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List of goaltenders who have scored a goal in an NHL game
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This article is about ice hockey goaltenders who have scored a goal in an NHL game. For the similar feat in association football, see List of goalscoring goalkeepers.
Martin Brodeur is the only goaltender to be credited with three goals, two goals in the regular season and another one in the playoffs.
After a seven-year lull, Chris Osgood was the first goaltender to score a goal since Ron Hextall did so in the 1989 playoffs.
Jose Theodore, then playing for the Montreal Canadiens, scored a goal and shutout in a 3–0 game against the New York Islanders.
Evgeni Nabokov was the first non-North American goaltender to score a goal.
Chris Mason was credited with a goal in 2006.
Cam Ward, pictured here with Frantisek Kaberle in 2008, was credited with a goal in 2011.
Eleven goaltenders have scored a total of fourteen goals in National Hockey League (NHL) games. A goalkeeper can score by either shooting the puck into the net, or being awarded the goal as the last player on his team to touch the puck when an opponent scored an own goal. A goal scored by shooting the puck is particularly challenging as the goaltender has to aim for a six-foot-wide net that is close to 180 feet away, while avoiding opposing defencemen; in the case of own goals, the combined circumstance of the own goal itself in addition to the goaltender being the last player to touch the puck makes it a very rare occurrence. Of the fourteen goals, seven were scored by shooting the puck and seven were the result of own goals.
Goaltenders have participated in the offence, albeit in a limited way, since the earliest days of the sport. Before the creation of the NHL in 1917, there were some instances recorded of goaltenders rushing down the ice to participate in the play, occasionally scoring a goal. This practice has since been outlawed (goalies are not allowed to cross the centre red line to play the puck) after the Toronto Maple Leafs' Gary Smith was injured on such a rush in the 1966–67 NHL season. During the history of the league, there had been some near-misses by goaltenders, including attempts by Chuck Rayner by aiming at the empty net, or joining the attack. In 1977, Rogatien Vachon briefly became the first goaltender to score a goal after being credited following an own goal by the opponent, before it was given instead to a teammate by later video review.
Billy Smith of the New York Islanders became the first goaltender to score an NHL goal on November 28, 1979, when he was given credit following an own goal. Ron Hextall of the Philadelphia Flyers became the second goalkeeper to score, and the first to score by taking a shot. Martin Brodeur has scored the most NHL goals by a goaltender, with two in the regular season and one in the playoffs. The most recent goal credited to a goaltender was awarded to Mike Smith of the Phoenix Coyotes on October 19, 2013, scored via a shot on goal.
Contents
[hide]
1 Technique
2 History
3 Scorers
4 See also
5 Bibliography
6 References
Technique[edit]
Under modern rules, the only realistic chance for the goaltender to score exists when the opposing goaltender is pulled for an extra attacker, leaving the six-foot-wide net at the other end of the rink empty. It is assumed that the opposing goaltender, if in net, would not commit a blunder. Furthermore, the goaltender is prohibited from travelling to the other side of rink; specifically, he is not allowed to cross the centre red line in order to participate in a play, where the position of the puck is prescribed as the "determining factor" by Rule 27 of the Official NHL Rule Book.[1] The result is that the goaltender cannot participate in play in the opponent's zone, and must take a shot from his side of the rink. Coaches generally discourage any player from shooting at an empty net from their own side of the red line because if the shot goes wide, it results in an icing infraction. This brings the face off back in the defensive zone and prohibits the offending team from making any substitutions. In practice, a shot from the goaltender is taken from the side of his net, because further travel risks turning the puck over. Due to the distance between the two nets, the puck has to be shot with a trajectory and speed that prevents the opposing team from stopping it while it travels. All NHL goaltenders who have scored a goal by shooting the puck have done so with an empty net; the goals credited to goaltenders that did not shoot the puck were all the result of own goals by the opposing team who had their crease vacated.
Rule 27.7 was instituted in the 1966–67 season, after the Toronto Maple Leafs' Gary Smith had been knocked out by Montreal Canadiens defenceman J. C. Tremblay's bodycheck as the former was crossing the centre red line carrying the puck. Prior to the institution of the rule, the only recorded instances of goaltenders scoring goals involved them rushing to the other end of the rink, and they occurred generally in the early days of ice hockey, around 1900.[2] Furthermore, prior to 1931, empty-net situations did not arise as it was not customary to pull the goaltender late in the game for an extra attacker in an effort to tie the game up. This technique is credited to Art Ross, coach of the Boston Bruins, who pulled Tiny Thompson in game two of the semifinals playoff series against the Montreal Canadiens.[3] An instance of an attempted empty-net goal was recorded in 1947, when New York Rangers goaltender Chuck Rayner missed the net "by a whisper" which was vacated when the Toronto Maple Leafs had pulled Turk Broda.[2]
History[edit]
Billy Smith of the New York Islanders, in the 1979–80 season, was the first goaltender to be credited with a goal in the NHL when Rob Ramage of the Colorado Rockies put the puck into his own empty net.[4] Smith was the last Islander to have touched the puck, and by NHL rule 78.4, an unassisted goal is awarded to the last player on the scoring team who had contacted the puck, in the event of an own goal.[5]
However, the participation of goaltenders in offence began long before Billy Smith's goal. The first recorded goal in competitive play, scored by a goaltender, was in 1905. According to a Montreal Star report, poor officiating resulted in only the goaltenders left on the ice in a February 18 game between the Montreal Westmounts and Quebec Bulldogs of Canadian Amateur Hockey League (CAHL). Fred Brophy (Montreal) and Hall of Famer Paddy Moran (Quebec) exchanged scoring attempts, before Brophy beat Moran, while the latter and most of the spectators "convulsed in laughter".[6] Brophy repeated the feat a year later on March 7, 1906, by skating the length of the ice to score on goaltender Nathan Frye of the Montreal Victorias of the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association (ECAHA).[2]
The first goaltender credited with an assist in the NHL was Georges Vezina in the 1917–18 season, after a puck rebounded off his leg pad to a teammate who skated the length of the ice to score.[7] In the 1935–36 season, Tiny Thompson became the first goaltender to gain an assist after making an intentional pass.[8] During the Second World War, while playing for the All-Star Canadian Army team, goaltender Chuck Rayner carried the puck down the ice and beat the opposing goaltender, Art Jones. In the NHL, he made numerous unsuccessful attempts to duplicate this feat;[9] as a member of the New York Rangers, Rayner attempted to score both by aiming at an empty net and by rushing down the rink. There are at least two recorded instances of him skating to the other side of the ice after making a save,[10] and he was experimentally used on the point during power-plays in late 1940s.[11]
In the 1976–77 season, Los Angeles Kings goaltender Rogie Vachon briefly became the first goaltender to be credited with a goal when the opposing New York Islanders scored on themselves during a delayed penalty; however, after video review, the goal was given to Vic Venasky as it was determined that he was the last Kings player to touch the puck before it went in the net.[12] A similar case occurred in 1987 when the Islanders' Brent Sutter scored on his own net during a delayed penalty; the cross-town rival Rangers' Bob Froese was credited with the goal, briefly becoming the second goaltender to have been credited with an NHL goal. Later video review concluded that Froese had not touched the puck at all, and the goal was awarded to David Shaw.[13]
The first goaltender to score a goal by intentionally shooting the puck into the opponent's net was the Philadelphia Flyers' Ron Hextall, who on December 8, 1987, scored on an empty net after Boston pulled their goaltender, Rejean Lemelin, for a sixth attacker late in the third period.[14] The most recent goaltender to have scored a goal by deliberately shooting the puck into his opponents' net was Mike Smith, in 2013.
Of the fourteen goals scored by NHL goaltenders, seven were shot into the opposing team's net by the goaltender. Two goaltenders have scored a goal and earned a shutout in the same game. Damian Rhodes, playing for the Ottawa Senators, was credited with a goal in a 6–0 win over the New Jersey Devils on January 2, 1999, and Jose Theodore, playing for the Montreal Canadiens, shot the puck into the New York Islanders' empty net in a 3–0 victory on January 2, 2001,[15] exactly two years later. Theodore's shot was the only backhand of the seven. In addition to being the first goaltender to be credited with a goal, Billy Smith was the only goaltender to have scored in a game that he lost.[15]
Chris Mason and Damian Rhodes are the only goalies to be credited with a goal in both the AHL and the NHL.[16] Of the 14 goals, the New Jersey Devils franchise has been involved in six of them, three goals for (highest total) and three goals against (highest total), including the first ever goaltender goal when scored on in their previous incarnation as the Colorado Rockies.
While both Ron Hextall and Martin Brodeur have scored more than one goal, Hextall is the only goaltender to score twice by directly shooting the puck into the opponent's net. Brodeur's second and third goals were own goals by the other team, where Brodeur received credit for touching the puck last. Brodeur's second goal is the only game-winning goal scored by a goaltender.[17] Hextall and Brodeur both scored in a playoff game as well as a regular season game.[15] Hextall's second goal is the only goal scored by a goaltender while his team was short handed,[18] and Evgeni Nabokov and Martin Brodeur are the only goalies who scored on a power play.[19] Martin Brodeur is the only goalie to score against another goalie, when he scored against Dan Ellis, although Ellis was on his way to the bench for an extra attacker on a delayed penalty call and failed to make it back to the net in time to prevent the puck from entering the goal. Brodeur is also the only goalie who has both scored an empty net goal while the opposing goalie was on the bench, as well as having been the goalie on the bench when another goalie was credited with a goal.
Mike Smith was the latest goaltender to score a goal in the NHL, which he managed to do in a 5–2 victory of the Phoenix Coyotes over the Detroit Red Wings on October 19, 2013. He scored the goal with only 1/10 of a second left in the third period. He is also the only goaltender to be credited with a goal in both the NHL and the ECHL, having scored a goal as a member of the Lexington Men O' War on October 26, 2002, against the Dayton Bombers.[20]
Scorers[edit]
Key
Symbol
Meaning
SOG Shot on goal: puck was shot by the goaltender into the opponent's net
PPG Power-play goal
SHG Short-handed goal
GWG Game-winning goal
DP Goal scored on delayed penalty
§ Player's team lost the game
Bold name Goaltender active in the NHL in 2016–17
Bold score Goal was scored at home
(#) Number of goals scored in career
Name
Team
Season
Date
Opposing team
Pulled goaltender
Player who scored OG [21]
Final score
Notes
Smith, BillyBilly Smith New York Islanders 1979–80 000000001979-11-28-0000November 28, 1979 Colorado Rockies Bill McKenzie[22] Rob Ramage 4–7§ 44:50,[23][24] DP
Hextall, RonRon Hextall Philadelphia Flyers 1987–88 000000001987-12-08-0000December 8, 1987 Boston Bruins Reggie Lemelin SOG 5–2 58:48[25]
Hextall (2), RonRon Hextall (2) Philadelphia Flyers 1989 playoffs 000000001989-04-11-0000April 11, 1989 Washington Capitals Pete Peeters SOG 8–5 58:58, SHG
Osgood, ChrisChris Osgood Detroit Red Wings 1995–96 000000001996-03-06-0000March 6, 1996 Hartford Whalers Sean Burke SOG 4–2 59:49
Brodeur, MartinMartin Brodeur New Jersey Devils 1997 playoffs 000000001997-04-17-0000April 17, 1997 Montreal Canadiens Jocelyn Thibault SOG 5–2 59:15
Rhodes, DamianDamian Rhodes Ottawa Senators 1998–99 000000001999-01-02-0000January 2, 1999 New Jersey Devils Martin Brodeur Lyle Odelein 6–0 08:14, DP
Brodeur (2), MartinMartin Brodeur (2) New Jersey Devils 1999–2000 000000002000-02-15-0000February 15, 2000 Philadelphia Flyers Brian Boucher Daymond Langkow 4–2 49:43, GWG, DP
Theodore, JoseJose Theodore Montreal Canadiens 2000–01 000000002001-01-02-0000January 2, 2001 New York Islanders John Vanbiesbrouck SOG 3–0 59:51
Nabokov, EvgeniEvgeni Nabokov San Jose Sharks 2001–02 000000002002-03-10-0000March 10, 2002 Vancouver Canucks Peter Skudra SOG 7–4 59:12, PPG[26]
Noronen, MikaMika Noronen Buffalo Sabres 2003–04 000000002004-02-14-0000February 14, 2004 Toronto Maple Leafs Trevor Kidd Robert Reichel 6–4 59:17
Mason, ChrisChris Mason Nashville Predators 2005–06 000000002006-04-15-0000April 15, 2006 Phoenix Coyotes David LeNeveu Geoff Sanderson 5–1 50:47, DP
Ward, CamCam Ward Carolina Hurricanes 2011–12 000000002011-12-26-0000December 26, 2011 New Jersey Devils Johan Hedberg Ilya Kovalchuk 4–2 59:30
Brodeur (3), MartinMartin Brodeur (3) New Jersey Devils 2012–13 000000002013-03-21-0000March 21, 2013 Carolina Hurricanes Dan EllisA Jordan Staal 4–1 03:54, PPG, DP
Smith, MikeMike Smith Phoenix Coyotes 2013–14 000000002013-10-19-0000October 19, 2013 Detroit Red Wings Jimmy Howard SOG 5–2 59:59B[27]
A Ellis had not yet reached the bench to be replaced by an extra attacker (he even attempted to return to stop the puck) and thus the goal was credited as an official goal against Ellis, as opposed to an empty-net goal.
B Replay footage showed that the goal was scored with 0.1 second left in the game.
See also[edit]
List of goalkeepers who have scored in soccer
Bibliography[edit]
Allen, Kevin; Bower, Johnny (2002). Without Fear: Hockey's 50 greatest goaltenders. Chicago: Triumph Books. ISBN 978-1-57243-484-4. OCLC 49936232.
Duplacey, James; Diamond, Dan (2000). The Official Rules of Hockey. Globe Pequot. ISBN 978-1-58574-052-9.
"NHL firsts and lasts—goaltenders to score". NHL. Archived from the original on 2010-01-07. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
Weir, Glenn (1999). Ultimate Hockey. Stoddart. ISBN 978-0-7737-6057-8.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Rule 27—Goalkeeper's Penalties". NHL. Retrieved 2011-04-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c Weir, p. 49.
Jump up ^ Duplacey and Diamond, p. 187.
Jump up ^ Allen, Duff, Bower; p. 83.
Jump up ^ "Rule 78—Goals". NHL. Retrieved 2011-04-26.
Jump up ^ Allen, Duff, Bower; p. 117.
Jump up ^ Allen, Duff, Bower; p. 187.
Jump up ^ Allen, Duff, Bower; p. 51.
Jump up ^ Allen, Duff, Bower; p. 219.
Jump up ^ "Chuck Rayner—Biography". Hockey Hall of Fame. Retrieved 2011-04-26.
Jump up ^ "One on One with Chuck Rayner". Hockey Hall of Fame. Retrieved 2011-04-26.
Jump up ^ UPI (1977-02-17). "Vachon Didn't Score Goal". The Montreal Gazette. p. 29. Retrieved 2010-03-24.
Jump up ^ "Froese Loses Credit For Scoring Goal". New York Times. 1987-12-05. Retrieved 2011-04-27.
Jump up ^ Allen, Duff, Bower; p. 66.
^ Jump up to: a b c "NHL firsts and lasts—goaltenders to score". NHL. Archived from the original on 2010-01-07. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
Jump up ^ "Goalie Mason scores, wins fifth straight as Preds top Yotes". 2006-04-15.
Jump up ^ "Martin Brodeur". New Jersey Devils. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
Jump up ^ David Amber (2008-05-13). "No shortage of playoff moments for the Broad Street Bullies". ESPN. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
Jump up ^ "Sharks pummel Canucks; Nabokov scores". CBC. 2002-03-11. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
Jump up ^ "ECHL Featured Alumnus – Mike Smith". Archived from the original on 2013-11-02. Retrieved 2013-10-30.
Jump up ^ "The 12 Times NHL Goalies Scored Goals Themselves". 4 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Hornick, Eric. "30th Anniversary of Billy Smith's Goal".
Jump up ^ "The Leader-Post - Google News Archive Search". news.google.com.
Jump up ^ Vecsey, George (23 March 1981). "For Islanders' Billy Smith, Thr (sic) Game Is a Job, The Goal Is His TurfF". New York Times. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "NHL Scores - Hockey Scoreboard". NHL.com.
Jump up ^ "Sharks pummel Canucks; Nabokov scores". CBC.ca. 11 March 2002. Retrieved 9 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Brown, Jerry (October 20, 2013). "Goalie Smith scores in Coyotes' victory". NHL.com. Retrieved October 20, 2013.

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Dissection
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Not to be confused with Bisection.
This article is about the biological examination process. For other uses, see Dissection (disambiguation).
Dissection
Dissection of a pregnant rat in a biology class
Ginkgo seed in dissection, showing embryo and gametophyte.
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Dissection (from Latin dissecare "to cut to pieces"; also called anatomization) is the dismembering of the body of a deceased animal or plant to study its anatomical structure. Autopsy is used in pathology and forensic medicine to determine the cause of death in humans. It is carried out by or demonstrated to biology and anatomy students in high school and medical school. Less advanced courses typically focus on smaller subjects, such as small formaldehyde-preserved animals, while the more advanced courses normally use cadavers. Consequently, dissection is typically conducted in a morgue or in an anatomy lab.
Dissection has been used for centuries to explore anatomy. Objections to the use of cadavers have led to the use of alternatives including virtual dissection of computer models.
Contents
1 Overview
2 History
2.1 Classical antiquity
2.2 India
2.3 Islamic world
2.4 Tibet
2.5 Christian Europe
2.6 Britain
2.7 United States
3 Acquisition of cadavers
4 Disposal of specimens
5 Use in education
6 Alternatives
7 Advantages and disadvantages
8 Additional images
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Overview[edit]
Plant and animal bodies are dissected to analyze the structure and function of its components. Dissection is practised by students in courses of biology, botany, zoology, and veterinary science, and sometimes in arts studies. In medical schools, students dissect human cadavers to learn anatomy.[1]
Dissection is used to help to determine the cause of death in autopsy (called necropsy in other animals) and is an intrinsic part of forensic medicine.[2]
A key principle in the dissection of human cadavers is the prevention of human disease to the dissector. Prevention of transmission includes the wearing of protective gear, ensuring the environment is clean, dissection technique[3] and pre-dissection tests to specimens for the presence of HIV and Hepatitis viruses.[4] Specimens are dissected in morgues or anatomy labs. When provided, they are evaluated for use as a "fresh" or "prepared" specimen.[4] A "fresh" specimen may be dissected within some days, retaining the characteristics of a living specimen, for the purposes of training. A "prepared" specimen may be preserved in solutions such as formalin and pre-dissected by an experienced anatomist, sometimes with the help of a diener.[4] This preparation is sometimes called prosection.[5]
Dissection tools. Left to right: scalpels with No. 20 and No. 12 blades, two forceps and scissors
Most dissection involves the careful isolation and removal of individual organs, called the Virchow technique.[3][6] An alternative more cumbersome technique involves the removal of the entire organ body, called the Letulle technique. This technique allows a body to be sent to a funeral director without waiting for the sometimes time-consuming dissection of individual organs.[3] The Rokitansky method involves an in situ dissection of the organ block, and the technique of Ghon involves dissection of three separate blocks of organs - the thorax and cervical areas, gastrointestinal and abdominal organs, and urogenital organs.[3][6] Dissection of individual organs involves accessing the area in which the organ is situated, and systematically removing the anatomical connections of that organ to its surroundings. For example, when removing the heart, connects such as the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava are separated. If pathological connections exist, such as a fibrous pericardium, then this may be deliberately dissected along with the organ.[3]
History[edit]
Galen (129–c.200 AD), Opera omnia, dissection of a pig. Engraving made in Venice, 1565
Classical antiquity[edit]
Human dissections were carried out by the Greek physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios in the early part of the third century BC.[7] During this period, the first exploration into full human anatomy was performed rather than a base knowledge gained from 'problem-solution' delving.[8] Before and after this time investigators appeared to largely limit themselves to animals.[9] While there was a deep taboo within the Greek culture concerning human dissection, there was a strong push by the government to build Greece into a hub of medical insight.[8] For a time, Roman law forbade dissection and autopsy of the human body,[10] so physicians had to use other cadavers. Galen, for example, dissected the Barbary macaque and other primates, assuming their anatomy was basically the same as that of humans.[11][12][13]
India[edit]
The Ayurvedic Man., c. 18th century
The ancient societies that were rooted in India left behind artwork on how to kill animals during a hunt.[14] The images showing how to kill most effectively depending on the game being hunted relay an intimate knowledge of both external and internal anatomy as well as the relative importance of organs.[14] The knowledge was mostly gained through hunters preparing the recently captured prey. Once the roaming lifestyle was no longer necessary it was replaced in part by the civilization that formed in the Indus Valley. Unfortunately, there is little that remains from this time to indicate whether or not dissection occurred, the civilization was lost to the Aryan people invading.[14]
Early in the history of India (2nd to 3rd century), the Arthashastra described the 4 ways that death can occur and their symptoms: drowning, hanging, strangling, or asphyxiation.[15] According to that source, an autopsy should be performed in any case of untimely demise.[15]
The practice of dissection flourished during the 7th and 8th century. It was under their rule that medical education was standardized. This created a need to better understand human anatomy, so as to have educated surgeons. Dissection was limited by the religious taboo on cutting the human body. This changed the approach taken to accomplish the goal. The process involved the loosening of the tissues in streams of water before the outer layers were sloughed off with soft implements to reach the musculature. To perfect the technique of slicing, the prospective students used gourds and squash. These techniques of dissection gave rise to an advanced understanding of the anatomy and the enabled them to complete procedures used today, such as rhinoplasty.[14]
During medieval times the anatomical teachings from India spread throughout the known world however the practice of dissection was stunted by Islam.[14] The practice of dissection at a university level was not seen again until 1827, when it was performed by the student Pandit Madhusudan Gupta.[14] Through the 1900s, the University teachers had to continually push against the social taboos of dissection, until around 1850 when the universities decided that it was more cost effective to train Indian doctors than bring them in from Britain.[14] Indian medical schools were, however, training female doctors well before those in England.[14]
The current state of dissection in India is deteriorating. The number of hours spent in dissection labs during medical school has decreased substantially over the last twenty years.[14] The future of anatomy education will probably be an elegant mix of traditional methods and integrative computer learning.[14] The use of dissection in early stages of medical training has been shown more effective in the retention of the intended information than their simulated counterparts.[14] However, there is use for the computer-generated experience as review in the later stages.[14] The combination of these methods are intended to strengthen the students understanding and confidence of anatomy, a subject that is infamously difficult to master.[14] There is a growing need for anatomist—seeing as most anatomy labs are taught by graduates hoping to complete degrees in anatomy—to continue the long tradition of anatomy education.[14]
Islamic world[edit]
Page from a 1531 Latin translation by Peter Argellata of Al-Zahrawi's c. 1000 treatise on surgical and medical instruments
From the beginning of the Islamic faith in 610 A.D.,[16] Shari'ah law has applied to a greater or lesser extent within Muslim countries,[16] supported by Islamic scholars such as Al-Ghazali.[17] Islamic physicians such as Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091–1161) in Al-Andalus,[18] Saladin's physician Ibn Jumay during the 12th century, Abd el-Latif in Egypt c. 1200,[19] and Ibn al-Nafis in Syria and Egypt in the 13th century may have practiced dissection,[17][20][21] but it remains ambiguous whether or not human dissection was practiced. Ibn al-Nafis, a physician and Muslim jurist, suggested that the "precepts of Islamic law have discouraged us from the practice of dissection, along with whatever compassion is in our temperament",[4] indicating that while there was no law against it, it was nevertheless uncommon. Islam dictates that the body be buried as soon as possible, barring religious holidays, and that there be no other means of disposal such as cremation.[16] Prior to the 10th century, dissection was not performed on human cadavers.[16] The book Al-Tasrif, written by Al-Zahrawi in 1000 A.D., details surgical procedure that differed from the previous standards.[22] The book was an educational text of medicine and surgery which included detailed illustrations.[22] It was later translated and took the place of Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine as the primary teaching tool in Europe from the 12th century to the 17th century.[22] There were some that were willing to dissect humans up to the 12th century, for the sake of learning, after which it was forbidden. This attitude remained constant until 1952, when the Islamic School of Jurisprudence in Egypt ruled that "necessity permits the forbidden".[16] This decision allowed for the investigation of questionable deaths by autopsy.[16] In 1982, the decision was made by a fatwa that if it serves justice, autopsy is worth the disadvantages.[16] Though Islam now approves of autopsy, the Islamic public still disapproves. Autopsy is prevalent in most Muslim countries for medical and judicial purposes.[16] In Egypt it holds an important place within the judicial structure, and is taught at all the country's medical universities.[16] In Saudi Arabia, whose law is completely dictated by Shari'ah, autopsy is viewed poorly by the population but can be compelled in criminal cases;[16] human dissection is sometimes found at university level.[16] Autopsy is performed for judicial purposes in Qatar and Tunisia.[16] Human dissection is present in the modern day Islamic world, but is rarely published on due to the religious and social stigma.[16]
Tibet[edit]
See also: Tree of physiology
Tibetan medicine developed a rather sophisticated knowledge of anatomy, acquired from long-standing experience with human dissection. Tibetans had adopted the practice of sky burial because of the country's hard ground, frozen for most of the year, and the lack of wood for cremation. A sky burial begins with a ritual dissection of the deceased, and is followed by the feeding of the parts to vultures on the hill tops. Over time, Tibetan anatomical knowledge found its way into Ayurveda[23] and to a lesser extent into Chinese medicine.[24][25]
Christian Europe[edit]
A dissection in Realdo Colombo's De Re Anatomica, 1559
Throughout the history of Christian Europe, the dissection of human cadavers for medical education has experienced various cycles of legalization and proscription in different countries. Dissection was rare during the Middle Ages, but it was practised,[26] with evidence from at least as early as the 13th century.[9][27][28] The practice of autopsy in Medieval Western Europe is "very poorly known" as few surgical texts or conserved human dissections have survived.[29] A modern Jesuit scholar has claimed that the Christian theology contributed significantly to the revival of human dissection and autopsy by providing a new socio-religious and cultural context in which the human cadaver was no longer seen as sacrosanct.[9]
An edict of the 1163 Council of Tours, and an early 14th-century decree of Pope Boniface VIII have mistakenly been identified as prohibiting dissection and autopsy, misunderstanding or extrapolation from these edicts may have contributed to reluctance to perform such procedures.[30][a] The Middle Ages witnessed the revival of an interest in medical studies, including human dissection and autopsy.[31]
Mondino de Luzzi's Anathomia, 1541
Frederick II (1194-1250), the Holy Roman emperor, ruled that any that were studying to be a physician or a surgeon must attend a human dissection, which would be held no less than every five years.[8] Some European countries began legalizing the dissection of executed criminals for educational purposes in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. Mondino de Luzzi carried out the first recorded public dissection around 1315.[8] At this time, autopsies were carried out by a team consisting of a Lector, who lectured, the Sector, who did the dissection, and the Ostensor who pointed to features of interest.[8]
The Italian Galeazzo di Santa Sofia made the first public dissection north of the Alps in Vienna in 1404.[32]
Vesalius with a dissected cadaver in his De humani corporis fabrica, 1543
Vesalius in the 16th century carried out numerous dissections in his extensive anatomical investigations. He was attacked frequently for his disagreement with Galen's opinions on human anatomy. Vesalius was the first to lecture and dissect the cadaver simultaneously.[8][33]
The Catholic Church is known to have ordered an autopsy on conjoined twins Joana and Melchiora Ballestero in Hispaniola in 1533 to determine whether they shared a soul. They found that there were two distinct hearts, and hence two souls, based on the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles, who believed the soul resided in the heart.[34]
Renaissance artists such as Antonio del Pollaiolo studied anatomy to improve their artwork, as seen in this figurine of Hercules, 1470
Human dissection was also practised by Renaissance artists. Though most chose to focus on the external surfaces of the body, some like Michelangelo Buonarotti, Antonio del Pollaiolo, Baccio Bandinelli, and Leonardo da Vinci sought a deeper understanding. However, there were no provisions for artists to obtain cadavers, so they had to resort to unauthorised means, as indeed anatomists sometimes did, such as grave robbing, body snatching, and murder.[8]
Anatomization was sometimes ordered as a form of punishment, as, for example, in 1806 to James Halligan and Dominic Daley after their public hanging in Northampton, Massachusetts.[35]
In modern Europe, dissection is routinely practised in biological research and education, in medical schools, and to determine the cause of death in autopsy. It is generally considered a necessary part of learning and is thus accepted culturally. It sometimes attracts controversy, as when Odense Zoo decided to dissect lion cadavers in public before a "self-selected audience".[36][37]
Britain[edit]
Body snatching headstone of an 1823 grave in Stirling
In Britain, dissection remained entirely prohibited from the end of the Roman conquest and through the Middle Ages through the 16th century, when a series of royal edicts gave specific groups of physicians and surgeons some limited rights to dissect cadavers. The permission was quite limited: by the mid-18th century, the Royal College of Physicians and Company of Barber-Surgeons were the only two groups permitted to carry out dissections, and had an annual quota of ten cadavers between them. As a result of pressure from anatomists, especially in the rapidly growing medical schools, the Murder Act 1752 allowed the bodies of executed murderers to be dissected for anatomical research and education. By the 19th century this supply of cadavers proved insufficient, as the public medical schools were growing, and the private medical schools lacked legal access to cadavers. A thriving black market arose in cadavers and body parts, leading to the creation of the profession of body snatching, and the infamous Burke and Hare murders in 1828, when 16 people were murdered for their cadavers, to be sold to anatomists. The resulting public outcry led to the passage of the Anatomy Act 1832, which increased the legal supply of cadavers for dissection.[38]
By the 21st century, the availability of interactive computer programs and changing public sentiment led to renewed debate on the use of cadavers in medical education. The Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry in the UK, founded in 2000, became the first modern medical school to carry out its anatomy education without dissection.[39]
United States[edit]
A teenage school pupil dissecting an eye
In the United States, dissection of frogs became common in college biology classes from the 1920's, and were gradually introduced at earlier stages of education. By 1988, some 75 to 80 percent of American high school biology students were participating in a frog dissection, with a trend towards introduction in elementary schools. The frogs are most commonly from the genus Rana. Other popular animals for high-school dissection at the time of that survey were, among vertebrates, fetal pigs, perch, and cats; and among invertebrates, earthworms, grasshoppers, crayfish, and starfish.[40] About six million animals are (2016) dissected each year in United States high schools, not counting medical training and research. Most of these are purchased already dead from slaughterhouses and farms.[41]
Dissection in U.S. high schools became prominent in 1987, when a California student, Jenifer Graham, sued to require her school to let her complete an alternative project. The court ruled that mandatory dissections were permissible, but that Graham could ask to dissect a frog that had died of natural causes rather than one that was killed for the purposes of dissection; the practical impossibility of procuring a frog that had died of natural causes in effect let Graham opt out of the required dissection. The suit gave publicity to anti-dissection advocates. Graham appeared in a 1987 Apple Computer commercial for the virtual-dissection software Operation Frog.[42][43] The state of California passed a Student's Rights Bill in 1988 requiring that objecting students be allowed to complete alternative projects.[44] Opting out of dissection increased through the 1990s.[45]
In the United States, 17 states[b] along with Washington, D.C. have enacted dissection-choice laws or policies that allow students in primary and secondary education to opt out of dissection. Other states including Arizona, Hawaii, Minnesota, Texas, and Utah have more general policies on opting out on moral, religious, or ethical grounds.[46]
As for the dissection of cadavers in undergraduate and medical school, traditional dissection is supported by professors and students, with some opposition, limiting the availability of dissection. Upper level students who have experienced this method along with their professors agree that "Studying human anatomy with colorful charts is one thing. Using a scalpel and an actual, recently-living person is an entirely different matter."[47]
Acquisition of cadavers[edit]
The way in which cadaveric specimens are obtained differs greatly according to country.[48] In the UK, donation of a cadaver is wholly voluntary. Involuntary donation plays a role in about 20 percent of specimens in the US and almost all specimens donated in some countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe.[48] Countries that practice involuntary donation may make available the bodies of dead criminals or unclaimed or unidentified bodies for the purposes of dissection.[48] Such practices may lead to a greater proportion of the poor, homeless and social outcasts being involuntarily donated.[48] Cadavers donated in one jurisdiction may also be used for the purposes of dissection in another, whether across states in the US,[4] or imported from other countries, such as with Libya.[48] As an example of how a cadaver is donated voluntarily, a funeral home in conjunction with a voluntary donation program identifies a body who is part of the program. After broaching the subject with relatives in a diplomatic fashion, the body is then transported to a registered facility. The body is tested for the presence of HIV and Hepatitis viruses. It is then evaluated for use as a "fresh" or "prepared" specimen.[4]
Disposal of specimens[edit]
Cadaveric specimens for dissection are, in general, disposed of by cremation. The deceased may then be interred at a local cemetery. If the family wishes, the ashes of the deceased are then returned to the family.[4] Many institutes have local policies to engage, support and celebrate the donors. This may include the setting up of local monuments at the cemetery.[4]
Use in education[edit]
Human cadavers are often used in medicine to teach anatomy or surgical instruction.[4][48] Cadavers are selected according to their anatomy and availability. They may be used as part of dissection courses involving a "fresh" specimen so as to be as realistic as possible—for example, when training surgeons.[4] Cadavers may also be pre-dissected by trained instructors. This form of dissection involves the preparation and preservation of specimens for a longer time period and is generally used for the teaching of anatomy.[4]
Alternatives[edit]
Some alternatives to dissection may present educational advantages over the use of animal cadavers, while eliminating the problematic ethical issues.[49] These alternatives include computer programs, lectures, three dimensional models, films, and other forms of technology. Concern for animal welfare is often at the root of objections to animal dissection.[50] Studies show that some students reluctantly participate in animal dissection out of fear of real or perceived punishment or ostracism from their teachers and peers, and many do not speak up about their ethical objections.[51][52]
One alternative to the use of cadavers is computer technology. At Stanford Medical School, software combines X-ray, ultrasound and MRI imaging for display on a screen as large as a body on a table.[53] In a variant of this, a "virtual anatomy" approach being developed at New York University, students wear three dimensional glasses and can use a pointing device to "[swoop] through the virtual body, its sections as brightly colored as living tissue." This method is claimed to be "as dynamic as Imax [cinema]".[54]
Advantages and disadvantages[edit]
Proponents of animal-free teaching methodologies argue that alternatives to animal dissection can benefit educators by increasing teaching efficiency and lowering instruction costs while affording teachers an enhanced potential for the customization and repeat-ability of teaching exercises. Those in favor of dissection alternatives point to studies which have shown that computer-based teaching methods "saved academic and nonacademic staff time … were considered to be less expensive and an effective and enjoyable mode of student learning [and] … contributed to a significant reduction in animal use" because there is no set-up or clean-up time, no obligatory safety lessons, and no monitoring of misbehavior with animal cadavers, scissors, and scalpels.[55][56][57]
With software and other non-animal methods, there is also no expensive disposal of equipment or hazardous material removal. Some programs also allow educators to customize lessons and include built-in test and quiz modules that can track student performance. Furthermore, animals (whether dead or alive) can be used only once, while non-animal resources can be used for many years—an added benefit that could result in significant cost savings for teachers, school districts, and state educational systems.[55]
Several peer-reviewed comparative studies examining information retention and performance of students who dissected animals and those who used an alternative instruction method have concluded that the educational outcomes of students who are taught basic and advanced biomedical concepts and skills using non-animal methods are equivalent or superior to those of their peers who use animal-based laboratories such as animal dissection.[58][59]
Elsewhere it has been reported that students’ confidence and satisfaction increased as did their preparedness for laboratories and their information-retrieval and communication abilities. Three separate studies at universities across the United States found that students who modeled body systems out of clay were significantly better at identifying the constituent parts of human anatomy than their classmates who performed animal dissection.[60][61][62]
Another study found that students preferred using clay modeling over animal dissection and performed just as well as their cohorts who dissected animals.[63]
In 2008, the National Association of Biology Teachers (NABT) affirmed its support for classroom animal dissection stating that they "Encourage the presence of live animals in the classroom with appropriate consideration to the age and maturity level of the students …NABT urges teachers to be aware that alternatives to dissection have their limitations. NABT supports the use of these materials as adjuncts to the educational process but not as exclusive replacements for the use of actual organisms."[64]
The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) "supports including live animals as part of instruction in the K-12 science classroom because observing and working with animals firsthand can spark students' interest in science as well as a general respect for life while reinforcing key concepts" of biological sciences. NSTA also supports offering dissection alternatives to students who object to the practice.[65]
The NORINA database lists over 3,000 products which may be used as alternatives or supplements to animal use in education and training.[66] These include alternatives to dissection in schools. InterNICHE has a similar database and a loans system.[67]
Additional images[edit]
Dissection of a human cheek from Gray's Anatomy (1918)
Dissection of a spiny dogfish
Dissection of human axilla
Human abdomen and thorax
Cow brain prepared for dissection
GCSE dissection
Technique of dissection and glycerination in Bovine articulation (tarsus)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "It must be noted, however, that the pope did not forbid anatomical dissections but only the dissections performed with the purpose of preserving the bodies for distant burial"[9]
Jump up ^ California, Connecticut, D.C., Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Virginia all have statewide laws or department of education policies that allow students to opt out.
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Interactive Autopsy". Australian Museum. Retrieved 10 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "2. Principles of Dissection". Handbook of Autopsy Practice - Springer. pp. 11–12. doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-127-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Robertson, Hugh J.; Paige, John T.; Bok, Leonard (2012-07-12). Simulation in Radiology. OUP USA. pp. 15–20. ISBN 9780199764624.
Jump up ^ "prosect - definition of prosect in English from the Oxford dictionary". www.oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved 2016-05-10.
^ Jump up to: a b Connolly, Andrew J.; Finkbeiner, Walter E.; Ursell, Philip C.; Davis, Richard L. (2015-09-23). Autopsy Pathology: A Manual and Atlas. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 9780323287807.
Jump up ^ von Staden, Heinrich (1992). "The discovery of the body: Human dissection and its cultural contexts in ancient Greece". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 65 (3): 223–241. PMC 2589595. PMID 1285450.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Ghosh, Sanjib Kumar (2015-09-01). "Human cadaveric dissection: a historical account from ancient Greece to the modern era". Anatomy & Cell Biology. 48 (3): 153–169. doi:10.5115/acb.2015.48.3.153. ISSN 2093-3665. PMC 4582158. PMID 26417475.
^ Jump up to: a b c d P Prioreschi, 'Determinants of the revival of dissection of the human body in the Middle Ages', Medical Hypotheses (2001) 56(2), 229–234
Jump up ^ "Tragically, the prohibition of human dissection by Rome in 150 BC arrested this progress and few of their findings survived." Arthur Aufderheide, The Scientific Study of Mummies (2003), p. 5
Jump up ^ Nutton, Vivian, 'The Unknown Galen', (2002), p. 89
Jump up ^ Von Staden, Heinrich, Herophilus (1989), p. 140
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Jump up ^ Ibn Zuhr and the Progress of Surgery, http://muslimheritage.com/article/ibn-zuhr-and-progress-surgery
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Jump up ^ Wujastyk, Dominik (2001). The Roots of Ayurveda. Penguin Classics.
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Jump up ^ "In the 13th century, the realisation that human anatomy could best be taught by dissection of the human body resulted in its legalisation of publicly dissecting criminals in some European countries between 1283 and 1365" - this was, however, still contrary to the edicts of the Church. Philip Cheung "Public Trust in Medical Research?" (2007), page 36
Jump up ^ "Indeed, very early in the thirteenth century, a religious official, namely, Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), ordered the postmortem autopsy of a person whose death was suspicious". Toby Huff, The Rise Of Modern Science (2003), page 195
Jump up ^ Philippe Charlier, Isabelle Huynh-Charlier, Joël Poupon, Eloïse Lancelot, Paula F. Campos, Dominique Favier, Gaël-François Jeannel, Maurizio Rippa Bonati, Geoffroy Lorin de la Grandmaison, Christian Hervé (May 2014). "A glimpse into the early origins of medieval anatomy through the oldest conserved human dissection (Western Europe, 13th c. A.D.)". Archives of Medical Science. 10 (2): 366–373. doi:10.5114/aoms.2013.33331. PMC 4042035. PMID 24904674. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ 'While during this period the Church did not forbid human dissections in general, certain edicts were directed at specific practices. These included the Ecclesia Abhorret a Sanguine in 1163 by the Council of Tours and Pope Boniface VIII's command to terminate the practice of dismemberment of slain crusaders' bodies and boiling the parts to enable defleshing for return of their bones. Such proclamations were commonly misunderstood as a ban on all dissection of either living persons or cadavers (Rogers & Waldron, 1986)[clarification needed], and progress in anatomical knowledge by human dissection did not thrive in that intellectual climate', Arthur Aufderheide, The Scientific Study of Mummies (2003), p. 5
Jump up ^ "Current scholarship reveals that Europeans had considerable knowledge of human anatomy, not just that based on Galen and his animal dissections. For the Europeans had performed significant numbers of human dissections, especially postmortem autopsies during this era", "Many of the autopsies were conducted to determine whether or not the deceased had died of natural causes (disease) or whether there had been foul play, poisoning, or physical assault. Indeed, very early in the thirteenth century, a religious official, namely, Pope Innocent III (1198–1216), ordered the postmortem autopsy of a person whose death was suspicious", Toby Huff, The Rise Of Modern Science (2003), p. 195
Jump up ^ Wolfgang Regal; Michael Nanut (December 13, 2007). Vienna – A Doctor’s Guide: 15 walking tours through Vienna’s medical history. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 7. ISBN 978-3-211-48952-9.
Jump up ^ See C. D. O'Malley Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage, Isis 45:2, 1954
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Jump up ^ Cheung, pp. 37–44
Jump up ^ Cheung, pp. 33, 35
Jump up ^ Orlans, F. Barbara; Beauchamp, Tom L.; Dresser, Rebecca; Morton, David B.; Gluck, John P. (1998). The Human Use of Animals. Oxford University Press. p. 213. ISBN 0-19-511908-8.
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Jump up ^ Howard Rosenberg: Apple Computer's 'Frog' Ad Is Taken Off the Air. LA Times, November 10, 1987.
Jump up ^ F. Barbara Orlans; Tom L. Beauchamp; Rebecca Dresser; David B. Morton; John P. Gluck (1998). The Human Use of Animals. Oxford University Press. p. 210. ISBN 0-19-511908-8.
Jump up ^ Orlans et al., pp. 209–211
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Jump up ^ Waters, J.R.; Van Meter, P; Perrotti, W; Drogo, S; Cyr, R.J (2005). "Cat dissection vs. sculpting human structures in clay: An analysis of two approaches to undergraduate human anatomy laboratory education". Advances in Physiology Education. 29 (1): 27–34. doi:10.1152/advan.00033.2004.
Jump up ^ Motoike, H.K.; O'Kane, R.L.; Lenchner, E; Haspel, C (2009). "Clay modeling as a method to learn human muscles: A community college study". Anatomical Sciences Education. 2 (1): 19–23. doi:10.1002/ase.61.
Jump up ^ Waters, J.R.; Van Meter, P; Perrotti, W; Drogo, S; Cyr, R.J. (2011). "Human clay models versus cat dissection: How the similarity between the classroom and the exam affects student performance". Advances in Physiology Education. 35 (2): 227–236. doi:10.1152/advan.00030.2009.
Jump up ^ DeHoff, M.E.; Clark, K.L; Meganathan, K (2011). "Learning outcomes and student perceived value of clay modeling and cat dissection in undergraduate human anatomy and physiology". Advances in Physiology Education. 35 (1): 68–75. doi:10.1152/advan.00094.2010.
Jump up ^ "The Use of Animals in Biology Education". Position Statements: National Association of Biology Teachers. National Association of Biology Teachers. Archived from the original on 13 May 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "NSTA Position Statement: Responsible Use of Live Animals and Dissection in the Science Classroom". National Science Teachers Association. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
Jump up ^ NORINA
Jump up ^ InterNICHE
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dissection.
How to dissect a frog
Dissection Alternatives
Human Dissections
Virtual Frog Dissection
Alternatives To Animal Dissection in School Science Classes
Research Project on Death and Dead Bodies, last conference: "Death and Dissection" July 2009, Berlin, Germany
Evolutionary Biology Digital Dissection Collections Dissection photographs for study and teaching from the University at Buffalo
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dissection&oldid=859063412"
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