text:
Tourist attractions in the United States
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Times Square is the most visited public (not privately owned) tourist site in the United States, with over 41 million visitors in 2011.
This is a list of the most popular individual tourist attractions in the United States, lists of tourist attractions organized by subject region, and a selection of other notable tourist attractions and destinations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Top tourist attractions
1.1 Landmarks
1.2 Natural monuments
1.3 Sports
2 Hotels
3 Lists of tourist attractions in the United States
3.1 Lists by type of attraction
3.2 Lists by city or region
3.3 Other tourist attractions and destinations
4 Former tourist attractions
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Top tourist attractions[edit]
Main article: Tourism in the United States
In 2011, the most visited tourist attractions in the U.S. were:
Place
Location
Visitors (millions)[1]
Times Square New York, New York 41.9
Central Park New York, New York 40
Union Station Washington, D.C. 36.5
Las Vegas Strip Las Vegas, Nevada 29.5
Grand Central Terminal New York, New York 21.6
Magic Kingdom, Walt Disney World Orlando, Florida 17.1
Disneyland Resort Anaheim, California 16.1
Golden Gate Bridge San Francisco Bay Area, California 15
Faneuil Hall Marketplace Boston, Massachusetts 15
Golden Gate Park San Francisco, California 13
Balboa Park San Diego, California 13
Epcot, Walt Disney World Orlando, Florida 10.8
Pike Place Market Seattle, Washington 10
Disney's Animal Kingdom, Walt Disney World Orlando, Florida 10.4
Disney's Hollywood Studios, Walt Disney World Orlando, Florida 9.7
Great Smoky Mountains National Park North Carolina and Tennessee 9
South Street Seaport New York, New York 9
Mackinac Bridge St. Ignace and Mackinaw City, Michigan 9
Navy Pier Chicago, Illinois 8.7
Pier 39, Fisherman's Wharf San Francisco, California 8.1
Landmarks[edit]
As of 2007, there are 2,462 registered National Historic Landmarks (NHL) recognized by the United States government.[2] Each major US city has thousands of landmarks. For example, New York City has 23,000 landmarks designated by the Landmarks Preservation Commission. These landmarks include various individual buildings, interiors, historic districts, and scenic sites which help define the culture and character of New York City.[3]
Natural monuments[edit]
There are many natural monuments in the United States and they are a large tourist venue.
Sports[edit]
Main article: Sports in the United States
Sporting events and their associated venues make up a significant percentage of tourist dollars in the US. Estimates of the US sports industry's size vary from $213 billion[4] to $410 billion.[5] In 1997, 25% of tourism receipts in the United States were related to sports tourism; this would have valued the market at approximately $350 billion annually.[6] Many US sporting events routinely attract international visitors. The 1997 New York City Marathon attracted 12,000 participants from outside the US, out of 28,000 participants.[7]
Hotels[edit]
Main article: List of hotels in the United States
Hotels can be both housing for tourists visiting a particular region or city, and destinations themselves, with many hotels having historic and cultural status.
Lists of tourist attractions in the United States[edit]
Lists by type of attraction[edit]
Art museums
List of botanical gardens and arboretums in the United States
Amusement parks
List of aquaria in the United States
Beaches
List of casinos in the United States
List of castles in the United States
List of festivals in the United States
Mexican fiestas in the United States
List of heritage railroads in the United States
List of museums in the United States
List of areas in the National Park System:
National Battlefield Parks
National Historic Parks
National Lakeshores
National Military Parks
National Monuments
National Parks
National Recreation Areas
National Seashores
List of National Wildlife Refuges of the United States
List of nature centers in the United States
List of open-air and living history museums in the United States
List of Renaissance fairs
List of shopping malls in the United States
List of ski areas and resorts in the United States
List of auto racing tracks in the United States
List of indoor arenas in the United States
List of NASCAR tracks
Seaside resorts
List of U.S. stadiums by capacity
Tennis venues
reenactment sites
List of U.S. National Forests
List of U.S. state parks
List of zoos in the United States
Wine festivals
Lists by city or region[edit]
Tourist attractions by city, see: Category:Tourist attractions in the United States by city.
List of attractions and events in Indianapolis
List of attractions and events in the Louisville metropolitan area
List of Orlando, Florida attractions
Attractions in Silicon Valley, California
List of Wilderness Areas in the Adirondack Park
List of lands at Disney theme parks
List of attractions and events in Jacksonville, Florida
Other tourist attractions and destinations[edit]
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina
Charleston, South Carolina
Hilton Head Island, South Carolina
Atlantic City, New Jersey, and the Boardwalk
California's Wine Country
Richmond Strip, Houston, Texas
The French Quarter, New Orleans, Louisiana
New Orleans Mardi Gras, Louisiana
Fisherman's Wharf, San Francisco
Hollywood, California
Outer Banks of North Carolina
Pennsylvania Dutch Country
Pocono Mountains, Pennsylvania
Salem, Massachusetts
Alamo Mission in San Antonio, Texas
Hanauma Bay, Hawaii
Key West, Florida
Aspen, Colorado
Miami, Florida
Former tourist attractions[edit]
Borscht Belt, New York
Salton Sea, California
World Trade Center, New York
See also[edit]
Lists of tourist attractions
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Orcutt, April (5 December 2012). "America's Most Visited Tourist Attractions". Travel + Leisure. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
Jump up ^ National Park Service (June 2010). "National Historic Landmarks Program: List of National Historic Landmarks by State" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-03-23.
Jump up ^ text by Andrew S. Dolkart ; Matthew A. Postal. (2003), Guide to New York City Landmarks, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-36900-4
Jump up ^ "The Sports Industry", SportsBusiness Journal, Street & Smith's, 2008, retrieved May 19, 2008
Jump up ^ "Sports Statistics", Plunkett's Sports Industry Almanac, Plunkett Research, 2007, retrieved May 19, 2008
Jump up ^ Standeven & De Knop 1999, p. 176
Jump up ^ Standeven & De Knop 1999, p. vii
References[edit]
Standeven, Joy; De Knop, Paul (1999). Sport Tourism. Champaign, Ill: Human Kinetics. ISBN 0-87322-853-7.
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Mr. Olympia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the professional wrestler, see Jerry Stubbs.
Mr. Olympia is the title awarded to the winner of the professional men's bodybuilding contest at Joe Weider's Olympia Fitness & Performance Weekend—an international bodybuilding competition that is held annually by the International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness (IFBB).[1] Joe Weider created the contest to enable the Mr. Universe winners to continue competing and to earn money. The first Mr. Olympia was held on September 18, 1965, at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, New York City, with Larry Scott winning his first of two straight titles.
The record number of wins is eight, held by Lee Haney (1984–1991), and Ronnie Coleman (1998–2005). Phil Heath currently holds the title. The film Pumping Iron (1977) featured the buildup to the 1975 Mr. Olympia in Pretoria South Africa and helped launch the acting careers of Arnold Schwarzenegger and Lou Ferrigno. There is also a female bodybuilder crowned, Ms. Olympia, as well as winners of Fitness Olympia and Figure Olympia for fitness and figure competitors. All four contests occur during the same weekend. From 1994 to 2003 and again in 2012, a Masters Olympia was also crowned.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 1960s
1.2 1970s
1.3 1980s
1.4 1990s
1.5 2000s
1.6 2010s
2 Qualifying
3 Winners
3.1 Demographics
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
1960s[edit]
The 1965 and 1966 Mr. Olympia were won by Larry Scott, a famous bodybuilder of the time. Scott subsequently retired after his 1966 victory.
Harold Poole holds two Mr. Olympia distinctions. One is that he is the youngest ever competitor to have participated in the Olympia. In 1965 he competed in the first Mr. Olympia at the age of 21. The other is that he was the only man to compete in all three of the initial Mr. Olympia contests. He was runner-up in the 1965 and 1966 shows.
Arnold Schwarzenegger
The 1967 Mr. Olympia, won by Sergio Oliva, heralded a new era in bodybuilding competition. At 5 ft 10 ins and 240 lbs[2] Oliva, nicknamed "The Myth", displayed a level of muscle mass and definition, including a "V" shape of a large and a well-formed upper-body that tapered down to a narrow waist, unlike anything seen in prior competitions. His upper arms measured nearly 22 inches[citation needed] and his chest measured at 55 inches,[citation needed] which tapered down to a reportedly 28 inch[citation needed] waist and two 31 inch legs.[citation needed] Oliva would go on to win the Mr. Olympia competition in 1967, 1968, and 1969—where he would defeat Arnold Schwarzenegger four to three, marking Schwarzenegger's first and only loss in a Mr. Olympia competition.
1970s[edit]
Schwarzenegger defeated Oliva at the 1970 Mr. Olympia after finishing second the year before. At 6′2″ and 240 lbs,[citation needed] he was able to match Sergio Oliva for size in his upper arms, chest, and back. However, contest judges deemed that Schwarzenegger's extra definition and muscularity over Sergio Oliva were substantial enough to award him the title. Schwarzenegger successfully defeated Oliva again in 1972.
Schwarzenegger went on to win the next three Mr. Olympia competitions, including the 1975 Mr. Olympia competition, which was highlighted in the 1977 docudrama Pumping Iron and featured other notable bodybuilders such as Lou Ferrigno, Serge Nubret, and Franco Columbu, who would go on to win the 1976 and 1981 competitions.
From 1974 until 1979, a dual weight division system was used, splitting competitors into two categories: "Heavyweights" (over 200lbs) and "Lightweights" (under 200lbs). The winners of each division would then compete against each other to decide an overall champion.
After winning the 1975 competition, Schwarzenegger announced his retirement from competitive bodybuilding; this was also depicted in Pumping Iron.
Frank Zane
Frank Zane won the 1977, 1978, and 1979 competitions. While not as physically massive as previous competitors such as Schwarzenegger, Oliva, or Ferrigno, Zane developed his physique to highlight symmetry aesthetics and definition. As such, Zane was able to defeat opponents who exceeded his own muscle-mass but lacked his level of muscular definition. 1977 was the first year the Sandow trophy was awarded.
1980s[edit]
In 1980, Schwarzenegger came out of retirement to win the Olympia yet again. Schwarzenegger had been a late entry into the competition, and his competitors did not know of his intentions to compete. The following year, Franco Columbu was victorious. Chris Dickerson won the 1982 competition, Samir Bannout won the 1983 competition, and Lee Haney won the 1984 competition. This was the start of 8 straight titles by Lee Haney.
1990s[edit]
Haney retired from competitive bodybuilding after his last Mr. Olympia victory in 1991.
Having placed second to Haney the previous year, Dorian Yates won the competition six straight times from 1992 until 1997. He retired after his final Olympia victory. Dorian is given credit for revolutionizing the sport during his reign as Mr. Olympia by combining larger mass than seen before with what was dubbed "granite hardness". The 90s were given the nickname "The Growth Hormone era". Dorian was the first Mr. Olympian to experiment with the hormone, which had succeeding bodybuilders packed with size. Subsequently, judging in professional bodybuilding competitions started placing greater emphasis on muscle mass, with many bodybuilding traditionalists commenting that muscle mass had now become the most important factor to winning, even greater than that of symmetry, aesthetics, and proportion.
Yates retired from competitive bodybuilding after his 1997 victory. Flex Wheeler seemed to be the heir apparent but Ronnie Coleman surprised everyone with a new improved physique in 1998, winning 8 consecutive titles.
In 1994 Joe Weider decided to add a separate Masters Olympia competition for professional bodybuilders to continue to compete at the highest levels in their later years.
2000s[edit]
Ronnie Coleman
Ronnie Coleman won the Mr. Olympia competition eight consecutive times, tying the record set by Lee Haney. Coleman returned in 2006 to defend his title but instead placed second to Jay Cutler, who won his first title after four consecutive years of finishing second to Coleman. Cutler successfully defended his title again in 2007. Coleman came in fourth place and announced his retirement from competition. In 2008, Dexter Jackson defeated Jay Cutler and became Mr. Olympia. In 2009, Jay Cutler became the third Mr. Olympia in history (the others being Arnold Schwarzenegger and Franco Columbu) to reclaim the title and the only Mr. Olympia in history to reclaim the title after having lost it, by returning on stage and defeating the reigning champion Dexter Jackson who placed third in 2009.
2010s[edit]
In 2010, Cutler returned to claim his 4th Mr. Olympia title, becoming just the fifth competitor in Olympia history to win the title more than 3 times. In 2011, Phil Heath defeated Cutler for the title, beginning a winning streak that would last through the present day. From 2012 to 2014, the Olympia was dominated by the rivalry between Kai Greene and Heath, with Greene taking 2nd place and Heath 1st three years in a row. In 2016, Heath won his sixth straight title, while Greene did not compete in either the 2015 or 2016 Olympia. The 2008 Mr. Olympia winner Dexter Jackson took the 2nd place in 2015 while Shawn Rhoden was runner up in 2016.
Qualifying[edit]
In 2011, days after the conclusion of the 2011 Olympia Weekend, Chairman of the IFBB Professional League Jim Manion amended the qualifying rules as follows:
Top five in each division at the Olympia.
Top three in each division at the Arnold Classic/International.
Top two in each division at the New York Pro.
1st place at all other competitions, even the Amateurs World Championship Competition.
The IFBB Professional League and Mr. Olympia 2016, LLC may offer special invites.
Winners[edit]
Year
Award
Overall
Heavyweight
Lightweight
Venue
1965 Larry Scott Heavyweight category not held. Lightweight category not held. New York, United States
1966 $1,000
1967 $1,000 Sergio Oliva
1968
1969
1970 Arnold Schwarzenegger
1971 Paris, France
1972 Essen, West Germany
1973 New York, United States
1974 Arnold Schwarzenegger Franco Columbu
1975 $2,500 Pretoria, South Africa
1976 $5,000 Franco Columbu Ken Waller Columbus, United States
1977 $5,000 Frank Zane Robby Robinson Frank Zane
1978 $15,000
1979 $25,000 Mike Mentzer
1980 $25,000 Arnold Schwarzenegger Heavyweight category not held. Lightweight category not held. Sydney, Australia
1981 Franco Columbu Columbus, United States
1982 Chris Dickerson London, United Kingdom
1983 Samir Bannout Munich, West Germany
1984 $50,000 Lee Haney New York, United States
1985 Brussels, Belgium
1986 $55,000 Columbus, United States
1987 Gothenburg, Sweden
1988 Unknown Los Angeles, United States
1989 Rimini, Italy
1990 $100,000 Chicago, United States
1991 Orlando, United States
1992 Dorian Yates Helsinki, Finland
1993 Atlanta, United States
1994
1995 $110,000
1996 Chicago, Illinois, United States
1997 Los Angeles, United States
1998 Ronnie Coleman New York, United States
1999 Las Vegas, United States
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004 $120,000
2005 $150,000
2006 $155,000 Jay Cutler
2007
2008 Dexter Jackson
2009 $200,000 Jay Cutler
2010
2011 Phil Heath
2012 $250,000 [3]
2013
2014 $275,000 [4]
2015 $400,000
2016
2017
Ranking
Mr. Olympia champion
Year(s)
Number of wins
Overall
Heavyweight
Lightweight
1st Ronnie Coleman 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 8 0 0
1st Lee Haney 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, and 1991 8 0 0
3rd Arnold Schwarzenegger 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974 (overall & heavyweight), 1975 (overall & heavyweight), and 1980 7 0 0
3rd Phil Heath 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2017 7 2 0
5th Dorian Yates 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1997 6 0 0
6th Jay Cutler 2006, 2007, 2009, and 2010 4 0 0
7th Frank Zane 1977 (overall & lightweight), 1978 (overall & lightweight), 1979 (overall & lightweight) 3 0 3
7th Sergio Oliva 1967, 1968, and 1969 3 0 0
9th Franco Columbu 1974 (lightweight), 1975 (lightweight), 1976 (overall & lightweight), and 1981 2 0 3
9th Larry Scott 1965 and 1966 2 0 0
11th Chris Dickerson 1982 1 0 0
11th Samir Bannout 1983 1 0 0
11th Dexter Jackson 2008 1 0 0
14th Robby Robinson 1977 (heavyweight) and 1978 (heavyweight) 0 2 0
15th Kenny Waller 1976 (heavyweight) 0 1 0
15th Mike Mentzer 1979 (heavyweight) 0 1 0
Ranking
Mr. Olympia champion
Years
Number of consecutive wins
Overall
Heavyweight
Lightweight
1st Lee Haney 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, and 1991 8 0 0
1st Ronnie Coleman 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005 8 0 0
3rd Arnold Schwarzenegger 1970, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1974 (overall & heavyweight), 1975 (overall & heavyweight), and 1980 7 2 0
3rd Phil Heath 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017 7 0 0
5th Dorian Yates 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1997 6 0 0
6th Frank Zane 1977 (overall & lightweight), 1978 (overall & lightweight), 1979 (overall & lightweight) 3 0 3
6th Sergio Oliva 1967, 1968, and 1969 3 0 0
8th Jay Cutler 2006, 2007, 2009, and 2010 2 (twice) 0 0
9th Larry Scott 1965 and 1966 2 0 0
10th Franco Columbu 1974 (lightweight), 1975 (lightweight), 1976 (overall & lightweight), and 1981 1 0 3
10th Dexter Jackson 2008 1 0 0
Demographics[edit]
The following Mr. Olympia winners are irreligious:
Frank Zane[5]
Mike Mentzer[6]
The following Mr. Olympia winners are atheists:
Mike Mentzer[6]
The following Mr. Olympia winners are Mormons:
Larry Scott[7]
The following Mr. Olympia winners are Christians:
Sergio Oliva[8]
Arnold Schwarzenegger[9]
Franco Columbu[10]
Lee Haney[11]
Ronnie Coleman[12]
Jay Cutler[13]
Dexter Jackson[14]
Phil Heath[15]
The following Mr. Olympia winners are Roman Catholics:
Arnold Schwarzenegger[9]
Franco Columbu[10]
The following Mr. Olympia winners are Muslims:
Samir Bannout[16]
The following Mr. Olympia winners are openly gay:
Chris Dickerson[17]
See also[edit]
Ms. Olympia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.ifbb.com/contestresults/mrolympia/
Jump up ^ "Mr Olympia: Through the Years". Protein Hunter. Retrieved 2016-06-09.
Jump up ^ http://www.muscleandfitness.com/athletes-celebrities/news/mr-olympia-prize-money-hits-record-high-1mm
Jump up ^ http://bleacherreport.com/articles/2205393-mr-olympia-2014-results-winner-highlights-prize-money-and-twitter-reaction
Jump up ^ Seminar med FRANK ZANE
^ Jump up to: a b Mike Mentzer’s Last Interview
Jump up ^ Larry Scott, bodybuilding star to Utah and world, dies at 75
Jump up ^ An Interview With The Myth: The One And Only Sergio Oliva!
^ Jump up to: a b Schwarzenegger says his Catholic faith doesn’t affect his political decisions
^ Jump up to: a b Religion • Franco columbu is catholic
Jump up ^ Bodybuilding Champion Lee Haney Uses Churches to Battle Obesity
Jump up ^ Ronnie Coleman's Religion and Political Views
Jump up ^ Bodybuilder Jay Cutler Height Weight Body Measurements
Jump up ^ Dexter Jackson Height Weight Body Statistics
Jump up ^ Bodybuilder Phil Heath Height Weight Body Statistics
Jump up ^ https://www.greatestphysiques.com/samir-bannout/
Jump up ^ Chris Dickerson—“Profile in (Fierce) Courage”
Wayne, Rick (1985). Muscle Wars: The Behind-the-Scenes Story of Competitive Bodybuilding. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 93, 95, 250, 257. ISBN 0-312-55353-6. OCLC 12107650.
External links[edit]
Official website
Mr.Olympia—Site with pictures and results (in Bulgarian)
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1990
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Mr. Olympia winners
1965: Scott
1966: Scott
1967: Oliva
1968: Oliva
1969: Oliva
1970: Schwarzenegger
1971: Schwarzenegger
1972: Schwarzenegger
1973: Schwarzenegger
1974: (Overall: Schwarzenegger) (LW: Columbu) (HW: Schwarzenegger)
1975: (Overall: Schwarzenegger) (LW: Columbu) (HW: Schwarzenegger)
1976: (Overall: Columbu) (LW: Columbu) (HW: Waller)
1977: (Overall: Zane) (HW: Robinson) (LW: Zane)
1978: (Overall: Zane) (HW: Robinson) (LW: Zane)
1979: (Overall: Zane) (HW: Mentzer) (LW: Zane)
1980: Schwarzenegger
1981: Columbu
1982: Dickerson
1983: Bannout
1984: Haney
1985: Haney
1986: Haney
1987: Haney
1988: Haney
1989: Haney
1990: Haney
1991: Haney
1992: Yates
1993: Yates
1994: Yates
1995: Yates
1996: Yates
1997: Yates
1998: Coleman
1999: Coleman
2000: Coleman
2001: Coleman
2002: Coleman
2003: Coleman
2004: Coleman
2005: Coleman
2006: Cutler
2007: Cutler
2008: Jackson
2009: Cutler
2010: Cutler
2011: Heath
2012: Heath
2013: Heath
2014: Heath
2015: Heath
2016: Heath
2017: Heath
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Digital citizen
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A digital citizen refers to a person utilizing information technology (IT) in order to engage in society, politics and government. K. Mossberger, et al.[1] Define digital citizens as "those who use the Internet regularly and effectively".[2][3]
People characterizing themselves as digital citizens often use IT extensively, creating blogs, using social networks, and participating in online journalism.[4] Although digital citizenship potentially begins when any child, teen, and/or adult signs up for an email address, posts pictures online, uses e-commerce to buy merchandise online, and/or participates in any electronic function that is B2C or B2B, the process of becoming a digital citizen goes beyond simple Internet activity. In the framework of T.H. Marshall's perspective on citizenship's three traditions (liberalism, republicanism, and ascriptive hierarchy), digital citizenry can occur alongside the promotion of equal economic opportunity, as well as increased political participation and civic duty.[5] Digital technology can lower the barriers to entry for participation as a citizen within society.
Highly developed states possess the capacity to link their respective governments with digital sites. Such sites function in ways such as illuminating recent legislation, educating current and future policy objectives, lending agency toward political candidates, and/or allowing citizens to voice themselves in a political way. Likewise, the generation of these sites has been linked to increased voting advocacy.[1] Lack of access toward becoming a digital citizen can be a serious drawback, since many elementary procedures such as tax report filing, birth registration, and use of Web sites to support candidates in political campaigns (E-democracy) etc. have been transferred to only be available via the Internet. Furthermore, many cultural and commercial entities only publicize information on web pages. Non-digital citizens will not be able to retrieve this information and this may lead to social isolation or economic stagnation. The gap between digital citizens and non-digital citizens is often referred to as the digital divide. Currently, the digital divide is a subject of academic debate as access to the Internet has increased, but the place in which the Internet is accessed (work, home, public library, etc.) has a significant effect on how such access will be utilized, if even in a manner related to citizenry. Recent scholarship has correlated the desire to be technologically proficient with greater belief in computer access equity, and thus, digital citizenship (Shelley, et al.).
In developing countries digital citizens are more sparse. They consist of the people in such countries who utilize technology to overcome their localized obstacles including development issues, corruption, and even military conflict.[6] Examples of such citizens include users of Ushahidi during the 2007 disputed Kenyan election, and protesters in the Arab Spring movements who used media to document repression of protests.
Contents
1 Participation
2 Engagement of youth
3 Limits on the use of data
4 The nine elements of digital citizenship
5 The Overlapping Goals of Digital Citizenship Education
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Participation[edit]
The development of digital citizen participation can be divided into two main stages: information dissemination and citizen deliberation.[7] Digital citizenship, or the ability to participate in society online, promotes social inclusion. Digital Citizenship examines three aspects of participation in society online: economic opportunity, democratic participation and inclusion in prevailing forms of communication.
Engagement of youth[edit]
A recent survey revealed that teenagers and young adults spend more time on the Internet than watching TV.[8] This has raised a number of concerns about how Internet use could impact cognitive abilities.[9] According to a study by Wartella et al., the first of its kind, teens are concerned about how digital technologies may have an impact on their health.[10] Digital youth can be generally viewed as the test market for the next generation's digital content and services. Sites such as Myspace and Facebook have come to the fore in sites where youth participate and engage with others on the Internet. However, due to the lack of popularity with MySpace in particular, more young people are turning to websites such as SnapChat, Instagram, and YouTube. [11] In fact, in 2015, it was reported that teenagers spend up to 9 hours a day on the internet, with the vast majority of that time being spent on social media websites from mobile devices, contributing to the ease of access and availability to young people. [12]Vast amounts of money are spent annually to research the demographic by hiring psychologists, sociologists and anthropologists in order to discover habits, values and fields of interest[13] Particularly in the United States, "Social media use has become so pervasive in the lives of American teens that having a presence on a social network is almost synonymous with being online; 95% of all teens ages 12-17 are now online and 80% of those online teens are users of social media sites".[14] However, movements such as these appear to benefit strictly those wishing to advocate for their business towards youth. The critical time when young people are developing their civic identities is between the ages 15–22. During this time they develop three attributes: civic literacy, civic skills and civic attachment that comprise civic engagement later reflected in political actions of their adult lives.[15][16]
An open Internet as delegated by a state's government is necessary to instill a sense of trust, legitimacy, and participation in the state's citizenry. WikiLeaks represents an occurrence where particular political actors have criticized and taken citizen action toward revealing the government's unnecessary clandestine activity online. "The benefit of transparency isn't just catching red-handed bastards. It's also about collaborating and coming together with a more engaged citizenry."[17] The Internet is a reading-intensive medium that may challenge full access and participation to youth. For youth to fully participate and realize their presence on the Internet, a quality level of reading comprehension is required. "The average government Web site, for examples, requires an eleventh-grade level of reading comprehension, even though about half of the U.S. population reads at an eighth-grade level or lower".[18] So despite the Internet being a place irrespective of certain factors such as race, religion, and class, education plays a large part in a person's capacity to present themselves online in a formal manner conducive towards their citizenry. Concurrently, education also affects people's motivation to participate online.
Students in school should be encouraged to utilize technology with responsibility and Ethical Digital Citizenship strongly promoted. Education on harmful viruses, Trojans, and worms must be emphasized to protect resources. A student can be a successful Digital Citizen with the help of educators, parents, and school counselors.[19]
Limits on the use of data[edit]
International OECD Guidelines state that "personal data should be relevant to the purposes for which they are to be used, and to the extent necessary for those purposes should be accurate, complete, and kept up to date". Also Article 8 prevents subjects to certain exceptions. Meaning that certain things cannot be published online revealing race, ethnicity, religion, political stance, health, and sex life. This is enforced generally by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC)- but very generally. For example, the FTC did bring an action against Microsoft for preventing to properly protect their customers' personal information.[20]
The FTC does play a significant role in protecting the digital citizen. However, individuals' public records are increasingly useful to the government and highly sought after. This is because this material can help the government detect a variety of crime such as fraud, drug distribution rings, terrorist cells, and so forth. This allows for an easier ability to properly profile a suspected criminal and keep an eye on them . Although there are a variety of ways to gather information on an individual through credit card history, employment history, and so on- the internet is becoming the most desirable information gatherer. The two aspects that have caused the internet to be a greater collector of information is the façade of security and amount of information that can be stored on the internet. Anonymity is proven to be very rare online as ISPs can keep track of an individual, account information, web surfing durations, and so forth.[21]
The nine elements of digital citizenship[edit]
According to digitalcitizenship.net, the nine elements (or themes) of digital citizenship are:[22]
Digital access: This is perhaps one of the most fundamental blocks to being a digital citizen. However, due to socioeconomic status, location, and other disabilities- some individuals may not have digital access. Recently, schools have been becoming more connected with the internet, often offering computers, and other forms of access. This can be offered through kiosks, community centers, and open labs. This most often is associated with the digital divide and factors associated with such. Digital access is available in many remote countries via cyber cafés and small coffee shops.[23]
Digital commerce: This is the ability for users to recognize that much of the economy is regulated online. It also deals with the understanding of the dangers and benefits of online buying, using credit cards online, and so forth. As with the advantages and legal activities- there is also dangerous activities such as illegal downloads, gambling, drug deals, pornography, plagiarism, and so forth.
Digital communication: This element deals with understanding the variety of online communication mediums such as email, instant messaging, Facebook messenger, the variety of apps, and so forth. There is a standard of etiquette associated with each medium.
Digital literacy: This deals with the understanding of how to use various digital devices. For example, how to properly search for something on a search engine versus a database. How to use various online logs. Oftentimes many educational institutions will help form an individual's digital literacy.
Digital etiquette: As discussed in the third element, digital communication, this is the expectation that various mediums require a variety of etiquette. Certain mediums demand more appropriate behavior and language than others.
Digital law: This is where enforcement occurs for illegal downloads, plagiarizing, hacking, creating viruses, sending spams, identity theft, cyberbullying, and so forth.
Digital rights and responsibilities: This is the set of rights digital citizens have such as privacy, speech, and so forth.
Digital health: Digital citizens must be aware of the physical stress placed on their bodies by internet usage. They must be aware to not become overly dependent on the internet causing eye strain, headaches, stress problems, and so on.
Digital security: This simply means that citizens must take measures to be safe by practicing using difficult passwords, virus protection, backing up data, and so forth.
The Overlapping Goals of Digital Citizenship Education[edit]
According to DigCit.us, the overlapping goals of digital citizenship education include:[24]
Digital Footprint
Digital Literacy
Information Literacy
Copyright, Intellectual Property Respect, Attribution
Health and Wellness
Empowering Student Voice, Agency, Advocacy
Safety, Security and Privacy
Character Education and Ethics
Parenting
See also[edit]
Civic technology
E-government
Open government
Service design
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Mossberger, Karen. "Digital Citizenship - The Internet, Society & Participation" By Karen Mossberger, Caroline J. Tolbert, and Ramona S. McNeal." 23 Nov. 2011. ISBN 978-0819456069
Jump up ^ The 19th International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering. p. 742. ISBN 978-3-642-37270-4. Retrieved 6 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Ohler, Jason B. Digital Community, Digital Citizen. p. 25. ISBN 978-1412971447. Retrieved 6 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Have Your Say - Are you a digital citizen?". bbc.co.uk.
Jump up ^ 8. Marshall, T. H. 1992. The Problem Stated with the Assistance of Alfred Marshall [originally delivered in 1949]. In Citizenship and Social Class, T. H. Marshall and T. Bottomore, 3–51. London: Pluto Perspectives.
Jump up ^ "Africa's cell phone boom creates a base for low-cost banking". usatoday.com.
Jump up ^ Restoring Trust in Government: The Potential of Digital Citizen Participation
Jump up ^ "Youth Spend More Time on Web than TV:Study", Reuters, 24 July 2003, Retrieved 4 Dec. 2003
Jump up ^ Mills, Kathryn. "Possible Effects of Internet Use on Cognitive Development in Adolescence". Media and Communication. 4 (3). doi:10.17645/mac.v4i3.516.
Jump up ^ Wartella, Ellen; Rideout, Vicky; Montague, Heather; Beaudoin-Ryan, Leanne; Lauricella, Alexis. "Teens, Health and Technology: A National Survey". Media and Communication. 4 (3). doi:10.17645/mac.v4i3.515.
Jump up ^ CNN, Kelly Wallace,. "Teens spend 9 hours a day using media, report says - CNN". CNN. Retrieved 2018-02-03.
Jump up ^ "How Much Time Do People Spend on Social Media? [Infographic]". Social Media Today. Retrieved 2018-02-03.
Jump up ^ Youth as E-Citizens: Engaging the Digital Generation
Jump up ^ "How American Teens Navigate the New World of 'digital Citizenship'". Pew Research Center's Internet & American Life Project. Web. 23 Nov. 2011.
Jump up ^ Delli Carpini, The Youth Engagement Initiative Strategy Paper, 10 Educational leaders today are preparing the educational system "American education from pre-K to 12 and beyond to better prepare students to thrive in the global economy." Today's youth needs to be exposed and prepared for the world they will be living in.
Jump up ^ "How to Bring Our Schools Out of the 20th Century". TIME.com. 10 December 2006.
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ 7. Mossberger, Karen. "Digital Citizenship - The Internet, Society and Participation" By Karen Mossberger, Caroline J. Tolbert, and Ramona S. McNeal." 23 Nov. 2011. ISBN 978-0819456069
Jump up ^ "Help Kids Become Responsible Digital Citizens". educationworld.com.
Jump up ^ The Digital Person - Technology and Privacy in the Information Age - Chapter 1
Jump up ^ The Digital Person - Technology and Privacy in the Information Age - Chapter 9
Jump up ^ Nine Themes of Digital Citizenship, digitalcitizenship.net
Jump up ^ Digital Citizenship in Schools - Excerpt
Jump up ^ About Digital Citizenship Conversations, digcit.us
External links[edit]
Take the Safe Online Surfing Internet Challenge (FBI)
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Flash-gas (refrigeration)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Muzzle Flash.
In refrigeration, flash-gas is refrigerant in gas form produced spontaneously when the condensed liquid is subjected to boiling.[1] The presence of flash-gas in the liquid lines reduces the efficiency of the refrigeration cycle.[2] It can also lead several expansion systems to work improperly, and increase superheating at the evaporator.[3] This is normally perceived as an unwanted condition caused by dissociation between the volume of the system, and the pressures and temperatures that allow the refrigerant to be liquid. Flash-gas must not be confused with lack of condensation, but special gear such as receivers, internal heat exchangers, insulation, and refrigeration cycle optimizers may improve condensation and avoid gas in the liquid lines.
Contents
1 Common Causes
1.1 Heat absorption and pressure loss
1.2 Quality and amount of refrigerant
1.3 Gas production after expansion
2 Detection
3 Prevention
3.1 Effects on the rest of the system
4 Effects of Flash-Gas
5 See also
6 References
Common Causes[edit]
Heat absorption and pressure loss[edit]
A small illustration of some of the most usual causes of the production of flash-gas.
The most common causes driving the fluid to change its phase when in the liquid line are the excessive length of the pipeline, the small diameter of the pipelines, and the lack of subcooling. These create low pressure loci that may induce the fluid to begin changing its phase, especially if the pipeline is somehow exposed to heat absorption.[4] If subcooling is not generous enough, the refrigerant remains in thermodynamic conditions close to saturation easing flash-gas appearance.
The heat may be absorbed not only from high temperature sources, but from diverse energy sources such as friction in the pipeline. On the other hand, pressure in the liquid line may also be upset by artifacts and conditions including vertically rising pipes that reach too high; gear too small for the size of the piping; devices pumping refrigerant through the line, and several other strangling obstructions. Eventually, heat absorption and pressure losses in the liquid line modify the saturation conditions of the refrigerant in such manner that the refrigerant may boil and produce flash-gas.
Quality and amount of refrigerant[edit]
Refrigerant may also explain flash-gas occurrence. When a system lacks refrigerant, or has a leakage, it may exhibit flash-gas as the volume in the piping exceeds the capacity of the refrigerant to fill it as liquid.[3] This may force the refrigerant into a phase change. On the other hand, lack of refrigerant can sometimes also produce the opposite effect: an overall increase on the subcooling (and superheating) which will depend on the size and design of the system and its piping. If the system’s refrigerant is degenerate, flash-gas may also be produced, as physical properties of the fluid change. This happens because the piping is designed for a specific refrigerant mixture that allows liquid in the liquid line, given certain thermodynamic conditions. If the refrigerant mixture changes its composition considerably, the original designs will not be adequate. Degenerated refrigerant produced by leakage, chemical decomposition or loading with gas when using a glided refrigerant; will most likely make the system perform very poorly, alter oil’s circulation or composition, and may eventually render gear inoperative.
Gas production after expansion[edit]
It is also common to find that refrigerant begins to evaporate immediately after the expansion valve, before arriving to the evaporator. This may also be considered as flash-gas but normally doesn’t produce complications in the refrigeration cycle. Many refrigeration systems have the expansion valve set up inside the room being cooled, consequently generating productive refrigeration if absorbing heat from the room, to produce this kind of flash-gas between the expansion and the evaporator. Besides, the expansion valve deregulates its operation if the fluid arriving to it is boiling. In this case, the boiling occurs after the expansion.
Detection[edit]
Flash-gas may be detected in the system by the observation of bubbles or gas presence in the liquid line, or the foamy aspect of the fluid. Depending on the location of the glass: this may also indicate an overwhelmed condenser, and the nonobservance of these at the glass isn’t definite of the nonoccurrence of flash-gas in the liquid line.
Considering the saturation table for the refrigerant, if it is possible to confirm that a certain amount of condenser subcooling is being produced, and the glass still exhibits gas in the liquid line, one may identify this with flash-gas being produced between the condenser and the glass. The flash-gas phenomena may create a deceiving temperature drop on the liquid line that can be misinterpreted as subcooling. This is due to the fact that the refrigerant may use part of the heat obtained from lowering its temperature, to finish vaporizing itself to be able to occupy the volume of the pipes at those pressures.
Prevention[edit]
Efforts to prevent flash-gas in the liquid line include a cautious design of the cooling system and its piping, but also the incorporation of gear that might help solve this type of difficulty. The inclusion of a refrigerant receiver is a common, cheap and simple way of decreasing the gas ratio in the liquid line. The incorporation of a subcooling stage after the receiver reduces even more the chances to observe flash gas.[5] This subcooling may be done in a reserved portion of the main condenser, or separately with a heat exchanger. Some receivers may incorporate an internal heat exchanger that draws heat form the subcooled liquid to superheat the gas compressors suction. There are also many kinds of independent subcooling displays and applications such as refrigeration cycle optimizers; these help avoiding flash-gas in the liquid line by lowering the temperature away from the refrigerant’s saturation curves. Some systems deal with flash-gas by separating it from the refrigerant that goes to the evaporator, as that portion of the refrigerant alrealdy evaporated and will only increase superheating.[6]
One key feature when preventing flash-gas is the diameter of the piping. If the pipes are too thin and long, loss of pressure and friction tend to occur. If the evaporator is too high above the receiver, the rising pipes produce a small amount of vacuum at the topmost portion, making the fluid to undergo ebullition and produce flash-gas. On the contrary, a refrigerant column that creates weight and pressure may reduce the chances of finding flash-gas. If the evaporator is a plate exchanger placed below the level of the receiver, the pressure will not allow the refrigerant to boil easily.
Insulating the liquid line can be helpful if one can determine that heat is being absorbed throughout the piping. On the contrary, if the liquid in the liquid line is hotter than the air outside, insulating the pipes on that section might increase flash-gas as natural subcooling is partially decreased.
Effects on the rest of the system[edit]
When preventing flash gas, one must take into account all the other features of the system and how they are affected. Increasing the pipeline diameter may have incidence on the oil circulation and affect the gas compressor. A column of refrigerant creating weight pressure in the liquid line can be a solution for flash-gas, but may have incidence in the expansion and evaporation. If the evaporator floods and liquid arrives to the gas compressor, serious complications will show up, most likely destroying the compressor (especially if the compressor is below the level of the receiver).
Effects of Flash-Gas[edit]
The main effect of the presence flash-gas in the liquid piping is the net loss of refrigeration capacity.[2] In general terms this is produced in two ways. First, the expansion valve usually doesn’t work properly if injecting a gas-liquid mixture such as refrigerant with flash-gas presence. Second, a portion of the heat required for the refrigerant to flash into gaseous form is drawn from mechanical work such as pressure imbued by the gas compressor that moves the refrigerant.
Both, lack of evaporation, and untimed transformations of energy from work to heat: increase the pressures and temperatures along the pipes; decrease the thermodynamic reversibility of the process, and raise the overall magnitude of entropy produced throughout the whole cycle. This means the refrigeration efficiency of the cycle worsens as it moves away from Carnot’s theoretical ideal efficiency. A loss of performance implies that the system uses more energy to produce less refrigeration. Besides, these kinds of efficiency losses not only underutilize gear, but may end up lowering the operative life of the main components, especially the expansion valve and the gas compressor.
See also[edit]
Flash-gas (petroleum)
Heat transfer
Subcooling
Superheating
Evaporation
Condenser
Screw compressors
Entropy
Heat Engine
Physics portal
Carnot's Efficiency
Thermal expansion valve
Refrigeration cycle
Vapor-compression refrigeration
Evaporator
Condensation
Thermodynamics
Sadi Carnot
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Engineering Toolbox, Terminology. Flash-Gas
^ Jump up to: a b Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Technology, William Whitman. 2005 New York, Page 37. ISBN 1-4018-3765-4.
^ Jump up to: a b HVAC Information - Troubleshooting. Flash-Gas
Jump up ^ Application Note 123, ACRP Remote Air-Cooled Condenser, Application and Placement, Ozan Tutunoglu. 2007, Page 1.
Jump up ^ Holdover Plates, Transport Refrigeration Systems. 2009 Hercules Manufacturing Company, Henderson, KY, Page 12. [1]
Jump up ^ SWEP, Refrigeration Systems. Two Stages
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