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Seafloor spreading
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Age of oceanic lithosphere; youngest (red) is along spreading centers.
Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics. When oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes fractures to occur in the lithosphere.The motivating force for seafloor spreading ridges is tectonic plate pull rather than magma pressure, although there is typically significant magma activity at spreading ridges.[1] At a spreading center basaltic magma rises up the fractures and cools on the ocean floor to form new seabed. Hydrothermal vents are common at spreading centers. Older rocks will be found farther away from the spreading zone while younger rocks will be found nearer to the spreading zone. Additionally spreading rates determine if the ridge is a fast, intermediate, or slow. As a general rule, fast ridges see spreading rate of more than 9 cm/year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 4–9 cm/year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 4 cm/year.[2]
Earlier theories (e.g. by Alfred Wegener and Alexander du Toit) of continental drift postulated that continents "ploughed" through the sea. The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and also carries the continents with it) as it expands from a central axis was proposed by Harry Hess from Princeton University in the 1960s.[3] The theory is well accepted now, and the phenomenon is known to be caused by convection currents in the asthenosphere, which is ductile, or plastic, and the brittle lithosphere.[4][clarification needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Incipient spreading
2 Continued spreading and subduction
3 Debate and search for mechanism
4 Sea floor global topography: half-space model
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Incipient spreading[edit]
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Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory
In the general case, sea floor spreading starts as a rift in a continental land mass, similar to the Red Sea-East Africa Rift System today.[5] The process starts by heating at the base of the continental crust which causes it to become more plastic and less dense. Because less dense objects rise in relation to denser objects, the area being heated becomes a broad dome (see isostasy). As the crust bows upward, fractures occur that gradually grow into rifts. The typical rift system consists of three rift arms at approximately 120 degree angles. These areas are named triple junctions and can be found in several places across the world today. The separated margins of the continents evolve to form passive margins. Hess' theory was that new seafloor is formed when magma is forced upward toward the surface at a mid-ocean ridge.
If spreading continues past the incipient stage described above, two of the rift arms will open while the third arm stops opening and becomes a 'failed rift'. As the two active rifts continue to open, eventually the continental crust is attenuated as far as it will stretch. At this point basaltic oceanic crust begins to form between the separating continental fragments. When one of the rifts opens into the existing ocean, the rift system is flooded with seawater and becomes a new sea. The Red Sea is an example of a new arm of the sea. The East African rift was thought to be a "failed" arm that was opening somewhat more slowly than the other two arms, but in 2005 the Ethiopian Afar Geophysical Lithospheric Experiment[6] reported that in the Afar region last September,[when?] a 60 km fissure opened as wide as eight meters. During this period of initial flooding the new sea is sensitive to changes in climate and eustasy. As a result, the new sea will evaporate (partially or completely) several times before the elevation of the rift valley has been lowered to the point that the sea becomes stable. During this period of evaporation large evaporite deposits will be made in the rift valley. Later these deposits have the potential to become hydrocarbon seals and are of particular interest to petroleum geologists.
Sea floor spreading can stop during the process, but if it continues to the point that the continent is completely severed, then a new ocean basin is created. The Red Sea has not yet completely split Arabia from Africa, but a similar feature can be found on the other side of Africa that has broken completely free. South America once fit into the area of the Niger Delta. The Niger River has formed in the failed rift arm of the triple junction.
Continued spreading and subduction[edit]
Spreading at a mid-ocean ridge
As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the mid-ocean ridge it slowly cools over time. Older seafloor is therefore colder than new seafloor, and older oceanic basins deeper than new oceanic basins due to isostasy. If the diameter of the earth remains relatively constant despite the production of new crust, a mechanism must exist by which crust is also destroyed. The destruction of oceanic crust occurs at subduction zones where oceanic crust is forced under either continental crust or oceanic crust. Today, the Atlantic basin is actively spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Only a small portion of the oceanic crust produced in the Atlantic is subducted. However, the plates making up the Pacific Ocean are experiencing subduction along many of their boundaries which causes the volcanic activity in what has been termed the Ring of Fire of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is also home to one of the world's most active spreading centres (the East Pacific Rise) with spreading rates of up to 13 cm/yr. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a "textbook" slow-spreading centre, while the East Pacific Rise is used as an example of fast spreading. The differences in spreading rates affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced.[7]
Since the new oceanic basins are shallower than the old oceanic basins, the total capacity of the world's ocean basins decreases during times of active sea floor spreading. During the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, sea level was so high that a Western Interior Seaway formed across North America from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean.
Debate and search for mechanism[edit]
At the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (and in other areas), material from the upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic plates to form new crust as the plates move away from each other, a phenomenon first observed as continental drift. When Alfred Wegener first presented a hypothesis of continental drift in 1912, he suggested that continents ploughed through the ocean crust. This was impossible: oceanic crust is both more dense and more rigid than continental crust. Accordingly, Wegener's theory wasn't taken very seriously, especially in the United States.
Since then, it has been shown that the motion of the continents is linked to seafloor spreading. In the 1960s, the past record of geomagnetic reversals was noticed by observing the magnetic stripe "anomalies" on the ocean floor.[8] This results in broadly evident "stripes" from which the past magnetic field polarity can be inferred by looking at the data gathered from simply towing a magnetometer on the sea surface or from an aircraft. The stripes on one side of the mid-ocean ridge were the mirror image of those on the other side. The seafloor must have originated on the Earth's great fiery welts, like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise.
The driver for seafloor spreading in plates with active margins is the weight of the cool, dense, subducting slabs that pull them along. The magmatism at the ridge is considered to be "passive upswelling", which is caused by the plates being pulled apart under the weight of their own slabs.[9] This can be thought of as analogous to a rug on a table with little friction: when part of the rug is off of the table, its weight pulls the rest of the rug down with it.
Sea floor global topography: half-space model[edit]
To first approximation, sea floor global topography in areas without significant subduction can be estimated by the half-space model.[10] In this model, the seabed height is determined by the oceanic lithosphere temperature, due to thermal expansion. Oceanic lithosphere is continuously formed at a constant rate at the mid-ocean ridges. The source of the lithosphere has a half-plane shape (x = 0, z < 0) and a constant temperature T1. Due to its continuous creation, the lithosphere at x > 0 is moving away from the ridge at a constant velocity v, which is assumed large compared to other typical scales in the problem. The temperature at the upper boundary of the lithosphere (z=0) is a constant T0 = 0. Thus at x = 0 the temperature is the Heaviside step function T 1 ⋅ Θ ( − z ) {\displaystyle T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)} . Finally, we assume the system is at a quasi-steady state, so that the temperature distribution is constant in time, i.e. T=T(x,z).
By calculating in the frame of reference of the moving lithosphere (velocity v), which have spatial coordinate x' = x-vt, we may write T = T(x',z,t) and use the heat equation: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∇ 2 T = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z + κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 x ′ {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}x'}}} where κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is the thermal diffusivity of the mantle lithosphere.
Since T depends on x' and t only through the combination x = x ′ + v t {\displaystyle x=x'+vt} , we have: ∂ T ∂ x ′ = 1 v ⋅ ∂ T ∂ t {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial x'}}={\frac {1}{v}}\cdot {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}}
Thus: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∇ 2 T = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z + κ v 2 ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 t {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa \nabla ^{2}T=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}+{\frac {\kappa }{v^{2}}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}t}}}
We now use the assumption that v {\displaystyle v} is large compared to other scales in the problem; we therefore neglect the last term in the equation, and get a 1-dimensional diffusion equation: ∂ T ∂ t = κ ∂ 2 T ∂ 2 z {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial T}{\partial t}}=\kappa {\frac {\partial ^{2}T}{\partial ^{2}z}}} with the initial conditions T ( t = 0 ) = T 1 ⋅ Θ ( − z ) {\displaystyle T(t=0)=T_{1}\cdot \Theta (-z)} .
The solution for z ≤ 0 {\displaystyle z\leq 0} is given by the error function erf {\displaystyle \operatorname {erf} } :
T ( x ′ , z , t ) = T 1 ⋅ erf  ( z 2 κ t ) {\displaystyle T(x',z,t)=T_{1}\cdot \operatorname {erf} \left({\frac {z}{2{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}}\right)} .
Due to the large velocity, the temperature dependence on the horizontal direction is negligible, and the height at time t (i.e. of sea floor of age t) can be calculated by integrating the thermal expansion over z:
h ( t ) = h 0 + α e f f ∫ 0 ∞ [ T ( z ) − T 1 ] d z = h 0 − 2 π α e f f T 1 κ t {\displaystyle h(t)=h_{0}+\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }\int _{0}^{\infty }[T(z)-T_{1}]dz=h_{0}-{\frac {2}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }T_{1}{\sqrt {\kappa t}}}
where α e f f {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }} is the effective volumetric thermal expansion coefficient, and h0 is the mid-ocean ridge height (compared to some reference).
Note that the assumption the v is relatively large is equivalently to the assumption that the thermal diffusivity κ {\displaystyle \kappa } is small compared to L 2 / T {\displaystyle L^{2}/T} , where L is the ocean width (from mid-ocean ridges to continental shelf) and T is its age.
The effective thermal expansion coefficient α e f f {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }} is different from the usual thermal expansion coefficient α {\displaystyle \alpha } due to isostasic effect of the change in water column height above the lithosphere as it expands or retracts. Both coefficients are related by:
α e f f = α ⋅ ρ ρ − ρ w {\displaystyle \alpha _{\mathrm {eff} }=\alpha \cdot {\frac {\rho }{\rho -\rho _{w}}}}
where ρ ∼ 3.3 g / c m 3 {\displaystyle \rho \sim 3.3g/cm^{3}} is the rock density and ρ 0 = 1 g / c m 3 {\displaystyle \rho _{0}=1g/cm^{3}} is the density of water.
By substituting the parameters by their rough estimates: κ ∼ 8 ⋅ 10 − 7 {\displaystyle \kappa \sim 8\cdot 10^{-7}} m2/s, α ∼ 4 ⋅ 10 − 5 {\displaystyle \alpha \sim 4\cdot 10^{-5}} °C−1 and T1 ~1220 °C (for the Atlantic and Indian oceans) or ~1120 °C (for the eastern Pacific), we have:
h ( t ) ∼ h 0 − 350 t {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-350{\sqrt {t}}}
for the eastern Pacific Ocean, and:
h ( t ) ∼ h 0 − 390 t {\displaystyle h(t)\sim h_{0}-390{\sqrt {t}}}
for the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, where the height is in meters and time is in millions of years. To get the dependence on x, one must substitute t = x/v ~ Tx/L, where L is the distance between the ridge to the continental shelf (roughly half the ocean width), and T is the ocean age.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Seafloor spreading.
Divergent boundary
Mid-ocean ridge
Morley-Vine-Matthews hypothesis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Tan, Yen Joe; Tolstoy, Maya; Waldhauser, Felix; Wilcock, William S. D. "Dynamics of a seafloor-spreading episode at the East Pacific Rise". Nature. 540 (7632): 261–265. doi:10.1038/nature20116.
Jump up ^ Tan, Yen Joe; Tolstoy, Maya; Waldhauser, Felix; Wilcock, William S. D. "Dynamics of a seafloor-spreading episode at the East Pacific Rise". Nature. 540 (7632): 261–265. doi:10.1038/nature20116.
Jump up ^ Hess, H. H. (November 1962). "History of Ocean Basins" (PDF). In A. E. J. Engel; Harold L. James; B. F. Leonard. Petrologic studies: a volume to honor A. F. Buddington. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America. pp. 599–620. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Elsasser, Walter M. (1971). "Sea-Floor Spreading as Thermal Convection". Journal of Geophysical Research. 76: 1101. Bibcode:1971JGR....76.1101E. doi:10.1029/JB076i005p01101.
Jump up ^ Makris, J.; Ginzburg, A. (1987-09-15). "Sedimentary basins within the Dead Sea and other rift zones The Afar Depression: transition between continental rifting and sea-floor spreading". Tectonophysics. 141 (1): 199–214. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(87)90186-7.
Jump up ^ Bastow, Ian D.; Keir, Derek; Daly, Eve (2011-06-01). "The Ethiopia Afar Geoscientific Lithospheric Experiment (EAGLE): Probing the transition from continental rifting to incipient seafloor spreading". Geological Society of America Special Papers. 478: 51–76. doi:10.1130/2011.2478(04). ISSN 0072-1077.
Jump up ^ Bhagwat, S.B. (2009). Foundation of Geology Vol 1. Global Vision Publishing House. p. 83. ISBN 9788182202764.
Jump up ^ Vine, F. J.; Matthews, D. H. (1963). "Magnetic Anomalies Over Oceanic Ridges". Nature. 199: 947–949. doi:10.1038/199947a0.
Jump up ^ Patriat, Philippe; Achache, José (1984). "India–Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates". Nature. 311 (5987): 615. Bibcode:1984Natur.311..615P. doi:10.1038/311615a0.
Jump up ^ Davis, E.E; Lister, C. R. B. (1974). "Fundamentals of Ridge Crest Topography". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. North-Holland Publishing Company. 21: 405–413. Bibcode:1974E&PSL..21..405D. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(74)90180-0.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Seafloor spreading
Animation of a mid-ocean ridge
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William Muir
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For the American coach, see William Muir (American coach). For other people, see William Muir (disambiguation).
Sir William Muir
Sir William Muir by Charles McBride
Sir William Muir, KCSI (27 April 1819 – 11 July 1905) was a Scottish Orientalist, scholar of Islam, and colonial administrator, serving as Principal of the University of Edinburgh and Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Provinces of India.
Contents
[hide]
1 Life
2 Works, reception, and legacy
2.1 Life of Muhammad
2.2 Other works
3 Statuary
4 Family
5 Publications
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Life[edit]
Sir William Muir's grave, Dean Cemetery
He was born at Glasgow the son of William Muir, and younger brother of John Muir. He was educated at Kilmarnock Academy, the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and at Haileybury College.[1] In 1837 he entered the Bengal civil service. Muir served as secretary to the governor of the North-West Provinces, and as a member of the Agra revenue board, and during the Mutiny he was in charge of the intelligence department there. In 1865 he was made foreign secretary to the Indian Government. In 1867 Muir was knighted (K.C.S.I.), and in 1868 he became lieutenant-governor of the North Western Provinces.[2]
Having been criticised for the poor relief effort during the Orissa famine of 1866, the British began to discuss famine policy, and in 1868 Muir issued an order stating that:
... every District officer would be held personally responsible that no deaths occurred from starvation which could have been avoided by any exertion or arrangement on his part or that of his subordinates.[3]
In 1874 Muir was appointed financial member of the Viceroy's Council, and retired in 1876, when he became a member of the Council of India in London.[1] James Thomason served as Muir's mentor with respect to Imperial administration; Muir later wrote an influential biography of Thomason.[2]
Muir had always taken an interest in educational matters, and it was chiefly through his exertions that the central college at Allahabad, known as Muir Central College, was built and endowed. Muir College later became a part of the Allahabad University.[1] In 1884 Muir was elected president of the Royal Asiatic Society.[4] In 1885 he was elected principal of Edinburgh University in succession to Sir Alexander Grant, and held the post till 1903, when he retired.[1]
Muir was married to Elizabeth Huntly Wemyss (1822-1897). He died in Edinburgh, and is buried in Dean Cemetery. The grave lies in the concealed lower southern terrace.
Works, reception, and legacy[edit]
Sir William Muir was an Orientalist and scholar of Islam. His chief area of expertise was the history of the time of Muhammad and the early caliphate. His chief books are A Life of Mahomet and History of Islam to the Era of the Hegira; Annals of the Early Caliphate; The Caliphate: Its rise, decline and fall, an abridgment and continuation of the Annals, which brings the record down to the fall of the caliphate on the onset of the Mongols; The Koran: its Composition and Teaching; and The Mohammedan Controversy, a reprint of five essays published at intervals between 1885 and 1887. In 1888 he delivered the Rede lecture at Cambridge on The Early Caliphate and Rise of Islam.[1]
Life of Muhammad[edit]
Sir William Muir during the Second Anglo-Afghan War
His original book " The life of Mohammed" was initially published 1861 in four volume tomes.
Muir's contemporary reviewers of his Life of Mahomet uniformly praised him for his knowledge of Arabic;[5] the only competing work in Britain at the time was a book by Harrow schoolmaster Reginald Bosworth Smith, who had no Arabic language skills.[6] Historian Avril Powell notes that none of the contemporary reviews commented on Muir's view that the Muslim society was stationary and incapable of reforms, perhaps because it was quietly assumed as indisputable by most of Muir's Victorian co-nationals. Written objections to this aspect of Life could be found in the writings of Muslims living inside the Empire only after the 1857 rebellion.[5] However, a contemporary review in The Times criticized Life for "propagandist writing" with Christian bias and for "odium theologicum".[7] Contemporary historian E. A. Freeman praised the book as a "great work", yet questioned its conjectural methodology, particularly the "half timid suggestion" made by Muir that Muhammad had fallen under the influence of Satanic inspiration.[8]
Among 20th century scholars, W. M. Watt (1961) described Muir's Life as following "in detail the standard Muslim accounts, though not uncritically",[9] and Albert Hourani (1989) declared that it "is still not quite superseded".[10] Bennett (1998) praises it as "a detailed life of Muhammad more complete than almost any other previous book, at least in English," noting however that besides "placing the facts of Muhammad's life before both Muslim and Christian readers, Muir wanted to convince Muslims that Muhammad was not worth their allegiance. He thus combined scholarly and evangelical or missionary purposes."[11] Commenting on Muir's conjecture that Muhammad may have been affected by a Satanic influence, Clinton Bennett says that Muir "chose to resurrect another old Christian theory", and quotes the following passage from Muir's 1858 Life, vol. 2:[12]
It is incumbent upon us to consider this question from a Christian point of view, and to ask whether the supernatural influence, which ... acted upon the soul of the Arabian prophet may not have proceeded from the Evil One ... Our belief in the power of the Evil One must lead us to consider this as at least one of the possible causes of the fall of Mahomet... into the meshes of deception ... May we conceive that a diabolical influence and inspiration was permitted to enslave the heart of him who had deliberately yielded to the compromise with evil.
In the final chapters of Life, Muir concluded that the main legacy of Islam was a negative one, and he subdivided it in "three radical evils":[13]
First: Polygamy, Divorce, and Slavery strike at the root of public morals, poison domestic life, and disorganise society; while the Veil removes the female sex from its just position and influence in the world. Second: freedom of thought and private judgment are crushed and annihilated. Toleration is unknown, and the possibility of free and liberal institutions foreclosed. Third: a barrier has been interposed against the reception of Christianity.
According to Edward Said, although Muir's Life of Mahomet and The Caliphate "are still considered reliable monuments of scholarship", his work was characterized by an "impressive antipathy to the Orient, Islam and the Arabs", and "his attitude towards his subject matter was fairly put by him when he said that 'the sword of Muhammed, and the Kor'an, are the most stubborn enemies of Civilisation, Liberty, and the Truth which the world has yet known'".[14]
Other works[edit]
Muir's later Annals was received with fewer reservations by the Times reviewer and other newspapers of the day. It was the Annals that established Muir's reputation as a leading scholar on Islam in Britain. Nevertheless, his earlier hypercritical Life of Mahomet was used as a poster child by contemporary Muslim commentators—especially by Indian ones connected to the movement of Syed Ahmed Khan—to dismiss all criticism of their society emanating from Western scholars.[6] Syed Ameer Ali went as far as to declare Muir "Islam's avowed enemy".[15]
An illustrative aspect in the evolution of Muir's positions is his stance on the Crusades. In his writings of the 1840s, he goaded Christian scholars to verbal warfare against Muslims using aggressive crusader imagery. Fifty year later, Muir redirected the invective hitherto reserved for the Muslims to the crusading leaders and armies, and while still finding some faults with the former, he praised Saladin for knightly values. (Muir's anti-Catholic animus may have played a role in this too.[citation needed]) Despite his later writings, Muir's reputation as an unfair critic of Islam remained strong in Muslim circles. Powell finds that William Muir deserves much of the criticism laid by Edward Said and his followers against 19th century Western scholarship on Islam.[16]
Muir was a committed Evangelical Christian and was invited to preface many missionary biographies and memoirs, speak at conferences and to publicise Zenana missions. He wrote "If Christianity is anything, it must be everything. It cannot brook a rival, nor cease to wage war against all other faiths, without losing its strength and virtue."[17] In his official capacity as principal of Edinburgh University, Muir chaired many meetings of Evangelists at the university, organised to support overseas missionary efforts, and addressed by speakers such as Henry Drummond.[18] In India, William Muir founded the Indian Christian village Muirabad, near Allahabad. Muir was impressed with the discovery of the Apology of al-Kindy; he lectured on it at the Royal Asiatic Society, presenting it as an important link in what he saw as a chain of notable conversions to Christianity, and later he published the translated sources. A proselytising text, Bakoorah shahiya (Sweet First Fruits) was published under his name as well, but this work had actually been written by a convert to Protestantism from Eastern Orthodox Christianity.[17]
In The Mohammedan Controversy, he wrote:[19]
Britain must not faint until her millions in the East abandon both the false prophet and the idol shrines and rally around that eternal truth which has been brought to light in the Gospel.
Daniel Pipes investigated the origin of the phrase "Satanic Verses", and concluded that despite Salman Rushdie's claim that he had borrowed the phrase from Tabari, the earliest traceable occurrence is in Muir's Life of Mohamet (1858) in a passage discussing "two Satanic verses".[20][21][22] The phrase does not appear in the revised edition of 1912 though.[23]
Statuary[edit]
A marble statue by George Blackall Simmonds was erected in his honour and unveiled by the then Viceroy of India at the opening of Muir College on 8 April 1886,[24][25] and was still there in 2012.[26] Another was proposed for the Muslim college, but due to opposition the scheme was dropped.
Family[edit]
He was the brother of the indologist John Muir. He married Elizabeth Huntly Wemyss in 1840 (d. 1897), and had five sons and six daughters; four of his sons served in India, and one of them, Colonel A. M. Muir (d. 1899), was Political Officer for South Baluchistan, and was acting British Resident in Nepal when he died.[1]
Publications[edit]
The Life of Muhammad and History of Islam to the Era of the Hegira
Vols. 1–2 published in 1858 by Smith, Elder, & Co.
Vols. 3–4 published in 1861 by Smith, Elder, & Co. together with a reprinting of the first two volumes; title shortened to The Life of Muhammad.
The life of Muhammad from original sources
2nd abridged one-volume ed. of the above published in 1878, xi+errata slip, xxviii, 624 pp. London: Smith, Elder, & Co.
3rd abridged ed. published in 1894 by Smith, Elder, & Co., ciii, 536 p.
posthumously revised ed. by Thomas Hunter Weir published in 1912 as The life of Mohammad from original sources, cxix, 556 pp.
The Mameluke or Slave Dynasty of Egypt, 1260–1517 AD, end of the Caliphate
The Caliphate: Its rise, decline and fall
The Apology of al-Kindy, 1882
Annals of the Early Caliphate
The Sources of Islam, A Persian Treatise, by the Rev. W. St. Clair-Tisdall, translated and abridged by W. M. 1901. Edinburgh, T & T Clark.
Records of the Intelligence Department of the Government of the North-West Provinces of India during the Mutiny of 1857 including correspondence with the supreme government, Delhi, Cawnpore, and other places. 1902. 2 vols, Edinburgh, T & T Clark.
Two Old Faiths: Essays on the Religions of the Hindus and the Mohammedans. J. Murray Mitchell and Sir William Muir. 1901. New York: Chautauqua Press.
Muhammad and Islam
The Rise and Decline of Islam
The Lord's Supper: an abiding witness to the death of Christ
Sweet First-Fruits. A tale of the Nineteenth Century, on the truth and virtue of the Christian Religion
The Beacon of Truth; or, Testimony of the Coran to the Truth of the Christian Religion, 1894
The Mohammedan Controversy, 1897
James Thomason, lieutenant-governor N.-W. P., India, 1897
The Teaching of the Coran
The opium revenue (1875)
See also[edit]
Orientalism
Origin and development of the Qur'an
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Chisholm 1911
^ Jump up to: a b Powell 2010, p. 3
Jump up ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. III (1907), p. 478
Jump up ^ Powell 2010, p. 249
^ Jump up to: a b Powell 2010, p. 168
^ Jump up to: a b Powell 2010, p. 256
Jump up ^ Powell 2010, p. 256 and 168 both contain these quotes cited from The Times, 15 November 1883, p. 2
Jump up ^ Powell 2010, p. 168 citing EA Freeman, British Quarterly Review, 55 (January 1872), pp. 106–119
Jump up ^ Bennett 1998, p. 112 citing Watt, William Montgomery (1961) Muhammad – Prophet and Statesman, Oxford University Press, p. 244
Jump up ^ Bennett 1998, p. 112 citing Hourani, Albert (1989) Europe and the Middle East, Macmillan, p. 34
Jump up ^ Bennett 1998, p. 111
Jump up ^ Bennett 1998, p. 113 citing Muir's 1858 Life, vol. 2, p. 90f; Bennett traces the Satanic influence theory
Jump up ^ Bennett 1998, p. 113 paraphrases Muir's 1894 edition of Life, p. 505, but the passage quoted here is in Muir's own words
Jump up ^ Edward W. Said (2006). Orientalism. Penguin Books India. p. 151.
Jump up ^ Bennett 1998, p. 117 citing Ali, Sayyid Ameer (1922) The Spirit of Islam, London: Chatto & Windus. Originally published in 1891, p. 211
Jump up ^ Powell 2010, p. 257
^ Jump up to: a b Powell 2010, p. 261
Jump up ^ Powell 2010, p. 262
Jump up ^ Bennett, Clinton (1992). Victorian Images of Islam. Grey Seal Books. p. 111.
Jump up ^ Pipes 2003, p. 115
Jump up ^ Esposito 2003, p. 563
Jump up ^ Muir 1858, p. 152
Jump up ^ Kuortti 1997, p. 116
Jump up ^ Harriot Georgina Blackwood, Marchioness of Dufferin and Ava (1889). Our viceregal life in India: selections from my journal, 1884-1888. II. London: J. Murray. p. 22.
Jump up ^ http://dspace.wbpublibnet.gov.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10689/9872/10/Appendix%202.pdf
Jump up ^ http://timesofiExtensor Digitorumndia.indiatimes.com/city/allahabad/Restoring-past-glory-of-AUs-Vizianagram-Hall/articleshow/12614622.cms
References[edit]
Ali, Kecia (2014). The Lives of Muhammad. Harvard University Press. p. 48ff.
Ansari, K. Humayun. "The Muslim World in British Historical Imaginations: 'Re-thinking Orientalism'?" British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies (2011) 38#1 pp: 73-93
Bennett, Clinton (1998). In search of Muhammad. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9.
Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 563. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0.
Kuortti, Joel (1997). Place of the sacred: the rhetoric of the Satanic verses affair. Peter Lang. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-8204-3294-6.
Muir, William (1858). The life of Mahomet and history of Islam, to the era of the Hegira: with introductory chapters on the original sources for the biography of Mahomet, and on the pre-Islamite history of Arabia, Volume 2. Smith, Elder & Co. p. 152.
Pipes, Daniel (2003) [first edition: 1990]. The Rushdie affair: the novel, the Ayatollah, and the West (2 ed.). Transaction Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-7658-0996-4.
Powell, Avril A. (2010). Scottish orientalists and India: the Muir brothers, religion, education and empire. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84383-579-0.
Attribution
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Muir, Sir William". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 958.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: William Muir
Wikisource has original works written by or about:
William Muir
Works by William Muir at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about William Muir at Internet Archive
Online books by Muir at "Answering Islam Library"
Smith, George (1912). "Muir, William". In Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography, 1912 supplement. 3. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
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