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Spanish colonization of the Americas
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Flag of Spanish conquistadors with crown of Castile on a red flag, used by Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro and others
The Colonial expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions.
Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus and continuing for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands, half of South America, most of Central America and much of North America (including present day Mexico, Florida and the Southwestern and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States). It is estimated that during the colonial period (1492–1832), a total of 1.86 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era (1850–1950).
In the early 19th century, the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the emancipation of most Spanish colonies in the Americas, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, which were finally given up in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, together with Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific. Spain's loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Conquests
1.1 West Indies
1.2 Mexico
1.3 Peru
1.4 Río de la Plata and Paraguay
1.5 New Granada
2 Governing
2.1 Dominions
2.1.1 North
2.1.2 South
3 19th century
3.1 Demographic impact
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
6.1 Historiography
7 External links
Conquests[edit]
Iberian territory of Crown of Castile. .
Overseas north territory of Crown of Castile (New Spain and Philippines)
Overseas south territory of Crown of Castile (Perú, New Granada and Río de la Plata)
The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, they remained separate kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy.[1]
West Indies[edit]
Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories, and financed more of his trans-Atlantic journeys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), in what is present day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his second voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a high death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops and abandoning their Spanish-occupied villages. The first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, followed by the founding of Santa Cruz by Alonso de Ojeda in present-day Guajira peninsula. Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas,[2] in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa's foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién.[3]
Mexico[edit]
Main article: Spanish conquest of Mexico
For more details on this topic, see Spanish conquest of Yucatán and Spanish conquest of Guatemala.
Spanish Conquest of Mexico, meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma II
Map depicting Cortes' invasion route
The Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–21) which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than conquest of the Aztecs. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán, the Spanish conquest of Guatemala, the war of Mexico's west, and the Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish control over territory and indigenous populations.[4][5][6] But not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532.
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés. The victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city-states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the city-states' political hierarchy and social structure in place.
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico and northern Central America. When Hernán Cortés landed ashore at present day Veracruz and founded the Spanish city there on April 22, 1519, marks the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region. The assertion of royal control over the Kingdom of New Spain and the initial Spanish conquerors took over a decade, with importance of the region meriting the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established by Charles V in 1535 with the appointment of Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first viceroy.
Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833.
Peru[edit]
Main article: Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
Vasco Núñez de Balboa claiming possession of the South Sea (Pacific Ocean)
Map depicting the route of Pizarro from Panama to Cuzco
In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization.
The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war between the factions of the two brothers Emperor Atahualpa and Huáscar, and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated, such as the Huancas, Chachapoyas, and Cañaris. In the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542. The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572.
Río de la Plata and Paraguay[edit]
European explorers arrived in Río de la Plata in 1516. Their first Spanish settlement in this zone was the Fort of Sancti Spiritu established in 1527 next to the Paraná River. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony, was established in 1536 and in 1537 Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay). He dubbed the settlement "Santísima Trinidad" and its port became "Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires." The city came to be the head of the Governorate of the Río de la Plata and in 1776 elevated to be the capital of the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
New Granada[edit]
Main article: Spanish conquest of the Muisca
See also: Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations
Between 1537 and 1543, six[citation needed] Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confederation, and set up the New Kingdom of Granada (Spanish: Nuevo Reino de Granada). Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command.[7] It was governed by the president of the Audiencia of Bogotá, and comprised an area corresponding mainly to modern-day Colombia and parts of Venezuela. The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The crown established the audiencia in 1549. Ultimately, the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia.[8]
Governing[edit]
Main articles: Viceroyalty of New Spain, Viceroyalty of Peru, and Intendant § The Spanish Monarchy
Argentine Cabildo council
Spain's administration of its colonies in the Americas was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain 1535 (capital, México City), and the Viceroyalty of Peru 1542 (capital, Lima). In the 18th century the additional Viceroyalty of New Granada 1717 (capital, Bogotá), and Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1776 (capital, Buenos Aires) were established from portions of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
This evolved from the Council of the Indies and Viceroyalties into an Intendant system, raise more revenue and promote greater efficiency.
Dominions[edit]
Juan Ponce de León (Santervás de Campos, Valladolid, Spain). He was one of the first Europeans to arrive to the current United States because he led the first European expedition to Florida, which he named.
North[edit]
Viceroyalty of New Spain (1535–1821)
Las Californias
Nuevo Reino de León
Nuevo Santander
Nueva Vizcaya
Santa Fe de Nuevo México
Nueva Extremadura
Nueva Galicia
Captaincy General of the Philippines (administered by New Spain from 1565 to 1821, then after Mexican independence transferred to and directly administered by Madrid until 1898)
Captaincy General of Cuba (until 1898) – Included in this captaincy general until 1819 was La Florida, Spain's North American colonies in what is now the southeastern United States.
Captaincy General of Puerto Rico (until 1898)
Santo Domingo (last Spanish rule 1861–1865)
Captaincy General of Guatemala
South[edit]
Viceroyalty of New Granada (1717–1819)
Captaincy General of Venezuela
Viceroyalty of Perú (1542–1824)
Captaincy General of Chile (1541–1818)
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (1776–1814)
19th century[edit]
Main article: Spanish American wars of independence
Spanish colonialization in the Americas.
During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators") were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. They were predominantly criollos (Americas-born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country.
In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The first two were in present-day Bolivia at Sucre (May 25), and La Paz (July 16); and the third in present-day Ecuador at Quito (August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.
These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas.
In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the Spanish–American War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United States took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico continues to be a possession of the United States, now officially continues as a self-governing unincorporated territory.
Demographic impact[edit]
It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492 and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence.[9]
In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. Although population estimates vary, Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas, the "Defender of the Indians" estimated there were 6 million (6,000,000) Taíno and Arawak in the Caribbean at the time of Columbus's arrival in 1492.[citation needed]
The population of the Native Amerindian population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90% (reduced to 1–2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century.[citation needed] The overwhelming cause of decline in both Mexico and Peru was infectious diseases, although the brutality of the Encomienda also played a significant part in the population decline.
Of the history of the indigenous population of California, Sherburne F. Cook (1896–1974) was the most painstakingly careful researcher. From decades of research he made estimates for the pre-contact population and the history of demographic decline during the Spanish and post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indigenous Californian population at first contact, in 1769, was about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The vast majority of the decline happened after the Spanish period, during the Mexican and US periods of Californian history (1821–1910), with the most dramatic collapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the US period (1846–1910).[10][11][12]
See also[edit]
New Spain portal
Colombia portal
Argentina portal
Ecuador portal
Venezuela portal
Atlantic World
Historiography of Colonial Spanish America
Black Legend
Habsburg Spain
Inter caetera
List of largest empires
New Spain
Old Spanish Trail (trade route)
Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Smallpox Epidemics in the New World
Spanish conquest of Chiapas
Spanish conquest of El Salvador
Spanish conquest of Guatemala
Spanish conquest of Honduras
Spanish conquest of Petén
Spanish conquest of the Maya
Timeline of imperialism#Colonization of North America
Valladolid debate
Viceroyalty of Peru
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ida Altman, S.L. Cline, and Javier Pescador, The Early History of Greater Mexico, Pearson, 2003 pp. 35–36.
Jump up ^ [1] Sucre State Government: Cumaná in History (Spanish)
Jump up ^ Tibesar, A.S. (1957). "The Franciscan Province of the Holy Cross of Espanañola, 1505–1559". The Americas. 13 (4): 377–389. doi:10.2307/979442. JSTOR 979442.
Jump up ^ Robert S. Chamberlain, The Conquest and Colonization of Yucatan. Washington DC: Carnegie Institution.
Jump up ^ Ida Altman, The War for Mexico's West. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2010.
Jump up ^ Philip W. Powell, Soldiers, Indians, and Silver: North America's Last Frontier War. Tempe: Center for Latin America Studies, Arizona State University 1975. First published by University of California Press 1952.
Jump up ^ Clements Markham, The Conquest of New Granada (1912) online
Jump up ^ Avellaneda Navas, José Ignacio. The Conquerors of the New Kingdom of Granada (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995) ISBN 978-0-8263-1612-7
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=lvvynCzrJOwC&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64&dq=emigraci%C3%B3n+espa%C3%B1ola+a+las+indias+cifras&source=bl&ots=WIWVcSlOdq&sig=4XmK7Gkv36L6qQ4jItqp7a553dI&hl=es&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwinzqqfsrLPAhWKAsAKHXbSBf0Q6AEINzAE#v=onepage&q=emigraci%C3%B3n%20espa%C3%B1ola%20a%20las%20indias%20cifras&f=false
Jump up ^ Baumhoff, Martin A. 1963. Ecological Determinants of Aboriginal California Populations. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 49:155–236.
Jump up ^ Powers, Stephen. 1875. "California Indian Characteristics". Overland Monthly 14:297–309. on-line
Jump up ^ Cook's judgement on the effects of U.S rule upon the native Californians is harsh: "The first (factor) was the food supply... The second factor was disease. ...A third factor, which strongly intensified the effect of the other two, was the social and physical disruption visited upon the Indian. He was driven from his home by the thousands, starved, beaten, raped, and murdered with impunity. He was not only given no assistance in the struggle against foreign diseases, but was prevented from adopting even the most elementary measures to secure his food, clothing, and shelter. The utter devastation caused by the white man was literally incredible, and not until the population figures are examined does the extent of the havoc become evident."Cook, Sherburne F. 1976b. The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970. University of California Press, Berkeley|p. 200
Further reading[edit]
Brading, D. A., The First America: the Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
Clark, Larry R. Spanish Attempts to Colonize Southeast North America: 1513–1587 (McFarland & Company, 2010) ISBN 978-0-7864-5909-4
Elliott, J. H. Empires of the Atlantic World: Britain and Spain in America, 1492–1830 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007)
Hanke, Lewis. The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1965).
Haring, Clarence H. The Spanish Empire in America (London: Oxford University Press, 1947)
Kamen, Henry. Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492–1763 (HarperCollins, 2004)
Merriman, Roger Bigelow. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New (Vol. 1. London: Macmillan, 1918)
Portuondo, María M. Secret Science: Spanish Cosmography and the New World (Chicago: Chicago UP, 2009).
Restall, Matthew and Felipe Fernández-Armesto. The Conquistadors: A Very Short Introduction (2012) excerpt and text search
Thomas, Hugh. Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish Empire, from Columbus to Magellan (2005)
Weber, David J. The Spanish Frontier in North America (Yale University Press, 1992)
Historiography[edit]
Alejandro Cañeque. "The Political and Institutional History of Colonial Spanish America" History Compass (April 2013) 114 pp 280–291, DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12043
Weber, David J. "John Francis Bannon and the Historiography of the Spanish Borderlands: Retrospect and Prospect." Journal of the Southwest (1987): 331–363.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Spanish colonization of the Americas
Spanish Exploration and Conquest of North America
Spain in America (Edward Gaylord Bourne, 1904) 'Spain in America'
The Spanish Borderlands (Herbert E. Bolton, 1921) 'The Spanish Borderlands'
Indigenous Puerto Rico DNA evidence upsets established history
The short film Spanish Empire in the New World (1992) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
“The Political Force of Images,” Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520-1820.
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Land Rover Discovery Sport
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about compact SUV. For the mid-size SUV, see Land Rover Discovery.
Land Rover Discovery Sport
Overview
Manufacturer
Jaguar Land Rover
Production
2014–present
Assembly
Halewood Body & Assembly, Liverpool, England
Changsu, China
Itatiaia, Brazil
Designer
Gerry McGovern
Body and chassis
Class
Subcompact luxury extended length
Body style
5-door SUV
Layout
Transverse front-engine, front-wheel-drive or four-wheel-drive
Platform
Jaguar Land Rover D8[1]
Related
Range Rover Evoque
Jaguar E-Pace
Powertrain
Engine
2015MY
2.0 L EcoBoost I-4 (t/c petrol)
2.2 L Duratorq I-4 (t/c diesel)
2016MY
2.0 L Ingenium I-4 (t/c petrol)
2.0 L Ingenium I-4 (t/c diesel)
Transmission
6–speed Getrag M66EH50 manual
9–speed ZF 9-HP automatic
Dimensions
Wheelbase
2,741 mm (107.9 in)[2]
Length
4,590 mm (180.7 in)[2]
Width
2,069 mm (81.5 in)
wing mirrors folded[2]
Height
1,724 mm (67.9 in)[2]
Kerb weight
1,744–1,839 kg (3,845–4,054 lb)[3]
Chronology
Predecessor
Land Rover Freelander
The Land Rover Discovery Sport (codename L550) is a high end off-road, subcompact luxury SUV produced by British automotive company Jaguar Land Rover under their Land Rover marque.[4] It replaces the Land Rover Freelander in a revised Land Rover range of vehicles, with Discovery joining Range Rover as a sub-brand.[5][6]
The Discovery Sport went on sale during September 2014, with first deliveries in early 2015.[6] The new Discovery sub-brand, to be focused on leisure vehicles, will feature two models initially, the compact Discovery Sport and the larger Discovery (sold as the LR4 in North America).[4][6]
The Discovery Sport is based on the Land Rover LR-MS platform, customised for off-road applications, and is powered by a range of four cylinder petrol and diesel engines.[6][7] The Discovery Sport is available in five and seven seat layouts.
Contents
1 Conception
2 Exterior
3 Chassis
4 Engines
5 Transmission
6 Interior
7 Production
8 Worldwide Sales
9 References
10 External links
Conception[edit]
The Discovery Sport represents the third generation of compact SUV produced by Land Rover and replaced the Freelander. Although the Freelander model range had been a successful way to enable Land Rover to move into the medium SUV market, the company felt that the Freelander brand was tainted with memories of unreliability, and that the Discovery brand was more prestigious.[8][9]
The first generation, the Freelander, was introduced by Land Rover in 1997 following a study that revealed market demand for an SUV smaller than the Discovery and Range Rover models. The original Freelander was developed during the period when Land Rover formed part of the Rover Group, and used engines, transmissions and other components from other Rover Group and BMW models, including the K-series petrol engines and L-Series diesel engines, and a floorpan based on that of the Austin Maestro. The BMW M47 diesel engine replaced the L-Series diesel engine in 2001, following its adaptation to suit transverse applications and off-road use.[10]
The Freelander 2, sold as the LR2 in North America, was introduced in 2006 during Ford's ownership of Land Rover.[11] The second generation Freelander was built on the Ford EUCD platform, using a Ford Duratorq four cylinder diesel engine, and initially the Volvo B6324S six cylinder petrol engine.[11] The six cylinder petrol engine was replaced for the 2013 model year by a more economical Ford EcoBoost four cylinder 2.0-litre turbocharged petrol engine. The Ford petrol and diesel four cylinder engines were carried over for the Discovery Sport's first model year.
The future design direction of the Discovery sub-brand was initially previewed in the form of the Land Rover Discovery Vision concept, shown at the 2014 New York International Auto Show, and it was during the show that Gerry McGovern announced the Land Rover Discovery Sport would be the first new model in the enlarged Discovery family. The sub-brand will be used in the same way as Range Rover, but will be used on leisure and family orientated models, with Range Rover models focusing on the luxury market segment.[6]
The Discovery Sport shares several design cues with the larger Discovery Vision concept, though the concept vehicle is closer in size to the current Discovery 4 model.[5]
Exterior[edit]
Land Rover Discovery Sport SE Tech wagon (UK)
The Discovery Sport was styled by Gerry McGovern, who was responsible for the design of the original Freelander model.[12] McGovern left Land Rover for Ford in 1999, before returning as Director of Advanced Design in 2004.[12] He was promoted to Design Director when Geoff Upex retired in 2006, and has been responsible for design of all three current Range Rover models. His predecessor, Upex, was responsible for the Freelander 2 design.[11]
The Discovery Sport features a steel monocoque, the bonnet, wings, roof and tailgate are made from aluminium and a panoramic glass sunroof is available either as standard or as an optional extra depending on model variant.[6][9] A powered tailgate can also be specified as an option, featuring remote control operation.[2]
In certain markets, the bonnet is fitted with an airbag to improve pedestrian survivability in the event of a collision. The airbag is mounted in a panel at the trailing edge of the bonnet panel and protects a pedestrian's head from striking the base of the windscreen.[9]
Chassis[edit]
The Discovery Sport is of unibody construction, unlike the larger full size Discovery model which features a traditional body-on-frame.[9] The platform used for the Discovery Sport is the Land Rover LR-MS platform, shared with the Range Rover Evoque and derived from the Ford EUCD platform, but with 90% of components redesigned from scratch to meet Land Rover's specific demands, primarily related to off-road use.[6][13]
The Discovery Sport includes further changes to the platform in comparison with the Evoque, with a new compact multi-link suspension design to permit the folding rear seats and spare wheel well in the boot space, without requiring an unduly high and impractical load floor.[5][6][9] The front suspension is a MacPherson strut design carried over from the Range Rover Evoque largely unchanged, and features steel lower and aluminium upper control arms.[5][6][9]
Off-road performance remains broadly similar to the Freelander 2 model, ground clearance is 212 millimetres (8.3 in), the same as the Freelander 2 and wading depth is 600 millimetres (2.0 ft), an improvement of 100 millimetres (3.9 in).[6][9] The approach angle for the Discovery Sport is 25° and the ramp angle is 21°, reductions of 6° and 2° respectively, when compared to the Freelander 2. The departure angle remains unchanged at 31°. The Discovery Sport features removable components on the lower sections of the front bumper which improves the approach angle.[9]
The braking system comprises disc brakes all round, with 325 millimetres (12.8 in) discs at the front and 300 millimetres (12 in) at the rear, the brakes are servo assisted and an anti-lock braking system (ABS) is fitted.[9] The braking system also features an emergency brake force assistance system to reduce stopping distances in an emergency, stability aides, and an autonomous emergency braking system.[6] The Discovery Sport, when tested by Euro NCAP in December 2014, was awarded a five star safety rating, and based on its score, was ranked as the safest vehicle in its class, the Small Off-Road class.[14]
Electric power steering is fitted, with 2.43 turns lock to lock and a turning circle of 11.86 metres (38.9 ft).[9] The electric power steering system allows the Discovery Sport to feature an automatic parking system.[6]
The Discovery Sport will initially be sold with alloy wheels ranging from 18 inches (460 mm) to 20 inches (510 mm) in diameter. Various emergency spare wheels options are available depending on vehicle configuration: a full-size spare wheel mounted internally under the floor of the trunk,[9] or if the 5+2 seating option is fitted it will be a 'space-saver' spare wheel mounted on the underside of the car, directly under the boot. It is not possible to have a factory-fitted tow bar with a spare wheel on 5+2 seat vehicles as they mount in the same place under the vehicle, so a tyre repair system of sealant and a compressor is supplied instead.
Engines[edit]
Jaguar Land Rover Ingenium engine
The Discovery Sport was initially powered by the same engine range that features in the outgoing Freelander 2 model for the first model year, the Ford EcoBoost four cylinder 2.0-litre turbocharged petrol engine producing 240 PS (180 kW; 240 hp) (the only engine option for North America) and the Ford Duratorq four cylinder 2.2-litre turbocharged diesel engine, producing either 150 PS (110 kW; 150 hp) or 190 PS (140 kW; 190 hp).[2][3][5][9]
The engines sourced from Ford were replaced by engines from Jaguar Land Rover's new Ingenium engine line from late 2015. The Ingenium family is a range of modular four cylinder turbocharged engines of 2.0-litre capacity, built around individual 500cc cylinders.[5][9][15] The family is produced in both petrol and diesel variants, and could also be produced in 3, 5 and 6 cylinder options in future, depending on demand and requirements.[15] The range was designed from the outset to accommodate different hybrid power systems, and it is expected that there will be a plug-in hybrid variant.[5][9][15]
The Ingenium engine range can be configured to deliver different power outputs, and the most fuel efficient Discovery Sport eD4 model is powered by a 150 PS (110 kW; 150 hp) 2.0-litre four cylinder turbocharged diesel engine in a front wheel drive only configuration.[6] This model is planned to have CO2 emissions of 119 g/km and fuel economy of up to 24.2 km/L (68 mpg‑imp; 57 mpg‑US).[5][6][9]
The engines in the Discovery Sport are mounted transversely, which creates additional interior space.[5]
Transmission[edit]
ZF 9-HP48 sectioned gearbox
The Discovery Sport is manufactured with either a 9–speed ZF 9-HP automatic gearbox or a 6–speed Getrag M66EH50 manual gearbox, both of which are also available on the Range Rover Evoque.[2][5][9][16]
Two different all-wheel drive systems are available. The standard system is the Haldex Traction fifth generation system from BorgWarner. Optional is the new Land Rover Active Driveline system, which is manufactured by GKN Driveline and reduces parasitic load by 75% when compared with the Haldex system in an effort to increase economy and reduce CO2 emissions.[9][17][18][19] The Active Driveline system works by disconnecting all of the major all wheel drive components from the gearbox, rather than at the central coupling. The system also features torque vectoring to direct power to individual wheels.[17][18][19]
Neither system has a low range transfer box, although the ZF 9-HP features a special very low ratio first gear which is used only when the vehicle is off-road or otherwise needed. For on-road use, the vehicle will normally start in second gear.[9]
The Discovery Sport will be available in a two-wheel drive version, in which only the front wheels are driven. The Terrain Response System, which configures the vehicle for off-road use, is deleted.[9] This version will be the most fuel efficient and least polluting model in the range, and together with the more fuel efficient Jaguar XE models, will assist Jaguar Land Rover in meeting European Union emissions directives.
Interior[edit]
Interior
Discovery Sport showing seven seats
The interior of the Discovery Sport is available in a seven-seat (referred to as five plus two) configuration, with the front row featuring two seats and three seats on the second row.[6][9] The second row seats slide and recline, and fold in a 60:40 configuration, folding forward to allow access to a third row of two seats where fitted.[5][6] The third row of seats are not intended for full-time usage, and are described by Land Rover as being suitable for children up to the age of 15 and occasional adult use.[5][9] They fold flat into the floor of the trunk when not in use. Isofix mounting points for child safety seats are fitted as standard.[2]
The central console features an 8 inches (20 cm) touch screen allowing access to in car entertainment, satellite navigation and vehicle settings.[5][6][9] The system, shared with the Jaguar XE, allows smartphone connectivity and some models will allow the owner to control the vehicle remotely, pre-heating the interior or unlocking the car using a smartphone application.
Production[edit]
The Discovery Sport is manufactured at the Jaguar Land Rover Halewood Body & Assembly facility, in Halewood, Liverpool, United Kingdom, alongside the Range Rover Evoque.[9]
Engines supplied by Ford are manufactured at two sites - the Duratorq diesel engine is manufactured at the Ford Dagenham plant in the United Kingdom, the Ecoboost petrol engine is manufactured at the Ford Valencia Plant in Spain.[20][21] The Jaguar Land Rover Ingenium engines, which will replace the Ford sourced engines later in 2015, will be manufactured at Jaguar Land Rover's Engine Manufacturing Centre in Wolverhampton, United Kingdom.[15]
Transmissions for the Discovery Sport will be manufactured by ZF at their Gray Court, South Carolina facility, and by Getrag Ford Transmissions at their Cologne, Germany plant.[22] Four wheel drive components are manufactured by Haldex in Landskrona, Sweden or by GKN in Köping, Sweden and Birmingham, United Kingdom.[17]
Worldwide Sales[edit]
In 2016 it became the best selling Land Rover model.
Year
Sales
2014 83
2015 69,501
2016 122,460
Total 192,044
[23]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Siu, Jason. "Evoque, Discovery Sport Performance Models Possible » AutoGuide.com News". Autoguide.com. Retrieved 2017-10-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Land Rover Discovery Sport". Land Rover. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Land Rover Discovery Sport" (PDF). Land Rover USA. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Duff, Mike (3 September 2014). "2015 Land Rover Discovery Sport". Car and Driver. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Dobie, Stephen (3 September 2014). "Meet the Land Rover Discovery Sport". Top Gear. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Holder, Jim (3 September 2014). "2015 Land Rover Discovery Sport revealed". What Car?. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Land Rover Discovery Sport debuts at New Mexico spaceport". Autoweek. 3 September 2014. Retrieved 3 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Land Rover Announces Discovery Sport L550". Whitley, Coventry, UK. 16 April 2014. Retrieved 18 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w "New Discovery Sport: The most capable, versatile premium compact SUV" (Press release). Land Rover. 3 September 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Taylor, James. "The M47R Diesel Engine". Rover 75 and MG ZT: The Complete Story.
^ Jump up to: a b c Chilton, Chris (27 October 2006). "Land Rover Freelander 2.2 TD4 (2006)". Car. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "McGovern heads Land Rover design studio". Autocar. 2004. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Bickerstaffe, Simon (11 May 2011). "Range Rover Evoque". European Automotive Engineers Cooperation (EAEC). Retrieved 31 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Best in Class Cars of 2014". Euro NCAP. December 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Jaguar Land Rover Powers Up New Ingenium Engine Family" (Press release). Jaguar Land Rover. 9 July 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Range Rover Evoque - Vehicle Specifications and Pricing". Land Rover. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "GKN Driveline helps the 2014 Range Rover Evoque achieve greater agility with superior fuel economy" (Press release). GKN. 3 September 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "FRANKFURT MOTOR SHOW: Tech leap for Range Rover Evoque". motoring.com.au. 10 September 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Bickerstaff, Simon (24 August 2013). "Land Rover introduces on-demand all-wheel drive". Automotive Engineer. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "United Kingdom:Dagenham Engine Plant". Ford. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Spain:Valencia Engine Plant". Ford. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "NEW WORLD NOVELTY". ZF Friedrichshafen. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.tatamotors.com/investors/jlr-volumes.php
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Land Rover Discovery Sport.
Land Rover UK Discovery Sport
Land Rover USA Discovery Sport
Land Rover Australia Discovery Sport
Land Rover MENA Discovery Sport
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Big hair
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Dolly Parton in 1983.
Big hair is a hairstyle that emphasizes large volume or largely styled hair, especially when those styles make the hair occupy a large amount of space above and around the head. The label "big hair" for such styles originated in the late 1970s, when these styles were beginning a period of popularity. Similar styles have become fashionable at various periods in history.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Techniques
3 Naturally voluminous hair
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Tom Bailey of the Thompson Twins, 1986
Actresses like Raquel Welch, Brigitte Bardot and Jane Fonda became big-haired icons in the early sixties through seventies.[2][3][4] Women's hairstyles labelled as "big hair" became fashionable during this period, with a poster of actress Farrah Fawcett becoming an iconic example.[5] The fashion persisted with certain regional subcultures in the southern United States, and the styles are sometimes also associated with female country music performers.[6] It is also associated with the exaggerated stereotypical femininity associated with drag queens and similar gender performers.[7]
For both genders, big hair became popular in the 1980s. The term is also used in the punk, glam, goth and alternative cultures and is particularly associated with fashion of the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s,[8] or inspired by the period.[9] From these origins, big hair became a feature of a number of Japanese street and alternative fashions, including Harajuku and ganguro.[10] In the mid-1980s, rising pop star Madonna also had big hair when posing for Time Magazine photographed by Francesco Scavullo. Soon, many women emulated her look, making her one of the most iconic celebrities in 1980s fashion.[11][12]
Techniques[edit]
Depending on the specific style, hairstyles in the big hair categories may require a number of styling, cutting, or treatment techniques. Styling of punk and alternative big hair styles often requires backcombing (teasing) and the liberal application of styling aids such as hair spray and hair gel, often in combination with the use of hair dryers. Crimping irons, perms, hair rollers, or other techniques may also be required.[13]
Naturally voluminous hair[edit]
Singer Annie Khalid
Many people of various ethnicities throughout the world have naturally voluminous hair. For these people, "big hair" is not a deliberate fashion statement requiring any particular technique to achieve, but rather the default state of their hair. Some 60 percent of the world's population has naturally curly hair, which tends to be more voluminous than straight hair.[14]
Big hair is commonly seen as artificial or trendy by white people, of whom only 15 percent have curly hair.[15] This has often led to misunderstandings and even discrimination based on hair texture. In 2013, for example, 12-year-old Vanessa VanDyke was threatened with expulsion for wearing her hair in its natural state. School officials claimed her voluminous hair was a "distraction."[16] In some Asian communities where the majority of people have straight hair, voluminous curly or afro-textured hair may also be seen as an oddity.[17][18]
Big Hair, Don't Care, a children's book by Crystal Swain-Bates and Megan Bair, was published by Goldest Karat Publishing in 2013. The book is designed to improve self-esteem and confidence among children with naturally voluminous hair.[19]
See also[edit]
Afro
Beehive (hairstyle)
Natural hair movement
Frizz
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Big hair", entry in Merriam-Webster Online, accessed March 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Beauty Launchpad. (2013, November 21). Hair Through History: 9 Hairstyles that Defined the 1960's. Retrieved February 22, 2017, from [1]
Jump up ^ Boldrini, Giovanna. 7 Big-Haired Beauties Of The 60s and 70s Will Make You Yearn For The Past!! Retrieved March 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Oliver, Dana. (2013). 1960s Hair Icons Who Taught Us Everything About Big Hair. The Huffington Post. Retrieved March 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Innes-Smith, below
Jump up ^ Skip Hollandsworth, "Hooray for Big Hair", Texas Monthly, December 1992, pp. 122 et. seq.
Jump up ^ "....tits, big hair, lots of make-up and a dick", Kate Bornstein, interview by Shannon Bell, in "Kate Bornstein: A Transgender Transsexual Postmodern Tiresias", Mental Backup p.3.
Jump up ^ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/12/11/90s-hair-photos_n_4418268.html
Jump up ^ James Innes-Smith, Big Hair (Bloomsbury USA, 2003; ISBN 1-58234-449-3)
Jump up ^ Tiffany Godoy and Ivan Vartanian, Style Deficit Disorder: Harajuku Street Fashion - Tokyo (Chronicle Books, 2007; ISBN 0-8118-5796-4)
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ [3]
Jump up ^ Innes-Smith, above
Jump up ^ "The Curly Hair Gene: Fact or Fiction?". Naturally Curly.
Jump up ^ "Genes and Hair Curl". GB HealthWatch.
Jump up ^ "Florida school threatens to expel student over 'natural hair'". MSNBC. November 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Sintumuang, Kevin (November 12, 2006). "The Curly Cue". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ "Social Experiment: The Superficiality of the Chinese Culture". Chocolate Chick in China: The Adventures of an English Teacher in China. April 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Swain-Bates, Crystal; Bair, Megan (2013). Big Hair, Don't Care. Goldest Karat Publishing. ISBN 9781939509109.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Big hair.
1960s bouffant hairstyles
Infographics explaining hair facts - http://www.architeqtsalon.com/blog/funhairfacts
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Big_hair&oldid=801590007"
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text:
Indian national calendar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Mohar of Gorkha king Prithvi Narayan Shah dated Saka era 1685 (AD 1763)
The Indian national calendar, sometimes called the Shalivahana Shaka calendar. It is used, alongside the Gregorian calendar, by The Gazette of India, in news broadcasts by All India Radio and in calendars and communications issued by the Government of India.[1] The Saka calendar is also used in Java and Bali among Indonesian Hindus. Nyepi, the "Day of Silence", is a celebration of the Saka new year in Bali. Nepal's Nepal Sambat evolved from the Saka calendar. Prior to colonization, the Philippines used to apply the Saka calendar as well as suggested by the Laguna Copperplate Inscription.
The term may also ambiguously refer to the Hindu calendar; the Shalivahana era is also commonly used by other calendars.
The historic Shalivahana era calendar is still widely used. It has years that are solar
Contents
1 Calendar structure
2 Adoption
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Calendar structure[edit]
The calendar months follow the signs of the tropical zodiac rather than the sidereal zodiac normally used with the Hindu calendar.
#
Month (Sanskrit)
Length
Start date (Gregorian)
Tropical zodiac
Tropical zodiac (Sanskrit)
1 Chaitra 30/31 March 22/21 Aries Meṣa
2 Vaishākha 31 April 21 Taurus Vṛṣabha
3 Jyēshtha 31 May 22 Gemini Mithuna
4 Āshādha 31 June 22 Cancer Karkata
5 Shrāvana 31 July 23 Leo simha
6 Bhaadra 31 August 23 Virgo Kanyā
7 Āshwin 30 September 23 Libra Tulā
8 Kārtika 30 October 23 Scorpio Vṛścika
9 Agrahayana 30 November 22 Sagitarius Dhanur
10 Pausha 30 December 22 Capricorn Makara
11 Māgha 30 January 21 Aquarius Kumbha
12 Phalguna 30 February 20 Pisces Mīna
Chaitra has 30 days and starts on March 22, except in leap years, when it has 31 days and starts on March 21. The months in the first half of the year all have 31 days, to take into account the slower movement of the sun across the ecliptic at this time.
The names of the months are derived from older, Hindu lunisolar calendars, so variations in spelling exist, and there is a possible source of confusion as to what calendar a date belongs to.
Years are counted in the Saka era, which starts its year 0 in the year 78 of the Common Era. To determine leap years, add 78 to the Saka year – if the result is a leap year in the Gregorian calendar, then the Saka year is a leap year as well. Its structure is just like the Persian calendar.
Adoption[edit]
Senior Indian Astrophysicist Meghnad Saha was the head of the Calendar Reform Committee under the aegis of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Other members of the Committee were: A. C. Banerjee, K. K. Daftari, J. S. Karandikar, Gorakh Prasad, R. V. Vaidya and N. C. Lahiri. It was Saha's effort, which led to the formation of the Committee. The task before the Committee was to prepare an accurate calendar based on scientific study, which could be adopted uniformly throughout India. It was a mammoth task. The Committee had to undertake a detailed study of different calendars prevalent in different parts of the country. There were thirty different calendars. The task was further complicated by the fact that religion and local sentiments were integral to those calendars. India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, in his preface to the Report of the Committee, published in 1955, wrote: “They (different calendars) represent past political divisions in the country ... . Now that we have attained Independence, it is obviously desirable that there should be a certain uniformity in the calendar for our civic, social, and other purposes, and this should be done on a scientific approach to this problem.” [2]
Usage started officially at 1 Chaitra 1879, Saka Era, or 22 March 1957. However, government officials seem to largely ignore the New Year's Day of this calendar in favour of the religious calendar.[3]
See also[edit]
Hindu calendar
Vikram Samvat
History of calendars
Saka era
Bengali calendar, a related Indic calendar
Persian calendar
Indian New Year's days
Bisuddhasiddhanta Panjika
Ritu (Indian season)
Kollam era the Malayalam calendar
Tamil calendar
List of calendars
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Government Holiday Calendar". Govt. of India Official website.
Jump up ^ Meghnad Saha Archived 2015-02-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Hindu" New Year's Day and related issues
Report of the Calendar Reform Committee (New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1955) – online link.
Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History by E.G. Richards (ISBN 978-0-19-286205-1), 1998, pp. 184–185.
External links[edit]
Calendars and their History (by L.E. Doggett)
Indian Calendars (by Leow Choon Lian, pdf, 1.22mb)
Positional astronomy in India
Indian National Calendar abstract
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