly, and began primarily as a means to drain marshes and storm runoff. The sewers were mainly for the removal of surface drainage and underground water.[1] The sewage system as a whole did not really take off until the arrival of the Cloaca Maxima, an open channel that was later covered, and one of the best-known sanitation artifacts of the ancient world. Most sources believe it was built during the reign of the three Etruscan kings in the sixth century BC. This "greatest sewer" of Rome was originally built to drain the low-lying land around the Forum. It is not known how effective the sewers were, especially in removing excrement.[2]
From very early times the Romans, in imitation of the Etruscans, built underground channels to drain rainwater that might otherwise wash away precious topsoil, used ditches to drain swamps (such as the Pontine Marshes), and dug subterranean channels to drain marshy areas. Over time, the Romans expanded the network of sewers that ran through the city and linked most of them, including some drains, to the Cloaca Maxima, which emptied into the Tiber River. The Cloaca Maxima was built in the fourth century BC, and was largely reconstructed and enclosed under the authority of Agrippa as an aedile in 33 BC.[3] It still drains the Forum Romanum and surrounding hills. Strabo, a Greek author who lived from about 60 BC to AD 24, admired the ingenuity of the Romans in his Geographica, writing:
The sewers, covered with a vault of tightly fitted stones, have room in some places for hay wagons to drive through them. And the quantity of water brought into the city by aqueducts is so great that rivers, as it were, flow through the city and the sewers; almost every house has water tanks, and service pipes, and plentiful streams of water...In short, the ancient Romans gave little thought to the beauty of Rome because they were occupied with other, greater and more necessary matters.
A law was eventually passed to protect innocent bystanders from assault by wastes thrown into the street. The violator was forced to pay damages to whomever his waste hit, if that person sustained an injury. This law was enforced only in the daytime, it is presumed because one then lacked the excuse of darkness for injuring another by careless waste disposal.
Around AD 100, direct connections of homes to sewers began, and the Romans completed most of the sewer system infrastructure. Sewers were laid throughout the city, serving public and some private latrines, and also served as dumping grounds for homes not directly connected to a sewer. It was mostly the wealthy whose homes were connected to the sewers, through outlets that ran under an extension of the latrine.
Public latrines[edit]
In general, poorer residents used pots that they were supposed to empty into the sewer, or visited public latrines. Public latrines date back to the 2nd century BC. Whether intentionally or not, they became places to socialise. Long bench-like seats with keyhole-shaped openings cut in rows offered little privacy. Some latrines were free, for others small charges were made.[4]
According to Lord Amulree, the site where Julius Caesar was assassinated, the Hall of Curia in the Theatre of Pompey, was turned into a public latrine because of the dishonor it had witnessed. The sewer system, like a little stream or river, ran beneath it, carrying the waste away to the Cloaca Maxima.
The Romans recycled public bath waste water by using it as part of the flow that flushed the latrines. Terra cotta piping was used in the plumbing that carried waste water from homes. The Romans were the first to seal pipes in concrete to resist the high water pressures developed in siphons and elsewhere. Beginning around the 5th century BC, aediles, among their other functions, supervised the sanitary systems. They were also responsible for the efficiency of the drainage and sewage systems, the cleansing of the streets, prevention of foul smells, and general oversight of baths.
In the first century AD, the Roman sewage system was very efficient. In his Natural History, Pliny remarked that of all the things Romans had accomplished, the sewers were "the most noteworthy things of all".
Aqueducts[edit]
This section may stray from the topic of the article into the topic of another article, Roman aqueducts. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (December 2010)
Remains of aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, integrated into the Aurelian Wall
Main article: Roman aqueducts
The aqueducts provided the large volumes of water that—after serving drinking, bathing, and other needs—flushed through the sewers. A system of eleven aqueducts supplied the city with water from as far away as the river Anio. Anio Novus and Aqua Claudia were two of the biggest systems. The distribution system was carefully designed so that all waste water drained into the Cloaca Maxima.
The management and maintenance involved in keeping the aqueducts flowing is well described by Frontinus, a general appointed by the emperor Nerva as water commissioner toward the end of the first century AD. He described his work on the distribution system in De aquaeductu published at the end of the first century AD. When first appointed, he surveyed and mapped the entire system, and strove to investigate the many abuses of the water supply, such as the act of tapping into pipes illegally. He also systematized aqueduct maintenance with gangs of specially trained workmen. He also tried to separate the supply, so that the best-quality water went to drinking and cooking, while second-quality water flowed to the fountains, baths, and, finally, sewers.
Pont du Gard in France
The system in Rome was copied in all provincial towns and cities of the Roman Empire, and even down to villas that could afford the plumbing. Roman citizens came to expect high standards of hygiene, and the army was also well provided with latrines and bath houses, or thermae. Aqueducts were used everywhere in the empire not just to supply drinking water for private houses but to supply other needs such as irrigation, public fountains, and thermae. Indeed, many of the provincial aqueducts survive in working order to the present day, although modernized and updated. Of the eleven ancient aqueducts serving Rome, eight of them entered Rome close to each other on the Esquiline Hill.[5] Also, the first aqueduct was the Aqua Appia built in 312 BC by the censor Appius.[5] Other aqueducts of importance to Roman sanitation was the Aqua Marcia built between 144-140 BC, which provided large amounts of quality water to Rome.[6] One Aqueduct with some major importance to Rome was Traiana, which tapped from the clear springs of the northern and western slopes above lake Bracciano.[6] It is said that the “Romans fully appreciated the importance of plentiful and wholesome supply of water, for domestic purposes to health of the Community.[7] It was stated by Amulree that for 441 years after the building of Rome, it depended on water from the Tiber for drinking and other domestic purposes, but in 312 BC Appius Claudius Crassus provide Rome with water from the Springs of the Alban hills and brought to consumers by the means of Aqueducts.[7] The Amulree notes state that this practice is in line with the teachings of Hippocrates: that stagnant water should be refused, not the spring water from the hills or rain water.[7]
Roman rubbish was often left to collect in alleys between buildings in the poor districts of the city. It sometimes became so thick that stepping stones were needed. "Unfortunately its functions did not include house-to-house garbage collection, and this led to indiscriminate refuse dumping, even to the heedless tossing of trash from windows." [8] As a consequence, the street level in the city rose, as new buildings were constructed on top of rubble and rubbish.
See also[edit]
Aqueduct (Roman)
Cloaca Maxima
Frontinus
Roman architecture
Roman engineering
Roman technology
History of water supply and sanitation
Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilization
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Farnsworth 1940, p. 942.
Jump up ^ Gowers 1995, p. 27.
Jump up ^ Howatson 2013, p.159.
Jump up ^ Amulree 1973, p. 247
^ Jump up to: a b Aicher 1995, p. 34.
^ Jump up to: a b Aicher 1995, p. 36.
^ Jump up to: a b c Amulree 1973, p. 244.
Jump up ^ Casson 1998
Bibliography[edit]
Casson, Lionel. Everyday Life in Ancient Rome, revised and expanded edition. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. p. 40.
Aicher, Peter. Guide to Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. Wauconda, Illinois: Bolchazy-Carducci Inc., 1995.
Amulree, Lord. “Hygienic Conditions in Ancient Rome and Modern London.” Medical History.(Great Britain), 1973, 17(3) pp. 244–255.
Coates-Stephens, Robert. "The Walls and Aqueducts of Rome in the Early Middle Ages, A.D. 500-1000." The Journal of Roman Studies Vol. 88 (1998): 167-78.
Farnsworth Gray, Harold. "Sewerage in Ancient and Mediaeval Times." Sewage Works Journal Vol.12.5 (1940): 939-46.
Gowers, Emily. "The Anatomy of Rome from Capitol to Cloaca." The Journal of Roman Studies Vol.85 (1995): 23-32.
Greene, William Chase. The Achievement of Rome; A Chapter in Civilization. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1938
Howatson, M.C. "The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature." Oxford University Press, 2013
James, Peter and Nick Thorpe. Ancient Inventions. New York: Balentine Books, 1994.
Owens, E.J. The City in the Greek and Roman World. London: Routledge, 1991.
Shelton, Joann. As the Romans Did: A Source Book in Roman Social History. New York: Oxford University Press,1988
Stambaugh, John E. The Ancient Roman City. Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988.
External links[edit]
The History of Plumbing - Pompeii & Herculaneum
Waters Of Rome
The History of Roman plumbing and sewers
Ancient Sewage
Imperial Rome Water Systems
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History of China–Japan relations
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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China and Japan are geographically separated only by a relatively narrow stretch of ocean. China has strongly influenced Japan with its writing system, architecture, culture, religion, philosophy, and law. When Western countries forced Japan to open trading in the mid-19th century, Japan moved towards modernization (Meiji Restoration), viewing China as an antiquated civilization, unable to defend itself against Western forces in part due to the First and Second Opium Wars along with Anglo-French Expeditions from the 1840s to the 1860s. Japan's long chain of invasions and war crimes in China between 1894 and 1945 as well as modern Japan's attitude towards its past are major issues affecting current Sino-Japanese relations.
For developments since 1949 see China–Japan relations.
Contents
1 First evidences of Japan in Chinese historical records AD 1–300
2 Introduction of Chinese political system and culture in Japan AD 600–900
3 First recorded China-Japanese battle
4 The prosperities of maritime trading 600–1600
5 Japanese piracy on China's coasts and Mongol invasions 1200–1600
6 Ming Dynasty during Hideyoshi's Korean invasions of 1592-1598
7 Meiji Restoration and the rise of the Japanese Empire 1868–1931
7.1 Conflict after 1870
7.2 First World War
8 Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
First evidences of Japan in Chinese historical records AD 1–300[edit]
Main article: Yayoi period
Text of the Wei Zhi (ca. 297)
The first mention of the Japanese archipelago was in the Chinese historic text Book of Later Han, in the year 57, in which it was noted that the Emperor of the Han dynasty gave a golden seal to Wa (Japan). The King of Na gold seal was discovered in northern Kyūshū in the eighteenth century.[1] From then on Japan was repeatedly recorded in Chinese historical texts, at first sporadically, but eventually continuously as Japan matured into a notable power in the region.
There is a Chinese tradition that the first Chinese Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, sent several hundred people to Japan to search for medicines of immortality. During the third century, Chinese travelers reported that inhabitants of Japan claimed ancestry from Wu Taibo, a king of the Wu state (located in modern Jiangsu and Zhejiang) during the Warring States era.[citation needed] They recorded examples of Wu traditions including ritual teeth-pulling, tattooing and carrying babies on backs. Other records at the time show that Japan already had the same customs recognized today. These include clapping during prayers, eating from wooden trays and eating raw fish (also a traditional custom of Jiangsu and Zhejiang before pollution made this impractical). Kofun era traditions appear in the records as the ancient Japanese built earthen mound tombs.
The first Japanese personage mentioned by the Wei Zhi (Records of Wei) is Himiko, the female shaman leader of a country with hundreds of states called Yamataikoku. Modern historical linguists believe Yamatai was actually pronounced Yamato.
Introduction of Chinese political system and culture in Japan AD 600–900[edit]
Main article: Taika Reform
See also: Japanese missions to Tang China
During the Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty, Japan sent many students on a limited number of Imperial embassies to China, to help establish its own footing as a sovereign nation in northeast Asia. After the fall of the Korean confederated kingdom of Baekje (with whom Japan was closely allied) to combined Tang and Silla forces, Japan was forced to seek out the Chinese state on its own, which in those times was a treacherous undertaking, thus limiting the successes of Japanese overseas contacts during this time.
Important elements brought back from China (and some which were transmitted through Baekje to Japan) included Buddhist teachings, Chinese customs and culture, bureaucracy, architecture and city planning. The Japanese kimono is very similar to the clothing of the Tang Dynasty, and many historians believe that the Japanese started wearing robes like what Tang royalty wore, eventually adapting the garb to match Japanese culture. The capital city of Kyoto was also planned according to Feng Shui elements from the Chinese capital of Chang'an. During the Heian period, Buddhism became one of the major religions, alongside Shinto.
The use of Chinese model of Imperial government ceased by the tenth century, overtaken by traditional Japanese clan and family rivalries (Soga–Mononobe, Taira–Minamoto).
First recorded China-Japanese battle[edit]
In AD 663 the Battle of Baekgang took place, the first China-Japanese conflict in recorded history. The battle was part of the ancient relationships between the Korean Three Kingdoms (Samguk or Samhan), the Japanese Yamato, and Chinese dynasties. The battle itself came near the conclusion of this period with the fall of Baekje, one of the Samguk or three Korean kingdoms, coming on the heels of this battle.
The background of that large battle involves Silla (one of the Korean kingdoms) trying to dominate the Korean Peninsula by forging an alliance with the Tang dynasty, who were trying to defeat Goguryeo, an ongoing conflict that dated back to the Sui dynasty. At the time, Goguryeo was allied to Baekje, the third major Korean kingdom. Yamato Japan supported Baekje earnestly with 30,000 troops and sending Abe no Hirafu, a seasoned general who fought the Ainu in campaigns in eastern and northern Japan. As part of Silla's efforts to conquer Baekje, the battle of Baekgang was fought between Tang China, Baekje, Silla, and Yamato Japan.
The battle itself was a catastrophic defeat for the Yamato forces. Some 300 Yamato vessels were destroyed by a combined Silla–Tang fleet of half the number of ships, and thus the aid to Baekje from Yamato could not help on the land, having been defeated at sea. Baekje fell shortly thereafter, in the same year.
Once Baekje was defeated, both Silla and Tang focused on the more difficult opponent, Goguryeo, and Goguryeo fell in 668 AD. For the most part, Silla, having been rivals with Baekje, also was hostile to Yamato Japan, which was seen as a brother state to Baekje, and this policy continued (with one pause between roughly AD 670–730) after Silla united most of what is now Korea and repelled Tang China from what is now the Korean peninsula. Yamato Japan was left isolated for a time and found itself having to forge ties with mainland Asia on its own, having had the most safe and secure pathway obstructed by a hostile Silla.
The prosperities of maritime trading 600–1600[edit]
Marine trades between China and Japan are well recorded, and many Chinese artifacts could be excavated. Baekje and Silla sometimes played the role of middleman, while direct commercial links between China and Japan flourished.
After 663 (with the fall of allied Baekje) Japan had no choice (in the face of hostility from Silla, which was temporarily deferred in the face of Tang imperialism – as Tang imperialism posed a threat both to Japan and unified Silla – but resumed in after 730 or so) but to directly trade with the Chinese dynasties. At first the Japanese had little long-range seafaring expertise of their own but eventually (some suggest with the aid of Baekje expatriates who fled their country when it fell) the Japanese improved their naval prowess as well as the construction of their ships.
Tang dynasty China received 11 Japanese girl dancers as tribute from Balhae in 777.[2]
The ports of Ningbo and Hangzhou had the most direct trading links to Japan and had Japanese residents doing business. The Ming dynasty decreed that Ningbo was the only place where Japanese–Chinese relations could take place.[3] Ningbo, therefore, was the destination of many Japanese embassies during this period. After going into Ningbo they then went to other cities in China. In 1523, two rival embassies were sent to Ningbo by Japan, then in a state of civil war known as the Sengoku period. One of the emissaries was a Chinese, Song Suqing (宋素卿), who had moved to Japan earlier.[4] Song Suqing became involved in a disagreement with a rival Japanese trade delegation, which led to the Ningbo Incident where the Japanese pillaged and plundered in the vicinity of Ningbo before escaping in stolen ships, defeating a Ming pursuing flotilla on the way. As a result of the incident, the port of Ningbo was closed to the Japanese - only two more Japanese missions were received (in 1540 and 1549) until the end of the Ming dynasty.
Besides Korea during the Korean Three Kingdoms period (i.e. roughly AD 300-670), the Ryukyu Islands, once subjugated by the Japanese crown, also served as a stopover for China-Japanese trading. Commodities included fine porcelain, sandalwood, tea and silk. As a result of the close proximity to China (especially Jiangsu and Zhejiang), Kyushu and the Ryukyu Islands (then independent from Japan) traditions have Chinese influences in addition to influences from Baekje. Kagoshima and Okinawa cuisine have a dish called "kakuni" which is the same as "Dongpo pork" from Hangzhou: stewed pork in sugar, rice vinegar, ginger and soy sauce. Fried fish or meatballs (such as Satsuma age) are also traditionally from Southern China (mainly Zhejiang and Fujian). Noodle dishes (such as Hakata Ramen) and clay-pot casseroles are also Chinese influences. Okinawan palaces and dress show Chinese color styles, which use red, green, blue and gold adorned with mythical animals as opposed to naturalistic and simplistic traditional Japanese designs.
Direct trade with China was limited by the Tokugawa shogunate after 1633, when Japan decided to close all direct links with the foreign world. Some trading was conducted by the Shimazu clan of Satsuma province through the Ryukyu Islands. Significant trading between China and Japan did not resume until the twentieth century, well into the modern age.
Japanese piracy on China's coasts and Mongol invasions 1200–1600[edit]
Main articles: Wokou and Mongol invasions of Japan
Japanese pirates (or Wokou) were a constant problem, not only for China and Korea, but also for Japanese society, from the thirteenth century until Hideyoshi's failed invasions of Korea at the end of the sixteenth century. Japanese pirates were often from the undesirable parts of Japanese society, and the Japanese were just as happy to be (for the most part) rid of them as they were raiding more prosperous shores (at the time, Japan was ravaged by civil wars, and so while Korea, China, and the Mongol Empire were enjoying relative peace, prosperity, and wealth, the Japanese were upon hard times).
Ming Dynasty during Hideyoshi's Korean invasions of 1592-1598[edit]
Main article: Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)
Toyotomi Hideyoshi was one of the three unifiers of Japan (Oda Nobunaga and Tokugawa Ieyasu were the others). After subduing the Mōri and Shimazu clans, Hideyoshi had the dream of eventually conquering China but needed to cross through Korea.
When Hideyoshi received refusals to his demands by Korea to cross the country to Ming-dynasty China, he invaded Korea. In the first year of invasion in 1592, the Japanese reached as far as Manchuria under Katō Kiyomasa and fought the Jianzhou Jurchens. Seonjo (Korean king) requested aid from the Ming dynasty, but since Japanese advances were so fast, only small Ming forces were initially committed. Konishi Yukinaga, who garrisoned in Pyongyang in winter 1592, first encountered and defeated a force of 5,000 Chinese soldiers. In 1593, greater Chinese participation under General Li Rusong with an army of 45,000 took Pyongyang with artillery and drove the Japanese to the south, but the Japanese forces defeated them at the Battle of Byeokjegwan.
After 1593, there was a truce of about four years. During that time, Ming granted Hideyoshi the title as "King of Japan" as withdrawal conditions, but Hideyoshi felt it insulted the Emperor of Japan and demanded concessions including the daughter of the Wanli emperor. Further relations soured and war reignited. The second invasion was far less successful for Hideyoshi. The Chinese and Koreans were much more prepared and quickly confined and besieged the Japanese in the south until they were finally driven to the sea and defeated by the Korean admiral Yi Sun Shin. The invasion was a failure but severely damaged the Korean cities, culture and countryside with huge civilian casualties (the Japanese massacred civilians in captured Korean cities). The invasions also drained Ming China's treasury and left it weak against the Manchus, who eventually destroyed the Ming Dynasty and created the Qing dynasty in 1644.
Afterwards, Japan, under the Tokugawa shogunate adopted a policy of isolationism until forced open by Commodore Perry in the 1850s.
Meiji Restoration and the rise of the Japanese Empire 1868–1931[edit]
Main articles: First Sino-Japanese War, Japanese nationalism, and Meiji Restoration
Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty, 13 September 1871. The treaty was signed in Tientsin, by Date Munenari and Li Hongzhang.
After the arrival of Commodore Perry and the forced opening of Japan to western trading, Japan realized it needed to modernize to avoid the humiliation suffered by China during the First and Second Opium Wars. Anti-Tokugawa tozama daimyōs[a] led by the Shimazu and Mori clans overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate during the Meiji Restoration and restored the Japanese Emperor as head of state. Afterwards, Japan initiated structural reforms resulting in rapid modernization, industrialization, militarization and imperialism modeled after the imperialistic Western powers.
Conflict after 1870[edit]
As Japan modernized and built a strong economy and military, the smaller country grew in power. Friction between China and Japan arose from the 1870s from Japan's control over the Ryukyu Islands, rivalry for political influence in Korea and trade issues.[5] Japan, having built up a stable political and economic system with a small but well-trained army and navy, surprised the world with its easy victory over China in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95. Japanese soldiers massacred the Chinese after capturing Port Arthur on the Liaotung Peninsula. In the harsh Treaty of Shimonoseki of April 1895, China recognize the independence of Korea, and ceded to Japan Formosa, the Pescatores Islands and the Liaotung Peninsula. China further paid an indemnity of 200 million silver taels, opened five new ports to international trade, and allowed Japan (and other Western powers) to set up and operate factories in these cities. However, Russia, France, and Germany saw themselves disadvantaged by the treaty and in the Triple Intervention forced Japan to return the Liaotung Peninsula in return for a larger indemnity. The only positive result for China came when those factories led the industrialization of urban China, spinning off a local class of entrepreneurs and skilled mechanics.[6]
Japanese troops participated in the Boxer Rebellion in 1900. The Chinese were again forced to pay another huge indemnity, but Japan was pressured to accept much less by the United States. Rivalries between the imperialist nations and the American Open Door Policy prevented China from being carved up into many colonies.[7] On the other hand, the Japanese government and individuals provided assistance to Sun Yat-sen and other members of the Tongmenghui who were instrumental in the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China.
First World War[edit]
Main article: Japanese entry into World War I
Japanese and British military forces in 1914 liquidated Germany's holdings in China. Japan occupied the German military colony in Qingdao, and occupied portions of Shandong Province. China was financially chaotic, highly unstable politically, and militarily very weak. Its best hope was to attend the postwar peace conference, and hope to find friends would help block the threats of Japanese expansion. China declared war on Germany in August 1917 as a technicality to make it eligible to attend the postwar peace conference. They planned to send a combat unit to the Western Front, but never did so.[8][9] British diplomats were afraid that the U.S. and Japan would displace Britain's leadership role in the Chinese economy. They sought to play Japan and the United States against each other, while at the same time maintaining cooperation among all three nations against Germany.[10]
In January 1915, Japan secretly issued an ultimatum of Twenty-One Demands to the Chinese government. They included Japanese control of former German rights, 99 year leases in southern Manchuria, an interest in steel mills, and concessions regarding railways. China did have a seat at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. However it was refused a return of the former German concessions and China had to accept the Twenty-One demands. A major reaction to this humiliation was a surge in Chinese nationalism expressed in the May Fourth Movement.[11]
Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II[edit]
Main articles: Manchukuo and Mukden Incident
In the beginning of the Shōwa period, the Japanese wanted to occupy Manchuria for its resources. Due to the fractious nature of China during the Warlord Era, and latterly the Chinese Civil War, the Japanese were able to gain influence in the region through espionage, diplomacy, and use of force. Two notable examples are the assassination of Zhang Zuolin, and the Mukden Incident. The latter was used by Japan as justification for the invasion of Manchuria and establishment of a friendly state, Manchukuo. [12]
Main articles: Statism in Shōwa Japan, Second Sino-Japanese War, Japanese war crimes, Nanking Massacre, and Three Alls Policy
In the period between the Mukden Incident in 1931 and the official beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 there were intermittent clashes and engagements between Japanese and the various Chinese forces. These engagements were collectively described by the Japanese government as "incidents" to downplay the conflict. This was primarily to prevent the United States deeming the conflict an actual war, and thus placing an embargo upon Japan as per the neutrality acts. The incidents collectively placed pressure on China to sign various agreements to Japan's benefit. These included the demilitarisation of Shanghai, the He–Umezu Agreement, and the Chin–Doihara Agreement. The period was turbulent for the Chinese Nationalists, as it was mired in a civil war with the Chinese Communists and maintained an uneasy truce with remnant warlords, who nominally aligned with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi), following the Northern Expedition. This period also saw the Chinese Nationalists' pursuit in modernizing its National Revolutionary Army, through the assistance of Soviet, and later German, advisors.
In July 1937 the conflict escalated after a significant skirmish with Chinese forces at the Marco Polo Bridge. This marked the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. Chinese nationalist forces retaliated by attacking Shanghai. The Battle of Shanghai lasted for several months, concluding with Chinese defeat on November 26, 1937.
Following this battle, Japanese advances continued to the south and west. A contentious aspect of these Japanese campaigns are the war crimes committed against Chinese people. The most infamous example was the Rape of Nanking, when Japanese forces subjected the population to looting, mass rape, massacres, and other crimes. Other, less publicised, atrocities were committed during Japanese advances and it's estimated that millions of Chinese civilians were killed. Various attempts to quantify the crimes committed have proved contentious, and at times divisive.
The war from 1938 onwards was marked by Chinese use of guerilla tactics to stall advances, and retreat to the Chinese interior where necessary. This eventually limited Japanese advances because of supply-line limitations – the Japanese were unable to adequately control areas outside of cities, roads and railways. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor and the entry of the US into the war, fighting in the Pacific, and South East and South West Asia, significantly weakened the Japanese. After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Japanese-occupied Manchuria, Japan surrendered.
The Republic of China (ROC) administrated Taiwan after Japan's unconditional surrender in 1945, following a decision by the Allied Powers at the Cairo Conference in 1943. The ROC moved its central government to Taiwan in December 1949, following the victory of the PRC in the Chinese Civil War. Later, no formal transfer of the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan to the PRC was made in the post-war San Francisco Peace Treaty, and these arrangements were confirmed in the Treaty of Taipei concluded by the ROC and Japan in 1952. At the time, the Taiwanese authorities (the Chinese Nationalist Party, or Kuomintang (KMT)) were recognized by Japan, not communist China (the People's Republic of China, or PRC). As such, the KMT did not accept Japanese reparations only in the name of the ROC government. Later, the PRC also refused reparations in the 1970s. See more details in the section about World War II reparations and the statement by Japanese Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama (August, 1995).
See also[edit]
China portal
Japan portal
International relations portal
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
China–Japan relations, since 1949
Republic of China–Japan relations
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ major clans who sided against Tokugawa Ieyasu during the battle of Sekigahara in 1600
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Gold Seal (Kin-in)". Fukuoka City Museum. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
Jump up ^ Schafer 1963, p. 66.
Jump up ^ Jacques Gernet (1996). A history of Chinese civilization (2, illustrated, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 420. ISBN 0521497817. Retrieved 14 December 2011. Official relations with Japan could only be conducted through the port of Ning-po, at the north-eastern tip of Chekiang;
Jump up ^ Jacques Gernet (1996). A history of Chinese civilization (2, illustrated, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 421. ISBN 0-521-49781-7. Retrieved 14 December 2011. Thanks to the embassies, over a hundred known Japanese monks were thus able to come to China in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, visiting, on the way from Ning-po to Peking, Hangchow, Soochow, Nanking, the valley of the Huai and Tientsin, and make contact with Chinese literai. . . There was a case of a rich Chinese merchant by the name of Sung Su-ch'ing (1496-1523), a native of Chekiang, who, after trading with Japan and settling down there in 1510, formed part of the Japanese embassy which arrived in Ning-po in 1523.
Jump up ^ Seo-Hyun Park, "Changing Definitions of Sovereignty in Nineteenth-Century East Asia: Japan and Korea Between China and the West". Journal of East Asian Studies 13#2 (2013): 281–307.
Jump up ^ William T. Rowe (2010). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Harvard UP. p. 234.
Jump up ^ Yoneyuki Sugita, "The Rise of an American Principle in China: A Reinterpretation of the First Open Door Notes toward China," in Richard Jensen, Jon Davidann, Yoneyuki Sugita, eds., Trans-Pacific Relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the Twentieth Century (2003) pp. 3–20 online.
Jump up ^ Stephen G. Craft, "Angling for an Invitation to Paris: China's Entry into the First World War". International History Review 16#1 (1994): 1–24.
Jump up ^ Guoqi Xu, "The Great War and China's military expedition plan". Journal of Military History 72#1 (2008): 105–140.
Jump up ^ Clarence B. Davis, "Limits of Effacement: Britain and the Problem of American Cooperation and Competition in China, 1915–1917". Pacific Historical Review 48#1 (1979): 47–63. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Zhitian Luo, "National humiliation and national assertion-The Chinese response to the twenty-one demands" Modern Asian Studies (1993) 27#2 pp 297–319.
Jump up ^ Barnouin, Barbara; Changgen, Yu (1998). Chinese Foreign Policy during the Cultural Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 113–116. ISBN 0-7103-0580-X.
Further reading[edit]
Boyle, John Hunter. China and Japan at war, 1937–1945: the politics of collaboration (Stanford University Press, 1972)
Chi, Madeleine. China Diplomacy, 1914–1918 (Harvard Univ Asia Center, 1970)
Jung-Sun, Han. "Rationalizing the Orient: The 'East Asia Cooperative Community' in Prewar Japan". Monumenta Nipponica (2005): 481–514. in JSTOR
Matsusaka, Yoshihisa Tak. The Making of Japanese Manchuria, 1904–1932 (Harvard University Asia Center, 2001).
Morley, James William, ed. Japan's Foreign Policy, 1868–1941: A Research Guide (Columbia UP, 1974), policies toward China pp 236–64.
Morse, Hosea Ballou. The international relations of the Chinese empire Vol. 1 (1910) to 1859; online;
Morse, Hosea Ballou. The international relations of the Chinese empire vol 2 1861–1893 (1918) online;
Morse, Hosea Ballou. The international relations of the Chinese empire vol 3 1894–1916. (1918) online
Nish, Ian. (1990) "An Overview of Relations between China and Japan, 1895–1945." China Quarterly (1990) 124 (1990): 601–623. online
Sun, Youli, and You-Li Sun. China and the Origins of the Pacific War, 1931–1941 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993)
Verschuer, Charlotte von. (2006) Across the Perilous Sea: Japanese Trade with China and Korea from the Seventh to the Sixteenth Centuries (Cornell University East Asia Program)
Wang, Zhenping: Ambassadors from the Islands of the Immortals: China–Japan Relations in the Han–Tang Period. (Honolulu: Association for Asian Studies and University of Hawaii Press, 2005) 387 pp.
Yick, Joseph. "Communist-Puppet collaboration in Japanese-Occupied China: Pan Hannian and Li Shiqun, 1939–43". Intelligence and National Security 16.4 (2001): 61–88.
Zhang, Yongjin. China in the International System, 1918–20: the Middle Kingdom at the periphery (Macmillan, 1991)
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Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds
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This article is about The Beatles' song. For the comic book character "Lucy in the Sky", see Karolina Dean. For the Glee television episode, see Tina in the Sky with Diamonds.
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
The 1996 US jukebox single release of the song, backed with "When I'm Sixty-Four"
Song by the Beatles
from the album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Published
Northern Songs Ltd.
Released
26 May 1967[1]
Recorded
1 March 1967
Studio
EMI, London
Genre
Psychedelic rock
Length
3:28
Label
Parlophone (R6022)
Songwriter(s)
Lennon–McCartney
Producer(s)
George Martin
Audio sample
file
help
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" is a song credited to Lennon–McCartney that appears on the Beatles' 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. It was started by John Lennon,[2] then Paul McCartney contributed to it in a songwriting session.[3] Lennon's son Julian inspired the song with a nursery school drawing he called "Lucy—in the sky with diamonds". Shortly after the song's release, speculation arose that the first letter of each of the title nouns intentionally spelled "LSD".[4] Lennon consistently denied this,[4][5] insisting the song's fantastical imagery was inspired by Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland books,[4] a claim repeatedly confirmed by Paul McCartney.[6][7][8]
Despite persistent rumours, the song was never officially banned by the BBC,[9][10][11][12] and aired contemporaneously on BBC Radio at least once, on 20 May 1967.[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition
2 Origin
2.1 Julian's drawing
2.2 LSD rumours
2.3 Alice In Wonderland
3 Reception
4 Personnel
5 Legacy
6 Elton John version
6.1 Development and release
6.2 Personnel
6.3 Charts
7 The Flaming Lips version
8 Other versions
9 References
9.1 Notes
9.2 Bibliography
10 External links
Composition[edit]
Most of the song is in simple triple metre (3
4 time), but the chorus is in 4
4 time. The song modulates between musical keys, using the key of A major for verses, B♭ major for the pre-chorus, and G major for the chorus.[14] It is sung by Lennon over an increasingly complicated underlying arrangement which features a tamboura, played by George Harrison, lead electric guitar put through a Leslie speaker, played by Harrison, and a counter melody on Lowrey organ played by McCartney and taped with a special organ stop sounding "not unlike a celeste".[15][16] Session tapes from the initial 1 March 1967 recording of this song reveal Lennon originally sang the line "Cellophane flowers of yellow and green" as a broken phrase, but McCartney suggested that he sing it more fluidly to improve the song.[17]
Origin[edit]
Julian's drawing[edit]
Lennon's inspiration for the song came when his son, Julian, showed him a nursery school drawing he called "Lucy—in the Sky with Diamonds",[5] depicting his classmate Lucy O'Donnell (later Lucy Vodden). Julian Lennon said, "I don't know why I called it that or why it stood out from all my other drawings, but I obviously had an affection for Lucy at that age. I used to show Dad everything I'd built or painted at school, and this one sparked off the idea ..."[18][19][20] Vodden, in a BBC radio interview in 2007, said, "I remember Julian and I both doing pictures on a double-sided easel, throwing paint at each other, much to the horror of the classroom attendant ... Julian had painted a picture and on that particular day his father turned up with the chauffeur to pick him up from school."[21] O'Donnell died in 2009 at age 46 after suffering from lupus.[22]
According to both Lennon and Ringo Starr, who witnessed the moment, Julian first uttered the song's title upon returning home from nursery school.[5][7][23] Lennon later recalled of the painting and the phrase, "I thought that [it was] beautiful. I immediately wrote a song about it."[5]
LSD rumours[edit]
Rumours of the connection between the title of "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" and the initialism "LSD" began circulating shortly after the release of the Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band LP in June 1967.[24][25] Paul McCartney gave two interviews that same month admitting to having taken the drug.[26][27] Lennon later said he was surprised at the idea that the song title was a hidden reference to LSD,[4] countering that the song "wasn't about that at all",[5] and that it "was purely unconscious that it came out to be LSD. Until someone pointed it out, I never even thought of it. I mean, who would ever bother to look at initials of a title? ... It's not an acid song."[4]
Paul McCartney confirmed Lennon's claim on several occasions,[7][8] the earliest in 1968:
When you write a song and you mean it one way, and someone comes up and says something about it that you didn't think of—you can't deny it. Like "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds," people came up and said, cunningly, "Right, I get it. L-S-D," and it was when [news]papers were talking about LSD, but we never thought about it.[6]
McCartney further rebuffed the claims in a 1997 BBC Radio interview with Michael Parkinson by saying, "It wasn't about LSD. Because otherwise it would have been called 'LITSWD.' Because the initials aren't 'LSD.' Lucy in the sky with diamonds is more like that."[8]
In a 2004 interview with Uncut magazine, McCartney confirmed that it was "pretty obvious" drugs did influence some of the group's compositions at that time, including "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", though he tempered this analysis by adding, "[I]t's easy to overestimate the influence of drugs on the Beatles' music."[28]
In 2017, the first take of the song was issued leading up to the release of the 50th anniversary special edition of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band; The story about Julian's painting was confirmed as the inspiration of the song, as opposed to the LSD reference.[29]
Alice In Wonderland[edit]
According to both Lennon and McCartney, the lyrics were largely derived from the literary style of Alice In Wonderland.[4][6] Lennon had read and admired the works of Lewis Carroll, and the title of Julian's drawing reminded him of the "Which Dreamed it?" chapter of Through the Looking Glass in which Alice floats in a "boat beneath a sunny sky":[30]
It was Alice in the boat. She is buying an egg and it turns into Humpty-Dumpty. The woman serving in the shop turns into a sheep and the next minute they are rowing in a rowing boat somewhere and I was visualizing that.[4]
McCartney remembered of the song's composition, "We did the whole thing like an Alice In Wonderland idea, being in a boat on the river ... Every so often it broke off and you saw Lucy in the sky with diamonds all over the sky. This Lucy was God, the Big Figure, the White Rabbit."[6] He later recalled helping Lennon finish the song at Lennon's Kenwood home, specifically claiming he contributed the "newspaper taxis" and "cellophane flowers" lyrics;[7][8] Lennon's 1968 interview with Rolling Stone magazine confirmed McCartney's contribution.[31]
Lennon's original handwritten lyrics sold at auction in 2011 for $230,000.[32]
Reception[edit]
Rolling Stone magazine described the song as "Lennon's lavish daydream"[33] and music critic Richie Unterberger said "'Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds' was one of the best songs on the Beatles' famous Sgt. Pepper album, and one of the classic songs of psychedelia as a whole. There are few other songs that so successfully evoke a dream world, in both the sonic textures and words."[34] In a review for the BBC, Chris Jones described the track as "nursery rhyme surrealism" that contributed to Sgt. Pepper's "revolutionary ... sonic carpet that enveloped the ears and sent the listener spinning into other realms."[35] Hilary Saunders of Paste called the song "a perfectly indulgent introduction to psych-rock".[36]
In later interviews, Lennon expressed disappointment with the Beatles' arrangement of the recording, complaining that inadequate time was taken to fully develop his initial idea for the song. He also said that he had not sung it very well. "I was so nervous I couldn't sing," he told journalist Ray Connolly, "but I like the lyrics."[37]
Personnel[edit]
According to authors Kevin Ryan and Brian Kehew,[16] and John Winn:[38]
John Lennon – double-tracked lead vocals, maracas
Paul McCartney – harmony vocals, Lowrey organ, bass
George Harrison – acoustic guitar, tambura, lead guitar
Ringo Starr – drums
George Martin – piano[39]
Legacy[edit]
John mentions "Lucy in the Sky" in another Beatles song later that same year: "I Am the Walrus".
In November 1967 John Fred and his Playboy Band released a parody/tribute song called "Judy in Disguise (With Glasses)"[40] which topped the US Billboard Hot 100 chart for two weeks and reached the number one spot in a number of other countries around the world.[41]
The Dream Theater song "Octavarium" contains three song names:
Sailing on the seven seize the day tripper diem's ready
Jack the ripper Owens Wilson Phillips and my supper's ready
Lucy in the sky with diamond Dave's not here I come to save the
day ...
Pink Floyd namechecks "Lucy in the sky" on "Let There Be More Light", the opening song on A Saucerful of Secrets (1968). The lyrics are by Roger Waters.
The name of the German band Tangerine Dream was inspired by the line "tangerine trees and marmalade skies".[42]
A 3.2-million-year-old, 40% complete fossil skeleton of an Australopithecus afarensis specimen discovered in 1974 was named "Lucy" because the Beatles song was being played loudly and repeatedly on a tape recorder in the camp. The phrase "Lucy in the sky" became "Lucy in disguise" to the anthropologists, because they initially did not understand the impact of their discovery.[43]
A proposed spacecraft called "Lucy" was named for the Australopithecus; the probe is planned to be launched in 2021 to study asteroids.[44]
The White dwarf star BPM 37093, which contains a core of crystallised carbon roughly 4000 km in diameter, is informally named "Lucy" as a tribute to the Beatles song.[45]
One of the main characters of Hiro Mashima's manga Fairy Tail, Lucy Heartfilia, takes her name from the song.[46]
Jim Carrey's character in the film Mr. Popper's Penguins uses the first two lines of the song as a sales pitch to describe the establishment that his company plans on building to take the place of an old restaurant.
In the 2001 film I Am Sam, Sam (Sean Penn) names his daughter (Dakota Fanning) "Lucy Diamond Dawson" after the song. Beatles song covers and references are prominent throughout the film.
In Angela Robinson's short movie D.E.B.S., one of the main characters is named Lucy in the Sky. In the feature film, D.E.B.S., based on the short, the character is named Lucy Diamond.
The Regular Show episode "Rigby in the Sky with Burrito" is named after the song.
In Glee's Season 5, the first and second episode were inspired by the Beatles. The second one's name is Tina in the Sky with Diamonds inspired in the song's name. It features the prom, where Tina Cohen-Chang (Jenna Ushkowitz) runs for prom queen and the struggle to get the crown.
Elton John version[edit]
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"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
Single by Elton John
B-side
"One Day (At a Time)"
Released
18 November 1974
Recorded
Summer 1974
Length
6:16
5:54 (7" version)
Label
MCA (US)
DJM (UK)
Songwriter(s)
Lennon–McCartney
Producer(s)
Gus Dudgeon
Elton John singles chronology
"The Bitch Is Back"
(1974) "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
(1974) "Philadelphia Freedom"
(1975)
In 1974, Elton John released a cover version as a single. Recorded at the Caribou Ranch, it featured backing vocals and guitar by John Lennon under the pseudonym Dr. Winston O'Boogie (Winston being Lennon's middle name). The single topped the US Billboard pop charts for two weeks in January 1975 as well as the Canadian RPM national singles chart for four weeks spanning January and February, eventually. The B-side of the single was also a John Lennon composition, "One Day (At a Time)", from Lennon's 1973 album Mind Games. As with the A-side, Lennon appears on the B-side, playing guitar.
Development and release[edit]
In the US it was certified Gold on 29 January 1975 by the RIAA.[47] During their collaboration, Elton John appeared on John Lennon's song "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night". Lennon promised to appear live with Elton at Madison Square Garden if "Whatever Gets You Thru the Night" became a #1 single.[48] It did, and on Thanksgiving Night, 28 November 1974, Lennon kept his promise. They performed "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", "Whatever Gets You thru the Night", and "I Saw Her Standing There".
In introducing "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", Elton John said he believed it to be "one of the best songs ever written." The Lennon-sung "I Saw Her Standing There" (credited to the Elton John Band featuring John Lennon) was originally released in 1975 on the B-side of Elton John's "Philadelphia Freedom" single. In 1981, all three live songs were issued on 28th November 1974, an Elton John EP.[49] In 1990, the three songs were made available on the Lennon box set. In 1996, they were also included on the remastered edition of Elton John's Here and There album. Elton John once stated that " 'Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds' is a song that I never do in a set at a concert simply because it reminds me too much of John Lennon. This is the same with 'Empty Garden'." It was a part of his standard repertoire from 1974 until 1976, and sporadically until 1998. It also appeared in the 1976 musical documentary All This and World War II.
Personnel[edit]
Elton John - lead and backing vocals, piano, mellotron, harpsichord
John Lennon - backing vocals, guitars
Davey Johnstone - backing vocals, electric guitar, sitar
Dee Murray - bass guitar, backing vocals
Nigel Olsson - drums, backing vocals
Ray Cooper - tambourine, tubular bells, gong, maracas, mark tree, congas
Charts[edit]
Chart (1974–1975)
Peak
position
Canadian RPM Top Singles[50] 1
Germany (Official German Charts)[51] 31
Italy (FIMI)[52] 31
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[53] 11
UK (Official Charts Company)[54] 10
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[55] 1
The Flaming Lips version[edit]
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
Single by The Flaming Lips featuring Miley Cyrus and Moby
from the album With a Little Help from My Fwends
Released
18 May 2014 (2014-05-18)
Format
Digital download
Length
5:47
Label
Warner Bros.
Songwriter(s)
Lennon-McCartney
The Flaming Lips singles chronology
"Love the World You Find"
(2007) "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
(2014) "We a Famly"
(2017)
Miley Cyrus singles chronology
"Adore You"
(2013) "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
(2014) "Malibu"
(2017)
Moby singles chronology
"A Case for Shame"
(2013) "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
(2014) "Rio"
(2014)
A cover version by the Flaming Lips was included on their album With a Little Help from My Fwends, released on Warner Bros.[56] The song, featuring vocals from Miley Cyrus and Moby, was released as official single on 18 May 2014.[57] All proceeds from record sales go to the Bella Foundation, an organisation in Oklahoma City that helps provide veterinary care to needy pet owners.[58]
Other versions[edit]
In 1968, William Shatner on The Transformed Man
In 1977, the London Symphony Orchestra on Classic Rock
In 1978, Natalie Cole on the album Natalie Live!
In 1978, Stargard in the movie Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
In 1987, the Hooters as a B-side to "Johnny B."
In 1987, Pianist/composer John Bayless on his Bach on Abbey Road album (entire song in 3/4 time, including choruses, as a Bachian minuet)
In 1988, The Christians on the charity compilation album Sgt. Pepper Knew My Father
In 1988, Frank Zappa parodied the song in live concerts as "Louisiana Hooker with Herpes", with lyrics about Jimmy Swaggart and his sex scandal
In 1992, Marilyn Manson & the Spooky Kids parodied the song as "Luci in the Sky with Demons" on the cassette tape The Family Jams
In 2001, the Black Crowes on the soundtrack of the movie I Am Sam
In 2001, Brazilian singer Rita Lee on Aqui, Ali, Em Qualquer Lugar album
In 2003, Hyde on the single "Horizon"
In 2004, Jan Linton (as Dr Jan Guru) on the album "Planet Japan" [59]
In 2005, Katie Melua on Piece by Piece
In 2006, PUFFY on the Hataraku Otoko single, for the anime series Hataraki Man
In 2007, Bono and The Edge performed the song on the Across the Universe soundtrack
In 2007, Athlete (band) recorded the song for BBC Radio 2's Sergeant Pepper 40th anniversary show at Abbey Road Studios. It was broadcast 2 June 2007. It was produced and mixed by Geoff Emerick with Richard Lush.
In 2009, Easy Star's Lonely Hearts Dub Band
In 2009, Cheap Trick released Sgt. Pepper Live, which included the song
In 2009, Cobra Starship released Living in The Sky With Diamonds, a reference to the song
In 2011, Veronica Maggio released single "Jag kommer", which includes a reference to the song
In 2012, Mac Miller released "Desperado", which samples the song in its outro
In 2012, Tyler Carter released a song titled "Lucy At Midnight," which was based on The Beatles' song.
In 2013, British-Brazilian artist Dan Torres released a version from theme of the telenovela Império.[60][61]
In 2016, Pink performs the song for the Netflix animated series Beat Bugs.[62]
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Everett 1999, p. 123. "In the United Kingdom Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band...was rush-released six days ahead of its official date, June 1."
Jump up ^ Miles 1997, pp. 312.
Jump up ^ Compton 2017, p. 180.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Sheff 2000, p. 182.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Lennon, John (8 September 1971). "The Dick Cavett Show" (Interview). Interview with Dick Cavett. New York: ABC.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Aldridge, Alan (14 January 1968). "Paul McCartney's Guide to the Beatles' Songbook". Los Angeles Times Magazine. Los Angeles. pp. 19–24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Beatles, The (2000). The Beatles Anthology. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. p. 242. ISBN 0-8118-2684-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d McCartney, Paul (12 October 1997). "Sunday Supplement" (Interview). Interview with Michael Parkinson. London: BBC Radio Two.
Jump up ^ Ezard, John (29 December 1967). "BBC and Film Board give order to play down on drug scenes". The Guardian. London. p. 3.
Jump up ^ Crosby, John (11 June 1967). "Little Things Mean a Lot". The Observer. London. p. 38.
Jump up ^ "BBC Bans Song In Beatles Album". Washington Post. Washington, D.C. Reuters. 21 May 1967. p. A25.
Jump up ^ Palmer, Tony (1 September 1967). "Pop: Tomorrow and Tomorrow". London Magazine. London. p. 73.
Jump up ^ Everett, Kenny (host) (20 May 1967). Where It's At. BBC Light Programme.
Jump up ^ Hal Leonard 1993, pp. 646–650.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1998, pp. 100–101.
^ Jump up to: a b Ryan & Kehew 2006.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1998, p. 100.
Jump up ^ The Guardian 2009.
Jump up ^ Kral 2009.
Jump up ^ BBC Radio 2, Sounds of the 60s, 2 February 2008
Jump up ^ Goddard, Caroline (September 2009). "Beatles' muse Lucy Vodden dies". She knows Entertainment. SheKnows LLC. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Lucy Vodden, Who Inspired a Beatles Song, Dies at 46". Retrieved 18 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Starr, Ringo (25 June 1983). "Ringo's Yellow Submarine" (Interview). Interview with Jim Ladd. Los Angeles: ABC Radio Network.
Jump up ^ Davies, Hunter (1968). The Beatles. London: William Heinemann. p. 530. ISBN 0-393-33874-6.
Jump up ^ Hicks, Michael (2000). Sixties Rock: Garage, Psychedelic and Other Satisfactions. University of Illinois Press. p. 63.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Thomas (16 June 1967). "The New Far-Out Beatles". Life. Chicago: Time Inc. p. 101. Retrieved 8 Dec 2016.
Jump up ^ McCartney, Paul (19 June 1967). "Interview with Paul McCartney". ITV Evening News (Interview). London: Independent Television News.
Jump up ^ "McCartney: Of Course Those Songs Were About Drugs". Washington Post. Washington, D.C. Associated Press. 3 June 2004. p. C02.
Jump up ^ "The Beatles' First Take Of 'Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds'". NPR.org. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Everett, Walter. The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver through the Anthology. Oxford University Press, USA, 1999, p. 104
Jump up ^ https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/john-lennon-the-rolling-stone-interview-19681123?page=2
Jump up ^ Morgan, David. "Lennon's "Lucy in the Sky" lyrics sell for $230K". CBS News. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Rolling Stone 2003.
Jump up ^ Unterberger 2009.
Jump up ^ Jones 2007.
Jump up ^ Saunders, Hilary (28 August 2015). "The 50 Best Beatles Songs". Paste. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
Jump up ^ songfacts.com.
Jump up ^ Winn 2009, pp. 91–92.
Jump up ^ "Ultimate Classic Rock". Retrieved 10 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Anon. "Judy in Disguise Lyrics by John Fred". CD Universe. CD Universe/Muze Inc. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Hawtin, Steve. "Song title 888 - Judy in Disguise (With Glasses)". tsort.info. tsort. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
Jump up ^ DeRogatis, Jim (2003). Turn on Your Mind: Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 263. ISBN 0-634-05548-8.
Jump up ^ Johanson & Edey 1981, p. 22.
Jump up ^ Chang, Kenneth (JAN. 6, 2017). "A Metal Ball the Size of Massachusetts That NASA Wants to Explore". New York Times. Retrieved 9 January 2017. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Aguilar, David. "This Valentine's Day, Give The Woman Who Has Everything The Galaxy's Largest Diamond" (Press release). Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Mashima, Hiro (2008). Fairy Tail, Volume 2. Del Rey Manga. ISBN 978-0-345-50330-5.
Jump up ^ "RIAA – Searchable Database: Elton John". Retrieved 30 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Sheff 2000, p. 31.
Jump up ^ "Elton John Band Featuring John Lennon And Muscle Shoals Horns, The* - 28th November, 1974 at Discogs". Discogs.com. 28 November 1974. Retrieved 30 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Lucy in the sky with diamonds in Canadian Top Singles Chart". Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Elton John – Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds". GfK Entertainment Charts.
Jump up ^ "Indice per Interprete: J". HitParadeItalia (it). Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Elton John – Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "1974 Top 40 Official UK Singles Archive - 14 December 1974". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy awards". AllMusic. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Flaming Lips Announce Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band Tribute Album Release Date". Pitchfork. 16 May 2014. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Flaming Lips' 'Sgt. Peppers' Tribute Album Out this Fall". Rolling Stone. 16 May 2014. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "First Listen: The Flaming Lips, 'With A Little Help From My Fwends'". NPR.org. 19 October 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "HMV Planet Japan: Dr Jan Guru".
Jump up ^ Flávio Ricco (15 July 2014). "Globo escala The Beatles para tema de abertura de "Império"". UOL.
Jump up ^ G1 (21 July 2014). "Dan Torres canta 'Lucy in the sky with diamonds' na abertura de 'Império'". G1 - Música.
Jump up ^ "Pink Sings the Beatles Lucy in the Sky With Daimonds".
Bibliography[edit]
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds". AllMusic. January 2010.
The Beatles - Complete Scores. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation. 1993. ISBN 0-7935-1832-6.
"Beatles song 'inspiration' dies". BBC News. 28 September 2009.
"The Beatles' Lucy in the Sky dies, aged 46". The Guardian. London. 28 September 2009. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
The Beatles (2000). The Beatles Anthology. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. ISBN 0-8118-2684-8.
Brooks, Richard (7 June 2009). "Julian Lennon comforts ailing Lucy in the sky". The Times. London.
Compton, Todd (2017). Who Wrote the Beatle Songs? A History of Lennon-McCartney. San Jose: Pahreah Press. ISBN 978-0-9988997-0-1.
Everett, Walter (1999). The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver Through the Anthology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512941-0.
Hoyle, Ben (28 September 2009). "Real-life 'Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds' dies at 46". The Times. London.
Johanson, Donald Carl; Edey, Maitland (1981). Lucy, the Beginnings of Humankind. St Albans: Granada. ISBN 0-586-08437-1.
Jones, Chris (2007). "Review of The Beatles Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band". BBC News. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
Shriver, Jerry (23 November 2009). "Julian Lennon, Decade Later, Back in Music Biz With 'Lucy'". USA Today. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
Kral, Georgia (9 June 2009). "Julian Lennon Aids Real-Life 'Lucy'". Spinner.
Kung, Michelle (28 September 2009). "Lucy Vodden, of "Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds" Song Fame, Dies". The Wall Street Journal.
Lewisohn, Mark (1988). The Beatles Recording Sessions. New York: Harmony Books. ISBN 0-517-57066-1.
"Lucy In The Sky with Diamonds Songfacts".
MacDonald, Ian (2005). Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties (Second Revised ed.). London: Pimlico (Rand). ISBN 1-84413-828-3.
Miles, Barry (1997). Paul McCartney: Many Years From Now. New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 0-8050-5249-6.
Ryan, Kevin; Kehew, Brian (2006). Recording The Beatles. Curvebender Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9785200-0-7.
Sheff, David (2000). All We Are Saying: The Last Major Interview with John Lennon and Yoko Ono. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-25464-4.
Sherwin, Adam (1 June 2007). "Housewife Lucy, formerly in the sky with diamonds". The Australian.
"Sir Paul Reveals Beatles' Drug Use". BBC News. 2 June 2004.
Unterberger, Richie (2009). "Review of 'Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds'". AllMusic. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
Winn, John C. (2009). That Magic Feeling: The Beatles' Recorded Legacy, Volume Two, 1966–1970. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-307-45239-9.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Alan W. Pollack's Notes on "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"Angie Baby" by Helen Reddy Billboard Hot 100 number-one single (Elton John version)
4 January 1975 – 11 January 1975 (two weeks) Succeeded by
"Mandy" by Barry Manilow
Preceded by
"Kung Fu Fighting" by Carl Douglas Canadian RPM number-one single (Elton John version)
11 January 1975 – 1 February 1975 (four weeks) Succeeded by
"Please Mr. Postman" by The Carpenters
[show]
v
t
e
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Songs
Side one
"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band"
"With a Little Help from My Friends"
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
"Getting Better"
"Fixing a Hole"
"She's Leaving Home"
"Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!"
Side two
"Within You Without You"
"When I'm Sixty-Four"
"Lovely Rita"
"Good Morning Good Morning"
"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (Reprise)"
"A Day in the Life"
Non-album single
"Strawberry Fields Forever"
"Penny Lane"
Outtakes
"Only a Northern Song"
"Carnival of Light"
Tribute albums
Easy Star's Lonely Hearts Dub Band
Sgt. Pepper Knew My Father
Sgt. Pepper Live
Sgt. Petsound's Lonely Hearts Club Band
With a Little Help from My Fwends
Related articles
The Beatles discography
The Beatles' studio years
Sgt. Pepper's cover
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (film)
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (soundtrack)
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band on the Road
Yellow Submarine (film)
Their Satanic Majesties Request
"Tina in the Sky with Diamonds"
Please Please Me
With the Beatles
A Hard Day's Night
Beatles for Sale
Help!
Rubber Soul
Revolver
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Magical Mystery Tour
The Beatles (White Album)
Yellow Submarine
Abbey Road
Let It Be
Past Masters
[show]
v
t
e
Elton John songs
1960s and 1970s
"Skyline Pigeon" (1968)
"I've Been Loving You" (1968)
"Lady Samantha" (1969)
"It's Me That You Need" (1969)
"Border Song" (1970)
"Rock and Roll Madonna" (1970)
"From Denver to L.A." (1970)
"Take Me to the Pilot" (1970)
"Your Song" (1970)
"Friends" (1971)
"Levon" (1971)
"Tiny Dancer" (1972)
"Rocket Man" (1972)
"Honky Cat" (1972)
"I Think I'm Going to Kill Myself" (1972)
"Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters" (1972)
"Crocodile Rock" (1972)
"Elderberry Wine" (1972)
"Daniel" (1972)
"Teacher I Need You" (1973)
"Funeral for a Friend/Love Lies Bleeding" (1973)
"Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting" (1973)
"Goodbye Yellow Brick Road" (1973)
"Step into Christmas" (1973)
"Candle in the Wind" (1974)
"Bennie and the Jets" (1974)
"Harmony" (1974)
"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me" (1974)
"The Bitch Is Back" (1974)
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" (1974)
"Philadelphia Freedom" (1975)
"I Saw Her Standing There" (1975)
"Someone Saved My Life Tonight" (1975)
"Island Girl" (1975)
"Grow Some Funk of Your Own" (1976)
"I Feel Like a Bullet (In the Gun of Robert Ford)" (1976)
"Pinball Wizard" (1976)
"Don't Go Breaking My Heart" (1976)
"Cage the Songbird" (1976)
"Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word" (1976)
"Bite Your Lip (Get Up and Dance!)" (1977)
"Crazy Water" (1977)
"The Goaldiggers Song" (1977)
"Ego" (1978)
"Part-Time Love" (1978)
"Song for Guy" (1978)
"Are You Ready for Love" (1979)
"Mama Can't Buy You Love" (1979)
"Johnny B. Goode" (1979)
1980s
"Little Jeannie" (1980)
"Sartorial Eloquence (Don't Ya Wanna Play This Game No More?)" (1980)
"Dear God" (1980)
"Whatever Gets You thru the Night" (1981)
"Loving You Is Sweeter Than Ever" (with Kiki Dee, 1981)
"Blue Eyes" (1982)
"Empty Garden (Hey Hey Johnny)" (1982)
"Ball and Chain" (1982)
"All Quiet on the Western Front" (1982)
"I Guess That's Why They Call It the Blues" (1983)
"I'm Still Standing" (1983)
"Sad Songs (Say So Much)" (1984)
"Nikita" (1985)
"That's What Friends Are For" (1985)
"Wrap Her Up" (1985)
"Take Me to the Pilot" (1988)
"I Don't Wanna Go on with You Like That" (1988)
"Town of Plenty" (1988)
"Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters (Part Two)" (1988)
"Healing Hands" (1989)
"Sacrifice" (1989)
1990s
"Club at the End of the Street" (1990)
"You Gotta Love Someone" (1990)
"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me" (1991)
"The One" (1992)
"Runaway Train" (1992)
"The Last Song" (1992)
"Simple Life" (1993)
"True Love" (1993)
"Shakey Ground" (1994)
"Ain't Nothing Like the Real Thing" (1994)
"Can You Feel the Love Tonight" (1994)
"Circle of Life" (1994)
"Believe" (1995)
"Made in England" (1995)
"When the Money's Gone" (1995)
"You Can Make History (Young Again)" (1996)
"The Madness of King Scar" (1997)
"Something About the Way You Look Tonight" (1997)
"Candle in the Wind 1997" (1997)
"Written in the Stars" (1999)
2000s
"I Want Love" (2001)
"This Train Don't Stop There Anymore" (2002)
"Original Sin" (2002)
"Are You Ready for Love" (2003)
"Ghetto Gospel" (2005)
"Electricity" (2005)
"The Bridge" (2006)
"Joseph, Better You than Me" (2008)
"Tiny Dancer (Hold Me Closer)" (2009)
Related articles
Albums discography
Videography
Book:Elton John
Category:Elton John
[show]
v
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e
Miley Cyrus songs
Discography
Meet Miley Cyrus
"See You Again"
"Start All Over"
"I Miss You"
Breakout
"Breakout"
"7 Things"
"Fly on the Wall"
The Time of Our Lives
"Party In The U.S.A."
"When I Look at You"
"The Climb"
Can't Be Tamed
"Liberty Walk"
"Who Owns My Heart"
"Can't Be Tamed"
"Every Rose Has Its Thorn"
Bangerz
"Adore You"
"We Can't Stop"
"SMS (Bangerz)"
"4x4"
"Wrecking Ball"
"#GetItRight"
"Drive"
"FU"
"Someone Else"
Miley Cyrus & Her Dead Petz
"Dooo It!"
"BB Talk"
"Lighter"
Younger Now
"Younger Now"
"Malibu"
"Week Without You"
"Inspired"
Collaborations
"Ready, Set, Don't Go"
"Send It On"
"Just Stand Up!"
"We Are the World 25 for Haiti"
"Nothing to Lose"
"Decisions"
"Ashtrays and Heartbreaks"
"Fall Down"
"23"
"Real and True"
"Feelin' Myself"
"Come Get It Bae"
"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds"
Other songs
"I Thought I Lost You"
"Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town"
"Part of Your World"
"Hoedown Throwdown"
"I Hope You Find It"
"Butterfly Fly Away"
"My Sad Christmas Song"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucy_in_the_Sky_with_Diamonds&oldid=803144428"
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