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Behaviorism
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Not to be confused with Behavioralism.
"Behavior analysis" redirects here. For other uses, see Behavior analysis (disambiguation).
Behaviorism (or behaviourism) is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals. It assumes that all behaviors are either reflexes produced by a response to certain stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of inheritance in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental factors.
Behaviorism combines elements of philosophy, methodology, and psychological theory. It emerged in the late nineteenth century as a reaction to depth psychology and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally. The earliest derivatives of Behaviorism can be traced back to the late 19th century where Edward Thorndike pioneered the law of effect, a process that involved strengthening behavior through the use of reinforcement.
During the first half of the twentieth century, John B. Watson devised methodological behaviorism, which rejected introspective methods and sought to understand behavior by only measuring observable behaviors and events. It was not until the 1930s that B. F. Skinner suggested that private events—including thoughts and feelings—should be subjected to the same controlling variables as observable behavior, which became the basis for his philosophy called radical behaviorism.[1][2] While Watson and Ivan Pavlov investigated the stimulus-response procedures of classical conditioning, Skinner assessed the controlling nature of consequences and also its potential effect on the antecedents (or discriminative stimuli) that strengthens behavior; the technique became known as operant conditioning.
Skinner’s radical behaviorism has been highly successful experimentally, revealing new phenomena with new methods. But Skinner’s dismissal of theory limited its development. Theoretical behaviorism[3] recognized that a historical system, an organism, has a state as well as sensitivity to stimuli and the ability to emit responses. Indeed, Skinner himself acknowledged the possibility of what he called “latent” responses in humans, even though he neglected to extend this idea to rats and pigeons[4]. Latent responses constitute a repertoire, from which operant reinforcement can select.
Skinner's research was with animals. He studied principles of behavior with animals. His principles were relevant to animal behavior as well as human behavior. He called his methodology the experimental analysis of behavior. He did not develop principles of human learning. Skinner analyzed theoretically various types of human behavior using his principles of behavior. Those treatments have had great impact and are very important in the development of behaviorism. As will be indicated below, psychological behaviorism in contrast drew from the animal based behaviorism, but introduced the study of human learning and the development of the principles of human learning.
The field of applied behavior analysis is considered by many to have derived from radical behaviorism. Actually the field derives from both radical behaviorism and the human based psychological behaviorism. Applied behavior analysis has been used in various settings including the treatment of disorders such as autism and substance abuse, as well as child raising, personality development, and abnormal behavior generally [5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. In addition, psychological behaviorism has indicated how cognitive schools of psychological thought, while not behavioral, can be joined with a human oriented behaviorism [12]. The field of cognitive behavior therapy, which has widely demonstrated utility in treating certain pathologies including simple phobias, PTSD, and mood disorders, has shown the productivity of that combination.
Contents
1 Versions
1.1 Radical behaviorism
2 Experimental and conceptual innovations
3 Relation to language
4 Education
5 Operant conditioning
6 Classical conditioning
7 In philosophy
7.1 Molecular versus molar behaviorism
7.2 Psychological Behaviorism
7.3 21st-century behavior analysis
8 Behavior analysis and culture
9 Behavior informatics and behavior computing
10 Criticisms and limitations of behaviorism
11 List of notable behaviorists
12 See also
12.1 Related therapies
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Versions[edit]
There is no universally agreed-upon classification, but some titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include:
Methodological behaviorism: Watson's behaviorism states that only public events (behaviors of an individual) can be objectively observed, and that therefore private events (thoughts and feelings) should be ignored.[1][13] It also became the basis for the early approach behavior modification in the 1970s and early 1980s.
Radical behaviorism: Skinner's behaviorism theorizes that processes within the organism should be acknowledged, particularly the presence of private events (such as thoughts and feelings), and suggests that environmental variables also control these internal events just as they control observable behaviors. Radical behaviorism forms the core philosophy behind behavior analysis. Willard Van Orman Quine used many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study of knowledge and language.[13]
Teleological behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to microeconomics. Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.
Theoretical behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states ("within the skin" once meant "unobservable", but with modern technology we are not so constrained); dynamic, but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes parsimony.
Biological behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, theory of behavior systems.
Psychological behaviorism: As proposed by Arthur W. Staats, unlike the previous behaviorisms of Skinner, Hull, and Tolman, was based upon a program of human research involving various types of human behavior. Psychological behaviorism introduces new principles of human learning. Humans learn not only by the animal learning principles but also by special human learning principles. Those principles involve human's uniquely huge learning ability. Humans learn repertoires that enable them to learn other things. Human learning is thus cumulative. No other animal demonstrates that ability, making the human species unique. To understand the nature of radical behaviorism and psychological behaviorism, go to the wikipedia section on Psychological Behaviorism.
Two subtypes are:
Hullian and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological
Purposive: Tolman's behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology
Radical behaviorism[edit]
Main article: Radical behaviorism
B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the conceptual underpinning of the experimental analysis of behavior. This view differs from other approaches to behavioral research in various ways but, most notably here, it contrasts with methodological behaviorism in accepting feelings, states of mind and introspection as behaviors subject to scientific investigation. Like methodological behaviorism it rejects the reflex as a model of all behavior, and it defends the science of behavior as complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism overlaps considerably with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism.[14]
Experimental and conceptual innovations[edit]
This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms[15] and Schedules of Reinforcement.[16] Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and S–R theory.
Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations—Thorndike's notion of a stimulus–response "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones—the use of the "free operant", so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers', a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.[17][18]
Relation to language[edit]
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with his 1957 book Verbal Behavior[19] and other language-related publications;[20] Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky.[21][22]
Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,[23] and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed.[24][25] Innateness theory is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims that language is a set of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning.[26][27] According to some, the behaviorist account is a process which would be too slow to explain a phenomenon as complicated as language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement,[28] Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior. Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of relational frame theory.
Education[edit]
See also: Philosophy of education § Realism
Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour achieved through using reinforcement and repetition (Rote learning) to shape behavior of learners. Skinner found that behaviors could be shaped when the use of reinforcement was implemented. Desired behavior is rewarded, while the undesired behavior is punished.[29] Incorporating behaviorism into the classroom allowed educators to assist their students in excelling both academically and personally. In the field of language learning, this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual method, characterised by the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and immediate correction.
Within the behaviourist view of learning, the "teacher" is the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete control, evaluation of learning comes from the teacher who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not have any opportunity for evaluation or reflection within the learning process, they are simply told what is right or wrong. The conceptualization of learning using this approach could be considered "superficial" as the focus is on external changes in behaviour i.e. not interested in the internal processes of learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved the process.
Operant conditioning[edit]
Main article: Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1937 and deals with the modification of "voluntary behaviour" or operant behaviour. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is maintained by its consequences. Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive (delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response).[30] Skinner created the Skinner Box or operant conditioning chamber to test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats. From this study, he discovered that the rats learned very effectively if they were rewarded frequently. Skinner also found that he could shape the rats' behavior through the use of rewards, which could, in turn, be applied to human learning as well.
Classical conditioning[edit]
Main article: Classical conditioning
Although operant conditioning plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms, classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is also an important behavior-analytic process that need not refer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most familiar example of the classical conditioning procedure. In simple conditioning, the dog was presented with a stimulus such as a light or a sound, and then food was placed in the dog's mouth. After a few repetitions of this sequence, the light or sound by itself caused the dog to salivate.[31] Although Pavlov proposed some tentative physiological processes that might be involved in classical conditioning, these have not been confirmed.[citation needed] The idea of classical conditioning helped behaviorist John Watson discover the key mechanism behind how humans acquire the behaviors that they do, which was to find a natural reflex that produces the response being considered.
Watson's "Behaviourist Manifesto" has three aspects that deserve special recognition: one is that psychology should be purely objective, with any interpretation of conscious experience being removed, thus leading to psychology as the "science of behaviour"; the second one is that the goals of psychology should be to predict and control behaviour (as opposed to describe and explain conscious mental states; the third one is that there is no notable distinction between human and non-human behaviour. Following Darwin's theory of evolution, this would simply mean that human behaviour is just a more complex version in respect to behaviour displayed by other species.[32]
In philosophy[edit]
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with philosophy of mind. The basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior. Less radical varieties are unconcerned with philosophical positions on internal, mental and subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior. According to Edmund Fantino and colleagues: "Behavior analysis has much to offer the study of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that successful application of behavioral theory and methodology will not only shed light on central problems in judgment and choice but will also generate greater appreciation of the behavioral approach."[33]
Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within philosophy of language and analytic philosophy. It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a behaviorist position (e.g., the beetle in a box argument)—but while there are important relations between his thought and behaviorism, the claim that he was a behaviorist is quite controversial. Mathematician Alan Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist,[citation needed] but he himself did not make this identification. In logical and empirical positivism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. W.V. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes", and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist,[34] though he offers extensive criticism of radical behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the possibility of free will.[35]
This is Dennett's main point in "Skinner Skinned." Dennett argues that there is a crucial difference between explaining and explaining away… If our explanation of apparently rational behavior turns out to be extremely simple, we may want to say that the behavior was not really rational after all. But if the explanation is very complex and intricate, we may want to say not that the behavior is not rational, but that we now have a better understanding of what rationality consists in. (Compare: if we find out how a computer program solves problems in linear algebra, we don't say it's not really solving them, we just say we know how it does it. On the other hand, in cases like Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, the explanation of how the computer carries on a conversation is so simple that the right thing to say seems to be that the machine isn't really carrying on a conversation, it's just a trick.)
—  Curtis Brown, Philosophy of Mind, "Behaviorism: Skinner and Dennett"[36]
Molecular versus molar behaviorism[edit]
Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner's complete description of behavior as delineated in other works, including his 1981 article "Selection by Consequences".[37] Skinner proposed that a complete account of behavior requires understanding of selection history at three levels: biology (the natural selection or phylogeny of the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species, culture (the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs). This whole organism then interacts with its environment. Molecular behaviorists use notions from melioration theory, negative power function discounting or additive versions of negative power function discounting.[38]
Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin, Richard Herrnstein, and William Baum, argue that behavior cannot be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that behavior is best understood as the ultimate product of an organism's history and that molecular behaviorists are committing a fallacy by inventing fictitious proximal causes for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs, such as "associative strength", are better replaced by molar variables such as rate of reinforcement.[39] Thus, a molar behaviorist would describe "loving someone" as a pattern of loving behavior over time; there is no isolated, proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior might be an example) that can be summarized as "love".
Psychological Behaviorism[edit]
Radical Behaviorism, is essentially, an animal behaviorism. Skinner’s work was in animal research. He did not do research on humans. The responses that were studied with animals were simple immediate responses. They did not require learning. He did not study learning. He believed that the way to study human behavior was through using the methodology he developed with animals. His students who began to work with humans – very valuable research – was with simple responses, pulling a plunger, tapping a key. As valuable as it was, it did not study complex human behavior and the learning of complex human behavior. Psychological behaviorism, from its beginning, studied complex human behavior, various types of complex human behavior, in a program directed toward the study of complex human learning. Psychological behaviorism differed fundamentally from radical behaviorism in being a human behaviorism. Rather than radical behaviorism's extension of animal behavior principles to analysis of human behavior, psychological behaviorism had a program of research on various kinds of human behavior. That brought to light the importance of learning in the formation of human behavior. It revealed that humans learned according to principles in a way that no other animal species does. The human species is unique among species in a way that cannot be realized or understood in radical behaviorism.
Psychological behaviorism is based upon a more than 60 year program of studying different kinds of complex human learning. That study makes radical behaviorism and psychological behaviorism fundamentally different.
21st-century behavior analysis[edit]
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The early term behavior modification has been obsolete since the 1990s as it currently refers to the brief revival of methodological behaviorism in the 1970s and early 1980s.[40][41][42] Applied behavior analysis—the term that replaced behavior modification—has emerged into a thriving field.
The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the US also continues to develop, In terms of motivation, there remains strong interest in the variety of human motivational behaviour factors, e.g.,[43][44][45][46][47]. Some, may go as far as suggesting that the current rapid change in organisational behaviour could partly be attributed to some of these theories and the theories that are related to it.[48]
The interests among behavior analysts today are wide-ranging, as a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within ABAI indicates. Such interests include everything from developmental disabilities and autism, to cultural psychology, clinical psychology, verbal behavior, Organizational Behavior Management (OBM; behavior analytic I–O psychology). OBM has developed a particularly strong following within behavior analysis, as evidenced by the formation of the OBM Network and the influential Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM; recently rated the 3rd highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating).
Applications of behavioral technology, also known as applied behavior analysis or ABA, have been particularly well established in the area of developmental disabilities since the 1960s. Treatment of individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders has grown especially rapidly since the mid-1990s. This demand for services encouraged the formation of a professional credentialing program administered by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, Inc. (BACB) and accredited by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies. As of early 2012, there are over 300 BACB approved course sequences offered by about 200 colleges and universities worldwide preparing students for this credential and approximately 11,000 BACB certificants, most working in the United States. The Association of Professional Behavior Analysts was formed in 2008 to meet the needs of these ABA professionals.
Modern behavior analysis has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research and applications related to language and cognition, with the development of relational frame theory (RFT; described as a "Post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition").[49] RFT also forms the empirical basis for the highly successful and data-driven acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). In fact, researchers and practitioners in RFT/ACT have become sufficiently prominent that they have formed their own specialized organization that is highly behaviorally oriented, known as the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS).
Some of the current prominent behavior analytic journals include the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA), the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) JEAB website, the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM), Behavior and Social Issues (BSI), as well as the Psychological Record. Currently, the US has 14 ABAI accredited MA and PhD programs for comprehensive study in behavior analysis.
Behavior analysis and culture[edit]
Cultural analysis has always been at the philosophical core of radical behaviorism from the early days (as seen in Skinner's Walden Two, Science & Human Behavior, Beyond Freedom & Dignity, and About Behaviorism).
During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid Glenn, had a productive interchange with cultural anthropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent of "cultural materialism") regarding interdisciplinary work. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced a set of basic exploratory experiments in an effort toward this end.[50] Behaviorism is also frequently used in game development, although this application is controversial.[51]
Behavior informatics and behavior computing[edit]
With the fast growth of big behavioral data and applications, behavior analysis is ubiquitous. Understanding behavior from the informatics and computing perspective becomes increasingly critical for in-depth understanding of what, why and how behaviors are formed, interact, evolve, change and affect business and decision. Behavior informatics[52][53] and behavior computing[54][55] deeply explore behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives.
Criticisms and limitations of behaviorism[edit]
See also: Cognitive psychology and Cognitive neuroscience
In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive revolution.[56][57] This shift was due to methodological behaviorism being highly criticized for not examining mental processes, and this led to the development of the cognitive therapy movement. In the mid-20th century, three main influences arose that would inspire and shape cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought:
Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism more generally, initiated what would come to be known as the "cognitive revolution".[58]
Developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn between human thought and the computational functionality of computers, opening entirely new areas of psychological thought. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon spent years developing the concept of artificial intelligence (AI) and later worked with cognitive psychologists regarding the implications of AI. The effective result was more of a framework conceptualization of mental functions with their counterparts in computers (memory, storage, retrieval, etc.)
Formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of research institutions such as George Mandler's Center for Human Information Processing in 1964. Mandler described the origins of cognitive psychology in a 2002 article in the Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences [59]
In the early years of cognitive psychology, behaviorist critics held that the empiricism it pursued was incompatible with the concept of internal mental states. Cognitive neuroscience, however, continues to gather evidence of direct correlations between physiological brain activity and putative mental states, endorsing the basis for cognitive psychology.
List of notable behaviorists[edit]
Donald Baer
Albert Bandura
Dermot Barnes-Holmes
Vladimir Bekhterev
Sidney W. Bijou
Charles Ferster
Jacque Fresco
Edwin Ray Guthrie
Steven C. Hayes
Richard J. Herrnstein
Clark L. Hull
Brian Iwata
Alan E. Kazdin
Fred S. Keller
Jon Levy
Marsha M. Linehan
Ole Ivar Lovaas
Neal E. Miller
O. Hobart Mowrer
Charles E. Osgood
Ivan Pavlov
Murray Sidman
B. F. Skinner
Kenneth W. Spence
J. E. R. Staddon
Edward Thorndike
Edward C. Tolman
John B. Watson
Montrose Wolf
See also[edit]
Antecedent stimuli
Behavior analysis of child development
Behavioral change theories
Behavioral economics
Behavioral medicine
Behavioral neuroscience
Counterconditioning
Criminology
Dog behaviorist
Emergency psychiatry
Ethology
Functional analysis (psychology)
Habituation
List of publications in psychology § Behaviorism
The Logic of Modern Physics
Law of effect
Mentalism (psychology)
Models of abnormality § Behavioural model
Observational learning
Operationalization
Pharmacology § Behavioral pharmacology
Perceptual control theory
Professional practice of behavior analysis
Punishment
Reinforcement
Relational frame theory
Token economy
Verbal Behavior
ZebraBox
Zoosemiotics
Related therapies[edit]
Acceptance and commitment therapy
Applied animal behavior
Behavioral activation
Behavior modification
Behavior therapy
Biofeedback
Clinical behavior analysis
Cognitive behavior therapy
Contingency management
Desensitization
Dialectical behavior therapy
Direct instruction
Discrete trial training
Exposure and response prevention
Exposure therapy
Functional analytic psychotherapy
Habit reversal training
Organizational behavior management
Pivotal response treatment
Positive behavior support
Rational emotive behavior therapy
Social skills training
Systematic desensitization
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Jump up ^ Pelios, L.; Morren, J.; Tesch, D.; Axelrod, S. (1999). "The impact of functional analysis methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 32 (2): 185–95. doi:10.1901/jaba.1999.32-185. PMC 1284177  . PMID 10396771.
Jump up ^ Mace, F. Charles; Critchfield, Thomas S. (May 2010). "Translational research in behavior analysis: Historic traditions and imperative for the future". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 93 (3): 293–312. doi:10.1901/jeab.2010.93-293. PMC 2861871  . PMID 21119847.
Jump up ^ Kellaway, Lucy (7 January 2015). "My team gets more excited by loo roll than business budgets: Work problems answered". London: Financial Times. p. 10. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Eyres, Harry (19 December 2009). "Peaks in a trough year: The Slow Lane". Financial Times. p. 22. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Stern, Stefan (5 August 2008). "Keep up motivation levels through long summer days". London: Financial Times. p. 12. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Skapinker, Michael (11 December 2002). "Human capitalism: Does treating workers well help business too? A PwC report provides some evidence". London: Financial Times. p. 22. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Skapinker, Michael (9 April 2013). "The 50 ideas that shaped business today". London: Financial Times. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Reinventing the deal; American capitalism" (417.8961). London: The Economist. 24 October 2015. pp. 21–24. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Hayes, S.C.; Barnes-Holmes, D. & Roche, B. (2001) Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. Kluwer Academic: New York.
Jump up ^ Ward, Todd A.; Eastman, Raymond; Ninness, Chris (2009). "An Experimental Analysis of Cultural Materialism: The Effects of Various Modes of Production on Resource Sharing". Behavior and Social Issues. 18: 1–23. doi:10.5210/bsi.v18i1.1950.
Jump up ^ Jon Radoff (2011). "Gamification, Behaviorism and Bullsh$!". Radoff.com. Archived from the original on 2011-10-03. Retrieved 2011-08-11.
Jump up ^ Cao, Longbing (2010). "In-depth Behavior Understanding and Use: the Behavior Informatics Approach". Information Science. 180 (17): 3067–3085. doi:10.1016/j.ins.2010.03.025.
Jump up ^ Cao, Longbing; Joachims, Thorsten; et al. (2014). "Behavior Informatics: A New Perspective". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 29 (4): 62–80. doi:10.1109/mis.2014.60.
Jump up ^ Cao, Longbing; Yu, Philip (eds) (2012). Behavior Computing: Modeling, Analysis, Mining and Decision. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4471-2969-1. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Cao, Longbing; Motoda, Hiroshi; et al. (2013). Behavior and Social Computing. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-04047-9.
Jump up ^ Friesen, N. (2005). Mind and Machine: Ethical and Epistemological Implications for Research. Thompson Rivers University, B.C., Canada.
Jump up ^ Waldrop, M.M. (2002). The Dream Machine: JCR Licklider and the revolution that made computing personal. New York: Penguin Books. (pp. 139–40).
Jump up ^ Chomsky, N (1959). "Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language. 35: 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334. Chomsky N. Preface to the reprint of A Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior. In: Jakobovits L.A, Miron M.S, editors. Readings in the psychology of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1967.
Jump up ^ Mandler, George (2002). "Origins of the cognitive (r)evolution". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 38: 339–353. doi:10.1002/jhbs.10066. PMID 12404267.
Further reading[edit]
Baum, W.M. (2005) Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell.
Cao, L.B. (2013) IJCAI2013 tutorial on behavior informatics and computing.
Cao, L.B. (2014) Non-IIDness Learning in Behavioral and Social Data, The Computer Journal, 57(9): 1358–1370.
Chiesa, Mecca (1994). "Radical Behaviorism: The Philosophy and the Science". Authors Cooperative, Inc.
Cooper, John O., Heron, Timothy E., & Heward, William L. (2007). "Applied Behavior Analysis: Second Edition". Pearson.
Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Malott, Richard W. Principles of Behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. Print.
Mills, John A., Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology, Paperback Edition, New York University Press 2000.
Lattal, K.A. & Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum.
Pierce, W. David & Cheney, Carl D. (2013). "Behavior Analysis and Learning: Fifth Edition". Psychology Press.
Plotnik, Rod. (2005) Introduction to Psychology. Thomson-Wadsworth (ISBN 0-534-63407-9).
Rachlin, H. (1991) Introduction to modern behaviorism. (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
Skinner, B.F. Beyond Freedom & Dignity, Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002.
Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner, B.F. (1945). "The operational analysis of psychological terms". Psychological Review. 52 (270–7): 290–4. doi:10.1037/h0062535.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior (ISBN 0-02-929040-6) Online version.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner, B.F. (31 July 1981). "Selection by Consequences" (PDF). Science. 213 (4507): 501–4. Bibcode:1981Sci...213..501S. doi:10.1126/science.7244649. PMID 7244649. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
Klein, P. (2013) "Explanation of Behavioural Psychotherapy Styles". [1].
Staddon, J. (2014) The New Behaviorism, 2nd Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. pp. xi, 1–282.
Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–177. (on-line).
Watson, J.B. (1919). Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist.
Watson, J.B. (1924). Behaviorism.
Zuriff, G.E. (1985). Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction, Columbia University Press.
LeClaire, J. and Rushin, J.P. (2010) Behavioral Analytics For Dummies. Wiley. (ISBN 978-0-470-58727-0).
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Lynette Scavo
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article consists almost entirely of a plot summary. It should be expanded to provide more balanced coverage that includes real-world context. Please edit the article to focus on discussing the work rather than merely reiterating the plot. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Lynette Scavo
Desperate Housewives character
Portrayed by
Felicity Huffman
Duration
2004–12
First appearance
"Pilot"
1x01, October 3, 2004
Last appearance
"Finishing the Hat"
8x23, May 13, 2012
Created by
Marc Cherry
Spin-off
appearances
Desperate Housewives: The Game (2006)
Profile
Other names
Lynette Lindquist (maiden name)
Lynnie (by her mother)
Occupation
CEO[1]
Former
Interior Designer
Advertising Executing
Restaurant Manager
Residence
Upper East Side, New York, New York[1]
Former
4355 Wisteria Lane
Fairview, Eagle State
Chicago, Illinois (before Season 1)
[show]Family
Parents
Stella Lindquist
Siblings
Lucy Lindquist
Lydia Lindquist
Spouse
Tom Scavo
Children
Porter Scavo
Preston Scavo
Parker Scavo
Penny Lynn Scavo
Paige Scavo
Patrick Scavo (miscarriage)
Grandchildren
Sophie Mayer-Scavo (via Porter with Julie)
Six other grandchildren[1]
Other relatives
Polly (aunt)
Lynette Scavo (née Lindquist) is a fictional character and one of the four protagonists on the series Desperate Housewives. The character is played by actress Felicity Huffman, who won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for the role in 2005, and was nominated for Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy for 2005 to 2007.
While show creator Marc Cherry based Bree Van de Kamp's family on his teenage years, he based Lynette's on his childhood life.[2] Other actresses who claim to have auditioned for the show include Alex Kingston, who was apparently turned down for being too curvy.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Past
1.2 Season 1
1.3 Season 2
1.4 Season 3
1.5 Season 4
1.5.1 Five-year jump
1.6 Season 5
1.7 Season 6
1.8 Season 7
1.9 Season 8
2 References
History[edit]
Past[edit]
Lynette Marie Lindquist was the eldest of three daughters born to Stella Lindquist and her first husband. After their father's death, their mother had a series of unpleasant and unstable boyfriends, but finally married Glenn Wingfield, whom Lynette adored. After a short time, Glenn left, and Lynette blamed her mother for driving him away for a long time. Stella finally remarries in season seven but is widowed about a week after their wedding.
She graduated from Northwestern University. In season one, it is learned that she met Tom when they worked together in Advertising. They married and moved to Wisteria Lane. Lynette has six children with Tom, with the last pregnancy there was a difficulty and one of the twins had died and not to mention the love child Tom had with a one-night stand twelve years before he met Lynette, which resulted to Tom having a child with Nora Huntington. After Nora's death, Kayla moved in full-time from season three to the end of season four. Lynette is always willing to do what is best for her family.
Season 1[edit]
As the series begins, Lynette is near to breaking point - stuck at home alone with four kids. Her husband is always away on business trips or at work. Lynette struggled to cope with her four children until Preston and Porter were prescribed medication for ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder). Lynette decided not to medicate them and started taking the medication herself so she could make the costumes for a school play. Realising she was addicted, Lynette managed to stop taking the pills after she and Tom hired a nanny. Unfortunately the nanny didn't stay long as she caught Tom's eye a little too much. Her problems got worse when Tom told her that he was offered a lucrative promotion that would take him away from home more often, which he refused to discuss with her, so she made sure that his boss didn't offer him the promotion. When Tom found out what Lynette had done, he quit his job, and in the season finale informs her that she will be going back to work. Lynette also has trouble with Tom's ex-girlfriend, Annabel Foster. So, she talks to an executive of her old firm, and Tom's firm, to hire his ex as the VP of the firm, which she willingly does. When Tom finds out what Lynette had done, he forgives her, and decides to be a stay-at-home dad, where she has to go back to work, and earn the money.
Season 2[edit]
Lynette got a job at an advertising agency and for much of the season, deals with obstacles at work and colleagues. Stu, a bumbling secretary at the agency, is kind to Lynette, often doing her favors or helping her in tough situations. Nina is the boss from hell; bitchy, self-centered and neurotic. She causes Lynette many problems and stresses her out with work. Ed, the boss, is the seemingly cool guy but his faults lead to Tom being fired after working with her at the agency for a while. Lynette also testifies for Bree when she is accused of child abuse but makes Bree realise she has a problem with alcohol. At the end of the season, Lynette thinks Tom is cheating on her but discovers Tom has another child - resulting from a one-night stand before he met Lynette - a daughter, Kayla Huntington. She and her mother, Nora Huntington, use the back child support from Tom to move to Fairview so Kayla can get to know her father, stepmother and half-siblings.
Season 3[edit]
Lynette has trouble adjusting to Nora and Kayla being around but does her best. Lynette learns Nora wants Tom back and warns her to keep her distance. When Nora decides to leave town with Kayla in tow, Lynette and Tom sue for custody. However, a court date becomes unnecessary when Nora and Lynette are held hostage in a supermarket by Carolyn Bigsby, Nora is shot and killed during the standoff. As Nora lays dying, Lynette pledges to always care for Kayla. Lynette is shot in the arm, but survives. Lynette and Kayla struggle to get on as Kayla blames Lynette for her mother's death. When an out-of-work Tom follows his lifelong dream to open a pizzeria, Lynette attempts to support him. When a back injury leaves Tom bedridden and Lynette solely responsible for the operation of the restaurant, Lynette hires a manager, Rick, for whom she quickly develops romantic feelings. Tom, jealous and suspicious, demands that Rick leave the business but Rick refuses. When he confesses to Lynette that he is attracted to her, she fires him, establishing firmly that her family matters more than her business. Following a nasty fall out of bed, Lynette undergoes a CAT scan which reveals swollen lymph nodes. In the season finale, Lynette tells her sister Lucy that she has been diagnosed with Hodgkin's lymphoma and asks her for a loan. Lucy is sympathetic but unable to help as her husband has just lost his job. Tom borrows the money from Lynette's mother, Stella Wingfield, much to his wife's chagrin. Stella tells Lynette that she is moving in to help with the family while Lynette fights cancer.
Season 4[edit]
While undergoing chemotherapy, Lynette wears wigs to conceal her illness and avoid the pity of friends and neighbors. When she finally confesses, her friends are shocked but supportive. In a fit of pique at being served marijuana-laced brownies, Lynette decides that Stella has to go. While she soon changes her mind and asks her mother to stay, Stella is hurt and leaves the Scavo home. When Lynette learns that Glenn left Stella because he is gay, she tells her mother that she appreciates the time they've spent together. Stella, not wanting to ruin the happy memories, decides not to return and moves in with Glenn. A short time later, a tornado threatens Fairview and Lynette persuades her elderly neighbor, Karen McCluskey, to let the Scavos shelter in her cellar. Ida Greenberg and her cat join them but Tom, allergic to cats, starts struggling to breathe. Lynette attempts to sneak the cat out of the shelter, and Karen follows her into the storm. As the tornado hits, Karen and Lynette are forced to shelter in a bathtub in the Scavo house. After the tornado, Lynette and Karen find the McCluskey house in ruins. Lynette's family is safe, but only because Ida Greenberg died to save them. Kayla begins a pattern of disrespectful behavior, which culminates when Lynette slaps her for threatening Penny. Kayla takes revenge by burning herself with a curling iron and blaming Lynette, who is arrested. While in jail, Lynette tells Tom what Kayla did. When Kayla confesses that she lied, Tom sends her to live with her grandparents. He is sad to send her away, but in time the family (and Tom and Lynette's marriage) recovers from the strain placed upon it by Kayla.
Five-year jump[edit]
Lynette and Tom are still running the pizzeria, Preston, Porter, and Parker are teenagers and Penny is nine. Lynette's hair is back and Kayla is gone and not mentioned at all.
Season 5[edit]
After the five-year time jump, Tom and Lynette are still running the pizzeria and having trouble with their twin sons, now teenagers. Tom is having a mid-life crisis - he often sides with his disobedient sons, and he starts a band with the other neighborhood husbands, all to the irritation of his wife.
Lynette and Tom discover that Porter is having an affair with Anne Shilling, an older married woman. Anne tells Porter that she is having his baby and they make plans to run away together. When Lynette confronts Anne about her affair with Porter, they are overheard by Anne's abusive husband Warren. When Lynette later finds Warren beating Anne severely, Warren jeeringly dares the women to phone the police, because Anne is guilty of statutory rape. That evening, when Tom's band plays a gig at Warren's nightclub, Porter and Warren fight but Lynette intervenes again. She confronts Warren about hitting women and children. Warren locks the doors, and when Dave Williams sets fire to the club, it causes a panic. The club patrons escape through a window, but Warren blames Porter for the fire. Porter is arrested and released on bail. Lynette pays Anne to leave town without Warren, and asks to be notified when the baby is born. Anne admits that there is no baby. After Warren threatens his life, Porter jumps bail and leaves town. Tom and Lynette get Preston to pose as Porter in court. When he is discovered hiding at his grandmother's nursing home, Porter returns and the charges are dropped. Unfortunately, legal bills and the payoff to Anne have left the Scavos broke and Tom is forced to sell the pizzeria.
Lynette returns to the workforce, working for Carlos Solis. In the finale, Lynette starts feeling ill and fears her cancer is active, although she is pregnant with another set of twins.
Season 6[edit]
In her first trimester, Lynette is depressed about the prospect of having twins so late in life and fears she will not love them. She hides the pregnancy from her boss, Carlos, so as not to jeopardize her promotion. Gabrielle soon discovers the truth, and is angry with Lynette for putting the future of Carlos' company at stake. She does not tell Carlos, although Lynette thought she would, so reveals her secret to him without knowledge. He tells her that her options are to move to Miami or to quit. He then gives her a huge amount of work to do in one night, but when Lynette attends her daughter's Christmas pageant instead, Carlos subsequently fires her. Lynette and Gaby's friendship becomes strained, but is restored when Lynette saves Celia Solis from being hit by a plane that crashes on Wisteria Lane. Following the crash, Lynette is in pain and realizes something is wrong with the babies. Her doctor discovers one of the twins needs circulatory surgery. While unconscious, Lynette dreams of the struggle of life with a disabled child. The dream ends with her disabled son's graduation, where he thanks her for always challenging him. When she awakens, Tom tells her that the ill baby died but the other survived. Despite her early reluctance to have these twins at all, Lynette sobs for her lost baby. She has trouble processing her grief until Tom suggests that she stay home with their daughter after she is born.
Later in the season, Preston returns from Europe with a Russian woman named Irina. Lynette investigates and learns that Irina is a gold digger and prostitute, but Irina is killed by the Fairview Strangler. She invites the troubled teen Eddie to live with her family, unaware that he is the Fairview Strangler. Eddie becomes protective of Lynette, attacking Porter and nearly attacking Tom when each of them treats her in a way Eddie regards as disrespectful. Tom and Lynette agree that Eddie must see a therapist. The therapist suggests that Eddie's progress would improve if his mother accompanied him to therapy. However, no one answers the door at Eddie's house even though his mother's car is still there, and Lynette's suspicions are raised. When she learns that both Irina and Eddie's mother have been found dead, she confronts Eddie at his house and he traps her inside. With her life at Eddie's mercy, Lynette goes into labor. She gives birth to her daughter, Paige, with Eddie's help. Eddie attempts to flee, but Lynette begs him to turn himself in, telling him that she would be proud to have a son like him. Eddie asks Lynette to do it for him. Lynette agrees, letting him hold the baby while she dials 911.
Season 7[edit]
While raising their new baby daughter Paige, Tom is diagnosed with male postpartum depression. She invites her old college roommate, Renee, to stay when she learns of her on-going divorce. But she is astonished that Renee is taking Tom's diagnosis seriously. Renee (who is still staying in the Scavo home) warns Lynette that she should take Tom’s concerns more seriously, but Lynette ignores this. Lynette is especially angered when she learns that Tom has been confiding in Renee, listening to his problems when Lynette will not. One evening, Lynette learns that the two have gone to dinner but left a message for her to join them if she wishes. Angry, Lynette meets the two at a restaurant just as they are discussing Lynette’s dismissive behavior towards Tom. Lynette pulls Renee aside and tells her that it is inappropriate to be so close to Tom and demands that their current friendship be toned down. That night, Lynette realizes she needs to be there for her husband more often and the two decide to simply talk to each other rather than make love, thus making progress in their marriage. Renee later apologizes to Lynette and is forgiven, and reveals that she has just bought Edie Britt’s former home on Wisteria Lane. Lynette is hesitant to the idea, but happy nonetheless. In private, Tom warns Renee that it may be a bad idea for her to be their neighbor because he is afraid Lynette may find out about “something that happened” between him and Renee years earlier.
Lynette and Renee start a new business in interior design, after a little persuasion from Renee. Renee suggests hiring Susan as Lynette's nanny. Lynette is reluctant, but eventually agrees. Lynette ends up comforting Susan when she feels bad about not being as financially stable as her friends. Mike has taken the job in Alaska, and Susan accepts Lynette's offer to be baby Paige's nanny, even though she originally thought she was being hired to work in Lynette and Renee's new business. She overhears a new client of Lynette and Renee's, and suggests that she ask her daughter for her favorite characters to paint on her wall. The woman likes Susan's idea. Renee gets mad at Susan, while Lynette wonders why her friend is acting strange. Susan eventually reveals that she feels the nanny job is beneath her, and is shamed to be the poor person in her group of friends. Lynette comforts her, saying that money can't change the way she looks in their eyes. Lynette is shown to be insecure in their marriage when Tom complains that she never "talks him up" to her friends. She admits to him that this is because she believes he is so perfect, that she doesn't deserve to be with him. He tells her that she is the type of person who still cries when their last child grows out of their onesies, even after raising four other children. Lynette learns that Renee and Tom had a one-night stand 20 years ago which happened right after Tom and Lynette became engaged and she was visiting her parents (they were on a break). She doesn't take it well, and is of course upset but keeps it quiet and instead begins a series of pranks against Tom as payback. When Renee finds out what Lynette is doing, she tells Tom about it. Tom confronts Lynette and informs her that he wanted to tell her about Renee, but there was never a good time for it because he did not want to ruin the wonderful life they have together. Lynette then forgives Tom.
Tom gets a new job that provides well and Renee encourages Lynette to spend money more freely but also warns her that Tom will be spending more time away. Lynette tries to seduce Tom on an airplane but he insists that he enjoys his work too much. When Tom attends a conference, Lynette is upset that she is unable to attend any of the events because she's just a wife, relegated to spa time and other events with other wives. She tries to encourage them to fight for their equality but they're all happy with being out of the business side of things. Lynette steals one woman's ID to attend a talk only to discover she has the identity of the keynote speaker. Back home, Renee watches as Tom and Lynette argue, Tom snapping that after so many years supporting Lynette, it hurts that she won't do the same for him. Lynette complains to Renee but she fires back that Lynette has to choose whether to be a good wife or not. Tom hires the duo to decorate his office in the style of an arrogant boss but Lynette vetoes it as she feels it's not right for him. Renee overrules her to give Tom the office he wants. Lynette confronts Tom over how this isn't really him but he retorts that it's how he has to be in order to succeed and that Lynette needs to stop thinking of him as the soft man he's been at home for the last few years.
When Tom decides to book a luxurious holiday for the family and announces it Lynette is annoyed and consults Tom about why he did not consult her about it first (since she already informed him a few weeks ago that she had already planned a trip). The two then pitch to the kids what they think is the best holiday which leads to yet another fight between them; this time however they insult each other. Lynette calls Tom a "Pompous Ass" while Tom labels Lynette as a "Raging Bitch" leaving them to decide that it is only them who need to spend a holiday together. The holiday turns out badly and the relationship deteriorates and becomes extremely awkward. When they return home Tom leads Lynette to believe that he will be spending a while in an apartment near to his work offices. Before Lynette attends a street dinner party, Penny reveals to her that Tom had left her a note. Lynette is surprised and finds that Tom's unpacked suitcase from the holiday is not in the bedroom, convincing her that Tom had left her. After revealing to Susan that she thought Tom had left her, Lynette walks into her house, finding Tom, chopping up salad ingredients. He tells Lynette that he had only gone to buy the ingredients. Lynette questions him why it had taken him two hours, leading Tom to reveal that he had left but came back when he considered that Lynette would have to lie about where Tom was to her friends at the dinner party. The two talk for a while and Lynette confesses that when she thought Tom had left, she felt relieved, leading the pair to finally decide to separate.
In the same evening that Lynette decides to separate from Tom, she, along with Bree and Susan, walk into Gaby's living room to find that Carlos has murdered Alejandro, Gaby's stepfather. The four ladies agree to cover up the murder to protect Carlos, stuffing the body in a wooden box used as a table at the evening's dinner party.
Season 8[edit]
Not only is Lynette suffering strain from the murder but she is also having a tough time with her separation from Tom. At first she is reluctant to tell the children, but after she has a one-night stand with Tom, he decides to tell them. They then clash over Tom letting the children have whatever they want, making Lynette the bad person who always says "No". Lynette talks to Tom about booking couples therapy to try to heal their relationship. However, after Renee comments that Tom has been taking care of himself lately (dressing smartly and working out) and suspects he has been dating someone, Lynette becomes worried. She goes to a gym class with Renee to spy on the trainer she believes Tom is seeing, but realizes he is actually dating the woman's mother, Jane, leaving Lynette devastated. Terrified of what would happen to her children if she is caught by Chuck, Lynette confesses her secret to Tom just as he is about to leave for Paris with Jane. He decides not to go, leaving his relationship on the rocks, which leaves him furious with Lynette. Lynette then feels bad about him having to stay for her, as he thinks that she might be the "one". Lynette then tells him to go to Paris. This leads Lynette to try to experiment with new dates herself, and meets a new man, who seems very keen on her. She finally sleeps with Renee's barber and moves on, though at first she cries during the sex. She along with her friends finally find out that Bree tried to commit suicide because of them, and after Bree rejects them, was loss for words. Just as Lynette is getting used to single life, Porter and Preston move back home, needing a place to stay after losing their apartment. Lynette is already frazzled when she learns that Porter is the father of Julie Mayer's baby, making Susan and Lynette grandmothers.
Her world is further shocked when Tom asks for a divorce, and announces that he and Jane will be moving in together. Lynette is devastated, and her rivalry with Jane becomes more heated at Penny's birthday party when they continually try to one up each other. Jane then later tries to reconcile with Lynette, but then she begins to choke on a snack. Lynette hesitates to help Jane, but ultimately comes to her aid and saves her. However, Jane is alarmed at Lynette thinking such an action over believing she thought of letting Jane die. Then on the day of Mike Delfino's funeral, Tom and Lynette comfort each other as Jane looks on. Sparks of their marriage appear and while sitting at the service Lynette thinks back to the day Tom moved out. Mike tries to understand why Lynette isn't fighting for her marriage. He then reveals that everyone in the neighborhood knows that she and Tom belong together. This memory finally causes Lynette to make the decision to fight for her marriage, win Tom back, and dissolve his romance with Jane. In With So Little to Be Sure Of Lynette and Tom officially sign their divorce papers ending their marriage. When Lynette hears Tom hasn't filed the papers, she is hopeful but after seeing Tom and Jane kiss at the office, she accepts a date from Tom's boss. It goes well at first but when he plans to transfer Tom to India, Lynette breaks it off. The boss sardonically insults Lynette before Tom about her being hung up on another man and after insults to her, Tom punches him. He and Jane argue with Jane realizing that Tom still loves Lynette and they break up. Tom goes to see Lynette but sees her hugging Lee and (not seeing who it is), thinks Lynette has moved on. He tells her he is filing but in a later talk, they realize how much they love each other and reconcile.
Katherine Mayfair comes back to Wisteria Lane, offering Lynette a job at her new food company. Lynette doesn't want it as she and Tom are together again but wants to prove herself. At first taken aback, Tom lets Lynette know he'll support her no matter what. It's revealed in the final moments that the two move to New York, Lynette becoming a successful businesswoman and eventually watching over six grandchildren.
In the finale, Julie gives birth to Porter's daughter, who is Lynette's granddaughter.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Finishing the Hat". David Grossman (director), Marc Cherry (writer). Desperate Housewives. ABC. Season 8, no. 23.
Jump up ^ "Mother of Desperate Housewives creator featured in season two extras". The Virginian Pilot. September 1, 2006. Retrieved 2009-09-27.
Jump up ^ Heather (May 23, 2006). "Alex Kingston slams skinniness of the Desperate Housewives". Fametastic. Archived from the original on January 27, 2010. Retrieved 2009-09-27.
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values: لينيت سكافو – Arabic

values: Lynette (Desperate Housewives) – Spanish

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