text:
U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state
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Minimum legal drinking age as of 1969 (two years before the 26th Amendment was passed in 1971):
Minimum age is 21
Minimum age is 20
Minimum age is 19 and 21
Minimum age is 19
Minimum age is 18 and 21
Minimum age is 18
Minimum legal drinking age as of 1975 (when almost all states had their lowest age limit):
Minimum age is 21
Minimum age is 20
Minimum age is 19 and 21; see below
Minimum age is 19
Minimum age is 18 and 21; see below
Minimum age is 18
show
Detail on dual age limits
Both age limits apply for following states:
Washington, D.C.: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
Illinois: The legal drinking age is 19 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
Kansas: The legal drinking age is 18 for 3.2% ABV beer, and 21 for beer stronger than 3.2% ABV, wine, and liquor.
Maryland: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
North Carolina: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
Oklahoma: The legal drinking age is 18 for 3.2% ABV beer, and 21 for beer stronger than 3.2% ABV, wine, and liquor.
South Carolina: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine and 21 for liquor.
South Dakota: The legal drinking age is 18 for 3.2% ABV beer, and 21 for beer stronger than 3.2% ABV, wine, and liquor.
Virginia: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
Minimum legal drinking age as of 1983 (one year before the Drinking Age Act of 1984 was passed):
Minimum age is 21
Minimum age is 20
Minimum age is 19 and 21
Minimum age is 19
Minimum age is 18 and 21
Minimum age is 18
The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time. This history is given in the table below. Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18", not "21"). In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. Many states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973.[1][2][3] Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.
From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities.[citation needed] In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10% of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age,[4] while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.[5]
State
Pre-Prohibition
(prior to 1919)
Post-Prohibition
(after 1933)
1970s / 26th Amendment
(adopted in 1971)
1980s /
Drinking Age Act of 1984
21st century
Alabama
Pre 1881:
None
1881:
21 (none with consent of parent)[6] 21 1975:
Lowered to 19[7] 1986:
Raised to 21[8] 21 (no one underage is allowed consumption Section 28-1)
Alaska
? 21[7] 1970:
Lowered to 19[9] 1984:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause (if born before January 1, 1965)[10][11] 21
Arizona
? 21[11] 1972:
Lowered to 19[12][13] 1985:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Arkansas
Pre 1925:
None[7]
1925:
21[7] 21 21[14] 21[8] 21
California
Pre 1891:
Regulated by municipality/county (common age was 16)[15][16][17]
1891:
18 (statewide)[18] 1933:
21[7] 21 21[8] 21 (except small amounts for religious ceremonies)
Colorado
None[11] 1945:
18: for beer
21: for wine and liquor[7] 18[19] Raised to 21 in 1987[8] 21
Connecticut
? 21[11] 1972:
Lowered to 18[20] 1982:
Raised to 19
1983:
Raised to 20
1985:
Raised to 21[21] 21 (exemptions: (1) a person over age eighteen who is an employee or permit holder under section 30-90a and who possesses alcoholic liquor in the course of such person's employment or business, (2) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor on the order of a practicing physician, or (3) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor while accompanied by a parent, guardian or spouse of the minor, who has attained the age of twenty-one. Nothing in this subsection shall be construed to burden a person's exercise of religion under section 3 of article first of the Constitution of the state in violation of subsection (a) of section 52-571b.[22]
Delaware
? 21[11] 1972:
Lowered to 20[13] 1984:
Raised to 21[8] 21
District of Columbia
? 18: for beer and wine[11]
21: for liquor[23][24] 18: for beer and wine[13][24]
21: for liquor 1986:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause.[25][26] 21
Florida
? 18[7] 1980:
19[27] 1985:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[27] 21[28]
Georgia
? 21[11] 1972:
Lowered to 18[12] 1984:
Raised to 19[14]
1985:
Raised to 20[14]
1986:
Raised to 21[14] 21
Hawaii
? 21[7] 1972:
Lowered to 18[13] 1986:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Idaho
? 20: for beer[29][30]
21: for wine and liquor[11][31] 1972:
Lowered to 19 (all)[13][32] 1987:
Raised to 21 in 1987 (Apr 11) with grandfather clause[8][33] 21
Illinois
1872:
Age of majority
(none with written consent of parent)[34] pre 1961: Age of majority 1961: Raised to 21[35] 1973:
Lowered to 19: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[36] 1980:
Raised to 21[37] 21
Indiana
? Post-1934:
21[7] 21[14] 21[8] 21
Iowa
? 21[7] 1972:
Lowered to 19 in 1972 (Jul 1)
1973:
Lowered to 18 in 1973 (Jul 1)
1978:
Raised to 19 in 1978 (Jul 1)[38] 1986:
Raised to 21 in 1986 (Jul 1) with grandfather clause.[14][38] 21
Kansas
? 1949:
18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV
21: for liquor[7] 18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV[14]
21: for beer and wine with 4% ABV or more[14]
21: for liquor[14][19] 1985:
Raised to 21[8] 21 (However, anyone under 21 may consume cereal malt beverages with parental supervision on their own property)
Kentucky
? 1938:
21[7] 21[14] 21[8] 21
Louisiana
? As of 1948:
18[13] 18[19] 1987:
Raised to 21 de jure in 1987,[8]
but de facto age was still 18 until 1995 due to a sale loophole.
1995:
De facto age raised to 21 in 1995 when loophole was closed.[39]
1996:
In 1996, briefly lowered by Louisiana Supreme Court to 18 until it reversed its decision, raising to 21 three months later.[40]
Other exceptions still remain.[41] 21 (Exceptions to state law include:[42]

For an established religious purpose;
When a person under twenty-one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty-one years of age or older;
For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution;
In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling;
The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty-one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)
Maine
? 21[7]
1969:
Lowered to 20 1972:
Lowered to 18[12]
1977:
Raised to 20[8][43] 1985:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Maryland
? 21[7] 1974:
Lowered to 18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[44][45] 1982:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[8][46] 21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)
Massachusetts
? 21[11] 1973:
Lowered to 18
1979:
Raised to 20 in 1979 (Apr 16)[47][48][49] Raised to 21 in 1985[8] 21
Michigan
? 21[7] 1972:
Lowered to 18 in 1972 (Jan 1)[50] 1978:
Raised to 19 in 1978 (Dec 3)[51][52]
1978:
Raised to 21 in 1978 (Dec 21), 18 days later.[8]
First state to raise age to 21 since it was lowered 21
Minnesota
? 21[11] 1973:
Lowered to 18 (June 1)
1976:
Raised to 19 (Sept 1)[53]
First state to raise age after lowering. 1986:
Raised to 21[54] 21
Mississippi
? 1966:
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[7]
(alcohol not legalized until 1966) 18[19] Raised to 21 in 1986[8] 21
Missouri
? 1945:
21[7] 21 21[8] 21
Montana
? 21[11] 1971:
Lowered to 19[55]
1973:
Lowered to 18[56][57]
1979:
Raised to 19 1987:
Raised to 21[8][58] 21
Nebraska
? 21[59]
1969:
Lowered to 20 1972:
Lowered to 19[59] 1980:
Raised to 20[14]
1985:
Raised to 21[14] 21
Nevada
? 1933:
21[7] 21 21[8] 21
New Hampshire
? 21[11] 1973:
Lowered to 18[60]
1979:
Raised to 20 1985:
Raised to 21[8][21] 21
New Jersey
Before 1880:
None
Post-1880:
18 (penalties only against businesses)[61][62][63] 21[citation needed] 1973:
Lowered to 18[12] 1980:
Raised to 19
1983:
Raised to 21[8][64] 21
New Mexico
? 1934:
21[7] 21[14] 21[8] 21
New York
21 18[65] 18 1982:
Raised to 19 in 1982 (Dec)
1985:
Raised to 21 in 1985 (Dec)[21][66][67] 21
North Carolina
? 18[11] 18: for beer and wine[19]
21: for liquor 1983:
19: for beer and wine
21: for liquor
1986:
Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26] 21
North Dakota
? 1936:
21[7] 21[14] 21[68] 21
Ohio
? 1935:
18: for 3.2% ABW beer
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[69] 18: for 3.2% ABW beer
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor 1982 (Aug. 19 to Oct. 1):
19: for 3.2% ABW beer[14]
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[14]
1982 (From Oct. 1):
19: beer
21: wine and liquor[70]
1988:
21[14] 21 (However, anyone can drink with parents or legal-age spouse)
Oklahoma
? Men:
21
Women:
18: 3.2% ABW beer
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[71] 1976:
Lowered to 18 (for 3.2% ABW beer) for both sexes in 1976 (Dec)[72]
Last state to lower the drinking age. 1983:
Raised to 21[11][73] 21
Oregon
? 1933:
21[7] 21 21[8] 21
Pennsylvania
? 1935:
21[7] 21 21[8][52] 21
Rhode Island
? 21[11] 1970:
Lowered to 18[12][74] 1980:
Raised to 19
1981:
Raised to 20
1984:
Raised to 21[21] 21
South Carolina
21[75] 1935:
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[7] 18: for beer and wine[19]
21: for liquor 1984:
19: for beer and wine[7]
21: for liquor
1986:
Raised to 21[8] 21
South Dakota
? 1934:
21 (all)
1939:
Lowered to 18: for 3.2% beer
Raised to 19: for 3.2% beer[76] 1972:
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[13] 1984:
19: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[8]
1988:
Raised to 21[58] 21
Tennessee
Pre 1881:
None
1881:
21[77] 21[7]
1964:
Lowered to 18[7] 1979:
Raised to 19 1984:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Texas
Pre 1909:
21
None (with written permission of parent or guardian)
Post 1909:
21[78][79] 21[7] 1973:
Lowered to 18[80] 1981:
Raised to 19[81]
1986:
Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26] 21
Utah
? 1935:
21[7] 21[14] 21[8] 21
Vermont
? 21[7] 1971:
Lowered to 18[82][83] 1986:
Raised to 21[21][83] 21
Virginia
? 21[84] 1974:
Lowered to 18: for beer and wine
(21: for liquor remained)[84] 1981:
Raised to 19 for off-premises consumption
1983:
Raised to 19 (all beer)
1985:
Raised to 21[84] 21
Washington
"Age of majority"
since 1877[85] 21[citation needed] 21 21[8] 21
West Virginia
? 18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[11] 1972:
Lowered to 18 (all)[86] 1983:
Raised to 19
(& 21 for non-residents)[8][43]
1986:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Wisconsin
1839–1866:
18: for wine and liquor
None: for beer
Post-1866:
21 (all)[87] 18: for beer
21: for wine and spirits
1957:
21: for residents of bordering states with age limit 21.[88]
1963:
Raised to 21 (off-premises beer sales, remained 18 for on-premises).[88] 1972:
Lowered to 18 (all) in 1972 (Mar)[88]
1977:
Border state restriction lifted.[88] 1984:
Raised to 19
1986:
Raised to 21 (September 1, 1986)[88] 21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)[citation needed]
Wyoming
? 21[7] 1973:
Lowered to 19[13] 1988:
Raised to 21 in 1988 (Jul 1)[89][90]
Last state to raise de jure drinking age to 21 21
American Samoa
? ? ? 21? 21[91]
Northern Mariana Islands
– – ? 21? 21[92]
Puerto Rico
? 18 18 Kept at 18
despite 10% highway funding
penalty under Drinking Age Act. 18[93]
Virgin Islands
? ? ? 18 18[94]
Guam
? 21? 18 18 Raised to 21 in 2010[5]
Additional notes[edit]
Contrary to popular belief, since the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, not all states specifically prohibit minors' and young adults' consumption of alcohol in private settings. That is because the federal law is concerned only with purchase and public possession, not private consumption, and contains several exceptions. As of January 1, 2007, 14 states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, 19 states do not specifically ban underage consumption outright, and 17 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws. Federal law explicitly provides for religious, medical, employment and private club possession exceptions; as of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws.[41]
In the 1960s the age for buying or drinking beer and wine in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) was 18; the age for hard liquor was 21.[23][24] Residents from Virginia and Maryland would often drive to D.C. to obtain alcohol. In Louisiana, the 1987 law raising the age from 18 to 21 was deliberately written solely to comply with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 to avoid losing highway funding, while still allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to drink as before. Not only did it still allow 18- to 20-year-olds to consume in private, it contained a major loophole allowing bars and stores to sell alcohol to 18- to 20-year-olds without penalty (despite purchase being technically illegal) which meant that the de facto age was still 18.[39] In other words, the drinking age was 21 only on paper. This loophole was closed in 1995, but in 1996 the Louisiana Supreme Court declared a drinking age of 21 unconstitutional.[39] That briefly lowered the de jure purchase age to 18, causing an uproar which prompted the Louisiana Supreme Court to reverse its decision, raising the age to 21 three months later.[40] Other exceptions still remain to this day, including drinking in a private residence,[41] and Louisiana still has some of the most liberal general alcohol laws of any state.
Some states were "dry" well before national Prohibition was enacted in 1919, in some cases since achieving statehood. Also, some states did not become fully "wet" until several years after the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 (e.g. Mississippi in 1966). Since 1966, all states and territories of the USA have been "wet", but dry counties and towns still exist in some states.
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Jump up ^ "The Brownsville daily herald., April 23, 1909, Image 4". chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. The Library of Congress. Retrieved February 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Lubbock avalanche., September 26, 1912, Image 9". chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. The Library of Congress. Retrieved February 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lower drinking age to 18? 2007. M.reporternews.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
Jump up ^ Winckler, Suzanne. "The Street of Vrrrrmmmms" (in "The Reporter"). Texas Monthly. Emmis Communications, January 1984. Volume 12, No. 1. ISSN 0148-7736. Start: p. 74. CITED: p. 76.
Jump up ^ "Drinking at Midd: past and present". Media.www.middleburycampus.com. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b "Health Care in Vermont Database and Timeline" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c "History of the Legal Drinking Age". Abc.state.va.us. 1966-07-01. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
Jump up ^ What was the first legal drinking age in Wash.?. Blog.seattlepi.com (2009-11-09). Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
Jump up ^ Legal Age Cut to 18, New York Times, June 10, 1972
Jump up ^ Wisconsin Brief 95-3, January 1995, "The Minimum Drinking Age in Wisconsin"
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Wisconsin Brief 95-3, January 1995" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2016-12-26. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ "State Raises Drinking Age". New York Times. March 12, 1988.
Jump up ^ Knudson, Thomas J. "Drinking age is fiery issue in West". New York Times, March 10, 1987.
Jump up ^ Fast Facts in Samoa at Frommer's. Frommers.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
Jump up ^ Marianas Visitors Authority-Trip Essentials. Mymarianas.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
Jump up ^ Vieques Travel Guide. Vieques Travel Guide. Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
Jump up ^ Virgin Islands Vacation Tips. Virginislandsmap.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
94. Citation for Wisconsin drinking law: https://www.revenue.wi.gov/Pages/FAQS/ise-atundrg.aspx
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Ground and neutral
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For uses of the term "grounding" or "earth" in electricity but not in the context of mains wiring, see ground (electricity).
As the neutral point of an electrical supply system is often connected to earth ground, ground and neutral are closely related. Under certain conditions, a conductor used to connect to a system neutral is also used for grounding (earthing) of equipment and structures. Current carried on a grounding conductor can result in objectionable or dangerous voltages appearing on equipment enclosures, so the installation of grounding conductors and neutral conductors is carefully defined in electrical regulations. Where a neutral conductor is used also to connect equipment enclosures to earth, care must be taken that the neutral conductor never rises to a high voltage with respect to local ground.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definitions
2 Circuitry
3 Grounding systems
4 Combining neutral with ground
4.1 Fixed appliances on three-wire circuits
4.2 Portable appliances
4.3 Technical equipment
5 Shared neutral
5.1 Three-phase circuits
5.2 Split phase
6 Grounding problems
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Definitions[edit]
Ground or earth in a mains (AC power) electrical wiring system is a conductor that provides a low-impedance path to the earth to prevent hazardous voltages from appearing on equipment (high voltage spikes). (The terms "ground" and "earth" are used synonymously here. "Ground" is more common in North American English, and "earth" is more common in British English.) Under normal conditions, a grounding conductor does not carry current. Grounding is an integral path for home wiring also because it causes circuit breakers to trip more quickly (ie, GFI), which is safer. Adding new grounds requires a qualified electrician with information particular to a power company distribution region.
Neutral is a circuit conductor that normally carries current back to the source. Neutral is usually connected to ground (earth) at the main electrical panel, street drop, or meter, and also at the final step-down transformer of the supply. That is for simple single panel installations, for multiple panels the situation is more complex.
In the electrical trade, the conductor of a 2-wire circuit connected to the supply neutral point and earth ground is referred to as the "neutral". [1]
In a polyphase (usually three-phase) AC system, the neutral conductor is intended to have similar voltages to each of the other circuit conductors, but may carry very little current if the phases are balanced.
The United States' National Electrical Code and Canadian electrical code only define neutral as the grounded, not the polyphase common connection. In North American use, the polyphase definition is used in less formal language but not in official specifications. In the United Kingdom the Institution of Engineering and Technology defines a neutral conductor as one connected to the supply system neutral point, which includes both these uses.
As per Indian CEAR "neutral conductor" means that conductor of a multi-wire system, the voltage of which is normally intermediate between the voltages of the other conductors of the system and shall also include return wire of the single phase system.
All neutral wires of the same earthed (grounded) electrical system should have the same electrical potential, because they are all connected through the system ground. Neutral conductors are usually insulated for the same voltage as the line conductors, with interesting exceptions.[2]
Circuitry[edit]
Neutral wires are usually connected at a neutral bus within panelboards or switchboards, and are "bonded" to earth ground at either the electrical service entrance, or at transformers within the system. For electrical installations with split-phase (three-wire single-phase service), the neutral point of the system is at the center-tap on the secondary side of the service transformer. For larger electrical installations, such as those with polyphase service, the neutral point is usually at the common connection on the secondary side of delta/wye connected transformers. Other arrangements of polyphase transformers may result in no neutral point, and no neutral conductors.
Grounding systems[edit]
Main article: Grounding system
The IEC standard (IEC 60364) codifies methods of installing neutral and ground conductors in a building, where these earthing systems are designated with letter symbols. The letter symbols are common in countries using IEC standards, but North American practices rarely refer to the IEC symbols. The differences are that the conductors may be separate over their entire run from equipment to earth ground, or may be combined over all or part of their length. Different systems are used to minimize the voltage difference between neutral and local earth ground. Current flowing in a grounding conductor will produce a voltage drop along the conductor, and grounding systems seek to ensure this voltage does not reach unsafe levels.
In the TN-S system, separate neutral and protective earth conductors are installed between the equipment and the source of supply (generator or electric utility transformer). Normal circuit currents flow only in the neutral, and the protective earth conductor bonds all equipment cases to earth to intercept any leakage current due to insulation failure. The neutral conductor is connected to earth at the building point of supply, but no common path to ground exists for circuit current and the protective conductor.
In the TN-C system, a common conductor provides both the neutral and protective grounding. The neutral conductor is connected to earth ground at the point of supply, and equipment cases are connected to the neutral. The danger exists that a broken neutral connection will allow all the equipment cases to rise to a dangerous voltage if any leakage or insulation fault exists in any equipment. This can be mitigated with special cables but the cost is then higher.
In the TN-C-S system, each piece of electrical equipment has both a protective ground connection to its case, and a neutral connection. These are all brought back to some common point in the building system, and a common connection is then made from that point back to the source of supply and to the earth.
In a TT system, no lengthy common protective ground conductor is used, instead each article of electrical equipment (or building distribution system) has its own connection to earth ground.
As per Indian CEAR , Rule 41, the grounding system to follow:
- Neutral conductor of a 3-phase, 4-wire system and the middle conductor of a 2- phase, 3-wire system to have minimum two separate and distinct earth connections with a minimum of two different earth electrodes to have the earth resistance to a satisfactory value.
- The earth electrodes to be inter-connected to reduce earth resistance.
- Neutral conductor shall also be earthed at one or more points along the distribution system or service line in addition to any connection at user end.
Combining neutral with ground[edit]
Stray voltages created in grounding (earthing) conductors by currents flowing in the supply utility neutral conductors can be troublesome. For example, special measures may be required in barns used for milking dairy cattle. Very small voltages, not usually perceptible to humans, may cause low milk yield, or even mastitis (inflammation of the udder).[3] So-called "tingle voltage filters" may be required in the electrical distribution system for a milking parlour.
Connecting the neutral to the equipment case provides some protection against faults, but may produce a dangerous voltage on the case if the neutral connection is broken.
Combined neutral and ground conductors are commonly used in electricity supply companies' wiring and occasionally for fixed wiring in buildings and for some specialist applications where there is little alternative, such as railways and trams. Since normal circuit currents in the neutral conductor can lead to objectionable or dangerous differences between local earth potential and the neutral, and to protect against neutral breakages, special precautions such as frequent rodding down to earth (multiple ground rod connections), use of cables where the combined neutral and earth completely surrounds the phase conductor(s), and thicker than normal equipotential bonding must be considered to ensure the system is safe.
Fixed appliances on three-wire circuits[edit]
In North America, the cases of some kitchen stoves (ranges, ovens), cook tops, clothes dryers and other specifically listed appliances were grounded through their neutral wires as a measure to conserve copper from copper cables during World War II. This practice was removed from the NEC in the 1996 edition, but existing installations (called "old work") may still allow the cases of such listed appliances to be connected to the neutral conductor for grounding.
This practice arose from the three-wire system used to supply both 120 volt and 240 volt loads. Because these listed appliances often have components that use either 120, or both 120 and 240 volts, there is often some current on the neutral wire. This differs from the protective grounding wire, which only carries current under fault conditions. Using the neutral conductor for grounding the equipment enclosure was considered safe since the devices were permanently wired to the supply and so the neutral was unlikely to be broken without also breaking both supply conductors. Also, the unbalanced current due to lamps and small motors in the appliances was small compared to the rating of the conductors and therefore unlikely to cause a large voltage drop in the neutral conductor.
Portable appliances[edit]
In North American and European practice, small portable equipment connected by a cord set is permitted under certain conditions to have merely two conductors in the attachment plug. A polarized plug can be used to maintain the identity of the neutral conductor into the appliance but neutral is never used as a chassis/case ground. The small cords to lamps, etc., often have one or more molded ridges or embedded strings to identify the neutral conductor, or may be identified by colour. Portable appliances never use the neutral conductor for case grounding, and often feature "double-insulated" construction.
In places where the design of the plug and socket cannot ensure that a system neutral conductor is connected to particular terminals of the device ("unpolarized" plugs), portable appliances must be designed on the assumption that either pole of each circuit may reach full positive voltage with respect to the other.
Technical equipment[edit]
In North American practice, equipment connected by a cord set must have three wires, if supplied exclusively by 240 volts, or must have four wires (including neutral and ground), if supplied by 120/240 volts.
There are special provisions in the NEC for so-called technical equipment, mainly professional grade audio and video equipment supplied by so-called "balanced" 120 volt circuits. The center tap of a transformer is connected to ground, and the equipment is supplied by two line wires each 60 volts to ground (and 120 volts between line conductors). The center tap is not distributed to the equipment and no neutral conductor is used. These cases generally use a grounding conductor which is separated from the safety grounding conductor specifically for the purposes of noise and "hum" reduction.
Another specialized distribution system was formerly specified in patient care areas of hospitals. An isolated power system was furnished, from a special isolation transformer, with the intention of minimizing any leakage current that could pass through equipment directly connected to a patient (for example, an electrocardiograph for monitoring the heart). The neutral of the circuit was not connected to ground. The leakage current was due to the distributed capacitance of the wiring and capacitance of the supply transformer. [4] Such distribution systems were monitored by permanently installed instruments to give an alarm when high leakage current was detected.
Shared neutral[edit]
A shared neutral is a connection in which a plurality of circuits use the same neutral connection. This is also known as a common neutral, and the circuits and neutral together are sometimes referred to as an Edison circuit.
Three-phase circuits[edit]
In a three-phase circuit, a neutral is shared between all three phases. Commonly the system neutral is connected to the star point on the feeding transformer. This is the reason that the secondary side of most three-phase distribution transformers is wye- or star-wound. Three-phase transformers and their associated neutrals are usually found in industrial distribution environments.
A system could be made entirely ungrounded. In this case a fault between one phase and ground would not cause any significant current. In fact, this is not a good scheme. Commonly the neutral is grounded (earthed) through a bond between the neutral bar and the earth bar. It is common on larger systems to monitor any current flowing through the neutral-to-earth link and use this as the basis for neutral fault protection.
The connection between neutral and earth allows any phase-to-earth fault to develop enough current flow to "trip" the circuit overcurrent protection device. In some jurisdictions, calculations are required to ensure the fault loop impedance is low enough so that fault current will trip the protection (In Australia, this is referred to in AS3000:2007 Fault loop impedance calculation). This may limit the length of a branch circuit.
In the case of two phases sharing one neutral, the worst-case current draw is one side has zero load and the other has full load, or when both sides have full load. The latter case results in 1 + 1@120deg = 1@60deg, i.e. the magnitude of the current in the neutral equals that of the other two wires.
In a three-phase linear circuit with three identical resistive or reactive loads, the neutral carries no current. The neutral carries current if the loads on each phase are not identical. In some jurisdictions, the neutral is allowed to be reduced in size if no unbalanced current flow is expected. If the neutral is smaller than the phase conductors, it can be overloaded if a large unbalanced load occurs.
The current drawn by non-linear loads, such as fluorescent & HID lighting and electronic equipment containing switching power supplies, often contains harmonics. Triplen harmonic currents (odd multiples of the third harmonic) are additive, resulting in more current in the shared neutral conductor than in any of the phase conductors. In the absolute worst case, the current in the shared neutral conductor can be triple that in each phase conductor. Some jurisdictions prohibit the use of shared neutral conductors when feeding single-phase loads from a three-phase source; others require that the neutral conductor be substantially larger than the phase conductors. It is good practice to use four-pole circuit breakers (as opposed to the standard three-pole) where the fourth pole is the neutral phase, and is hence protected against overcurrent on the neutral conductor.
Split phase[edit]
Main article: Split-phase electric power
In split-phase wiring, for example a duplex receptacle in a North American kitchen, devices may be connected with a cable that has three conductors, in addition to ground. The three conductors are usually coloured red, black, and white. The white serves as a common neutral, while the red and black each feed, separately, the top and bottom hot sides of the receptacle. Typically such receptacles are supplied from two circuit breakers in which the handles of two poles are tied together for a common trip. If two large appliances are used at once, current passes through both and the neutral only carries the difference in current. The advantage is that only three wires are required to serve these loads, instead of four. If one kitchen appliance overloads the circuit, the other side of the duplex receptacle will be shut off as well. This is called a multiwire branch circuit. Common trip is required when the connected load uses more than one phase simultaneously. The common trip prevents overloading of the shared neutral if one device draws more than rated current.
Grounding problems[edit]
A ground connection that is missing or of inadequate capacity may not provide the protective functions as intended during a fault in the connected equipment. Extra connections between ground and circuit neutral may result in circulating current in the ground path, stray current introduced in the earth or in a structure, and stray voltage[citation needed]. Extra ground connections on a neutral conductor may bypass the protection provided by a ground-fault circuit interrupter. Signal circuits that rely on a ground connection will not function or will have erratic function if the ground connection is missing.
See also[edit]
Appliance classes
Electrical bonding
Electrical wiring
Electrical wiring (UK)
Electrical wiring (United States)
Earthing arrangements
Ground (electricity)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Neutral Conductor" in Article 100 - Definitions, NFPA 70 National Electrical Code, 2011 Edition, International Electrical Code Series. The requirement to ground the neutral point begins at Article 250.4.
Jump up ^ For example, in North American practice an overhead service-entrance cable has two insulated conductors which are wrapped around and supported by the bare neutral conductor
Jump up ^ Thomas J. Divers, Simon Francis Peek (ed),Rebhun's diseases of dairy cattle, Elsevier Health Sciences, 2008, ISBN 1-4160-3137-5 pp. 389–390
Jump up ^ Leslie A. Geddes Handbook of Electrical Hazards and Accidents, CRC Press, 1995 ISBN 0849394317, pp. 90-91
Further reading[edit]
Rick Gilmour et al., editor, Canadian Electrical Code Part I, Nineteenth Edition, C22.1-02 Safety Standard for Electrical Installations, Canadian Standards Association, Toronto, Ontario Canada (2002) ISBN 1-55324-690-X
NFPA 70, National Electrical Code 2002, National Fire Protection Association, Inc., Quincy, Massachusetts USA, (2002). no ISBN
IEE Wiring Regulations Regulations for Electrical Installations Fifteenth Edition 1981, The Institution of Electrical Engineers, (1981) Hitchin, Herts. United Kingdom
Electrical Safety chapter from Lessons In Electric Circuits Vol 1 DC book and series.
EDISON CIRCUITS POSE SAFETY HAZARD
The Complete Guide To Home Wiring (link dead but multiple sources via Google search)
Advanced Home Wiring
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