text:
Aer Lingus destinations
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Aer Lingus serve the following destinations as of November 2016:[1]
The airline currently operates scheduled and limited charter flights to/from a total of 92 airports, across 24 countries. Some destinations are served seasonally as indicated and some routes are operated under the Aer Lingus Regional brand by Stobart Air.[1] Aer Lingus also serves over an additional 100 destinations across the world through codeshare and interline agreements with Air Canada, British Airways, Etihad Airways, Flybe, JetBlue and United Airlines.[1][2]
List[edit]
Aer Lingus Airbus A320-200
Aer Lingus Airbus A330-200
Aer Lingus Regional ATR 72-600
[Hub] Hub
[Base] Operating base
[F] Future destination
[S] Seasonal
City
Country
IATA
ICAO
Airport
Notes
Refs
Aberdeen United Kingdom ABZ EGPD Aberdeen Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Alicante Spain ALC LEAL Alicante–Elche Airport
Amsterdam Netherlands AMS EHAM Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
Athens Greece ATH LGAV Athens International Airport
Barcelona Spain BCN LEBL Barcelona–El Prat Airport
Belfast United Kingdom BHD EGAC George Best Belfast City Airport [Base]
Berlin Germany TXL EDDT Berlin Tegel Airport
Bilbao Spain BIO LEBB Bilbao Airport
Birmingham United Kingdom BHX EGBB Birmingham Airport
Bologna Italy BLQ LIPE Bologna Guglielmo Marconi Airport
Bordeaux France BOD LFBD Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport
Boston United States BOS KBOS Logan International Airport
Bristol United Kingdom BRS EGGD Bristol Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Brussels Belgium BRU EBBR Brussels Airport
Budapest Hungary BUD LHBP Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport
Burgas Bulgaria BOJ LBBG Burgas Airport
Catania Italy CTA LICC Catania–Fontanarossa Airport
Chicago United States ORD KORD Chicago O'Hare International Airport
Corfu Greece CFU LGKR Corfu International Airport
Cork Ireland ORK EICK Cork Airport [Base]
Donegal Ireland CFN EIDL Donegal Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Dublin Ireland DUB EIDW Dublin Airport [Hub]
Dubrovnik Croatia DBV LDDU Dubrovnik Airport
Düsseldorf Germany DUS EDDL Düsseldorf Airport
Edinburgh United Kingdom EDI EGPH Edinburgh Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Faro Portugal FAO LPFR Faro Airport
Frankfurt Germany FRA EDDF Frankfurt Airport
Fuerteventura Spain FUE GCFV Fuerteventura Airport
Geneva Switzerland GVA LSGG Geneva Airport
Glasgow United Kingdom GLA EGPF Glasgow Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Gran Canaria Spain LPA GCLP Gran Canaria Airport
Hamburg Germany HAM EDDH Hamburg Airport
Hartford United States BDL KBDL Bradley International Airport
Isle of Man Isle of Man IOM EGNS Isle of Man Airport Aer Lingus Regional
İzmir Turkey ADB LTBJ Adnan Menderes Airport
Jersey Jersey JER EGJJ Jersey Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Kerry Ireland KIR EIKY Kerry Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Knock Ireland NOC EIKN Ireland West Airport Knock
Lanzarote Spain ACE GCRR Lanzarote Airport
Leeds United Kingdom LBA EGNM Leeds Bradford Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Lisbon Portugal LIS LPPT Lisbon Portela Airport
London United Kingdom LGW EGKK Gatwick Airport
London United Kingdom LHR EGLL Heathrow Airport
Los Angeles United States LAX KLAX Los Angeles International Airport
Lyon France LYS LFLL Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport
Madrid Spain MAD LEMD Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport
Málaga Spain AGP LEMG Málaga Airport
Manchester United Kingdom MAN EGCC Manchester Airport
Marseille France MRS LFML Marseille Provence Airport
Miami United States MIA KMIA Miami International Airport [3]
Milan Italy LIN LIML Linate Airport
Milan Italy MXP LIMC Milan–Malpensa Airport
Montpellier France MPL LFMT Montpellier–Méditerranée Airport
Munich Germany MUC EDDM Munich Airport
Murcia Spain MJV LELC Murcia–San Javier Airport
Nantes France NTE LFRS Nantes Atlantique Airport
Naples Italy NAP LIRN Naples International Airport
New York City United States JFK KJFK John F. Kennedy International Airport
Newark United States EWR KEWR Newark Liberty International Airport
Newcastle upon Tyne United Kingdom NCL EGNT Newcastle Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Newquay United Kingdom NQY EGHQ Cornwall Airport Newquay Aer Lingus Regional
Nice France NCE LFMN Nice Côte d'Azur Airport
Orlando United States MCO KMCO Orlando International Airport
Palma, Majorca Spain PMI LEPA Palma de Mallorca Airport
Paris France CDG LFPG Charles de Gaulle Airport
Perpignan France PGF LFMP Perpignan–Rivesaltes Airport
Philadelphia United States PHL KPHL Philadelphia International Airport
Pisa Italy PSA LIRP Pisa International Airport
Prague Czech Republic PRG LKPR Václav Havel Airport Prague
Pula Croatia PUY LDPL Pula Airport
Rennes France RNS LFRN Rennes–Saint-Jacques Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Reykjavík Iceland KEF BIKF Keflavík International Airport [4]
Rome Italy FCO LIRF Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport
Rovaniemi Finland RVN EFRO Rovaniemi Airport [4]
Salzburg Austria SZG LOWS Salzburg Airport [4]
San Francisco United States SFO KSFO San Francisco International Airport
Santiago de Compostela Spain SCQ LEST Santiago de Compostela Airport
Seattle
Begins 18 May 2018 United States SEA KSEA Seattle-Tacoma International Airport [5]
Shannon Ireland SNN EINN Shannon Airport [Base]
Southampton United Kingdom SOU EGHI Southampton Airport Aer Lingus Regional
Split Croatia SPU LDSP Split Airport [3]
Stuttgart Germany STR EDDS Stuttgart Airport
Tenerife Spain TFS GCTS Tenerife–South Airport
Toronto Canada YYZ CYYZ Toronto Pearson International Airport
Toulouse France TLS LFBO Toulouse–Blagnac Airport
Venice Italy VCE LIPZ Venice Marco Polo Airport
Verona Italy VRN LIPX Verona Villafranca Airport
Vienna Austria VIE LOWW Vienna International Airport
Washington, D.C. United States IAD KIAD Washington Dulles International Airport
Zürich Switzerland ZRH LSZH Zürich Airport
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Aer Lingus Route Map". Aer Lingus Group DAC and Aer Lingus Ltd. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Our Airline Partners". Aer Lingus Group DAC and Aer Lingus Ltd. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Aer Lingus announces new routes to Miami, Porto and Split". RTÉ News. Retrieved 15 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Aer Lingus Cargo Winter 2016 -2017 effective October 30" (PDF). Aer Lingus Cargo. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 October 2016. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Seattle-Dublin nonstop flights to begin in May 2018". Seattle Times. 17 November 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2017.
External links[edit]
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History of Saint Petersburg
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Main article: Saint Petersburg
The Bronze Horseman, monument to Peter the Great
Founded by Tsar Peter the Great on 27 May 1703, Saint Petersburg was built by Swedish prisoners from the Great Northern War (1700-1721). It became capital of the Russian Empire for more than two hundred years (1712–1728, 1732–1918). St. Petersburg ceased being the capital in 1918 after the Russian Revolution of 1917.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 The new capital
2 Revolutions
3 Siege of Leningrad
4 Postwar reconstruction
4.1 Timeline of post-war recovery
4.1.1 1945 – 1970s
4.1.2 1946
4.1.3 1947
4.1.4 1949
4.1.5 1955
4.1.6 1960s
4.1.7 1970s
4.1.8 2003
4.1.9 2004
5 Postwar history
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
The new capital[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Peter and Paul Cathedral in Peter and Paul Fortress
Peter the Great's Palace, built in 1714–1725 in Peterhof
Menshikov Palace, the seat of the first Governor
Narva Triumphal Gate at the Stachek Square.
The Winter Palace was stormed by Bolshevik communists at night in October 1917
On 1 May 1703, Peter the Great took both the Swedish fortress of Nyenschantz and the city of Nyen, on the Neva river. Tsar Peter the Great founded the city on 27 May 1703 (in the Gregorian calendar, 16 May in the Julian calendar) after he reconquered the Ingrian land from Sweden, in the Great Northern War. He named the city after his patron saint, the apostle Saint Peter. The original spelling in three words Sankt-Piter-burkh (Санкт-Питер-Бурх) uses Latin: Sankt, as in Sankt Goar and some other European cities (is a common misconception about the "Dutch cultural origin"; for local versions, there are "Sant"[2] or Sint in modern Dutch. Besides Netherlands, Peter the Great also spent three months in Great Britain so it is preferable to speak about the general European experience which influenced the tsar.)
"St. Petersburg" is actually used as an English equivalent to three variant forms of the name: originally Санкт-Питер-Бурх (Sankt Piter-Burkh), later Санкт-Петерсбурх (Sankt Petersburkh), and then Санкт-Петербург (Sankt Peterburg). The full name is often substituted by the abbreviation SPb (СПб). "Sankt" was usually confined to writing; people usually called it Петербург (Peterburg) or the common nickname Питер (Piter). Petrograd (Петроград), the name given in 1914 on the outbreak of World War I to avoid the German sound of Petersburg, was a Slavic translation of the previous name. The name was changed to Leningrad (Ленинград) in 1924.
The city was built under adverse weather and geographical conditions. The high mortality rate required a constant supply of workers. Peter ordered a yearly conscription of 40,000 serfs, one conscript for every nine to sixteen households. Conscripts had to provide their own tools and food for the journey of hundreds of kilometres, on foot, in gangs, often escorted by military guards and shackled to prevent desertion, but many escaped; others died from disease and exposure under the harsh conditions.[3]
The new city's first building was the Peter and Paul Fortress, which originally also bore the name of Sankt Pieterburg. It was laid down on Zayachy (Hare's) Island, just off the right bank of the Neva, three miles inland from the Gulf. The marshland was drained and the city spread outward from the fortress under the supervision of German and Dutch engineers whom Peter had invited to Russia. Peter restricted the construction of stone buildings in all of Russia outside St Petersburg so that all stonemasons would come to help build the new city.[4]
At the same time Peter hired a large number of engineers, architects, shipbuilders, scientists and businessmen from all countries of Europe. Substantial immigration of educated professionals eventually turned St. Petersburg into a much more cosmopolitan city than Moscow and the rest of Russia. Peter's efforts to push for modernisation in Moscow and the rest of Russia were completely misunderstood by the old-fashioned Russian nobility and eventually failed, causing him much trouble with opposition, including several attempts on his life and the treason involving his own son.[5]
Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712, nine years before the Treaty of Nystad. Called the "window to Europe", it was a seaport and also a base for Peter's navy, protected by the fortress of Kronstadt. The first person to build a home in Saint Petersburg was Cornelis Cruys, commander of the Baltic Fleet. Inspired by Venice and Amsterdam, Peter the Great proposed boats and coracles as means of transport in his city of canals. Initially there were only 12 permanent bridges over smaller waterways, while the Bolshaya Neva was crossed by boats in the summertime and by foot or horse carriages during winter. A pontoon bridge over Neva was built every summer.
Peter was impressed by the Versailles and other palaces in Europe. His official palace of a comparable importance in Peterhof was the first suburban palace permanently used by the Tsar as the primary official residence and the place for official receptions and state balls. The waterfront palace, Monplaisir, and the Great Peterhof Palace were built between 1714 and 1725.[6] In 1716, Prussia's King presented a gift to Tsar Peter: the Amber Room.[7]
Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov, Peter's best friend, was the first Governor General of Saint Petersburg Governorate in 1703–1727. In 1724 St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences was established in the city. After the death of Peter the Great, Menshikov was arrested and exiled to Siberia. In 1728 Peter II of Russia moved the capital back to Moscow, but 4 years later, in 1732, St. Petersburg again became the capital of Russia and remained the seat of the government for about two centuries.
St. Petersburg prospered under the rule of two most powerful women in Russian history. Peter's daughter, Empress Elizabeth, reigned from 1740 to 1762, without a single execution in 22 years. She cut taxes, downsized government, and was known for masqerades and festivities, amassing a wardrobe of about 12 thousand dresses, most of them now preserved as museum art pieces. She supported the Russian Academy of Sciences and completed both the Winter Palace and the Summer Palace, which then became residences of Empress Catherine the Great, who reigned for 34 years, from 1762 to 1796. Under her rule, which exemplified that of an enlightened despot, more palaces were built in St. Petersburg than in any other capital in the world.[8]
Revolutions[edit]
The Church of the Savior on Blood commemorates the spot where Tsar Alexander II was assassinated
The protected cruiser Aurora, symbol of the October Revolution, now a museum
Lenin's mug shot 1895
Several revolutions, uprisings, assassinations of Tsars, and power takeovers in St. Peterburg had shaped the course of history in Russia and influenced the world. In 1801, after the assassination of the Emperor Paul I, his son became the Emperor Alexander I. Alexander I ruled Russia during the Napoleonic Wars and expanded his Empire by acquisitions of Finland and part of Poland. His mysterious death in 1825 was marked by the Decembrist revolt, which was suppressed by the Emperor Nicholas I, who ordered execution of leaders and exiled hundreds of their followers to Siberia. Nicholas I then pushed for Russian nationalism by suppressing non-Russian nationalities and religions.[9]
Cultural revolution that followed after the Napoleonic wars, had further opened St. Petersburg up, in spite of repressions. The city's wealth and rapid growth had always attracted prominent intellectuals, scientists, writers and artists. St. Petersburg eventually gained international recognition as a gateway for trade and business, as well as a cosmopolitan cultural hub. The works of Aleksandr Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Fyodor Dostoyevsky and numerous others brought Russian literature to the world. Music, theatre and ballet became firmly established and gained international stature.
The son of Emperor Nicholas I, Emperor Alexander II implemented the most challenging reforms[10] undertaken in Russia since the reign of Peter the Great. The emancipation of the serfs (1861) caused the influx of large numbers of poor into the capital. Tenements were erected on the outskirts, and nascent industry sprang up, surpassing Moscow in population and industrial growth. By 1900, St. Petersburg had grown into one of the largest industrial hubs in Europe, an important international center of power, business and politics, and the 4th largest city in Europe.
With the growth of industry, radical movements were also astir. Socialist organizations were responsible for the assassinations of many public figures, government officials, members of the royal family, and the Tsar himself. Tsar Alexander II was killed by a suicide bomber Ignacy Hryniewiecki in 1881, in a plot with connections to the family of Lenin and other revolutionaries. The Revolution of 1905 initiated here and spread rapidly into the provinces. During World War I, the name Sankt Peterburg was seen to be too German, so the city was renamed Petrograd.[11]
1917 saw next stages of the Russian Revolution,[12] and re-emergence of the Communist party led by Lenin, who declared "Guns give us the power" and "All power to the Soviets!"[13] After the February Revolution, the Tsar Nicholas II was arrested and the Tsar's government was replaced by two opposing centers of political power: the "pro-democracy" Provisional government and the "pro-communist" Petrograd Soviet.[14] Then the Provisional government was overthrown by the communists in the October Revolution,[15] causing the Russian Civil War.
The city's proximity to anti-Soviet armies forced communist leader Vladimir Lenin to move his government to Moscow on 5 March 1918. The move was disguised as temporary, but Moscow has remained the capital ever since. On 24 January 1924, three days after Lenin's death, Petrograd was renamed Leningrad. The Communist party's reason for renaming the city again was that Lenin had led the revolution. After the Civil War, and murder of the Tsar Nicholas II and his family, as well as millions of anti-Soviet people, the renaming to Leningrad was designed to destroy last hopes among the resistance, and show strong dictatorship of Lenin's communist party and the Soviet regime.[16][17]
St. Petersburg was devastated by Lenin's Red Terror[18] then by Stalin's Great Purge[19] in addition to crime and vandalism in the series of revolutions and wars. Between 1917 and 1930s, about two million people fled the city, including hundreds of thousands of educated intellectuals and aristocracy, who emigrated to Europe and America. At the same time many political, social and paramilitary groups had followed the communist government in their move to Moscow, as the benefits of capital status had left the city. In 1931 Leningrad administratively separated from Leningrad Oblast.
In 1934 the popular governor of Leningrad, Kirov, was assassinated, because Stalin apparently became increasingly paranoid about Kirov's growth.[20] The death of Kirov was used to ignite the Great Purge[21] where supporters of Trotsky and other suspected "enemies of the Soviet state" were arrested. Then a series of "criminal" cases, known as the Leningrad Centre and Leningrad Affair,[22] were fabricated and resulted in death sentences for many top leaders of Leningrad, and severe repressions of thousands of top officials and intellectuals.
Siege of Leningrad[edit]
Main article: Siege of Leningrad
During World War II, Leningrad was surrounded and besieged by the German Wehrmacht from 8 September 1941 to 27 January 1944, a total of 29 months. By Hitler's order the Wehrmacht constantly shelled and bombed the city and systematically isolated it from any supplies, causing death of more than 1 million civilians in 3 years; 650,000 died in 1942 alone[23] The secret instruction from 23 September 1941 said: "the Führer is determined to eliminate the city of Petersburg from the face of earth. There is no reason whatsoever for subsequent existence of this large-scale city after the neutralization of the Soviet Russia." Starting in early 1942, Ingria was included into the Generalplan Ost annexation plans as the "German settlement area". This implied the genocide of 3 million Leningrad residents, who had no place in Hitler's "New East European Order".
Hitler ordered preparations for victory celebrations at the Tsar's Palaces. The Germans looted art from museums and palaces, as well as from private homes. All looted treasures, such as the Amber Room, gold statues of the Peterhof Palace, paintings and other valuable art were taken to Germany. Hitler also prepared a party to celebrate his victory at the hotel Astoria. A printed invitation to Hitler's reception ball at the Hotel Astoria is now on display at the City Museum of St. Petersburg.
During the siege of 1941 – 1944, the only ways to supply the city and suburbs, inhabited by several millions, were by aircraft or by cars crossing the frozen Lake Ladoga. The German military systematically shelled this route, called the Road of Life, so thousands of cars with people and food supplies had sank in the lake. The situation in the city was especially horrible in the winter of 1941 – 1942. The German bombing raids destroyed most of the food reserves. Daily food ration was cut in October to 400 grams of bread for a worker and 200 grams for a woman or child. On 20 November 1941, the rations were reduced to 250 and 125 grams respectively. Those grams of bread were the bulk of a daily meal for a person in the city. The water supply was destroyed. The situation further worsened in winter due to lack of heating fuel. In December 1941 alone some 53,000 people in Leningrad died of starvation, many corpses were scattered in the streets all over the city.
"Savichevs died. Everyone died. Only Tanya is left," wrote 11-year-old Leningrad girl Tanya Savicheva in her diary. It became one of the symbols of the blockade tragedy and was shown as one of many documents at the Nuremberg trials.
The city suffered severe destruction – the Wehrmacht fired about 150,000 shells at Leningrad and the Luftwaffe dropped about 100,000 air bombs. Many houses, schools, hospitals and other buildings were leveled, and those in the occupied territory were plundered by German troops.
As a result of the siege, about 1.2 million of 3 million Leningrad civilians lost their lives because of bombardment, starvation, infections and stress. Hundreds of thousands of unregistered civilians, who lived in Leningrad prior to WWII, had perished in the siege without any record at all. About 1 million civilians escaped with evacuation, mainly by foot. After two years of the siege, Leningrad became an empty "ghost-city" with thousands of ruined and abandoned homes.
For the heroic resistance of the city and tenacity of the survivors of the siege, Leningrad became the first to receive the Hero City title, as awarded in 1945.
Postwar reconstruction[edit]
Saint Petersburg TV Tower (326 m high)
This caption requires cleanup. (November 2017)
Kirov Stadium
This caption requires cleanup. (November 2017)
Hotel Pribaltiyskaya
The war damaged the city and killed many old Petersburgers who had not fled after the revolution and did not perish in the mass purges before the war. Nonetheless, Leningrad and many of its suburbs were rebuilt over the post-war decades, partially according to the pre-war plans. In 1950 the Kirov Stadium was opened and soon set a record when 110,000 fans attended a football match. In 1955 the Leningrad Metro, the second underground rapid transit system in the country, was opened with its first six stations decorated with marble and bronze.
Timeline of post-war recovery[edit]
1945 – 1970s[edit]
Re-building and restoration of thousands of buildings, industries, schools, transport, energy supplies and infrastructure.
Restoration of the destroyed suburban museums, palaces, and other historic and cultural landmarks and treasures.
Explosions of land-mines left behind cause numerous deaths among citizens.[24]
1946[edit]
January – December. Some schools, universities, and colleges returned to studies.
January – December. Some theatres and movies were opened for public.
1947[edit]
May. Fountains of Peterhof park were opened for public again. But the palaces were in ruins for the next several decades.
1949[edit]
Stalin set up a plot to have the leaders of the city government arrested and killed. Aleksei Kuznetsov, Nikolai Voznesensky, P. Popkov, Ya. Kapustin, P. Lazutin, and several more, who were heroic and efficient in defending Leningrad, and became very popular figures. They were arrested on false accusations. Stalin's plot to kill the leaders of Leningrad was kept top-secret in the former Soviet Union. It is now known as the Leningrad Affair.
1955[edit]
Leningrad Metro, which was designed before the war in the 1930s to serve as underground shelter, was completed after the war and opened in 1955 with its first seven stations decorated with marble and bronze. It became the second underground rapid transit system in the country.
Population of Leningrad with suburbs had increased in the 10 post-war years from under 0,8 million to about 4 million.
1960s[edit]
House-Museum of Ilya Repin is restored in the northern suburb of Repino, and open to public. However, most original paintings and personal items of the artist remain missing since the Finnish army was here during WWII.
1970s[edit]
Memorial to Defenders and Survivors of the Siege of Leningrad is erected at the former defence lines on Moskovsky Prospekt near Pulkovo Airport.
2003[edit]
May. The Amber Room was re-created with the sponsorship of Germany. It is open for public in the completely restored Catherine Palace.
May, 27—31 marked the 300-year anniversary of the city.
2004[edit]
January. 60th Anniversary of the Lifting of the Siege of Leningrad in 1944 was officially celebrated in St. Petersburg on 27 January 2004. About twelve thousand survivors of the siege who were children at the time of WWII, are now living on state pension in St. Petersburg and suburbs. Tens of thousands of other survivors, who were evacuated from besieged Leningrad as children, are still living in Russia and other countries across the world.
Postwar history[edit]
However, during the late 1940s and 1950s, the entire political and cultural elite of Leningrad suffered from more harsh repressions under dictatorship of Stalin,[25] hundreds were executed and thousands were imprisoned in repressions known as the Leningrad Affair.[26] Independent thinkers, writers, artists and other intellectuals were attacked, magazines "Zvezda" and "Leningrad" were banned, Akhmatova and Zoshchenko were repressed,[27] and tens of thousands Leningraders were exiled to Siberia. More crackdowns on the Leningrad's intellectual elite, known as the "Second Leningrad affair", were part of unfair economic policies of the Soviet state. Leningrad's economy was producing about 6% of the USSR GNP, having less than 2% of the country's population, but such economic efficiency was negated by the Soviet Communist Party which diverted the earned income from people of Leningrad to other Soviet places and programs. As a result, during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, the city of Leningrad was seriously underfunded in favor of Moscow. Leningrad suffered from the unfair distribution of wealth, because the Soviet leadership drained the city's resources to subsidise higher standards of living in Moscow and some underperforming parts of the Soviet Union and beyond. Such unfair redistribution of wealth caused struggle within the Soviet government and communist party, which led to their fragmentation and played a role in the eventual collapse of the USSR.
On 12 June 1991, the day of the first Russian presidential election, in a referendum 54% of voters chose to restore "the original name, Saint Petersburg", on 6 September 1991. In the same election Anatoly Sobchak became the first democratically elected mayor of the city.[28] Among the first initiatives of Sobchak was his efforts to minimise the federal control by Moscow to keep the income from St. Petersburg's economy in the city.
Original names returned to 39 streets, six bridges, three Saint Petersburg Metro stations and six parks. Older people sometimes use old names and old mailing addresses. The name Leningrad was heavily promoted in media, mainly in connection with the siege, so even authorities may call it "Hero city Leningrad." Young people may use Leningrad as a vague protest against some social and economic changes. A popular ska punk band from Saint Petersburg is called Leningrad.
Leningrad Oblast retained its name after a popular vote. It is a separate federal subject of Russia of which the city of St. Petersburg is the capital.
In 1996, Vladimir Yakovlev was elected the head of the Saint Petersburg City Administration, and changed his title from "mayor" to "governor." In 2003, Yakovlev resigned a year before his second term expired. Valentina Matviyenko was elected governor. In 2006 she was reapproved as governor by the city legislature.
The Constitutional Court of Russia is scheduled to move to the former Senate and Synod buildings at the Decembrists Square in St. Petersburg by 2008. The move will partially restore Saint Petersburg's historic status, making the city the second judicial capital.
See also[edit]
Timeline of Saint Petersburg history
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Nicholas and Alexandra: An Intimate Account of the Last of the Romanovs and the Fall of Imperial Russia (Athenum, 1967) by Robert K. Massie, ASIN B000CGP8M2 (also, Ballantine Books, 2000, ISBN 0-345-43831-0 and Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 2005, ISBN 1-57912-433-X)
Jump up ^ Cf. Sant Georg am See in an article written in Dutch.
Jump up ^ Peter the Great: His Life and World (Knopf, 1980) by Robert K. Massie, ISBN 0-394-50032-6 (also Wings Books, 1991, ISBN 0-517-06483-9)
Jump up ^ The St. Petersburg of Peter the Great
Jump up ^ Matthew S. Anderson, Peter the Great (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978)
Jump up ^ St. Petersburg: Architecture of the Tsars. 360 pages. Abbeville Press, 1996. ISBN 0-7892-0217-4
Jump up ^ Peter the Great's amber room reborn
Jump up ^ St. Petersburg:Architecture of the Tsars. 360 pages. Abbeville Press, 1996. ISBN 0-7892-0217-4
Jump up ^ Edvard Radzinsky. Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar. New York: The Free Press, 2005. ISBN 0-7432-7332-X
Jump up ^ Edvard Radzinsky. Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar. New York: The Free Press, 2005. ISBN 0-7432-7332-X
Jump up ^ The Romanovs: The Final Chapter (Random House, 1995) by Robert K. Massie, ISBN 0-394-58048-6 and ISBN 0-679-43572-7
Jump up ^ Rex A. Wade The Russian Revolution, 1917 2005 Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-84155-0
Jump up ^ Tony Cliff "Lenin: All power to the Soviets" Lenin: All Power to the Soviets 1976 Pluto Press
Jump up ^ Pipes, Richard. The Russian Revolution (New York, 1990)
Jump up ^ Reed, John. Ten Days that Shook the World. 1919, 1st Edition, published by BONI & Liveright, Inc. for International Publishers. Transcribed and marked by David Walters for John Reed Internet Archive. Penguin Books; 1st edition. 1 June 1980. ISBN 0-14-018293-4
Jump up ^ Leon Trotsky. Memoir and Critique. New York, 1989.
Jump up ^ Felix Yusupov. Memoirs, Lost Splendor, New York, 1953.
Jump up ^ Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. By Robert Gellately, 2007, Random House, 720 pages. ISBN 1-4000-4005-1
Jump up ^ Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union by Barry McLoughlin and Kevin McDermott (eds). Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, p. 6
Jump up ^ Dmitri Volkogonov. Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, 1996, ISBN 0-7615-0718-3
Jump up ^ Great Purges: Great Purges Archived 17 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Spartacus Educational
Jump up ^ Stalin and the Betrayal of Leningrad by John Barber
Jump up ^ The siege of Leningrad 8 September 1941 – 27 January 1944 Archived 22 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Medics and the siege" a book by a group of Medical Doctors studying starvation, epidemics, stress, and other diseases during the siege of Leningrad. Russian original: "Медики и блокада" Татьяна Михайлова, Лидия Веришкина. 2005. St. Petersburg.
Jump up ^ Dmitri Volkogonov. Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy, 1996, ISBN 0-7615-0718-3
Jump up ^ Russian publication: Ленинградское дело – надо ли ставить кавычки? Archived 11 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Russian publication: Маленков против Жданова. Игры сталинских фаворитов. [1]
Jump up ^ Jack F. Matlock, Jr., Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador's Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union, Random House, 1995, ISBN 0-679-41376-6
Bibliography[edit]
See also: Timeline of Saint Petersburg § Bibliography
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The Kill
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the Thirty Seconds to Mars song. For other uses of the term, see The Kill (disambiguation).
"The Kill"
Single by Thirty Seconds to Mars
from the album A Beautiful Lie
Released
January 24, 2006 (2006-01-24)
Format
Compact Disc, digital download
Length
3:47
Label
Immortal
Virgin
Songwriter(s)
Jared Leto
Producer(s)
Josh Abraham
Thirty Seconds to Mars
Thirty Seconds to Mars singles chronology
"Attack"
(2005) "The Kill"
(2006) "From Yesterday"
(2006)
"Attack"
(2005) "The Kill"
(2006) "From Yesterday"
(2006)
"The Kill (Rebirth)"
Artwork for the UK version of the single.
Audio sample
file
help
Music video
"The Kill" on YouTube
"The Kill" (written "The Kill (Bury Me)" on the single and music video) is a song by American band Thirty Seconds to Mars, the song was released as the second single from their second album, A Beautiful Lie.
The cover art of the single depicts a Venus flytrap.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Music video
2.1 Plot
3 Track listing
4 Personnel
5 Charts
6 Accolades
7 Awards
8 In popular culture
9 Covers
10 References
11 External links
Overview[edit]
Jared Leto described the meaning of the song as, "It's really about a relationship with yourself. It's about confronting your fear and confronting the truth about who you are." He has also said it is about "confrontation as a crossroads" — coming face-to-face with who you really are.[1]
In September 2007, "The Kill" was re-released again in the UK. It was also available as a Compact Disc with a A Beautiful Lie poster and two stickers, and a special limited edition 7" vinyl version. The song is played in 6/8 time.
Two alternate versions of the songs exist: the "Rebirth" version, which adds in orchestral accompaniment and has no screaming, and an acoustic version featuring Brazilian singer Pitty that was only released in Brazil. On May 2, 2010, the band performed the song live with Chino Moreno from Deftones.
Music video[edit]
The video is a homage to the Stanley Kubrick's 1980 film The Shining based on the Stephen King novel. Several scenes are based on the film, such as when Shannon Leto enters Room 6277 and encounters the woman in the bathroom and another when Matt Wachter is served drinks at the bar by a doppelgänger apparition. The video culminates in an elegant ballroom in the same manner as the photo at the end of the film. At 2:07, the papers that Jared Leto has been typing are briefly made visible and the words on them appear to read, over and over, "This is who I really am." This is another allusion to The Shining, in which Jack Torrance types up pages and pages of the same line, "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy", over and over in the same sense. The scene with a man in a bear costume, in a bedroom, is also from The Shining.
As for the cinematography, Jared Leto adopted the split screen visual from working with Darren Aronofsky in Requiem for a Dream.
The haunted room number is changed from 237 to 6277 in the video because it spells out "Mars" on a telephone keypad. The number also makes an appearance in the video for "From Yesterday" and "Up in the Air."
Scenes from the music video - top: Jared Leto confronting himself. Bottom: The band perform the song to the 1920s-themed audience.
The music video was selected as the greatest rock video in the Kerrang Rock 100 on 27 June 2009.[2]
When the press release info for "The Kill" video was released, Jared stated that the video was directed by an albino Danish man named Bartholomew Cubbins. This was intended as a joke as Cubbins is the main character of the Dr. Seuss book The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins, however airings of the video on music channels still list Cubbins as the director. Bartholomew Cubbins has remained Jared Leto's alias for directing Thirty Seconds to Mars' videos (with the exception of the video for A Beautiful Lie). The hotel scenes in the video were filmed at The Carlu in Toronto, Ontario.[3]
Plot[edit]
The music video features the band exploring a hotel which they are care-taking. At the start, Jared Leto states that they have the hotel all to themselves for three days; although, later on, after the first chorus, it comes on the screen saying "One Week Later", before showing the pages saying "This is who I really am". In the extended version of the video, the other band members complain that they have been at the hotel longer than expected and have canceled shows because of Jared's peculiar behavior, explaining the discrepancy.
A letter from the hotel owner tells the band to "Enjoy your stay and please stay out of Room 6277." Shannon Leto does not heed the warning and opens Room 6277. Following the opening of the door, each band member begins to experience the effects of the room opening throughout the hotel. Each member experiences the effects differently, but one thing remains constant for each individual – they encounter a version of themselves dressed in a 1920s style tuxedo with tails. Several other apparitions then take up residence in the hotel, dispelling the promise Jared made in the beginning of the video that the band will have the hotel all to themselves and that "there's not gonna be a single fucking soul". The video reaches its climax when Tomo encounters himself in bed with a man in a bear suit (another Shining reference), and immediately the band dressed in tuxedos are shown performing the song in the hotel's ballroom in front of a crowd of twins, dressed like the roaring 1920's, dancing with themselves. The theme of duplicity resonates throughout the video.
Track listing[edit]
Standard
"The Kill (Bury Me)" – 3:52
"Attack" (live at CBGB, July 2006) – 4:06
"The Kill (Bury Me)" (acoustic, live on VH1) – 3:48
UK release
"The Kill (Rebirth)" – 3:52
"The Kill (Rebirth)" (acoustic, live on VH1) – 3:48
UK re-release
"The Kill (Rebirth)" – 3:52
"Was It a Dream?" (iTunes live session) – 3:46
Brazil release
"The Kill (acoustic)" (featuring Pitty) – 3:44
Personnel[edit]
Jared Leto – vocals, guitar
Tomo Miličević – guitar, programming
Matt Wachter – bass guitar, keyboard
Shannon Leto – drums
Matt Serletic – piano
Charts[edit]
The song broke a record on Billboard's Modern Rock Tracks chart by remaining on the chart for 52 weeks;[4][5][6] however, the song never made it to the top spot, peaking at number 3. Their next single, "From Yesterday", would be their first to reach the top, but spent less time on the charts than "The Kill". The song crossed to the Billboard Hot 100, where it peaked at number 65.
Chart (2006–2007)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[7]
20
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[8]
39
Germany (Official German Charts)[9]
36
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[10]
51
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[11]
22
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[12]
52
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[13]
28
US Billboard Hot 100[14]
65
US Adult Top 40 (Billboard)[15]
25
US Alternative Songs (Billboard)[16]
3
US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[17]
30
Accolades[edit]
Publication
Country
Accolade
Year
Rank
AOL Radio United States "Top Alternative Songs of the Decade - 2000s"[18] 2009 1
Awards[edit]
Won Best Single at the Kerrang! Awards 2007.
On August 31, 2006, the band won the MTV2 Award for "The Kill" at the MTV Video Music Awards, one of their two nominations. The second nomination was for best rock video; however, they lost to AFI's "Miss Murder".
"The Kill" was awarded Best Video of the Year and Best Rock Video at the MTV Australia Video Music Awards (AVMAs).
Won The Rock Out! Award at the 2007 MTV EMA's (Europe Music Awards).
In popular culture[edit]
The song is featured as one of the themes of The Invisible, and a live music video is included on the DVD releases, as well as the song being part of the soundtrack.
The song is featured in the January 21, 2007 Without a Trace episode, "Primed".
During the 2007 MTV Movie Awards, "The Kill" was played as the background music of the nomination screen for the film 300, which was nominated for the Best Movie award.
The song was featured in the October 25, 2007 episode of the television show Hollyoaks.
The song is available as downloadable content for Rock Band.[19]
The song is featured in the video games Guitar Hero World Tour and Guitar Hero Live.
The song is featured in the video game Rock Band Track Pack Volume 1 for the PlayStation 2 and Wii.
The song is used by the International Luge Federation for their TV live introductions.
Covers[edit]
The American Christian metal band Blood of the Martyrs recorded a cover of the song and released it as a single on November 23, 2011. The cover was a departure from the band's deathcore style, instead opting for a metalcore sound with clean vocals.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Thirty Seconds to Mars A Beautiful Lie CD/DVD Making of The Kill music video - Jared Leto & Matt Wachter talk about the song's meaning.
Jump up ^ Bandweblogs (2009-06-25). "Kerrang! announces Greatest Rock 100 videos". Retrieved 2009-06-30.
Jump up ^ Thirty Seconds to Mars A Beautiful Lie CD/DVD Making of The Kill music video
Jump up ^ "The Kill - 30 Seconds to Mars". Billboard. Retrieved 2009-10-20.
Jump up ^ "30 Seconds to Mars News 3/27/2007". 30SecondsToMars.com. 2007-03-27. Retrieved 2009-04-30.
Jump up ^ "19/11/2007 - COMUICATO". ThirtySecondsToMars.it. 2007-11-19. Archived from the original on March 1, 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-30.
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – Thirty Seconds to Mars – The Kill (Bury Me)". ARIA Top 50 Singles. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Thirty Seconds to Mars – The Kill (Bury Me)" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Thirty Seconds to Mars – The Kill (Bury Me)". GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Thirty Seconds to Mars – The Kill (Bury Me)" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Thirty Seconds to Mars – The Kill (Bury Me)". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Thirty Seconds to Mars – The Kill (Bury Me)". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "30 Seconds to Mars: Artist Chart History". Official Charts Company. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "30 Seconds to Mars Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "30 Seconds to Mars Chart History (Adult Pop Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
Jump up ^ "30 Seconds to Mars Chart History (Alternative Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved June 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "30 Seconds to Mars Chart History (Pop Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved January 30, 2018.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Sara (2009-12-11). "Top Alternative Songs of the Decade - 2000s - AOL Radio Blog". AOL Radio. Retrieved 2009-12-11.
Jump up ^ Rock Band official website. Downloadable content for Rock band video game
External links[edit]
The Kill official video on YouTube
[show]
v
t
e
Thirty Seconds to Mars
Jared Leto
Shannon Leto
Tomo Miličević
Matt Wachter
Solon Bixler
Studio albums
30 Seconds to Mars
A Beautiful Lie
This Is War
Love, Lust, Faith and Dreams
America
Extended plays
AOL Sessions Undercover
To the Edge of the Earth
MTV Unplugged
Singles
"Capricorn (A Brand New Name)"
"Edge of the Earth"
"Attack"
"The Kill"
"From Yesterday"
"A Beautiful Lie"
"Kings and Queens"
"This Is War"
"Closer to the Edge"
"Hurricane"
"Up in the Air"
"Do or Die"
"City of Angels"
"Walk on Water"
"Dangerous Night"
Other songs
"Night of the Hunter"
"Search and Destroy"
"Conquistador"
Tours
Forever Night, Never Day Tour
Welcome to the Universe Tour
A Beautiful Lie Tour
Into the Wild Tour
Love, Lust, Faith and Dreams Tour
Carnivores Tour
Monolith Tour
Live personnel
Stevie Aiello
Kevin Drake
Tim Kelleher
Matt McJunkins
Braxton Olita
Related articles
Discography
Songs
Awards and nominations
Artifact
Into the Wild
Bartholomew Cubbins 2006–2014
VyRT
Notes from the Outernet
Angels & Airwaves
Great Northern
Morphic
The Wondergirls
Book
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[show]
v
t
e
Kerrang! Award for Best Single
"Tequilla" by Terrorvision (1999)
"Wait and Bleed" by Slipknot (2000)
"Bodies" by Drowning Pool (2001)
"Blurry" by Puddle of Mudd (2002)
"Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous" by Good Charlotte (2003)
"Last Train Home" by Lostprophets (2004)
"Best of You" by Foo Fighters (2005)
"Tears Don't Fall" by Bullet for My Valentine (2006)
"The Kill" by Thirty Seconds to Mars (2007)
"From Yesterday" by Thirty Seconds to Mars (2008)
"Omen" by The Prodigy (2009)
"Liquid Confidence" by You Me at Six (2010)
"Hurricane" by Thirty Seconds to Mars (2011)
"Rebel Love Song" by Black Veil Brides (2012)
"The Phoenix" by Fall Out Boy (2013)
"Fresh Start Fever" by You Me at Six (2014)
"Anaesthetist" by Enter Shikari (2015)
[show]
v
t
e
Blood of the Martyrs
Studio albums
Once More, with Feeling
Completionist
Extended plays
Endgame
Singles
"The Kill"
"Gone Away"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Kill&oldid=838433175"
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Draft lottery (1969)
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Representative Alexander Pirnie (R-NY) drawing the first number.
On December 1, 1969, the Selective Service System of the United States conducted two lotteries to determine the order of call to military service in the Vietnam War for men born from 1944 to 1950. These lotteries occurred during a period of conscription from just before World War II to 1973. It was the first time a lottery system had been used to select men for military service since 1942.
The lottery numbers assigned in December 1969 were used during calendar year 1970 both to call for induction and to call for physical examination, a preliminary call covering more men.
There was a draft system in place, for Vietnam, prior to the 1969 Lottery Draft system. I was drafted in 1965 to serve in Vietnam. It was the left over post WWII draft system. I was drafted in 1965, and shipped over to Vietnam the end of 1966 as Part of the 9th Infantry Div.
Contents
1 Method
2 Origins and consequences
3 Modification
4 Present Day Use
5 References
6 External links
Method[edit]
The days of the year (including February 29) were written on slips of paper. These pieces of paper were then placed in separate plastic capsules that were mixed in a shoebox and then dumped into a deep glass jar. Capsules were drawn from the jar one at a time.
The first number drawn was 258 (September 14), so all registrants with that birthday were assigned lottery number 1. The second number drawn corresponded to April 24, and so forth. All men of draft age (born 1944 to 1950) who shared a birth date would be called to serve at once. The first 195 birthdates drawn were later called to serve in the order they were drawn; the last of these was September 24.[1]
Also on December 1, 1969, a second lottery was held with the 26 letters of the alphabet. The first letter drawn was "J", which was assigned number 1. The second letter was "G", and so on, until all 26 letters were assigned numbers, with the last being "V". Among men with the same birthdate, the order of induction was determined by the ranks of the first letters of their last, first, and middle names.[2] Anyone with initials "JJJ" would have been first within the shared birthdate, followed by "JGJ", "JDJ", and "JXJ"; anyone with initials "VVV" would have been last.[3]
SSS Draft scatterplot of the days of the year (horizontal) and their lottery numbers (vertical). December birthdays (far right) were assigned many low numbers (bottom), representing early induction, and few high numbers (top).
People soon noticed that the lottery numbers were not distributed uniformly over the year. In particular, November and December births, or dates 306 to 366, were assigned mainly to lower draft numbers representing earlier calls to serve (see figure). This led to complaints that the lottery was not random as the legislation required. Analysis of the procedure suggested that mixing 366 capsules in the shoe box did not mix them sufficiently before dumping them into the jar. ("The capsules were put in a box month by month, January through December, and subsequent mixing efforts were insufficient to overcome this sequencing.")[2] Only five days in December—Dec. 2, 12, 15, 17 and 19—were higher than the last call number of 195; had the days been evenly distributed, 14 days in December would have been expected to remain uncalled. From January to December, the rank of the average draft pick numbers were 5 4 1 3 2 6 8 9 10 7 11 12. A Monte Carlo simulation found that the probability of a random order of months being this close to the 1–12 sequence expected for unsorted slips was 0.09%.[4]
Draft lotteries were conducted again in 1970 (for those born in 1951) and from 1971 to 1975 (for 1952 to 1956 births). The draft numbers issued in 1972 were never used the next year to call for induction into service, because the last call was December 7 and authority to induct expired on June 30, 1973.
The 1972 to 1975 lottery numbers were used to call some men born 1953 to 1956 for physical exams. The highest number called for a physical was 215 (for tables 1970 through 1976).[3]
Origins and consequences[edit]
The reason for the draft of 1969 was to add more much-needed military personnel towards the Vietnam War. After World War II, Japan left Vietnamese Emperor Bao Dai as the head of the country. Ho Chi Minh, another Vietnamese leader who was communist and sought immediate independence for the whole of Vietnam, saw this as an opportunity to strike (knowing Bao Dai had little support from the general population as he was widely regarded as a Japanese-installed puppet-leader) and successfully took over Hanoi and most of northern Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh then set up the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (the DRV, or North Vietnam) by the beginning of 1946. Emperor Bao, still in power in the southern half of the country, set up the State of Vietnam, with support from the returning French colonial rulers, with Saigon as its capital. Ho Chi Minh based his political structure and government off of other communist states such as Soviet Russia, while Emperor Bao Dai wanted a Vietnam that was modelled after the West, like the United States,[5] with a democratic and free government.
Both Ho's DRV (with support from the Soviet Union and China (after 1949)) and Bao Dai's State of Vietnam (with strong French military support) began open armed conflict against one another until the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 ended with the communist Viet Minh forces as the victor. Afterwards at the Geneva Conference, Vietnam was decided as to be split along the 17th Parallel (N). There was supposed to be a nation-wide reunification election held in 1956 to determine which side would take over running the whole of Vietnam but another leader took over Bao Dai in the South. Ngo Dinh Diem took over leadership of the State of Vietnam (soon known as South Vietnam) and Diem, who took a very harsh opposing stance against communism, was entirely opposed to reconciliation with the North and against the elections of 1956 to be held at all.[5]
In other parts of the world, the Cold War was intensifying between Soviet Russia and the United States. The U.S. was becoming more rigid in its policies with the communist allies of Russia. President Dwight D. Eisenhower started supporting the South Vietnamese who were also against the communist north.[5]
The U.S. began training and equipping Diem's forces with weapons. Conflicts between communist sympathizers began occurring in the South. At the time, the U.S. had only committed around 800 personnel to train and outfit the South Vietnamese. In 1961, the John F. Kennedy administration started working under the “Domino Theory,” which stated that if South Vietnam was to fall to the North, then other places in southeast Asia were to become vulnerable to the communists as well. This caused President Kennedy to begin sending additional American soldiers to Vietnam. By 1962, there were around 9,000 personnel in Vietnam.[5]
In 1963, a coup was organized by South Vietnamese generals which resulted in the death of Diem. President Lyndon B. Johnson increased U.S. personnel in Vietnam due to the political instability in the country. In August 1964, two U.S. warships were attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. Johnson issued an attack order against North Vietnam, and Congress passed a motion which gave him more authority over military decisions. In 1965, President Johnson had sent 82,000 troops to Vietnam, and his officials wanted another 175,000. Due to the heavy demand for military personnel, the United States required more than what the regular military could provide, causing the acceleration of the draft. Between 1965 and 1972 the draft provided 2,215,000 service members to the U.S. military.[5]
Previously in the United States, during the War of 1812, President Madison established a commission to recommend the best ways to raise military manpower; to keep the draft or to institute a volunteer army.[6]
After much debate within the Nixon administration and Congress, it was decided that an all-volunteer force was affordable, feasible, and would enhance the nation’s security.[7] President Richard Nixon issued an executive order prescribing regulations for random selection by the United States Selective Service on November 26, 1969.[8]
In the 1960s anti-war movements started to occur in the U.S., mainly among those on college campuses and in more leftist circles, especially those who embraced the “hippie” lifestyle.[9] College students were entitled to a deferment (2-S status) but were subject to the draft if they dropped out or graduated.[10]
In 1967, the number of U.S. military personnel in Vietnam was around 500,000. The war was costing the U.S. $25 billion a year, and many of the young men drafted were being sent to a war they wanted no part of. Martin Luther King Jr. also started to support the anti-war movement on the grounds of it being immoral and the amount of African Americans that were being killed.[9]
November 15, 1969 marked the largest anti war movement in the history of the United States. This protest featured many anti-war political speakers and popular singers of the time. Many people at the time saw Richard Nixon as a liar; when he took office, he claimed that he would begin troop withdrawals from Vietnam immediately. After ten months of being in office, the president had yet to start withdrawals, and United States citizens felt lied to. Later, president Nixon claimed to have been watching sports as the anti-war demonstration took place outside the White House.[9]
The 1970s were a time of turmoil in the United States, beginning with the civil rights movement which set the standards for practices by the anti-war movement. The 1969 draft lottery only encouraged resentment of the Vietnam War and the draft. It strengthened the anti-war movement,[verification needed] and all over the United States, people decried discrimination by the draft system "against low-education, low-income, underprivileged members of society".[11]
The draft lottery had social and economic consequences because it generated resistance to military service and the resisters, draft evaders or "draft dodgers", were generally young, well-educated, healthy men. The fear of military service in Vietnam influenced many young men born in the late 1940s to join the National Guard. These young men were aware that the National Guard would be unlikely to send its soldiers to Vietnam. Many men were unable to join the National Guard, even though they had passed their physicals, because many state National Guards had long waiting lists just to enlist. Still others chose legal sanctions such as imprisonment, either showing their disapproval by burning their draft cards or draft letters, or simply not presenting themselves for the military service test. Others left the country, commonly moving to Canada. The number of American citizens who moved to Canada during the Vietnam war because of the draft is estimated to be around 125,000; it is believed that about half returned to the United States after the Nixon era (when the war was also over)(1975).[citation needed]
Modification[edit]
Lottery procedure was improved the next year although public discontent continued to grow [12] until "authority to induct expired on June 30, 1973".[3]
In 1970, covering 1951 birthdates for use during 1971 (sometimes called the 1971 draft), scientists at the National Bureau of Standards prepared 78 random permutations of the numbers 1 to 366 using random numbers selected from published tables.[13] From the 78 permutations, 25 were selected at random and transcribed to calendars using 1 = January 1, 2 = January 2, ... 365 = December 31. Those calendars were sealed in envelopes. 25 more permutations were selected and sealed in 25 more envelopes without transcription to calendars. The two sets of 25 envelopes were furnished to the Selective Service System.[13]
On June 2, an official picked two envelopes, thus one calendar and one raw permutation. The 365 birthdates (for 1951) were written down, placed in capsules, and put in a drum in the order dictated by the selected calendar. Similarly, the numbers from 1 to 365 were written down and placed into capsules in the order dictated by the raw permutation.[13]
On July 1, the drawing date, one drum was rotated for an hour and the other for a half-hour (its rotating mechanism failed).[13] Pairs of capsules were then drawn, one from each drum, one with a 1951 birthdate and one with a number 1 to 366. The first date and number drawn were September 16 and 139, so all men born September 16, 1951, were assigned draft number 139. The 11th draws were the date July 9 and the number 1, so men born July 9 were assigned draft number 1 and drafted first.[13]
Present Day Use[edit]
The military draft method used back in the 1950s and 1960s involved using dates and numbers mixed randomly and then drawn to decide who would go to war. In the present-day, not much has changed on how the draft would be conducted if it was ever needed. The Selective Service Committee who presides over the draft procedures still have a large tumbler that holds all the number and dates that will be drawn to select candidates and the only thing that seems to have changed between the method of the past and the present one is that instead of using pieces of paper in blue capsules the SSC now uses ping pong balls with the dates and numbers on them.[14]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Selective Service System. "1970 Draft Lottery Results drawn December 1, 1969 sorted by date". Archived from the original on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 26 May 2012. See also sorted by numeric order.
^ Jump up to: a b Norton Starr (1997). "Nonrandom Risk: The 1970 Draft Lottery". Journal of Statistics Education 5.2 (1997). — The online edition includes instructions for getting the data online and a lesson plan for statistics class using the 1970 and 1971 draft lottery data.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Vietnam Lotteries". Selective Service System. June 18, 2009. Archived from the original on October 6, 2012.
Jump up ^ Henk Tijms. "Understanding Probability". Cambridge University Press. p. 101.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Vietnam War - Vietnam War - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2017-12-05.
Jump up ^ Chambers, John W. (1999). The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford University Press. p. 180. ISBN 0-19-507198-0.
Jump up ^ 91st U.S. Congress. "AN ACT To amend the Military Selective Service Act of 1967 ..." (pdf). United States Government Printing Office. (Pub.L. 91–124, 83 Stat. 220, enacted November 26, 1969)
Jump up ^ Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T. "Richard Nixon: "Executive Order 11497 - Amending the Selective Service Regulations to Prescribe Random Selection," November 26, 1969". The American Presidency Project. University of California - Santa Barbara.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Vietnam War Protests - Vietnam War - HISTORY.com". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2017-12-05.
Jump up ^ https://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/02/us/college-enrollment-linked-to-vietnam-war.html, https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1967/03/19/107186611.pdf
Jump up ^ Fisher, Anthony C. (1969). "The Cost of the Draft and the Cost of Ending the Draft". American Economic Review. 59 (3). JSTOR 1808954.
Jump up ^ Ifill, Gwen (13 February 1992). "THE 1992 CAMPAIGN: New Hampshire; Clinton Thanked Colonel in '69 For 'Saving Me From the Draft'" – via NYTimes.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rosenblatt, J. R.; Filliben, J. J. (1971). "Randomization and the Draft Lottery". Science. 171: 306–08. doi:10.1126/science.171.3968.306.
Jump up ^ "How the U.S. Draft Works". HowStuffWorks. 2001-10-18. Retrieved 2017-12-05.
External links[edit]
Landscaper.net (2009). The Military Draft and 1969 Draft Lottery for the Vietnam War. Last modified 2009-03-24. Confirmed 2011-05-26. — contemporary news stories, images of Official Orders (call to physical exam, call to report), lottery results, Draft Board classifications, Vietnam troop levels, induction statistics 1917–73.
David Lane (2003). Introduction to Graphs: Clearing Up the Draft with Graphs. Connexions. 18 July 2003. Confirmed 2011-05-26. — list of draft ranks, additional analysis.
Selective Service System (2009). The Vietnam Lotteries. SSS: History and Records. Last updated 2015-09-19.
Norton Starr (1997). "Nonrandom Risk: The 1970 Draft Lottery". Journal of Statistics Education 5.2 (1997). Confirmed 2011-05-26. — The online edition includes instructions for getting the data online and a lesson plan for statistics class using the 1970 and 1971 draft lottery data.
Fienberg, S. E. (1971). "Randomization and Social Affairs: The 1970 Draft Lottery". Science. 171 (3968): 255–261. doi:10.1126/science.171.3968.255. PMID 17736218.
Rosenbaum, David E. (4 January 1970). "Statisticians Charge Draft Lottery Was Not Random". New York Times. p. 66.
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