text:
Solid modeling
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The geometry in solid modeling is fully described in 3‑D space; objects can be viewed from any angle.
Solid modeling (or modelling) is a consistent set of principles for mathematical and computer modeling of three-dimensional solids. Solid modeling is distinguished from related areas of geometric modeling and computer graphics by its emphasis on physical fidelity.[1] Together, the principles of geometric and solid modeling form the foundation of computer-aided design and in general support the creation, exchange, visualization, animation, interrogation, and annotation of digital models of physical objects.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Mathematical foundations
3 Solid representation schemes
3.1 Parameterized primitive instancing
3.2 Spatial occupancy enumeration
3.3 Cell decomposition
3.4 Boundary representation
3.5 Surface mesh modeling
3.6 Constructive solid geometry
3.7 Sweeping
3.8 Implicit representation
3.9 Parametric and feature-based modeling
4 History of solid modelers
5 Computer-aided design
5.1 Parametric modeling
5.2 Medical solid modeling
5.3 Engineering
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Overview[edit]
The use of solid modeling techniques allows for the automation of several difficult engineering calculations that are carried out as a part of the design process. Simulation, planning, and verification of processes such as machining and assembly were one of the main catalysts for the development of solid modeling. More recently, the range of supported manufacturing applications has been greatly expanded to include sheet metal manufacturing, injection molding, welding, pipe routing etc. Beyond traditional manufacturing, solid modeling techniques serve as the foundation for rapid prototyping, digital data archival and reverse engineering by reconstructing solids from sampled points on physical objects, mechanical analysis using finite elements, motion planning and NC path verification, kinematic and dynamic analysis of mechanisms, and so on. A central problem in all these applications is the ability to effectively represent and manipulate three-dimensional geometry in a fashion that is consistent with the physical behavior of real artifacts. Solid modeling research and development has effectively addressed many of these issues, and continues to be a central focus of computer-aided engineering.
Mathematical foundations[edit]
The notion of solid modeling as practiced today relies on the specific need for informational completeness in mechanical geometric modeling systems, in the sense that any computer model should support all geometric queries that may be asked of its corresponding physical object. The requirement implicitly recognizes the possibility of several computer representations of the same physical object as long as any two such representations are consistent. It is impossible to computationally verify informational completeness of a representation unless the notion of a physical object is defined in terms of computable mathematical properties and independent of any particular representation. Such reasoning led to the development of the modeling paradigm that has shaped the field of solid modeling as we know it today.[2]
All manufactured components have finite size and well behaved boundaries, so initially the focus was on mathematically modeling rigid parts made of homogeneous isotropic material that could be added or removed. These postulated properties can be translated into properties of subsets of three-dimensional Euclidean space. The two common approaches to define solidity rely on point-set topology and algebraic topology respectively. Both models specify how solids can be built from simple pieces or cells.
Regularization of a 2-d set by taking the closure of its interior
According to the continuum point-set model of solidity, all the points of any X ⊂ ℝ3 can be classified according to their neighborhoods with respect to X as interior, exterior, or boundary points. Assuming ℝ3 is endowed with the typical Euclidean metric, a neighborhood of a point p ∈X takes the form of an open ball. For X to be considered solid, every neighborhood of any p ∈X must be consistently three dimensional; points with lower-dimensional neighborhoods indicate a lack of solidity. Dimensional homogeneity of neighborhoods is guaranteed for the class of closed regular sets, defined as sets equal to the closure of their interior. Any X ⊂ ℝ3 can be turned into a closed regular set or regularized by taking the closure of its interior, and thus the modeling space of solids is mathematically defined to be the space of closed regular subsets of ℝ3 (by the Heine-Borel theorem it is implied that all solids are compact sets). In addition, solids are required to be closed under the Boolean operations of set union, intersection, and difference (to guarantee solidity after material addition and removal). Applying the standard Boolean operations to closed regular sets may not produce a closed regular set, but this problem can be solved by regularizing the result of applying the standard Boolean operations.[3] The regularized set operations are denoted ∪∗, ∩∗, and −∗.
The combinatorial characterization of a set X ⊂ ℝ3 as a solid involves representing X as an orientable cell complex so that the cells provide finite spatial addresses for points in an otherwise innumerable continuum.[1] The class of semi-analytic bounded subsets of Euclidean space is closed under Boolean operations (standard and regularized) and exhibits the additional property that every semi-analytic set can be stratified into a collection of disjoint cells of dimensions 0,1,2,3. A triangulation of a semi-analytic set into a collection of points, line segments, triangular faces, and tetrahedral elements is an example of a stratification that is commonly used. The combinatorial model of solidity is then summarized by saying that in addition to being semi-analytic bounded subsets, solids are three-dimensional topological polyhedra, specifically three-dimensional orientable manifolds with boundary.[4] In particular this implies the Euler characteristic of the combinatorial boundary[5] of the polyhedron is 2. The combinatorial manifold model of solidity also guarantees the boundary of a solid separates space into exactly two components as a consequence of the Jordan-Brouwer theorem, thus eliminating sets with non-manifold neighborhoods that are deemed impossible to manufacture.
The point-set and combinatorial models of solids are entirely consistent with each other, can be used interchangeably, relying on continuum or combinatorial properties as needed, and can be extended to n dimensions. The key property that facilitates this consistency is that the class of closed regular subsets of ℝn coincides precisely with homogeneously n-dimensional topological polyhedra. Therefore, every n-dimensional solid may be unambiguously represented by its boundary and the boundary has the combinatorial structure of an n−1-dimensional polyhedron having homogeneously n−1-dimensional neighborhoods.
Solid representation schemes[edit]
Based on assumed mathematical properties, any scheme of representing solids is a method for capturing information about the class of semi-analytic subsets of Euclidean space. This means all representations are different ways of organizing the same geometric and topological data in the form of a data structure. All representation schemes are organized in terms of a finite number of operations on a set of primitives. Therefore, the modeling space of any particular representation is finite, and any single representation scheme may not completely suffice to represent all types of solids. For example, solids defined via combinations of regularized boolean operations cannot necessarily be represented as the sweep of a primitive moving according to a space trajectory, except in very simple cases. This forces modern geometric modeling systems to maintain several representation schemes of solids and also facilitate efficient conversion between representation schemes.
Below is a list of common techniques used to create or represent solid models.[4] Modern modeling software may use a combination of these schemes to represent a solid.
Parameterized primitive instancing[edit]
This scheme is based on motion of families of objects, each member of a family distinguishable from the other by a few parameters. Each object family is called a generic primitive, and individual objects within a family are called primitive instances. For example, a family of bolts is a generic primitive, and a single bolt specified by a particular set of parameters is a primitive instance. The distinguishing characteristic of pure parameterized instancing schemes is the lack of means for combining instances to create new structures which represent new and more complex objects. The other main drawback of this scheme is the difficulty of writing algorithms for computing properties of represented solids. A considerable amount of family-specific information must be built into the algorithms and therefore each generic primitive must be treated as a special case, allowing no uniform overall treatment.
Spatial occupancy enumeration[edit]
This scheme is essentially a list of spatial cells occupied by the solid. The cells, also called voxels are cubes of a fixed size and are arranged in a fixed spatial grid (other polyhedral arrangements are also possible but cubes are the simplest). Each cell may be represented by the coordinates of a single point, such as the cell's centroid. Usually a specific scanning order is imposed and the corresponding ordered set of coordinates is called a spatial array. Spatial arrays are unambiguous and unique solid representations but are too verbose for use as 'master' or definitional representations. They can, however, represent coarse approximations of parts and can be used to improve the performance of geometric algorithms, especially when used in conjunction with other representations such as constructive solid geometry.
Cell decomposition[edit]
This scheme follows from the combinatoric (algebraic topological) descriptions of solids detailed above. A solid can be represented by its decomposition into several cells. Spatial occupancy enumeration schemes are a particular case of cell decompositions where all the cells are cubical and lie in a regular grid. Cell decompositions provide convenient ways for computing certain topological properties of solids such as its connectedness (number of pieces) and genus (number of holes). Cell decompositions in the form of triangulations are the representations used in 3d finite elements for the numerical solution of partial differential equations. Other cell decompositions such as a Whitney regular stratification or Morse decompositions may be used for applications in robot motion planning.[6]
Boundary representation[edit]
Main article: Boundary representation
In this scheme a solid is represented by the cellular decomposition of its boundary. Since the boundaries of solids have the distinguishing property that they separate space into regions defined by the interior of the solid and the complementary exterior according to the Jordan-Brouwer theorem discussed above, every point in space can unambiguously be tested against the solid by testing the point against the boundary of the solid. Recall that ability to test every point in the solid provides a guarantee of solidity. Using ray casting it is possible to count the number of intersections of a cast ray against the boundary of the solid. Even number of intersections correspond to exterior points, and odd number of intersections correspond to interior points. The assumption of boundaries as manifold cell complexes forces any boundary representation to obey disjointedness of distinct primitives, i.e. there are no self-intersections that cause non-manifold points. In particular, the manifoldness condition implies all pairs of vertices are disjoint, pairs of edges are either disjoint or intersect at one vertex, and pairs of faces are disjoint or intersect at a common edge. Several data structures that are combinatorial maps have been developed to store boundary representations of solids. In addition to planar faces, modern systems provide the ability to store quadrics and NURBS surfaces as a part of the boundary representation. Boundary representations have evolved into a ubiquitous representation scheme of solids in most commercial geometric modelers because of their flexibility in representing solids exhibiting a high level of geometric complexity.
Surface mesh modeling[edit]
Similar to boundary representation, the surface of the object is represented. However, rather than complex data structures and NURBS, a simple surface mesh of vertices and edges is used. Surface meshes can be structured (as in triangular meshes in STL files or quad meshes with horizontal and vertical rings of quadrilaterals), or unstructured meshes with randomly grouped triangles and higher level polygons.
Constructive solid geometry[edit]
Main article: Constructive Solid Geometry
Constructive solid geometry (CSG) connotes a family of schemes for representing rigid solids as Boolean constructions or combinations of primitives via the regularized set operations discussed above. CSG and boundary representations are currently the most important representation schemes for solids. CSG representations take the form of ordered binary trees where non-terminal nodes represent either rigid transformations (orientation preserving isometries) or regularized set operations. Terminal nodes are primitive leaves that represent closed regular sets. The semantics of CSG representations is clear. Each subtree represents a set resulting from applying the indicated transformations/regularized set operations on the set represented by the primitive leaves of the subtree. CSG representations are particularly useful for capturing design intent in the form of features corresponding to material addition or removal (bosses, holes, pockets etc.). The attractive properties of CSG include conciseness, guaranteed validity of solids, computationally convenient Boolean algebraic properties, and natural control of a solid's shape in terms of high level parameters defining the solid's primitives and their positions and orientations. The relatively simple data structure and elegant recursive algorithms[7] have further contributed to the popularity of CSG.
Sweeping[edit]
The basic notion embodied in sweeping schemes is simple. A set moving through space may trace or sweep out volume (a solid) that may be represented by the moving set and its trajectory. Such a representation is important in the context of applications such as detecting the material removed from a cutter as it moves along a specified trajectory, computing dynamic interference of two solids undergoing relative motion, motion planning, and even in computer graphics applications such as tracing the motions of a brush moved on a canvas. Most commercial CAD systems provide (limited) functionality for constructing swept solids mostly in the form of a two dimensional cross section moving on a space trajectory transversal to the section. However, current research has shown several approximations of three dimensional shapes moving across one parameter, and even multi-parameter motions.
Implicit representation[edit]
Main article: Function representation
A very general method of defining a set of points X is to specify a predicate that can be evaluated at any point in space. In other words, X is defined implicitly to consist of all the points that satisfy the condition specified by the predicate. The simplest form of a predicate is the condition on the sign of a real valued function resulting in the familiar representation of sets by equalities and inequalities. For example, if f = a x + b y + c z + d {\displaystyle f=ax+by+cz+d} the conditions f ( p ) = 0 {\displaystyle f(p)=0} , f ( p ) > 0 {\displaystyle f(p)>0} , and f ( p ) < 0 {\displaystyle f(p)<0} represent, respectively, a plane and two open linear halfspaces. More complex functional primitives may be defined by boolean combinations of simpler predicates. Furthermore, the theory of R-functions allow conversions of such representations into a single function inequality for any closed semi analytic set. Such a representation can be converted to a boundary representation using polygonization algorithms, for example, the marching cubes algorithm.
Parametric and feature-based modeling[edit]
Features are defined to be parametric shapes associated with attributes such as intrinsic geometric parameters (length, width, depth etc.), position and orientation, geometric tolerances, material properties, and references to other features.[8] Features also provide access to related production processes and resource models. Thus, features have a semantically higher level than primitive closed regular sets. Features are generally expected to form a basis for linking CAD with downstream manufacturing applications, and also for organizing databases for design data reuse. Parametric feature based modeling is frequently combined with constructive binary solid geometry (CSG) to fully describe systems of complex objects in engineering.
History of solid modelers[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This section contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The historical development of solid modelers has to be seen in context of the whole history of CAD, the key milestones being the development of the research system BUILD followed by its commercial spin-off Romulus which went on to influence the development of Parasolid, ACIS and Solid Modeling Solutions. One of the first CAD developers in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), ASCON began internal development of its own solid modeler in the 1990s.[9] In November 2012, the mathematical division of ASCON became a separate company, and was named C3D Labs. It was assigned the task of developing the C3D geometric modeling kernel as a standalone product — the only commercial 3D modeling kernel from Russia.[10] Other contributions came from Mäntylä, with his GWB and from the GPM project which contributed, among other things, hybrid modeling techniques at the beginning of the 1980s. This is also when the Programming Language of Solid Modeling PLaSM was conceived at the University of Rome.
Computer-aided design[edit]
Main article: Computer-aided design
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The modeling of solids is only the minimum requirement of a CAD system’s capabilities. Solid modelers have become commonplace in engineering departments in the last ten years[when?] due to faster computers and competitive software pricing. Solid modeling software creates a virtual 3D representation of components for machine design and analysis.[11] A typical graphical user interface includes programmable macros, keyboard shortcuts and dynamic model manipulation. The ability to dynamically re-orient the model, in real-time shaded 3-D, is emphasized and helps the designer maintain a mental 3-D image.
A solid part model generally consists of a group of features, added one at a time, until the model is complete. Engineering solid models are built mostly with sketcher-based features; 2-D sketches that are swept along a path to become 3-D. These may be cuts, or extrusions for example. Design work on components is usually done within the context of the whole product using assembly modeling methods. An assembly model incorporates references to individual part models that comprise the product.[12]
Another type of modeling technique is 'surfacing' (Freeform surface modeling). Here, surfaces are defined, trimmed and merged, and filled to make solid. The surfaces are usually defined with datum curves in space and a variety of complex commands. Surfacing is more difficult, but better applicable to some manufacturing techniques, like injection molding. Solid models for injection molded parts usually have both surfacing and sketcher based features.
Engineering drawings can be created semi-automatically and reference the solid models.
Parametric modeling[edit]
Parametric modeling uses parameters to define a model (dimensions, for example). Examples of parameters are: dimensions used to create model features, material density, formulas to describe swept features, imported data (that describe a reference surface, for example). The parameter may be modified later, and the model will update to reflect the modification. Typically, there is a relationship between parts, assemblies, and drawings. A part consists of multiple features, and an assembly consists of multiple parts. Drawings can be made from either parts or assemblies.
Example: A shaft is created by extruding a circle 100 mm. A hub is assembled to the end of the shaft. Later, the shaft is modified to be 200 mm long (click on the shaft, select the length dimension, modify to 200). When the model is updated the shaft will be 200 mm long, the hub will relocate to the end of the shaft to which it was assembled, and the engineering drawings and mass properties will reflect all changes automatically.
Related to parameters, but slightly different are constraints. Constraints are relationships between entities that make up a particular shape. For a window, the sides might be defined as being parallel, and of the same length. Parametric modeling is obvious and intuitive. But for the first three decades of CAD this was not the case. Modification meant re-draw, or add a new cut or protrusion on top of old ones. Dimensions on engineering drawings were created, instead of shown. Parametric modeling is very powerful, but requires more skill in model creation. A complicated model for an injection molded part may have a thousand features, and modifying an early feature may cause later features to fail. Skillfully created parametric models are easier to maintain and modify. Parametric modeling also lends itself to data re-use. A whole family of capscrews can be contained in one model, for example.
Medical solid modeling[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Modern computed axial tomography and magnetic resonance imaging scanners can be used to create solid models of internal body features, so-called volume rendering. Optical 3D scanners can be used to create point clouds or polygon mesh models of external body features.
Uses of medical solid modeling;
Visualization
Visualization of specific body tissues (just blood vessels and tumor, for example)
Designing prosthetics, orthotics, and other medical and dental devices (this is sometimes called mass customization)
Creating polygon mesh models for rapid prototyping (to aid surgeons preparing for difficult surgeries, for example)
Combining polygon mesh models with CAD solid modeling (design of hip replacement parts, for example)
Computational analysis of complex biological processes, e.g. air flow, blood flow
Computational simulation of new medical devices and implants in vivo
If the use goes beyond visualization of the scan data, processes like image segmentation and image-based meshing will be necessary to generate an accurate and realistic geometrical description of the scan data.
Engineering[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Mass properties window of a model in Cobalt
Because CAD programs running on computers “understand” the true geometry comprising complex shapes, many attributes of/for a 3‑D solid, such as its center of gravity, volume, and mass, can be quickly calculated. For instance, the cube shown at the top of this article measures 8.4 mm from flat to flat. Despite its many radii and the shallow pyramid on each of its six faces, its properties are readily calculated for the designer, as shown in the screenshot at right.
See also[edit]
PLaSM - Programming Language of Solid Modeling.
Computer graphics
Computational geometry
Euler boundary representation
Engineering drawing
Technical drawing
List of CAD companies
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Shapiro, Vadim (2001). Solid Modeling. Elsevier. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Requicha, A.A.G & Voelcker, H. (1983). Solid Modeling: Current Status and Research Directions. IEEE Computer Graphics. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Tilove, R.B. & Requicha, A.A.G (1980). Closure of Boolean operations on geometric entities. Computer Aided Design. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Requicha, A.A.G. (1980). Representations for Rigid Solids: Theory, Methods, and Systems. ACM Computing Surveys. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Hatcher, A. (2002). Algebraic Topology. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Canny, John F. (1987). The Complexity of Robot Motion Planning. MIT press, ACM doctoral dissertation award. Retrieved 20 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Ziegler, M. (2004). "Computable Operators on Regular Sets". Wiley. doi:10.1002/malq.200310107.
Jump up ^ Mantyla, M., Nau, D. , and Shah, J. (1996). Challenges in feature based manufacturing research. Communications of the ACM. Retrieved 20 April 2010. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Yares, Evan (April 2013). "Russian CAD". Design World. WTWH Media, LLC. 8 (4). ISSN 1941-7217.
Jump up ^ Golovanov, Nikolay (2014). Geometric Modeling: The mathematics of shapes. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (December 24, 2014). p. Back cover. ISBN 978-1497473195.
Jump up ^ LaCourse, Donald (1995). "2". Handbook of Solid Modeling. McGraw Hill. p. 2.5. ISBN 0-07-035788-9.
Jump up ^ LaCourse, Donald (1995). "11". Handbook of Solid Modeling. McGraw Hill. p. 111.2. ISBN 0-07-035788-9.
External links[edit]
sgCore C++/C# library
The Solid Modeling Association
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solid_modeling&oldid=800201649"
Categories:
3D computer graphics
Computer-aided design
Euclidean solid geometry
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
Articles needing additional references from January 2012
All articles needing additional references
Articles with a promotional tone from June 2015
All articles with a promotional tone
All articles with vague or ambiguous time
Vague or ambiguous time from December 2011
Use dmy dates from October 2010
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Deutsch
Eesti
Español
Français
हिन्दी
Magyar
Македонски
日本語
Русский
Українська
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 12 September 2017, at 01:49.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: class style

value: b

value: sup

value: p

values:
/wiki/Injection_molding
mw-redirect
Injection molding

values:
/wiki/Finite_elements
mw-redirect
Finite elements

values:
/wiki/Dynamics_(physics)
mw-redirect
Dynamics (physics)

values:
/wiki/Point-set_topology
mw-redirect
Point-set topology

values:
/wiki/Neighborhood_(topology)
mw-redirect
Neighborhood (topology)

values:
/wiki/Euclidean_metric
mw-redirect
Euclidean metric

values: Edit section: Solid representation schemes

values: Edit section: Parameterized primitive instancing

values: Edit section: Spatial occupancy enumeration

values:
/wiki/Topological_properties
mw-redirect
Topological properties

values:
/wiki/Combinatorial_maps
mw-redirect
Combinatorial maps

values: Edit section: Constructive solid geometry

values:
/wiki/Constructive_Solid_Geometry
mw-redirect
Constructive Solid Geometry

values:
/wiki/Orientation_(mathematics)
mw-redirect
Orientation (mathematics)

values: vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:21.047ex; height:2.509ex;

values: vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.581ex; height:2.843ex;

values: Edit section: Parametric and feature-based modeling

values:
/wiki/Geometric_tolerance
mw-redirect
Geometric tolerance

values:
/wiki/Material_properties
mw-redirect
Material properties

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Advert

values:
/wiki/Romulus_(b-rep_solid_modeler)
mw-redirect
Romulus (b-rep solid modeler)

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values: The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (December 2011)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers

values:
/wiki/Freeform_surface_modeling
mw-redirect
Freeform surface modeling

values:
/wiki/Computed_axial_tomography
mw-redirect
Computed axial tomography

values:
/wiki/3D_scanners
mw-redirect
3D scanners

values:
/wiki/Segmentation_(image_processing)
mw-redirect
Segmentation (image processing)

values: Property window outlining the mass properties of a model in Cobalt

values:
/wiki/List_of_CAD_companies
mw-redirect
List of CAD companies

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fmalq.200310107

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1941-7217

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.geometros.com

values:
nofollow
http://solidmodeling.org/
external text

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from January 2012

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Articles with a promotional tone from June 2015

values: Category:All articles with a promotional tone

values: Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time

values: Category:Vague or ambiguous time from December 2011

values: Category:Use dmy dates from October 2010

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Solid_modeling
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: ठोस प्रतिमन – Hindi

values: ソリッドモデリング – Japanese

values: Параметрическое моделирование – Russian

values: Моделювання твердих тіл – Ukrainian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Solid_modeling rootpage-Solid_modeling skin-vector action-view


text:
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about adrenocorticotropic hormone as a natural hormone. For adrenocorticotropic hormone as a medication and diagnostic agent, see Adrenocorticotropic hormone (medication).
pro-opiomelanocortin
Identifiers
Symbol
OMC
Entrez
5443
HUGO
9201
OMIM
176830
RefSeq
NM_000939
UniProt
P01189
Other data
Locus
Chr. 2 p23
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH, also adrenocorticotropin, corticotropin) is a polypeptide tropic hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland.[1] It is also used as a medication and diagnostic agent.
ACTH is an important component of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and is often produced in response to biological stress (along with its precursor corticotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus). Its principal effects are increased production and release of cortisol by the cortex of the adrenal gland. ACTH is also related to the circadian rhythm in many organisms.[2]
Deficiency of ACTH is a sign of secondary adrenal insufficiency (suppressed production of ACTH due to an impairment of the pituitary gland or hypothalamus, cf. hypopituitarism) or tertiary adrenal insufficiency (disease of the hypothalamus, with a decrease in the release of corticotropin releasing hormone CRH). Conversely, chronically elevated ACTH levels occur in primary adrenal insufficiency (e.g. Addison's disease) when adrenal gland production of cortisol is chronically deficient. In Cushing's disease a pituitary tumor is the cause of elevated ACTH (from the anterior pituitary) and an excess of cortisol (hypercortisolism) – this constellation of signs and symptoms is known as Cushing's syndrome.
Contents
[hide]
1 Production and regulation
2 Structure
3 Function
4 ACTH receptors outside the adrenal gland
5 Synthetic ACTH
6 Discovery
7 Associated conditions
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Production and regulation[edit]
POMC, ACTH and β-lipotropin are secreted from corticotropes in the anterior lobe (or adenohypophysis) of the pituitary gland in response to the hormone corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) released by the hypothalamus.[3] ACTH is synthesized from pre-pro-opiomelanocortin (pre-POMC). The removal of the signal peptide during translation produces the 241-amino acid polypeptide POMC, which undergoes a series of post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation and glycosylation before it is proteolytically cleaved by endopeptidases to yield various polypeptide fragments with varying physiological activity. These fragments include:[4]
polypeptide fragment
alias
abbreviation
amino acid residues
NPP 27–102
melanotropin gamma γ-MSH 77–87
potential peptide 105–134
corticotropin adrenocorticotropic hormone ACTH 138–176
melanotropin alpha melanocyte-stimulating hormone α-MSH 138–150
corticotropin-like intermediate peptide CLIP 156–176
lipotropin beta β-LPH 179–267
lipotropin gamma γ-LPH 179–234
melanotropin beta β-MSH 217–234
beta-endorphin 237–267
met-enkephalin 237–241
In order to regulate the secretion of ACTH, many substances secreted within this axis exhibit slow/intermediate and fast feedback-loop activity. Glucocorticoids secreted from the adrenal cortex work to inhibit CRH secretion by the hypothalamus, which in turn decreases anterior pituitary secretion of ACTH. Glucocorticoids may also inhibit the rates of POMC gene transcription and peptide synthesis. The latter is an example of a slow feedback loop, which works on the order of hours to days, whereas the former works on the order of minutes.
The half-life of ACTH in human blood is about ten minutes.[5]
Structure[edit]
ACTH consists of 39 amino acids, the first 13 of which (counting from the N-terminus) may be cleaved to form α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH). (This common structure is responsible for excessively tanned skin in Addison's disease.) After a short period of time, ACTH is cleaved into α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) and CLIP, a peptide with unknown activity in humans.
Human ACTH has a molecular weight of 4,540 atomic mass units (Da).[6]
Function[edit]
ACTH stimulates secretion of glucocorticoid steroid hormones from adrenal cortex cells, especially in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal glands. ACTH acts by binding to cell surface ACTH receptors, which are located primarily on adrenocortical cells of the adrenal cortex. The ACTH receptor is a seven-membrane-spanning G protein-coupled receptor.[7] Upon ligand binding, the receptor undergoes conformation changes that stimulate the enzyme adenylyl cyclase, which leads to an increase in intracellular cAMP[8] and subsequent activation of protein kinase A.
ACTH influences steroid hormone secretion by both rapid short-term mechanisms that take place within minutes and slower long-term actions. The rapid actions of ACTH include stimulation of cholesterol delivery to the mitochondria where the P450scc enzyme is located. P450scc catalyzes the first step of steroidogenesis that is cleavage of the side-chain of cholesterol. ACTH also stimulates lipoprotein uptake into cortical cells. This increases the bioavailability of cholesterol in the cells of the adrenal cortex.
The long term actions of ACTH include stimulation of the transcription of the genes coding for steroidogenic enzymes, especially P450scc, steroid 11β-hydroxylase, and their associated electron transfer proteins.[8] This effect is observed over several hours.[8]
In addition to steroidogenic enzymes, ACTH also enhances transcription of mitochondrial genes that encode for subunits of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation systems.[9] These actions are probably necessary to supply the enhanced energy needs of adrenocortical cells stimulated by ACTH.[9]
Reference ranges for blood tests, showing adrenocorticotropic hormone (green at left) among the hormones with smallest concentration in the blood.
ACTH receptors outside the adrenal gland[edit]
As indicated above, ACTH is a cleavage product of the pro-hormone, proopiomelanocortin (POMC), which also produces other hormones including α-MSH that stimulates the production of melanin. A family of related receptors mediates the actions of these hormones, the MCR, or melanocortin receptor family. These are mainly not associated with the pituitary-adrenal axis. MC2R is the ACTH receptor. While it has a crucial function in regulating the adrenal, it is also expressed elsewhere in the body, specifically in the osteoblast, which is responsible for making new bone, a continual and highly regulated process in the bodies of air-breathing vertebrates.[10] The functional expression of MC2R on the osteoblast was discovered by Isales et alia in 2005.[11] Since that time, it has been demonstrated that the response of bone forming cells to ACTH includes production of VEGF, as it does in the adrenal. This response might be important in maintaining osteoblast survival under some conditions.[12] If this is physiologically important, it probably functions in conditions with short-period or intermittent ACTH signaling, since with continual exposure of osteoblasts to ACTH, the effect was lost in a few hours.
Synthetic ACTH[edit]
An active synthetic form of ACTH, consisting of the first 24 amino acids of native ACTH, was first synthesized by Klaus Hofmann at the University of Pittsburgh.[13]
Discovery[edit]
While working on her dissertation, Evelyn M. Anderson co-discovered ACTH with James Bertram Collip and David Landsborough Thomson and, in a paper published in 1933, explained its function in the body.[14][15]
Associated conditions[edit]
Diseases of the pituitary, the gland that produces, among others, the hormone ACTH
Hypopituitarism, the hyposecretion of ACTH in the pituitary, leading to secondary adrenal insufficiency (a form of hypocorticism)
Addison's disease, the primary adrenal insufficiency (another form of hypocorticism)
Cushing's syndrome, hypercorticism, one of the causes is hypersecretion of ACTH
Small cell carcinoma, a common cause of ACTH secreted ectopically
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, diseases in the production of cortisol
Nelson's syndrome, the rapid enlargement of the ACTH producing pituitary after the removal of both adrenal glands
Adrenoleukodystrophy, can be accompanied by adrenal insufficiency
West syndrome ("infantile spasms"), a disease where ACTH is used as a therapy
Postorgasmic illness syndrome (POIS), through production of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine β-hydroxylase, which two enzymes comprise the biochemical mechanism by which norepinephrine and epinephrine are produced.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Corticorelin
Dexamethasone suppression test
References[edit]
Jump up ^ I.K. Morton; Judith M. Hall (December 6, 2012). Concise Dictionary of Pharmacological Agents: Properties and Synonyms. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 84–. ISBN 978-94-011-4439-1.
Jump up ^ Dibner C, Schibler U, Albrecht U (2010). "The mammalian circadian timing system: organization and coordination of central and peripheral clocks". Annual Review of Physiology. 72: 517–49. doi:10.1146/annurev-physiol-021909-135821. PMID 20148687
Jump up ^ "Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)".
Jump up ^ "Pro-opiomelocortin precursor". Retrieved April 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ Yalow RS, Glick SM, Roth J, Berson SA (November 1964). "Radioimmunoassay of human plasma acth". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 24 (11): 1219–25. doi:10.1210/jcem-24-11-1219. PMID 14230021.
Jump up ^ PROOPIOMELANOCORTIN; NCBI --> POMC Retrieved on September 28, 2009
Jump up ^ Raikhinstein M, Zohar M, Hanukoglu I (February 1994). "cDNA cloning and sequence analysis of the bovine adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) receptor". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1220 (3): 329–32. doi:10.1016/0167-4889(94)90157-0. PMID 8305507.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hanukoglu I, Feuchtwanger R, Hanukoglu A (November 1990). "Mechanism of corticotropin and cAMP induction of mitochondrial cytochrome P450 system enzymes in adrenal cortex cells" (PDF). The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 265 (33): 20602–8. PMID 2173715.
^ Jump up to: a b Raikhinstein M, Hanukoglu I (November 1993). "Mitochondrial-genome-encoded RNAs: differential regulation by corticotropin in bovine adrenocortical cells". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 90 (22): 10509–13. Bibcode:1993PNAS...9010509R. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.22.10509. PMC 47806  . PMID 7504267.
Jump up ^ Isales CM, Zaidi M, Blair HC (March 2010). "ACTH is a novel regulator of bone mass". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1192: 110–6. Bibcode:2010NYASA1192..110I. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05231.x. PMID 20392225.
Jump up ^ Zhong Q, Sridhar S, Ruan L, Ding KH, Xie D, Insogna K, Kang B, Xu J, Bollag RJ, Isales CM (May 2005). "Multiple melanocortin receptors are expressed in bone cells". Bone. 36 (5): 820–31. doi:10.1016/j.bone.2005.01.020. PMID 15804492.
Jump up ^ Zaidi M, Sun L, Robinson LJ, Tourkova IL, Liu L, Wang Y, Zhu LL, Liu X, Li J, Peng Y, Yang G, Shi X, Levine A, Iqbal J, Yaroslavskiy BB, Isales C, Blair HC (May 2010). "ACTH protects against glucocorticoid-induced osteonecrosis of bone". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (19): 8782–7. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.8782Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.0912176107. PMC 2889316  . PMID 20421485.
Jump up ^ "Simulated ACTH". Time. December 12, 1960.
Jump up ^ Johstone, Rose (2003). "A Sixty-Year Evolution of Biochemistry at McGill University" (PDF). Scientia Canadensis. 27: 27–83. doi:10.7202/800458ar.
Jump up ^ James B. Collip, Evelyn Anderson, D. L. Thomson (August 12, 1933). "The adrenotropic hormone of the anterior pituitary lobe". Lancet. 222 (5737): 347–348. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)44463-6. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
External links[edit]
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
[show]
v
t
e
Hormones
Endocrine
glands
Hypothalamic-
pituitary
Hypothalamus
GnRH
TRH
Dopamine
CRH
GHRH
Somatostatin (GHIH)
MCH
Posterior pituitary
Oxytocin
Vasopressin
Anterior pituitary
FSH
LH
TSH
Prolactin
POMC
CLIP
ACTH
MSH
Endorphins
Lipotropin
GH
Adrenal axis
Adrenal cortex
aldosterone
cortisol
cortisone
DHEA
DHEA-S
androstenedione
Adrenal medulla
epinephrine
norepinephrine
Thyroid
Thyroid hormone
T3
T4
Calcitonin
Thyroid axis
Parathyroid
PTH
Gonadal axis
Testis
testosterone
AMH
inhibin
Ovary
estradiol
progesterone
activin and inhibin
relaxin
Placenta
hCG
HPL
estrogen
progesterone
Pancreas
glucagon
insulin
amylin
somatostatin
pancreatic polypeptide
Pineal gland
melatonin
N,N-dimethyltryptamine
5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine
Other
Thymus
Thymosins
Thymosin α1
Beta thymosins
Thymopoietin
Thymulin
Digestive system
Stomach
gastrin
ghrelin
Duodenum
CCK
Incretins
GIP
GLP-1
secretin
motilin
VIP
Ileum
enteroglucagon
peptide YY
Liver/other
Insulin-like growth factor
IGF-1
IGF-2
Adipose tissue
leptin
adiponectin
resistin
Skeleton
Osteocalcin
Kidney
renin
EPO
calcitriol
prostaglandin
Heart
Natriuretic peptide
ANP
BNP
[show]
v
t
e
Peptides: neuropeptides
Hormones
see hormones
Opioid peptides
Dynorphins
Dynorphin A
Dynorphin A1–8
Dynorphin B
Big dynorphin
Leumorphin
α-Neoendorphin
β-Neoendorphin
Endomorphins
Endomorphin-1
Endomorphin-2
Endorphins
α-Endorphin
β-Endorphin
γ-Endorphin
Enkephalins
Met-enkephalin
Leu-enkephalin
Others
Adrenorphin
Amidorphin
Hemorphin
Hemorphin-4
Nociceptin
Opiorphin
Spinorphin
Valorphin
Other
neuropeptides
Kinins
Bradykinins
Tachykinins: mammal
Substance P
Neurokinin A
Neurokinin B
amphibian
Kassinin
Physalaemin
Neuromedins
B
N
S
U
Orexins
A
B
Other
Angiotensin
Bombesin
Calcitonin gene-related peptide
Carnosine
Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript
Delta sleep-inducing peptide
FMRFamide
Galanin
Galanin-like peptide
Gastrin releasing peptide
Ghrelin
Neuropeptide AF
Neuropeptide FF
Neuropeptide SF
Neuropeptide VF
Neuropeptide S
Neuropeptide Y
Neurophysins
Neurotensin
Pancreatic polypeptide
Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide
RVD-Hpα
VGF
[show]
v
t
e
Appetite stimulants (A15)
Exogenous
Amitriptyline
Clonidine
Cyproheptadine
Dexamethasone
Dronabinol/Tetrahydrocannabinol (Cannabis)
Medroxyprogesterone acetate
Megestrol acetate
Mirtazapine
Nabilone
Nandrolone
Olanzapine
Omega-3 fatty acid
Oxandrolone
Pentoxifylline
Prednisone
Sugars
Testosterone
Thalidomide
Endogenous
ACTH/Corticotropin
Adiponectin
Agouti-related peptide
Anandamide
Cortisol/Hydrocortisone
Cortisone
Ghrelin
Melanin-concentrating hormone
Melatonin
Neuropeptide Y
Orexin/Hypocretin
[show]
v
t
e
Melanocortin receptor modulators
MC1
Agonists: ACTH (corticotropin)
Afamelanotide (melanotan I)
BMS-470539
Bremelanotide
HS-014
HS-024
MSH (α, β, γ)
Melanotan II
Modimelanotide
PL-8177
SHU-8914
SHU-9005
SHU-9119
SNAP-7941
Antagonists: ASIP
MC2
Agonists: ACTH (corticotropin)
Alsactide
Codactide
Giractide
Norleusactide (pentacosactride)
Seractide
Tetracosactide (tetracosactrin, cosyntropin)
Tosactide (octacosactrin)
Tricosactide
Tridecactide
MC3
Agonists: ACTH (corticotropin)
Afamelanotide (melanotan I)
Bremelanotide
MSH (α, β, γ)
Melanotan II
Modimelanotide
PG-931
Antagonists: AGRP
ASIP
HS-014
ML-00253764
PG-106
SHU-8914
SHU-9005
SHU-9119
MC4
Agonists: ACTH (corticotropin)
Afamelanotide (melanotan I)
AZD2820
BIM-22493
Bremelanotide
LY-2112688
MSH (α, β, γ)
Melanotan II
MK-0493
Modimelanotide
PF-00446687
PG-931
PL-6983
Ro 27-3225
Setmelanotide
THIQ
Antagonists: AGRP
ASIP
HS-014
HS-024
HS-131
JKC-363
MCL-0020
MCL-0042
MCL-0129
ML-00253764
MPB-10
SHU-8914
SHU-9005
SHU-9119
Unknown: Semax
MC5
Agonists: ACTH (corticotropin)
Afamelanotide (melanotan I)
Bremelanotide
HS-014
HS-024
MSH (α, β, γ)
Melanotan II
Modimelanotide
SHU-8914
SHU-9005
SHU-9119
Antagonists: ASIP
ML-00253764
Unknown: Semax
Unsorted
Agonists: Alsactide
Codactide
Giractide
Norleusactide (pentacosactride)
Seractide
Tetracosactide (tetracosactrin, cosyntropin)
Tosactide (octacosactrin)
Tricosactide
Tridecactide
Others
Propeptides: Lipotropin (β, γ)
N-POMC (NPP, pro-γ-MSH)
Proopiomelanocortin (POMC)
See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Signaling peptide/protein receptor modulators
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adrenocorticotropic_hormone&oldid=831994561"
Categories:
Genes on human chromosome 2
Anterior pituitary hormones
Peptide hormones
Melanocortin receptor agonists
World Anti-Doping Agency prohibited substances
Hidden categories:
Articles with inconsistent citation formats
CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter
Use mdy dates from August 2017
Protein pages needing a picture
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Български
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
ދިވެހިބަސް
Ελληνικά
Español
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
Қазақша
Кыргызча
Latina
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
മലയാളം
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Shqip
Slovenčina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
Türkçe
Українська
粵語
中文
38 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 23 March 2018, at 05:21.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: th

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

attrs: scope style

values:
row
background-color: #e7dcc3

value: td

attrs: rel class href

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.omim.org/176830

values: National Center for Biotechnology Information

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.uniprot.org/uniprot/P01189

values:
/wiki/Chromosome_2_(human)
mw-redirect
Chromosome 2 (human)

values:
/wiki/Corticotropin_releasing_hormone
mw-redirect
Corticotropin releasing hormone

values:
/wiki/Post-translational_modifications
mw-redirect
Post-translational modifications

values:
/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)
mw-redirect
Transcription (genetics)

values:
/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit
mw-redirect
Atomic mass unit

values:
/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor
mw-redirect
G protein-coupled receptor

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Edit section: ACTH receptors outside the adrenal gland

values:
/wiki/Small_cell_carcinoma
mw-redirect
Small cell carcinoma

values:
/wiki/West_syndrome
mw-redirect
West syndrome

values:
/wiki/Dopamine_%CE%B2-hydroxylase
mw-redirect
Dopamine β-hydroxylase

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2015)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20148687

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fjcem-24-11-1219

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14230021

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8305507

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2173715

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.90.22.10509

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7504267

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20392225

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bone.2005.01.020

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15804492

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0912176107

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20421485

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.7202%2F800458ar

values: Category:CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter

values:
/wiki/Hypothalamic-pituitary_hormone
mw-redirect
Hypothalamic-pituitary hormone

values:
/wiki/Growth_hormone_releasing_hormone
mw-redirect
Growth hormone releasing hormone

values:
/wiki/Melanin_concentrating_hormone
mw-redirect
Melanin concentrating hormone

values:
/wiki/Thyroid_hormone
mw-redirect
Thyroid hormone

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Dynorphin_A1%E2%80%938
mw-redirect
Dynorphin A1–8

values: Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript

values:
/wiki/Gastrin_releasing_peptide
mw-redirect
Gastrin releasing peptide

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Appetite_stimulant
mw-redirect
Appetite stimulant

values: Template talk:Melanocortin receptor modulators

values: N-Terminal peptide of proopiomelanocortin

values: Template:Signaling peptide/protein receptor modulators

values: Category:World Anti-Doping Agency prohibited substances

values: Category:Articles with inconsistent citation formats

values: Category:Protein pages needing a picture

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Adrenocorticotropic_hormone
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: الهرمون الموجه لقشر الكظر – Arabic

values: Адренокортикотропен хормон – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values: އެޑްރީނޯ ކޯޓިކޯ ޓްރޮޕިކް ހޯރމޯން – Divehi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-dv
display: none;

values: Αδρενοκορτικοτρόπος ορμόνη – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: آدرنوکورتیکوتروپین – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: 부신피질자극호르몬 – Korean

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Ադրենոկորտիկոտրոպ հորմոն – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: הורמון אדרנוקורטיקוטרופי – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: Адренокортикотропты гормон – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values: Адренокортиктроптук гормон (АКТГ) – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKTH
AKTH – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: Адренокортикотропин – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values: അഡ്രിനോ കോർട്ടിക്കോട്രോപ്പിക് ഹോർമോൺ – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: 副腎皮質刺激ホルモン – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values: Adrenokortikotropt hormon – Norwegian Nynorsk

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Hormônio adrenocorticotrófico – Portuguese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Адренокортикотропный гормон – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values: Adrenokortikotropni hormon – Serbo-Croatian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: அண்ணீரகப் புறணியூக்க இயக்குநீர் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Адренокортикотропний гормон – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: 腎上腺皮層刺激荷爾蒙 – Cantonese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: 促腎上腺皮質激素 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Adrenocorticotropic_hormone rootpage-Adrenocorticotropic_hormone skin-vector action-view