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List of Test cricket hat-tricks
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English cricketer Stuart Broad took hat-tricks against India at Trent Bridge in 2011[1] and against Sri Lanka at Headingley in 2014.
In the sport of cricket, a hat-trick is an occasion where a bowler takes three wickets in consecutive deliveries. As of 31 July 2017, this feat has only been achieved 43 times in more than two thousand Test matches,[2] the form of the sport in which national representative teams compete in matches of up to five days' duration. The first Test hat-trick was recorded on 2 January 1879, in only the third Test match to take place, by the Australian pace bowler Fred Spofforth, nicknamed "The Demon Bowler", who dismissed three English batsmen with consecutive deliveries at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. The most recent bowler to achieve the feat was English spin bowler Moeen Ali against South Africa on 31 July 2017. At least one bowler from each of the ten nations that have played Test cricket have taken a Test hat-trick.[3]
A player has taken two hat-tricks in the same Test match only once. Playing for Australia against South Africa in the first match of the 1912 Triangular Tournament at Old Trafford, Manchester, England, leg spinner Jimmy Matthews took a hat-trick in South Africa's first and second innings, both taken on 28 May 1912. He completed both hat-tricks by dismissing South Africa's Tommy Ward.[4] Only three other cricketers have taken more than one Test hat-trick: Australian off spinner Hugh Trumble (two years apart, between the same teams at the same ground), Pakistani fast bowler Wasim Akram (just over a week apart, in consecutive matches between the same teams) and English fast bowler Stuart Broad. Three players have taken a hat-trick on their Test debut: English medium pace bowler Maurice Allom in 1930, New Zealand off-spinner Peter Petherick in 1976, and Australian pace bowler Damien Fleming in 1994.[3] Geoff Griffin took the fewest total Test wickets of any player who recorded a hat-trick, taking only eight wickets in his entire Test career.[3] During the match in which he took his hat-trick, Griffin was repeatedly called for throwing by the umpires and never bowled again in a Test match.[5] Australian Peter Siddle is the only bowler to take a hat-trick on his birthday,[6] and Bangladeshi off spinner Sohag Gazi is the only player to score a century and take a hat-trick in the same Test match.[7]
Australian Merv Hughes is the only bowler to take a hat-trick where the wickets fell over three overs. He took a wicket with the final ball of an over. With the first ball of the next over he took the final wicket of the West Indies innings. He then removed the opener Gordon Greenidge with the first ball of the West Indies second innings.[8]
In the five-match series between a Rest of the World XI and England in 1970, a hat-trick was taken by South African Eddie Barlow in the fourth match, at Headingley (the last three of four wickets in five balls).[9] These matches were considered to be Tests at the time, but that status was later removed.[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Test hat-tricks
2 By team
3 See also
4 References
4.1 General
4.2 Specific
Test hat-tricks[edit]
Australian bowler Fred Spofforth took the first hat-trick in Test cricket on 2 January 1879, in only the third Test match.
Billy Bates was the first player to take a hat-trick for England, four years after Spofforth achieved the feat.
Hugh Trumble is one of only four players to take more than one Test hat-trick, achieving the feat in 1902 and 1904.
Courtney Walsh's hat-trick in 1988 was spread across two innings. In Australia's first innings he dismissed the last two batsmen with consecutive deliveries and then took a third wicket with the first ball of the second innings.
Wasim Akram took two hat-tricks in the space of nine days in 1999.
When Peter Siddle took a hat-trick for Australia in 2010, his final victim was Stuart Broad. Nine months later Broad himself would be the next man to take a Test match hat-trick.
Key
Symbol
Meaning
Bowler
The name of the bowler
For
The team for which the bowler was playing
Against
The team against which the bowler was playing
Inn.
The innings (first or second) in which the hat-trick was achieved
Test
The number of the Test within the overall series between the two teams
Dismissals
The three players dismissed by the bowler
Venue
The venue where the hat-trick was achieved
Date
The date on which the hat-trick was achieved
Ref.
Reference
List of Test cricket hat-tricks
No.
Bowler
For
Against
Inn.
Test
Dismissals
Venue
Date
Ref.
1
Spofforth, FredFred Spofforth
Australia England 1 1/1
Vernon Royle (b)
Francis MacKinnon (b)
Tom Emmett (c Tom Horan)
Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne 2 January 1879 [11]
2
Bates, BillyBilly Bates
England Australia 1 2/3
Percy McDonnell (b)
George Giffen (c and b)
George Bonnor (c Walter Read)
Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne 20 January 1883 [12]
3
Briggs, JohnnyJohnny Briggs
England Australia 2 2/3
Walter Giffen (b)
Jack Blackham (lbw)
Sydney Callaway (c W. G. Grace)
Sydney Cricket Ground, Sydney 2 February 1892 [13]
4
Lohmann, GeorgeGeorge Lohmann
England South Africa 2 1/3
Frederick Cook (b)
Bonnor Middleton (b)
Joseph Willoughby (c Tom Hayward)
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth 14 February 1896 [14]
5
Hearne, JackJack Hearne
England Australia 2 3/5
Clem Hill (b)
Syd Gregory (c Archie MacLaren)
Monty Noble (c Ranjitsinhji)
Headingley, Leeds 30 June 1899 [15]
6
Trumble, HughHugh Trumble
Australia England 2 2/5
John Gunn (c Sammy Jones)
Arthur Jones (c Joe Darling)
Sydney Barnes (c and b)
Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne 4 January 1902 [16]
7
Trumble, HughHugh Trumble
Australia England 2 5/5
Bernard Bosanquet (c Algy Gehrs)
Plum Warner (c and b)
Dick Lilley (lbw)
Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne 8 March 1904 [17]
8
Matthews, JimmyJimmy Matthews
Australia South Africa 1 1/3
Rolland Beaumont (b)
Sid Pegler (lbw)
Tommy Ward (lbw)
Old Trafford, Manchester 28 May 1912 [18]
9
Matthews, JimmyJimmy Matthews
Australia South Africa 2 1/3
Herbie Taylor (b)
Reggie Schwarz (c and b)
Tommy Ward (c and b)
Old Trafford, Manchester 28 May 1912 [18]
10
Allom, MauriceMaurice Allom
England New Zealand 1 1/4
Tom Lowry (lbw)
Ken James (c Tich Cornford)
Ted Badcock (b)
Lancaster Park, Christchurch 10 January 1930 [19]
11
Goddard, TomTom Goddard
England South Africa 1 1/5
Dudley Nourse (c and b)
Norman Gordon (st Leslie Ames)
Billy Wade (b)
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg 26 December 1938 [20]
12
Loader, PeterPeter Loader
England West Indies 1 4/5
John Goddard (b)
Sonny Ramadhin (c Fred Trueman)
Roy Gilchrist (b)
Headingley, Leeds 25 July 1957 [21]
13
Kline, LindsayLindsay Kline
Australia South Africa 2 2/5
Eddie Fuller (c Richie Benaud)
Hugh Tayfield (lbw)
Neil Adcock (c Bob Simpson)
Newlands, Cape Town 3 January 1958 [22]
14
Hall, WesWes Hall
West Indies Pakistan 1 3/3
Mushtaq Mohammed (lbw)
Fazal Mahmood (c Garfield Sobers)
Nasim-ul-Ghani (b)
Bagh-e-Jinnah, Lahore 29 March 1959 [23]
15
Griffin, GeoffGeoff Griffin
South Africa England 1 2/5
M. J. K. Smith (c John Waite)
Peter Walker (b)
Fred Trueman (b)
Lord's, London 24 June 1960 [24]
16
Gibbs, LanceLance Gibbs
West Indies Australia 1 4/5
Ken Mackay (lbw)
Wally Grout (c Garfield Sobers)
Frank Misson (b)
Adelaide Oval, Adelaide 30 January 1961 [25]
17
Petherick, PeterPeter Petherick
New Zealand Pakistan 1 1/3
Javed Miandad (c Richard Hadlee)
Wasim Raja (c and b)
Intikhab Alam (c Geoff Howarth)
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore 9 October 1976 [26]
18
Walsh, CourtneyCourtney Walsh
West Indies Australia 1 & 2 1/5
Tony Dodemaide (c Viv Richards)
Mike Veletta (c Carl Hooper)
Graeme Wood (lbw)
Brisbane Cricket Ground, Brisbane 18–20 November 1988 [27]
19
Hughes, MervMerv Hughes
Australia West Indies 1 & 2 2/5
Curtly Ambrose (c Ian Healy)
Patrick Patterson (c Tony Dodemaide)
Gordon Greenidge (lbw)
WACA, Perth 3–4 December 1988 [28]
20
Fleming, DamienDamien Fleming
Australia Pakistan 2 2/3
Aamer Malik (c Michael Bevan)
Inzamam-ul-Haq (lbw)
Saleem Malik (c Ian Healy)
Rawalpindi Cricket Stadium, Rawalpindi 9 October 1994 [29]
21
Warne, ShaneShane Warne
Australia England 2 2/5
Phil DeFreitas (lbw)
Darren Gough (c Ian Healy)
Devon Malcolm (c David Boon)
Melbourne Cricket Ground, Melbourne 29 December 1994 [30]
22
Cork, DominicDominic Cork
England West Indies 2 4/6
Richie Richardson (b)
Junior Murray (lbw)
Carl Hooper (lbw)
Old Trafford, Manchester 30 July 1995 [31]
23
Gough, DarrenDarren Gough
England Australia 1 5/5
Ian Healy (c Warren Hegg)
Stuart MacGill (b)
Colin Miller (b)
Sydney Cricket Ground, Sydney 2 January 1999 [32]
24
Wasim Akram
Pakistan Sri Lanka 1 3/4
Romesh Kaluwitharana (c Moin Khan)
Niroshan Bandaratilleke (b)
Pramodya Wickramasinghe (b)
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore 6 March 1999 [33]
25
Wasim Akram
Pakistan Sri Lanka 2 4/4
Avishka Gunawardene (c Shahid Afridi)
Chaminda Vaas (b)
Mahela Jayawardene (c Wajahatullah Wasti)
Bangabandhu National Stadium, Dhaka 14 March 1999 [34]
26
Nuwan Zoysa
Sri Lanka Zimbabwe 1 2/3
Trevor Gripper (lbw)
Murray Goodwin (c Romesh Kaluwitharana)
Neil Johnson (lbw)
Harare Sports Club, Harare 26 November 1999 [35]
27
Abdul Razzaq
Pakistan Sri Lanka 1 2/3
Romesh Kaluwitharana (c Moin Khan)
Rangana Herath (lbw)
Ravi Pushpakumara (lbw)
Galle International Stadium, Galle 21 June 2000 [36]
28
McGrath, GlennGlenn McGrath
Australia West Indies 1 2/5
Sherwin Campbell (c Ricky Ponting)
Brian Lara (c Stuart MacGill)
Jimmy Adams (c Justin Langer)
WACA, Perth 1 December 2000 [37]
29
Harbhajan Singh
India Australia 1 2/3
Ricky Ponting (lbw)
Adam Gilchrist (lbw)
Shane Warne (c Sadagoppan Ramesh)
Eden Gardens, Calcutta 11 March 2001 [38]
30
Mohammad Sami
Pakistan Sri Lanka 1 3/3
Charitha Buddhika (lbw)
Nuwan Zoysa (lbw)
Muttiah Muralitharan (b)
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore 8 March 2002 [39]
31
Lawson, JermaineJermaine Lawson
West Indies Australia 1 & 2 3/4
Brett Lee (b)
Stuart MacGill (b)
Justin Langer (lbw)
Kensington Oval, Bridgetown 2–5 May 2003 [40]
32
Alok Kapali
Bangladesh Pakistan 1 2/3
Shabbir Ahmed (c Mashrafe Mortaza)
Danish Kaneria (lbw)
Umar Gul (lbw)
Arbab Niaz Stadium, Peshawar 29 August 2003 [41]
33
Blignaut, AndyAndy Blignaut
Zimbabwe Bangladesh 2 1/2
Hannan Sarkar (lbw)
Mohammad Ashraful (c sub (Travis Friend))
Mushfiqur Rahman (c Tatenda Taibu)
Harare Sports Club, Harare 22 February 2004 [42]
34
Hoggard, MatthewMatthew Hoggard
England West Indies 2 3/4
Ramnaresh Sarwan (c Ashley Giles)
Shivnarine Chanderpaul (lbw)
Ryan Hinds (c Andrew Flintoff)
Kensington Oval, Barbados 3 April 2004 [43]
35
Franklin, JamesJames Franklin
New Zealand Bangladesh 1 1/2
Manjural Islam Rana (c Brendon McCullum)
Mohammad Rafique (c Scott Styris)
Tapash Baisya (b)
Bangabandhu National Stadium, Dhaka 20 October 2004 [44]
36
Irfan Pathan
India Pakistan 1 3/3
Salman Butt (c Rahul Dravid)
Younis Khan (lbw)
Mohammad Yousuf (b)
National Stadium, Karachi 29 January 2006 [45]
37
Sidebottom, RyanRyan Sidebottom
England New Zealand 2 1 /3
Stephen Fleming (c Alastair Cook)
Mathew Sinclair (c Alastair Cook)
Jacob Oram (lbw)
Seddon Park, Hamilton 8 March 2008 [46]
38
Siddle, PeterPeter Siddle
Australia England 1 1/5
Alastair Cook (c Shane Watson)
Matt Prior (b)
Stuart Broad (lbw)
Brisbane Cricket Ground, Brisbane 25 November 2010 [47]
39
Broad, StuartStuart Broad
England India 1 2/4
Mahendra Singh Dhoni (c James Anderson)
Harbhajan Singh (lbw)
Praveen Kumar (b)
Trent Bridge, Nottinghamshire 30 July 2011 [48]
40
Gazi, SohagSohag Gazi
Bangladesh New Zealand 2 1/2
Corey Anderson (lbw)
BJ Watling (c Mushfiqur Rahim)
Doug Bracewell (c Shakib Al Hasan)
Zahur Ahmed Chowdhury Stadium, Chittagong 13 October 2013 [49]
41
Broad, StuartStuart Broad
England Sri Lanka 1 2/2
Kumar Sangakkara (c Ian Bell)
Dinesh Chandimal (c Alastair Cook)
Shaminda Eranga (c Matt Prior)
Headingley, Leeds 20 June 2014 [50]
42
Herath, RanganaRangana Herath
Sri Lanka Australia 1 2/3
Adam Voges (c Dimuth Karunaratne)
Peter Nevill (lbw)
Mitchell Starc (lbw)
Galle International Stadium, Galle 5 August 2016 [51]
43
Ali, MoeenMoeen Ali
England South Africa 2 3/4
Dean Elgar (c Ben Stokes)
Kagiso Rabada (c Ben Stokes)
Morné Morkel (lbw)
The Oval, London 31 July 2017 [52]
By team[edit]
England and Australia combined have taken over half of all Test match hat-tricks to date, 25 of 43 (58.14%).[3]
Test hat-tricks by team
Team
Hat-tricks
England
14
Australia
11
Pakistan
4
West Indies
4
Bangladesh
2
India
2
Sri Lanka
2
New Zealand
2
South Africa
1
Zimbabwe
1
See also[edit]
List of One Day International cricket hat-tricks
List of Twenty20 International cricket hat-tricks
References[edit]
General[edit]
"Record / Test matches / Bowling record / Hat-tricks". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
Specific[edit]
Jump up ^ "India in England – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
Jump up ^ McGhie, Tom (20 July 2011). "Landmark Test matches through the years as Lord's plays host to the 2,000th when England take on India". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Record / Test matches / Bowling record / Hat-tricks". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Triangular Tournament −1st match: Australia v South Africa Test Series – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Williamson, Martin (11 August 2012). "No-balled out of the game". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ McGlashan, Andrew (25 November 2010). "Siddle hat-trick gives Australia control". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Islam, Mohammad (13 October 2013). "Gazi shines as Test ends in draw". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Lynch, Steven (13 October 2013). "Three-act plays". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "England v Rest Of The World, 1970 – 4th match". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "July 2000 – The best of the best?". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "England tour of Australia, 1878/79 – Only Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England (IFW Bligh's XI) tour of Australia, 1882/83: The Ashes – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England (Lord Sheffield's XI) tour of Australia, 1891/92: The Ashes – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England tour of South Africa, 1895/96 – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Australia tour of England, 1899: The Ashes – 3rd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England tour of Australia, 1901/02: The Ashes – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England (Marylebone Cricket Club) tour of Australia, 1903/04: The Ashes – 5th Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Triangular Tournament, 1912: Australia v South Africa Test Series −1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England tour of New Zealand, 1929/30 – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England tour of South Africa, 1938/39 – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "West Indies tour of England, 1957 – 4th Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Australia tour of South Africa, 1957/58 – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "West Indies tour of Pakistan, 1958/59 – 3d Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "South Africa tour of England, 1960 – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "West Indies tour of Australia, 1960/61 – 4th Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand tour of Pakistan, 1976/77 – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "West Indies tour of Australia, 1988/89: The Frank Worrell Trophy – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "West Indies tour of Australia, 1988/89: The Frank Worrell Trophy – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Australia tour of Pakistan, 1994/95 – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England tour of Australia, 1994/95: The Ashes – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "West Indies tour of England, 1995: The Wisden Trophy – 4th Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England tour of Australia, 1998/99: The Ashes – 5th Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Asian Championship Test, 1998/99 – 3rd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Asian Championship Test, 1998/99 – Final". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Sri Lanka tour of Zimbabwe, 1999/00 – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Pakistan tour of Sri Lanka, 2000 – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "West Indies tour of Australia, 2000/01 – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Australia tour of India, 2000/01 – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Asian Championship Test, 2001/02 – Final". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Australia tour of West Indies, 2003: The Frank Worrell Trophy – 3rd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bangladesh tour of Pakistan, 2003 – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bangladesh tour of Zimbabwe, 2003/04 – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England tour of West Indies, 2003/04: The Wisden Trophy – 3rd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand tour of Bangladesh, 2004/05 – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "India tour of Pakistan, 2005/06 – 3rd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England tour of New Zealand, 2007/08 – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "England tour of Australia, 2010/11: The Ashes – 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "India tour of England, 2011: Pataudi Trophy – 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand tour of Bangladesh, 1st Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 13 Oct 2013.
Jump up ^ "Sri Lanka tour of England, 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 20 Jun 2014.
Jump up ^ "Australia tour of Sri Lanka, 2nd Test". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 5 Aug 2016.
Jump up ^ "3rd Test, South Africa tour of England at London, Jul 27 – Jul 31". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
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Fraternities and sororities
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the student fraternities and sororities in North America. For other uses, see Fraternity (disambiguation).
Fraternities and sororities, or Greek letter organizations (GLOs)[1] (collectively referred to as "Greek life") are social organizations at colleges and universities. A form of the social fraternity, they are prominent in the United States and the Philippines, with much smaller numbers existing in France, Canada, and elsewhere. Similar organizations exist in other countries as well, including the Studentenverbindungen of German-speaking countries.
Similar, but much less common, organizations also exist for secondary school students. In modern usage, "Greek letter organization" is often synonymous with the terms "fraternity" and "sorority". Two additional types of fraternities, professional fraternities and honor societies, incorporate some limited elements of traditional fraternity organization but are generally considered a different type of association. Traditional fraternities of the type described in this article are often called "social fraternities".
Generally, membership in a fraternity or sorority is obtained as an undergraduate student but continues, thereafter, for life. Some of these organizations can accept graduate students as well as undergraduates, per constitutional provisions.[2][3]
While individual fraternities and sororities vary in exact organization and purpose, most share five common elements:
secrecy;
single-sex membership;
selection of new members on the basis of a two-part vetting and probationary process known as rushing and pledging;
ownership and occupancy of a residential property at which the undergraduate members of the fraternity or sorority live; and
use of a set of complex identification symbols including Greek letters, armorial achievements, ciphers, badges, grips, handsigns, passwords, flowers, and colors.
Fraternities and sororities engage in philanthropic activities; host parties; provide "finishing" training for new members, such as instruction on etiquette, dress, and manners; and create networking opportunities for their newly graduated members.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Establishment and early history
1.2 Sororities
1.3 Internationalization
1.4 Multiculturalism
2 Structure and organization
2.1 Common elements
2.1.1 Gender exclusivity
2.1.2 Governance
2.1.3 Rushing and pledging (recruitment and new member periods)
2.1.4 Residency
2.1.5 Secrecy and ritual
2.1.6 Symbols and naming conventions
2.2 Membership profile
2.2.1 Demographics
2.2.2 Notable fraternity and sorority members
2.3 Homogeneous membership
2.4 Academic performance
2.5 Alcoholism
2.6 Elitism
2.7 Professional advancement
2.8 Hazing
2.9 Nepotism and networking
2.10 Personal fulfillment
2.11 Sexism and sexual assault
2.12 Racism and racist incidents
3 Glossary
4 In popular culture
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
History[edit]
Establishment and early history[edit]
The fraternity system in North America began at the College of William and Mary in 1750.
The first fraternity in North America to incorporate most of the elements of modern fraternities was Phi Beta Kappa, founded at the College of William and Mary in 1775. The founding of Phi Beta Kappa followed the earlier establishment of two other secret student societies that had existed at that campus as early as 1750. In 1779 Phi Beta Kappa expanded to include chapters at Harvard and Yale. By the early 19th century, the organization transformed itself into a scholastic honor society and abandoned secrecy.
In 1825 Kappa Alpha Society, the oldest extant fraternity to retain its social characteristic, was established at Union College. In 1827, Sigma Phi and Delta Phi were also founded at the same institution,[4] creating the Union Triad. The further birthing of Psi Upsilon (1833), Chi Psi (1841) and Theta Delta Chi (1847) collectively established Union College as the Mother of Fraternities.
Fraternities represented the intersection between dining clubs, literary societies, and secret initiatory orders such as Freemasonry. Their early growth was widely opposed by university administrators, though the increasing influence of fraternity alumni, as well as several high-profile court cases, succeeded in largely muting opposition by the 1880s.[4] The first fraternity meeting hall or lodge seems to have been that of the Alpha Epsilon chapter of Chi Psi at the University of Michigan in 1845, leading to a tradition in that fraternity to name its buildings "lodges." As fraternity membership was punishable by expulsion at many colleges at this time, the house was located deep in the woods.[5] The first residential chapter home to be built by a fraternity is believed to have been Alpha Delta Phi's chapter at Cornell, with groundbreaking dated to 1878.[6] Alpha Tau Omega became the first fraternity to own a residential house in the South when, in 1880, its chapter at the University of the South acquired one.[7] Chapters of many fraternities followed suit, purchasing and less often, building them with support of alumni. Phi Sigma Kappa's chapter home at Cornell, completed in 1902, is the oldest such house still occupied by its fraternal builders.[8]
Members of Phi Kappa Sigma at Washington & Jefferson College in 1872
Sororities[edit]
Sororities (originally termed "women's fraternities") began to develop in 1851 with the formation of the Adelphean Society Alpha Delta Pi,[9] though fraternity-like organizations for women didn't take their current form until the establishment of Pi Beta Phi in 1867 and Kappa Alpha Theta in 1870. The term "sorority" was invented by a professor of Latin who felt the word "fraternity" was inappropriate for a group of ladies. The first organization to use the term "sorority" was Gamma Phi Beta, established in 1874.[10]
The development of "fraternities for women" during this time was a major accomplishment in the way of women's rights and equality. By mere existence these organizations were defying the odds; the founding women were able to advance their organizations despite many factors working against them. The first "Women's Fraternities" not only had to overcome "restrictive social customs, unequal status under the law and the underlying presumption that they were less able than men"[11] but at the same time had to deal with the same challenges as fraternities with college administrations. Today both social and multicultural sororities are present on more than 650 college campuses across the United States and Canada. The National Panhellenic Conference serves as the "umbrella organization" for 26 (inter)national sororities, representing over 4 million women at both the collegiate level and in alumni associations.
Internationalization[edit]
In 1867 the Chi Phi fraternity established its Theta chapter at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, marking the first foray of the American social fraternity outside the borders of the United States. At the time, many students from the American south were moving to Europe to study, due to the disrepair into which southern universities had fallen as a result of the American Civil War. One such group of Americans organized Chi Phi at Edinburgh, however, in the course of the Theta chapter's existence, it initiated no non-American members. With declining American enrollment at European universities, Chi Phi at Edinburgh shuttered in 1870.[10]
U.S. Army soldiers, presumably members of Sigma Phi Epsilon, display that fraternity's flag in Iraq in 2009.
Nine years following Chi Phi's abortive colonization of the University of Edinburgh, a second attempt was made to transplant the fraternity system outside the United States. In 1879 Zeta Psi established a chapter at the University of Toronto. Zeta Psi's success at Toronto prompted it to open a second Canadian chapter at McGill University, which it chartered in 1883. Other early foundations were Kappa Alpha Society at Toronto in 1892 and at McGill in 1899, and Alpha Delta Phi at Toronto in 1893 and at McGill in 1897. The first sorority, Kappa Alpha Theta, was established at Toronto in 1887. By 1927 there were 42 fraternity and sorority chapters at the University of Toronto and of 23 at McGill University. A few chapters were also reported at the University of British Columbia, Carleton University, Dalhousie University, University of Manitoba, Queen's University, University of Western Ontario Wilfrid Laurier University, University of Waterloo and Brock University.[12]
Multiculturalism[edit]
Numerous Greek organizations in the past have enacted formal and informal prohibitions on pledging individuals of different races and cultural backgrounds. While these limitations have since been abolished by both the Interfraternity Conference and the National Pan-Hellenic Council, students of various ethnicities have come together to form a council of multicultural Greek organizations. The Multicultural Greek Council, officially formed in 1998, is a coordinating body of 19 Greek organizations, including nine fraternities, and ten sororities with cultural affiliations.[13]
The first multicultural sorority, Mu Sigma Upsilon was established in November 1981 at Rutgers University.[14] The formation of this Greek organization allowed for the emergence of a multicultural fraternity and sorority movement, giving birth to a multicultural movement.
Structure and organization[edit]
Common elements[edit]
Gender exclusivity[edit]
Fraternities and sororities traditionally have been single-sex organizations, with fraternities consisting exclusively of men and sororities consisting exclusively of women. In the United States, fraternities and sororities enjoy a statutory exemption from Title IX legislation prohibiting this type of gender exclusion within student groups, and organizations such as the Fraternity and Sorority Political Action Committee work to maintain this status quo in federal law.[15][16]
Since the mid-20th century a small number of fraternities, such as Alpha Theta and Lambda Lambda Lambda, have opted to become co-educational and admit female members. However, these generally represent a minority of Greek-letter organizations and no such fraternity is currently a member of the North American Interfraternity Conference, the largest international association of fraternities.[15][16] The first coed fraternity was Pi Alpha Tau (1963–1991) at the University of Illinois at Chicago.[17]
Much more commonly, coed fraternities exist in the form of "service" fraternities such as Alpha Phi Omega, Epsilon Sigma Alpha, Alpha Tau Mu, and others. These organizations are similar to "social" fraternities and sororities, with the exception of being coed and non-residential.
In 2016, Chi Phi began allowing transgender members, or those identifying as male, to join the social fraternity.[18]
Governance[edit]
Individual chapters of fraternities and sororities are largely self-governed by their active (student) members; however, alumni members may retain legal ownership of the fraternity or sorority's property through an alumni chapter or alumni corporation. All of a single fraternity or sorority's chapters are generally grouped together in a national or international organization that sets standards, regulates insignia and ritual, publishes a journal or magazine for all of the chapters of the organization, and has the power to grant and revoke charters to chapters. These federal structures are largely governed by alumni members of the fraternity, though with some input from the active (student) members.[19][20]
Rushing and pledging (recruitment and new member periods)[edit]
See also: Sorority recruitment
Most Greek letter organizations select potential members through a two-part process of vetting and probation, called rushing and pledging, respectively (the terms recruitment and new member period are more acceptable today). During rush (recruitment), students attend designated social events, and sometimes formal interviews, hosted by the chapters of fraternities and sororities in which they have particular interest. Usually, after a potential new member has attended several such events, officers or current members will meet privately to vote on whether or not to extend an invitation (known as a "bid") to the prospective applicant. Those applicants who receive a bid, and choose to accept it, are considered to have "pledged" the fraternity or sorority, thus beginning the pledge period (new member period). Students participating in rush are known as "rushees" (Potential New Members "PNMs") while students who have accepted a bid to a specific fraternity or sorority are known as "new members" or in some cases "pledges."[21]
"Delta Upsilon Ode," a traditional Delta Upsilon song written in 1884 by Edward La Wall Seip (sample)
"My Name is Sigma Chi, Sir," a traditional Sigma Chi song written in 1885 by Charles Eldridge (sample)
A new member period may last anywhere from one weekend to several months. During this time new members might participate in almost all aspects of the life of the fraternity or sorority, but most likely not be permitted to hold office in the organization. At the conclusion of the new member period a second vote of members may sometimes be taken, often, but not always, using a blackball system. New members who pass this second vote will be invited to participate in a formal and secret ritual of initiation into the organization, advancing them to full membership.[4]
The chapter house of Alpha Delta Phi at Cornell University
Many Greek-letter organizations give preferential consideration for pledging to candidates whose father or brother or, in the case of sororities, mother or sister was a member of the same fraternity or sorority. Such prospective candidates are known as "legacies."[22][23]
Membership in more than one fraternity or sorority is almost always prohibited. Recently, some Greek-letter organizations have replaced the term "pledge" with that of "associate member" or "new member". Sigma Alpha Epsilon, in 2014, abolished pledging altogether. Potential members are now immediately initiated into the fraternity upon accepting a bid.[21][24]
Residency[edit]
Unique among most campus organizations, members of social Greek letter organizations often live together in a large house (generally privately owned by the fraternity itself, or by the fraternity's alumni association) or a distinct part of the university dormitories. A single undergraduate fraternity chapter may be composed of anywhere between 20 and more than 100 students, though most have an average of about 35 to 45 members and pledges.[clarification needed] Often fraternities and sorority houses (called lodges or chapter houses) will be located on the same street or in close quarters within the same neighborhood, which may be colloquially known as "Greek row" or "frat row." At some, often small, colleges, fraternities and sororities will occupy a specific section of university-owned housing provided to them. Some fraternities and sororities are un-housed, with members providing for their own accommodations. In many of these cases, the fraternity or sorority will own or rent a non-residential clubhouse to use for meetings and other activities.
The Kappa Kappa Gamma chapter house at the University of Illinois
The Zeta Psi chapter house at Lafayette College
Secrecy and ritual[edit]
With a few exceptions, most fraternities and sororities are secret societies. While the identity of members or officers is rarely concealed, fraternities and sororities initiate members following the pledge period through sometimes elaborate private rituals, frequently drawn or adopted from Masonic ritual practice or that of the Greek mysteries.[4]
At the conclusion of an initiation ritual, the organization's secret motto, secret purpose, and secret identification signs, such as handshakes and passwords, are usually revealed to its new members. Some fraternities also teach initiates an identity search device used to confirm fellow fraternity members.[25]
Julian Hawthorne, the son of Nathaniel Hawthorne, wrote (in his posthumously published Memoirs[26]) of his initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon:[27]
I was initiated into a college secret society—a couple of hours of grotesque and good-humored rodomontade and horseplay, in which I cooperated as in a kind of pleasant nightmare, confident, even when branded with a red-hot iron or doused head-over heels in boiling oil,[28] that it would come out all right. The neophyte is effectively blindfolded during the proceedings, and at last, still sightless, I was led down flights of steps into a silent crypt, and helped into a coffin, where I was to stay until the Resurrection...Thus it was that just as my father passed from this earth, I was lying in a coffin during my initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon.
A dramatized depiction of a fraternity initiation ritual
Meetings and rituals are sometimes conducted in what is known as a "chapter room" located inside the fraternity's house. Entry into chapter rooms is often prohibited to all but the initiated. In one extreme case, the response of firefighters to a blaze signaled by an automated alarm at the Sigma Phi chapter house at the University of Wisconsin in 2003 was hampered in part because fraternity members refused to disclose the location of the hidden chapter room, where the conflagration had erupted, to emergency responders.[29]
According to Assistant Professor Caroline Rolland-Diamond of the Paris West University Nanterre La Défense, in one ritual popular in the 1960s, born out of frustration to the ubiquitous nascent counterculture, "The men were stripped to their underpants, tied up to a tree, and covered in a nasty mix of food and leaves, remaining there until their fiancées came to free them with a kiss."[30]
A "model chapter room" of Kappa Sigma
Symbols and naming conventions[edit]
The fraternity or sorority badge is an enduring symbol of membership in a Greek letter organization. Most fraternities also have assumed heraldic achievements. Members of fraternities and sororities address members of the same organization as "brother" (in the case of fraternities) or "sister" (in the case of sororities). The names of almost all fraternities and sororities consist of a sequence of two or three Greek letters, for instance, Delta Delta Delta, Sigma Chi, Chi Omega, or Psi Upsilon. There are a few exceptions to this general rule, as in the case of the fraternities Triangle, Acacia, and Seal and Serpent.[4]
Membership profile[edit]
Demographics[edit]
There are approximately 9 million student and alumni members of fraternities and sororities in North America, or about 3 percent of the total population. Roughly 750,000 of the current fraternity and sorority members are students who belong to an undergraduate chapter.
A 2007 survey conducted by Princeton University showed that white and higher income students are much more likely than other students to be in fraternities and sororities.[31] Senior surveys from the classes of 2009 and 2010 showed that 77 percent of sorority members and 73 percent of fraternity members were white.[31]
Ronald Reagan was initiated into Tau Kappa Epsilon at Eureka College while George H.W. Bush joined Delta Kappa Epsilon at Yale University.
Notable fraternity and sorority members[edit]
Since 1900, 63-percent of members of the United States cabinet have been members of fraternities and sororities, and the current chief executive officers of five of the ten largest Fortune 500 companies are members of fraternities and sororities. In addition, 85-percent of all justices of U.S. Supreme Court since 1910 have been members of fraternities. U.S. presidents since World War II who have been initiated into fraternities are George W. Bush, George H.W. Bush, Ronald Reagan, Gerald Ford, and Franklin Roosevelt. Three Prime Ministers of Canada have been members of fraternities.[32][33][34][35][36]
Currently about 25-percent of members of the U.S. House of Representatives and 40-percent of members of the U.S. Senate are members of Greek-letter organizations.[37]
Actress Sophia Bush was a member of Kappa Kappa Gamma at the University of Southern California and has since gone on to further her career in television and receive the Human Rights Campaign's Ally for Equality Award. Other notable sorority women include Mariska Hargitay, who is an actress and founder of the Joyful Heart Foundation.[38][39][40]
Homogeneous membership[edit]
Greek letter organizations have often been characterized as elitist or exclusionary associations, organized for the benefit of a largely white, upper-class membership base. Members of fraternities and sororities disproportionately come from certain socio-economic demographics, which perpetuates an unhealthy divisiveness within the student body based on ethnicity and income and a perpetuation of patterns of exclusivity and privilege.[31] Fraternities specifically have been criticized for what is perceived as their promotion of an excessively alcohol-fueled, party-focused lifestyle.
New York Times columnist Frank Bruni questioned the existence of exclusive clubs on campuses that are meant to facilitate independence, writing: "[Colleges] should be cultivating the kind of sensibility that makes you a better citizen of a diverse and distressingly fractious society. How is that served by retreating into an exclusionary clique of people just like you?"[41]
A newly initiated member of the Delta Upsilon chapter at Boise State University receives the fraternity's badge.
Academic performance[edit]
Studies have found that university graduation rates are 20% higher among members of Greek-letter organizations than among non-members and students who are members of fraternities and sororities typically have higher-than-average grade point averages. One reason for this is many chapters require their members to maintain a certain academic standard.[42]
Alcoholism[edit]
Fraternity members are "much more likely to abuse alcohol and drugs than their non-Greek affiliated peers." One Harvard University study found that "4 out of 5 fraternity and sorority members are binge drinkers. In comparison, other research suggests 2 out of 5 college students overall are regular binge drinkers."[43]
Elitism[edit]
Some colleges and universities have banned Greek letter organizations with the justification that they are, by their very nature and structure, set up to be elitist and exclusionary. The most famous and oldest ban was at Princeton (Leitch 1978), though Princeton has now had fraternities since the 1980s.[44] Oberlin College banned "secret societies" (fraternities and sororities) in 1847,[45] and the prohibition continues to the present.[46] Quaker universities such as Guilford College and Earlham College often ban fraternities and sororities because they are seen as a violation of the Quaker principle of equality.[47][48] Brandeis University has never permitted fraternities or sororities as it maintains a policy that all student organizations have membership open to all.[49]
Professional advancement[edit]
There is a high representation of former Greek life members among certain elites in the United States. 43 of the nation's 50 largest corporation heads are Greek members along with 40 of the last 47 Supreme Court justices.[50] Greek members "are more likely to be thriving in their well-being and engaged at work than college graduates who did not go Greek," according to a study done by Gallup and Purdue University.[51]
Hazing[edit]
Fraternities, and to a much lesser extent sororities, have been criticized for hazing sometimes committed by active undergraduate members against their chapter's pledges. Hazing during the pledge period can sometimes culminate in an event commonly known as "Hell Week" in which a week-long series of physical and mental torments are inflicted on pledges. Common hazing practices include sleep deprivation, sensory deprivation, paddling and other types of spanking, use of stress positions, forced runs, busy work, and mind games. Rarer incidents involving branding, enemas, urination on pledges, and the forced consumption of spoiled food have been reported. Hazing in many cases has been reported and has led to the permanent disposal of particular chapters of fraternities and sororities across the country.
A depiction of fraternity hazing from the early 20th century
Supporters of fraternities note that hazing is almost universally prohibited by national fraternity organizations, and the occurrence of hazing in undergraduate fraternity chapters goes against official policy. Supporters of fraternities also note that hazing is not unique to Greek-letter organizations and is often reported in other student organizations, such as athletic teams.
In 2007, an anti-hazing hotline was set up to report incidents of hazing on college campuses. Currently 46 national fraternity and sorority organizations support the toll-free number which generates automatic email messages regarding hazing and sends them to the national headquarters directly from the National Anti-Hazing Hotline.[52] Every year during the last week of September is considered to be National Hazing Prevention Week (NHPW). From hazingprevention.org, "NHPW is an opportunity for campuses, schools, communities, organizations and individuals to raise awareness about the problem of hazing, educating others about hazing, and promoting the prevention of hazing. HazingPrevention.Org™ is the organizer of National Hazing Prevention Week (NHPW)."[53]
Nepotism and networking[edit]
Critics of Greek-letter organizations assert that they create a culture of nepotism in later life, while supporters have applauded them for creating networking opportunities for members after graduation. A 2013 report by Bloomberg found that fraternity connections are influential in obtaining lucrative employment positions at top Wall Street brokerages. According to the report, recent graduates have been known to exchange the secret handshakes of their fraternities with executives whom they know to be fraters as a means of obtaining access to competitive appointments.[54][55]
Personal fulfillment[edit]
A 2014 Gallup survey of 30,000 university alumni found that persons who said they had been members of Greek-letter organizations while undergraduates reported having a greater sense of purpose, as well as better social and physical well-being, than those who had not.[56]
Sexism and sexual assault[edit]
Studies show that fraternity men are three times more likely to commit rape than other men on college campuses.[57][58][59] Fraternities have often been accused of fostering rape-supportive attitudes by promoting male dominance and brotherhood, and fraternity affiliation has been found to be a significant predictor of sexually predatory behavior in retrospective research.[59][60] Furthermore, studies show that women in sororities are almost twice as likely to experience rape than other college women.[61][62]
Nicholas Syrett, a professor of history at the University of Northern Colorado, has been a vocal critic of the evolution of fraternities in the 20th century. Syrett has stated that "fraternal masculinity has, for at least 80 years, valorized athletics, alcohol abuse and sex with women."[63] Time magazine columnist Jessica Bennett has denounced fraternities as breeding "sexism and misogyny that lasts long after college." In her column, Bennett recounts that, while she was an undergraduate student at the University of Southern California, doormen at fraternity parties "often ranked women on a scale of one to 10, with only 'sixes' and up granted entry to a party."[55]
Racism and racist incidents[edit]
Racism in Greek Life has been linked to the experience of microaggressions, fewer opportunities to use the networking system built into Greek life, and harmful stereotypes.[64] This fuels the experiences of people of color throughout their lives in various academic, work, and personal spaces, including Greek Life Organizations (GLOs). In resistance to racism in White GLOs (WGLOs), in the early 1920s, Black GLOs (BGLOs) and Multicultural GLOs (MGLOs) were founded.[65] Through the creation of these organizations, there has been a legacy of racism, which has fueled a structure that has negatively impacted people of color.
Further information: Racism and racist incidents in greek life
Glossary[edit]
Alumni members of the Miami University chapter of Sigma Chi, plus an unidentified woman, pose for a photograph at a 1909 reunion.
Active – an initiated, undergraduate student member of a fraternity or sorority[66]
Alumna – a member of a sorority who is no longer an undergraduate student, and no longer resides in the sorority house[67]
Alumnus – a member of a fraternity who is no longer an undergraduate student, and no longer resides in the fraternity house[67]
Bid – an offer to become a pledge (see below) of a fraternity or sorority[66]
Chapter room – a room inside a fraternity house, often secret or hidden, where meetings of actives occur and where rituals are performed[67]
Colony – a newly established chapter of a national/international fraternity or sorority in the process of organization[67]
Legacy – a rushee who is related to a member of the same fraternity or sorority they are rushing and will almost assuredly be offered a bid. Traditionally a legacy has a parent or sibling that is a member, some organizations have expanded on their definition of a legacy's relation to members.
Local – a fraternity or sorority with only one chapter[67]
National / International – a fraternity or sorority with two or more chapters, both of which are in the same nation (in the case of a national), or at least one of which is in a different nation from the others (in the case of an international)[67]
Pledge – a probationary member of a fraternity or sorority, sometimes also called "associate member"[66]
Potential New Member – Abbreviated PNM, one who is in the process of seeking a bid[66]
Rush – the process of recruitment to a fraternity or sorority[66]
Rushee – one who is in the process of seeking a bid[66]
In popular culture[edit]
This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances; add references to reliable sources if possible. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2017)
For a more comprehensive list, see list of fictional fraternities and sororities.
The 1951 drama film Take Care of My Little Girl portrayed the first year of a popular freshman pledge to the fictitious Tri-U sorority, and her revelations about the sorority's values.
The 1978 comedy movie National Lampoon's Animal House portrayed members of a fictitious fraternity (Delta Tau Chi) at a fictitious college.
The 1984 comedy movie Revenge of the Nerds portrayed 'rejected' fraternity members taking revenge on popular fraternities (in part, by setting up their own chapter of the fictional black fraternity Lambda Lambda Lambda) and the change in power from the jocks and cheerleaders to the nerds. The co-ed fraternity Lambda Lambda Lambda takes their name from the fraternity in this movie.
The 1988 film School Daze depicts fraternity and sorority life at a historically black college.
The 1994 comedy movie PCU also portrays members of a student group at a fictitious college where fraternities have been prohibited.
The 2001 comedy movie Legally Blonde and its 2007 musical adaption include the fictional sorority Delta Nu, of which the protagonist, Elle Woods, is president.
The 2003 comedy movie Old School portrays a fictional fraternity created by aging men at their alma mater.
The 2006 film Stomp the Yard depicts African American Greek life centered around the tradition of stepping, made popular by Black Greek Letter Organizations.
The 2006 film Accepted includes a fictional fraternity (Beta Kappa Epsilon) which Sherman Schrader attempts to become a part of because his father is a member.
The 2007–2011 ABC Family television series Greek depicts students of the fictional Cyprus-Rhodes University (CRU) who participate in the school's Greek system.
The 2007 film American Pie Presents: Beta House where new college freshmen try to gain eligibility to the Beta House fraternity.
The 2007 film Sydney White uses the sorority system and how it affects social dynamics to tell the classic fairy tale of Snow White in the modern day.
The 2009 slasher film Sorority Row features the sorority 'Theta Pi' in which Audrina Patridge's character was one of their members.
The 2009 movie Sorority Wars revolves around sorority experience in college.
The 2010 television series Glory Daze depicts students of the fictional Hayes University who participate in the school's Greek system.
The 2010 film Brotherhood directed by Will Canon depicts hazing which gets out of hand.
The main plot point of the 2013 movie Monsters University is a competition between fictitious fraternities and sororities to determine the best scarers.
The 2014 film Neighbors pitches a fraternity house against a young family in a battle of hearts and minds. Its 2016 sequel Neighbors 2: Sorority Rising saw the family go up against a newly formed sorority.
The 2015 Fox television series Scream Queens is centered on a series of murders involving the Kappa Kappa Tau sorority and the Dickie Dollar Scholars fraternity.
See also[edit]
Academic dress
Defunct North American collegiate sororities
Faluche
Students' union
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whipple, Edward G.; Sullivan, Eileen G. (1998-03-01). "Greek Letter Organizations: Communities of Learners?". New Directions for Student Services. 1998 (81): 7–17. doi:10.1002/ss.8101. ISSN 1536-0695.
Jump up ^ For example, Phi Kappa Tau and Alpha Xi Delta both have provisions in their respective Constitutions that they can accept graduate students as well as undergraduates
Jump up ^ Alpha Xi Delta
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Whalen, Richard (1967). Handbook of Secret Organizations. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company. pp. 43–45.
Jump up ^ Birdseye, Clarence Frank (1907), Individual Training in Our Colleges, New York: The McMillan Company, p. 211, retrieved 2008-06-20
Jump up ^ Chapter History Archived 2016-08-26 at the Wayback Machine., accessed 16 October 2015. The chapter has since moved to larger quarters.
Jump up ^ "ATO Facts & Firsts". Retrieved 21 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Gamma Chapter history, accessed 16 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Wesleyan Female College (originally Georgia Female College and now simply Wesleyan College), was the birthplace of the first two sororities, both the Adelphean Society and the Philomathean Society. The Adelphean, founded in 1851 eventually became Alpha Delta Pi, while The Philomathean, begun in 1852, eventually became Phi Mu. Together, these sororities are known as the "Macon Magnolias." Several other unrelated "Philomathean Societies" emerged during the 19th Century, most notably a literary society at UPenn and another, unrelated, at NYU.
^ Jump up to: a b Anson, Jack (1991). Baird's Manual of American College Fraternities (20th Edition). Bairds Manual Foundation. p. III-32. ISBN 0963715909.
Jump up ^ "Adventure in Friendship: A History of The National Panhellenic Conference" (PDF). National Panhellenic Conference. National Panhellenic Conference. Retrieved October 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Fraternities in Canada". The Encyclopedia of Canada, Vol. II. University Associates of Canada. 1948. Retrieved 2010-08-19.
Jump up ^ "History of MGC". Multicultural Greek Council. Multicultural Greek Council. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "EMERGENCE OF MULTICULTURAL FRATERNAL ORGANIZATIONS". National Multicultural Greek Council. National Multicultural Greek Council. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Why One School Decided To Make All Of Its Fraternities And Sororities Co-Ed". Business Insider. 9 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fraternities Lobby Against Campus Rape Investigations". Bloomberg. 24 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Pi Alpha Tau Papers, 1963–1991, UIC Archives" (PDF). uic.edu. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
Jump up ^ http://college.usatoday.com/2016/07/08/chi-phi-transgender-pledges/
Jump up ^ "GOVERNANCE OF UNDERGRADUATE SOCIAL FRATERNITIES AND SORORITIES". upenn.edu. University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "ERM, ORSA and Corporate Governance: The Small Company Challenges". firstconsulting.com. First Consulting.
^ Jump up to: a b "Rush and Pledging Problems". The Fraternity Advisor. Retrieved 2 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Glossary of Greek Life Terms". gmu.edu. George Mason University Interfraternity Council. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Fraternity Legacies". thefraternityadvisor.com. The Fraternity Advisor. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Deadliest U.S. Fraternity Abolishes Pledging for New Members". Bloomberg (7 March 2014).
Jump up ^ Dundes, Allan (1993). Folklore Matters. University of Tennessee Press. p. 31. ISBN 0870497766.
Jump up ^ "Books: Hawthorne's Line". Time. April 25, 1938. Retrieved 2010-08-17.
Jump up ^ Matthews, Jack (August 15, 2010). "Nathaniel Hawthorne's Untold Tale". Excerpts from Julian Hawthorne's Memoirs. The Chronicle Review. Retrieved 2010-08-17.
Jump up ^ Matthews, Jack (August 15, 2010). "Nathaniel Hawthorne's Untold Tale". The Chronicle Review. Retrieved 2010-08-17. This was, of course, all very collegiate for that long-ago time, and—with the exception of the "red-hot iron" and "boiling oil" references, if taken too literally—quite typical.
Jump up ^ "Bizarre fire burns frat house; blaze startedin secret room". Journal Times. 27 September 2003. Retrieved 2 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Rolland-Diamond, Caroline (2016). "Another Side of the Sixties: Festive Practices on College Campuses and the Making of a Conservative Youth Movement". Revue française d’études américaines. 1 (146): 39–53. Retrieved October 24, 2016 – via Cairn.info. (Registration required (help)).
^ Jump up to: a b c "Fraternities & Sororities". Princeton University Reports. Retrieved 25 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Borislow, Jared (20 February 2017). "Here's A List Of Every U.S. President Who Was In A Fraternity". Total Frat Move. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Fraternity Statistics". nicindy.org. North American Interfraternity Conference. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Prominent Pi Gamma Mu Members". Pi Gamma Mu. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Famous Betas of Achievement". Beta Theta Pi. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Kerr, Peter (August 1, 2009). "Paul Martin – life after politics". The Montrealer. Retrieved October 21, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kingkade, Tyler (25 July 2013). "FratPAC Lobbies Congress For Tax Breaks, To Stop Anti-Hazing Law". Huffington Post. Retrieved 9 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Kappa Kappa Gamma | Famous Fraternity Brothers & Sorority Sisters | XFINITY". my.xfinity.com. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
Jump up ^ "Sophia Bush x Joe Fresh Exclusively for HRC". Human Rights Campaign. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
Jump up ^ "Our Story". Joyful Heart Foundation. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
Jump up ^ Bruni, Frank (2 December 2014). "A Pox on Campus Life". New York Times. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Jacobs, Peter (8 January 2014). "Don't Ban Fraternities". Business Insider. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Binge Drinking in Greek Organizations". addictioncenter.com. Addiction Center. Retrieved 2 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Princeton's Fraternities Growing". New York Times. November 28, 1993. pp. Section 1 Page 56. Retrieved May 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ Fletcher, Robert Samuel (1943). A History of Oberlin College from Its Foundation Through the Civil War. Oberlin College. "Revised codes were issued every few years, but not many important changes were made in them. Provisions with regard to the hours of 'athletic exercises and sport' were added in 1847. In the same revision there appeared for the first time the 'peculiar' Oberlin rule against secret societies. 'No student,' it runs, 'is permitted to join any secret society, or military company.'"
Jump up ^ Student Regulations, Policies, and Procedures, Oberlin College 2011–2012 (PDF). Oberlin College. 2011. p. 34. D. Secret Societies: "No secret society is allowed at Oberlin, and no other societies or self-perpetuating organizations are allowed among students, except by permission of the faculty. This is to be understood to include social and rooming-house clubs."
Jump up ^ http://www.guilford.edu/about-guilford/quaker-heritage/quaker-testimony/equality/
Jump up ^ "Community Life". earlham.edu.
Jump up ^ "2007–2008 Rights & Responsibilities Handbook, Appendix B: University Policy on Fraternities and Sororities". Brandeis University. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
Jump up ^ "Fraternity Facts". uwgreek.com. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
Jump up ^ "Fraternity and Sorority Membership Linked to Higher Well-Being for College Grads". Gallup.com. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
Jump up ^ "Fraternal Law » Anti-Hazing Hotline". fraternallaw.com. Retrieved 2015-10-04.
Jump up ^ "National Hazing Prevention Week | Hazing Prevention". hazingprevention.org. Retrieved 2015-10-04.
Jump up ^ Abelson, Max; Faux, Zeke (22 December 2013). "Secret Handshakes Greet Frat Brothers on Wall Street". Bloomberg. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Bennett, Jessica (3 December 2014). "The Problem With Frats Isn't Just Rape. It's Power". Time. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Nelson, Libby (28 May 2014). "Sorry, nerds: Fraternity brothers have more fulfilling lives later on". Vox. Retrieved 28 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Foubert, John (9 October 2013). "'Rapebait' e-mail reveals dark side of frat culture". CNN.com. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Foubert, John; Newberry, Johnathan; Tatum, Jerry (2007). "Behavior differences seven months later: Effects of a rape prevention program on first-year men who join fraternities". NASPA Journal. 44 (4): 728–749. doi:10.2202/1949-6605.1866. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Loh, Catherine; Gidycz, Christine; Lobo, Tracy; Luthra, Rohini (2005). "A Prospective Analysis of Sexual Assault Perpetration: Risk Factors Related to Perpetrator Characteristics" (PDF). Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 20 (10): 1325–1348. doi:10.1177/0886260505278528. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Lackie, Leandra; de Man, Anton (1997). "Correlates of Sexual Aggression Among Male University Students". Sex Roles. 37 (5/6): 451–457. doi:10.1023/A:1025613725757. Retrieved 24 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Minow, Jacqueline; Einolf, Christopher (2009). "Sorority Participation and Sexual Assault Risk" (PDF). Violence Against Women. SAGE Publications. 15 (7): 835–851. doi:10.1177/1077801209334472. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Mohler-Kuo, Meichun; Dowdall, George; Koss, Mary; Wechsler, Henry (2004). "Correlates of rape while intoxicated in a national sample of college women" (PDF). Journal of Studies on Alcohol. Harvard School of Public Health. 65 (1): 37–45. doi:10.15288/jsa.2004.65.37. PMID 15000502. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Syrett, Nicholas (6 May 2011). "Colleges Condone Fraternities' Sexist Behavior". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
Jump up ^ W. Hughey, Matthew (2010). "A Paradox of Participation: Nonwhites in White Sororities and Fraternities". Social Problems. 57 (4): 653–679. doi:10.1525/sp.2010.57.4.653.
Jump up ^ W. Hughey, Matthew (2010). "A Paradox of Participation: Nonwhites in White Sororities and Fraternities". Social Problems. 57 (4): 653–679. doi:10.1525/sp.2010.57.4.653.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Greek Terminology". fit.edu. Florida Institute of Technology. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Fraternity/Sorority Terms". elon.edu. Elon University. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
Further reading[edit]
Caitlin Flanagan, "The Dark Power of Fraternities," The Atlantic, March, 2014, pp. 72–91.
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values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: Κολεγιακές και πανεπιστημιακές αδερφότητες – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: انجمن‌های برادری و باشگاه‌های زنان – Persian

values: 프래터니티와 소로리티 – Korean

values: אחווה (אקדמיה) – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values: フラタニティとソロリティ – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Студенческие объединения в Северной Америке – Russian

values: Fraternities and sororities – Simple English

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: Veljeskunnat ja sisarkunnat Pohjois-Amerikassa – Finnish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values: Студентські об'єднання в Північній Америці – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: 兄弟會與姊妹會 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Fraternities_and_sororities rootpage-Fraternities_and_sororities skin-vector action-view