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Cancer survivor
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A cancer survivor is a person with cancer of any type who is still living. Whether a person becomes a survivor at the time of diagnosis or after completing treatment, whether people who are actively dying are considered survivors, and whether healthy friends and family members of the cancer patient are also considered survivors, varies from group to group. Some people who have been diagnosed with cancer reject the term survivor or disagree with some definitions of it.
How many people are cancer survivors depends on the definition used. Currently nearly 65% of adults diagnosed with cancer in the developed world are expected to live at least five years after the cancer is discovered.[1] In the U.S. for example, about 11 million Americans alive today—one in 30 people–are either currently undergoing treatment for cancer or have done so in the past.[2]
Many cancer survivors describe the process of living with and beating cancer as a life-changing experience.[3] It is not uncommon for survivors to use the experience as opportunities for creative self-transformation into a "better person" or as motivation to meet goals of great personal importance, such as climbing a mountain or reconciling with an estranged family member. This process of posttraumatic growth is called benefit finding.[4] Cancer survivors often have specific medical and non-medical needs related to their cancer experience.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definitions and alternatives
2 Needs of cancer survivors
2.1 Psychosocial
2.1.1 Returning to Life
2.1.2 Ongoing effects
2.1.3 Fear of cancer recurrence
2.1.4 Survivorship
2.2 Physical
3 Adolescent and young adult survivors
3.1 Barriers to quality long-term follow-up care
3.2 Impact of Affordable Care Act on the AYA survivor population
4 Care
5 Family members
6 Notable cancer survivors
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Definitions and alternatives[edit]
Macmillan Cancer Support in the UK defines a cancer survivor as someone who is "living with or beyond cancer", namely someone who:
has completed initial cancer management and has no apparent evidence of active disease;
is living with progressive disease and may be receiving cancer treatment, but is not in the terminal phases of illness; or
has had cancer in the past.[5]
The National Coalition for Cancer Survivorship (NCCS) pioneered the definition of survivor as being any person diagnosed with cancer, from the time of initial diagnosis until his or her death. This expansive definition of "survivor" includes people who are dying from untreatable cancer. NCCS later expanded the definition of survivor even further to include family, friends and voluntary caregivers who are affected by the diagnosis in any way.[6] The US National Cancer Institute's Office of Cancer Survivorship uses a variant of this expanded definition.[6]
The word survivor is a loaded term.[3] Within the breast cancer culture, survivorship is conferred upon women (and men) who are perceived as having suffered emotional or physical trauma, even if their breast cancer was a non-life-threatening pre-cancerous condition like LCIS or DCIS. The term tends to erase and degrade people who are dying of incurable cancer. This idea of survivorship emphasizes and values longevity of life after diagnosis, while overlooking issues of quality of life.[3]
Some people reject the term survivor as being a narrow conceptualization of highly variable human experiences. Alternatives include alivers and thrivers, which put emphasis on living as well as possible, despite limitations and disability.[3] A third term, the diers, is used by some terminally ill patients who reject the claim that dying is part of survivorship or should be covered up with inappropriately optimistic language.[3]
The term previvor has been used to describe unaffected carriers. Unaffected carriers, or previvors, are those who have not diagnosed with cancer, but who know that they are likely to develop cancer due to certain genetic mutations that form a known cancer syndrome. They have a survived the predisposition, or higher risk, of cancer.[7][8] As such, this is the first generation in human history who, armed with information about a predisposition to a cancer after opting into DNA testing, can make informed choices prior to cancer diagnosis. The typical previvor has tested positive for a BRCA mutation and learned that she is at high risk for developing breast cancer and ovarian cancer, and is attempting to manage that risk through a combination of increased surveillance through mammograms, breast MRIs, pelvic ultrasounds, oophorectomy, bilateral mastectomy, and other medical procedures. There has been much controversy over the term previvor, due to the fact that the name compares these healthy women to people have actually been diagnosed with invasive cancer.
Needs of cancer survivors[edit]
People who have finished cancer treatment often have psychological and physical medical challenges.[9] These effects can vary from person to person, change over time, and range in intensity from mild and intermittent to fully disabling. They commonly include fatigue,[10] pain,[11] sleep problems,[12] physical side effects like lymphoedema,[13] weight gain,[14] anxiety and depression,[15] fear of cancer recurrence,[16] and impaired quality of life.[17]
Psychosocial[edit]
Returning to Life[edit]
If the treatment is lengthy and disruptive, many patients experience some difficulty in returning to normal daily life.[18] The energy needed to cope with a rigorous treatment program may have caused them to disconnect from previous daily patterns, such as working, normal self-care, and housekeeping. A small number of patients become dependent on the attention and sympathy that they received during their treatment and feel neglected when life returns to normal. There are tremendous implications that cancer has on the relationships that survivors have with their loved ones (particularly their partners) once their cancer has been treated,[19] and social support plays a critical role in their long-term emotional adjustment.[20]
Ongoing effects[edit]
Some survivors, even if the cancer has been permanently cured, struggle emotionally from the trauma of having experienced a life-threatening disease.[21] Cancer survivors suffer from more psychological distress than those who have never experienced cancer (5.6% compared to 3.0%)[22] Serious psychosocial distress was seen 40% more among cancer survivors of five years or more than in those who have never had cancer.[22] About 10% develop major depressive disorder; others experience an adjustment disorder.[21] In young adult cancer survivors, one small study found that 20% of participants met the full clinical diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and 45% to 95% displayed at least one symptom of PTSD.[23] Survivors of adult cancer are at an increased risk of suicidal ideology (having thoughts about suicide),[24] while as many as 13% of childhood cancer survivors experience suicidal ideology.[25] Issues of pain and physical ailments have been hypothesized as major contributing factors in cancer survivors experiencing this suicidal ideology.
Fear of cancer recurrence[edit]
Patients whose cancer is in remission may still have to cope with the uncertainty that at any time their cancer could return without warning. After the initial treatment has ended, anxiety is more common among cancer survivors than among other people.[26] This anxiety regarding the cancer's return is referred to as fear of cancer recurrence.[27] Many patients are anxious that any minor symptom indicates that the cancer has returned, with as many as 9 in 10 patients fearful that their cancer will recur or spread.[2] In addition to the appearance of any new aches and pains, common triggers for a fear that the cancer may return include hearing that someone else has been diagnosed with cancer, annual medical exams to determine whether the cancer recurred and news stories about cancer.[28] This anxiety leads to more medical check ups, which can be measured even after a period of up to ten years.[29] This fear can have a significant impact on individual's lives, resulting in difficulties in their daily life such as work and socialising, and difficulties planning for the future.[30] Overall, fear of cancer recurrence is related to a reduced quality of life in cancer survivors[30]
While Fear of Cancer Recurrence (FCR) can be adaptive at low levels, high levels of FCR require psychological treatment. At present, there are no psychometrically sound measures of FCR, which makes research into the effectiveness of treatment protocols difficult to interpret.[31] Treatments that are being investigated include: cognitive-behavioural therapy,[32] Meta-cognitive therapy[33] and Cognitive-existential group therapy[34] and exercise.[35]
Survivorship[edit]
The cultural ideal of a survivor may add to individual patients' distress if the patient is unable or unwilling to live up to the ideal.[3] The ideal survivor is bravely committed to mainstream medicine and optimistic or even certain of a physical cure. He or she is open about diagnosis and treatment and becomes an educated, empowered medical consumer. The ideal survivor, like a superwoman who simultaneously manages her home, family, and career, struggles valiantly to prevent cancer from affecting loved ones by appearing, behaving, and working as much as possible. Once the immediate crisis is past, the person may feel strongly pressured to donate time, money, and energy to cancer-related organizations. Above all, the ideal survivor does not die of cancer. People who publicly conform to this ideal are given social status and respect.[3]
Physical[edit]
In terms of medical challenges, some survivors experience cancer-related fatigue, may have long-term side effects from cancer and its treatment, and may need extensive rehabilitation for mobility and function if aggressive surgery was required to remove the cancer. They may experience temporary or persistent post-chemotherapy cognitive impairment. Some young survivors lose their ability to have children.
Cancer survivors frequently need medical monitoring, and some treatments for unrelated diseases in the future may be contraindicated. For example, a patient who has had a significant amount of radiation therapy may not be a good candidate for more radiation treatments in the future. To assist with these needs, "survivor care plans" have been promoted. These are personalized documents that describe the person's diagnosis and treatment in detail, list common known side effects, and specifically outline the steps that the survivor should take in the future, ranging from maintaining a healthy weight to receiving specific medical tests on a stated schedule.[36]
Medical tests to determine whether the cancer has returned commonly provoke fears. Informally, this is called scanxiety, a portmanteau of scan and anxiety. A desire to avoid feeling this fear can prompt survivors to postpone or refuse tests.[37][38]
Survivors of childhood cancer have a life expectancy up to 28% shorter than people in the general population.[39] Therefore, there is a need to closely monitor these patients for much longer than usual. The Children's Oncology Group recommends that monitoring should include periodic follow up and screening by a clinician familiar with these patients' risks. Improving these patients' longevity requires recognition and treatment of illnesses associated with late effects in the decades after therapy for childhood cancer. For example, survivors of childhood cancer may have more difficulty than typical with breastfeeding and require more support to undertake this health-promoting activity.[40] Others experience various forms of heart disease. One challenge to achieving this goal is that childhood cancer survivors are both very adaptable and accustomed to denying difficulties; as a result, they tend to minimize their symptoms. Therefore, internists may not give them all the attention they need and thus the actual help they may need. Symptom management, health promotion, specific attention to psychosocial needs, and surveillance for recurrence and specific late effects of treatment are helpful.[39]
Adolescent and young adult survivors[edit]
Adolescent and young adult (AYA) survivors, often defined as being between the ages of 15 and 39, have seen advancements in technology and modern medicine causing a dramatic increase in the number of AYA survivors. Prior to 1970, being diagnosed with cancer during childhood was considered a universally fatal disease. From 1995 to 2000, however, the 5-year survival rate for children diagnosed with cancer was 80%.[41] Significant progress has been built in the last 25 years as there are now approximately 270,000 survivors of pediatric cancer in the U.S., which translates to approximately 1 in every 640 young adults being a survivor of childhood cancer.[42][43] However, as studies have shown, as patient needs increase, the likelihood of having an unmet need also increases.[44] For the AYA population, 2 out of 3 childhood cancer survivors will develop 1 complication due to the therapy they received and 1 out of 3 will develop serious or life-threatening complications, meaning they will most likely need treatment and follow-up care.[45] In addition, AYAs may experience greater difficulties adhering to treatment, which may negatively impact future outcomes.[46]
An AYA survivor faces a variety of issues as a result of their cancer diagnosis and treatment that are unique to their particular age group which differentiate their survivor population from the adult survivor population. For example, AYA survivors report that their education, employment, sexual functioning,[47] marriage, fertility, and other life values are impacted by their cancer.[48][49] Data show that AYA survivors have a much greater risk of getting a second primary malignancy as a side effect of the treatment for their original diagnosis. It is believed that AYAs have a much higher relative risk of developing a second primary cancer because the intensity of the treatment for their original diagnosis, typically including any combination of chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation, is much higher than the level of intensity given to patients over 40.[50] Furthermore, since AYA survivors are diagnosed and treated at such a young age, their length of time as a survivor is much longer than their adult counterparts, making it more likely they will face a second primary cancer in their lifetime.[50]
Barriers to quality long-term follow-up care[edit]
Childhood cancer survivors, in particular, need comprehensive long-term follow-up care to thrive. One way this can be accomplished is through continuous follow-up care with a primary care physician who is trained to identify possible late effects from previous treatments and therapies.[51]
The Children's Oncology Group (COG) has designed a set of survivorship guidelines that hope to aid both health care professionals and survivors themselves, in both the intricacies and basics of long-term follow-up care. The COG has guidelines for how a patient should put together their own “treatment summary”, so they can have their treatment history with them when they visit any health care provider. The COG suggests that a survivor include the following in his/her treatment summary:
Name of disease, date of diagnosis, stage of disease, contact information of the clinics/hospitals where you received your care
Names and doses of the chemotherapy and radiation you have received and the area of the body that was radiated
Names and dates of any surgeries you have had
If you have received a transplant, the type of transplant and where it was received and whether you developed any chronic Graft-versus-Host Disease
Names and dates of any significant complications and treatment received for those complications[52]
With the treatment summary, experts hope that survivors will be better equipped to face the significant burden of maintaining quality follow-up care long after their original treatment. This is especially important for the AYA population, in particular, because they are typically facing major social changes regarding their relationship status, employment or education status, their insurance coverage, and even their place of residence, etc. Typically, most of these factors are pretty constant for the adult population and if they experience any changes, it would occur in one or two aspects of their life. However, with the AYA population, the period of time until they are 40 is when they are going to, for the majority of the population, undergo the most change. This reality underscores the importance of a smooth transition from child-centered to adult-focused health care services through which they are consistently managed.[53]
Impact of Affordable Care Act on the AYA survivor population[edit]
The US Affordable Care Act (ACA) in 2010 makes it illegal for health insurance providers to deny coverage for a pre-existing condition, such as previously having survived cancer.[54] Young adults will now be required to have insurance coverage and, with a few exceptions, will be able to be covered under their parent's coverage until the age of 26 as a dependent in their parent's plan.[54]
Care[edit]
Studies among endometrial cancer survivors show that satisfaction with information provided about the disease and treatment increases the quality of life, lowers depression and results in less anxiety.[55] People who receive information on paper, compared to oral, indicate that they receive more information and are more satisfied about the information provided.[56] The American Institute of Medicine and the Dutch Health Council recommend the use of a Survivorship Care Plan; which is a summary of a patient's course of treatment, with recommendations for subsequent surveillance, management of late effects, and strategies for health promotion.[57]
Cancer survivors are encouraged to meet the same guidelines for physical activity as the rest of the population.[58][59] Increased physical activity reduces both all-cause and cancer-specific mortality in breast[60] and colo-rectal cancer survivors.[61] Physical activity improves quality of life among a range of cancer survivors[62] and may also assist with cancer-related fatigue and common co-morbidities.[63][64]
Diet can also impact long-term mortality, with evidence across various cancer types.[65][66][67][68]
However, adherence to diet and exercise recommendations among cancer survivors is often poor.[69][70][71] Digital behaviour change interventions can be successful at increasing physical activity and may also help with diet in cancer survivors.[72]
Family members[edit]
Family members can be significantly affected by the cancer experience of their loved ones.[73][74] For parents of children with cancer, finishing treatment can be a particularly vulnerable time. In the post-treatment period, some parents may experience increases in anxiety, depression and feelings of helplessness.[75] Evidence-based psychological interventions tailored to the needs of parents of childhood cancer survivors may assist parents in resuming their normal lives after their child has finished treatment.[76]
Spouses of cancer survivors are more likely than other people to experience anxiety in the years after their partner's successful treatment.[26]
Notable cancer survivors[edit]
See Category:Cancer survivors
See also[edit]
Learning problems in childhood cancer
Psycho-oncology
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Van de Poll-Franse L.V.; et al. (2011). "The impact of a cancer Survivorship Care Plan on gynecological cancer patient and health care provider reported outcomes (ROGY Care): study protocol for a pragmatic cluster randomized controlled trial". Trials. 12: 256. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-12-256. PMC 3286432  . PMID 22141750. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Physical activity guidelines for Americans. 2008. https://health.gov/paguidelines/pdf/paguide.pdf.
Jump up ^ Schmitz KH, Courneya KS, Matthews C, et al. American College of Sports Medicine roundtable on exercise guidelines for cancer survivors. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(7):1409–26.
Jump up ^ Lahart IM, Metsios GS, Nevill AM, Carmichael AR. Physical activity, risk of death and recurrence in breast cancer survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Acta Oncol. 2015;54(5):635–54.
Jump up ^ Schmid D, Leitzmann MF. Association between physical activity and mortality among breast cancer and colorectal cancer survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Oncol. 2014;25(7):1293–311.
Jump up ^ Mishra SI, Scherer RW, Geigle PM, et al. Exercise interventions on health-related quality of life for cancer survivors. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;8:CD007566.
Jump up ^ van Roekel EH, Winkler EA, Bours MJ, et al. Associations of sedentary time and patterns of sedentary time accumulation with health-related quality of life in colorectal cancer survivors. Prev Med Rep. 2016;4:262–9.
Jump up ^ Phillips SM, Lloyd GR, Awick EA, McAuley E. Correlates of objectively measured sedentary behavior in breast cancer survivors. Cancer Causes Control. 2016;27(6):787–95.
Jump up ^ Xing MY, Xu SZ, Shen P. Effect of low-fat diet on breast cancer survival: a meta-analysis. Asian Pac J Cancer P. 2014;15(3):1141–4.
Jump up ^ Brennan SF, Woodside JV, Lunny PM, Cardwell CR, Cantwell MM. Dietary fat and breast cancer mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2015.
Jump up ^ Meyerhardt JA, Niedzwiecki D, Hollis D, et al. Association of dietary patterns with cancer recurrence and survival in patients with stage III colon cancer. JAMA. 2007;298(7):754–64.
Jump up ^ Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G. Adherence to Mediterranean diet and risk of cancer: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Cancer Med. 2015;4(12):1933–47.
Jump up ^ Winkels RM, van Lee L, Beijer S, et al. Adherence to the World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research lifestyle recommendations in colorectal cancer survivors: results of the PROFILES registry. Cancer Med. 2016
Jump up ^ Blanchard CM, Courneya KS, Stein K. American Cancer Society’s SCS, II. Cancer survivors’ adherence to lifestyle behavior recommendations and associations with health-related quality of life: results from the American Cancer Society's SCS-II. J Clin Oncol Off J Am Soc Clin Oncol. 2008;26(13):2198–204.
Jump up ^ Williams K, Steptoe A, Wardle J. Is a cancer diagnosis a trigger for health behaviour change? Findings from a prospective, population-based study. Br J Cancer. 2013;108(11):2407–12.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Anna L.; Fisher, A; Smith, L; Heinrich, M; Potts, HWW (August 2017). "Digital health behaviour change interventions targeting physical activity and diet in cancer survivors: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Journal of Cancer Survivorship. doi:10.1007/s11764-017-0632-1.
Jump up ^ Girgis, Afaf; Lambert, Sylvie; Johnson, Claire; Waller, Amy; Currow, David (2013-07-01). "Physical, Psychosocial, Relationship, and Economic Burden of Caring for People With Cancer: A Review". Journal of Oncology Practice. 9 (4): 197–202. doi:10.1200/JOP.2012.000690. ISSN 1554-7477. PMC 3710169  . PMID 23942921.
Jump up ^ Wakefield, Claire E.; Drew, Donna; Ellis, Sarah J.; Doolan, Emma L.; McLoone, Jordana K.; Cohn, Richard J. (2014-03-01). "'What they're not telling you': a new scale to measure grandparents' information needs when their grandchild has cancer". Patient Education and Counseling. 94 (3): 351–355. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2013.10.030. ISSN 1873-5134. PMID 24315159.
Jump up ^ Wijnberg-Williams, Barbara J.; Kamps, Willem A.; Klip, Ed C.; Hoekstra-Weebers, Josette E. H. M. (2006-01-01). "Psychological adjustment of parents of pediatric cancer patients revisited: five years later". Psycho-Oncology. 15 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1002/pon.927. ISSN 1057-9249. PMID 15880477.
Jump up ^ Wakefield, Claire E; Sansom-Daly, Ursula M; McGill, Brittany C; McCarthy, Maria; Girgis, Afaf; Grootenhuis, Martha; Barton, Belinda; Patterson, Pandora; Osborn, Michael (2015-04-11). "Online parent-targeted cognitive-behavioural therapy intervention to improve quality of life in families of young cancer survivors: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial". Trials. 16 (1). doi:10.1186/s13063-015-0681-6. ISSN 1745-6215. PMC 4395969  . PMID 25872773.
External links[edit]
Patient Guide on Survivorship at Esmo.org by the European Society for Medical Oncology
Information about survivorship at Cancer.Net by the American Society of Clinical Oncology
National Coalition for Cancer Survivorship
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Saint Lawrence River
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Saint Lawrence River
Fleuve Saint-Laurent, Fleuve St-Laurent, St-Lawrence River, St-Laurent River
Saint Lawrence River near Alexandria Bay
Name origin: Saint Lawrence of Rome
Countries
Canada, United States
Provinces
Ontario, Quebec
State
New York
Source
Lake Ontario
- location Kingston, Ontario / Cape Vincent, New York
- elevation 74.7 m (245 ft)
- coordinates 44°06′N 76°24′W / 44.100°N 76.400°W / 44.100; -76.400
Mouth
Gulf of St. Lawrence / Atlantic Ocean
- elevation 0 m (0 ft)
- coordinates 49°30′N 64°30′W / 49.500°N 64.500°W / 49.500; -64.500Coordinates: 49°30′N 64°30′W / 49.500°N 64.500°W / 49.500; -64.500
Length
500 km (310 mi) Excluding the estuary. Ca. 1200 km if included.
Basin
1,344,200 km2 (519,000 sq mi) [1]
Discharge
for below the Saguenay River
- average 16,800 m3/s (590,000 cu ft/s) [2]
Map of the Saint Lawrence/Great Lakes Watershed
The Saint Lawrence River (French: Fleuve Saint-Laurent; Tuscarora: Kahnawáʼkye;[3] Mohawk: Kaniatarowanenneh, meaning "big waterway") is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. The Saint Lawrence River flows in a roughly north-easterly direction, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean and forming the primary drainage outflow of the Great Lakes Basin. It traverses the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and is part of the international boundary between Ontario, Canada, and the U.S. state of New York. This river also provides the basis of the commercial Saint Lawrence Seaway.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 History
3 Resident whales
4 Sources
5 Works
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Geography[edit]
The Saint Lawrence River begins at the outflow of Lake Ontario and flows adjacent to Gananoque, Brockville, Morristown, Ogdensburg, Massena, Cornwall, Montreal, Trois-Rivières, and Quebec City before draining into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the largest estuary in the world.[4] The estuary begins at the eastern tip of Île d'Orléans, just downstream from Quebec City.[2] The river becomes tidal around Quebec City.[5]
The Saint Lawrence River runs 3,058 kilometres (1,900 mi) from the farthest headwater to the mouth and 1,197 km (743.8 mi) from the outflow of Lake Ontario. These numbers include the estuary; without the estuary the length from Lake Ontario is ca. 500 km (ca. 300 mi). The farthest headwater is the North River in the Mesabi Range at Hibbing, Minnesota. Its drainage area, which includes the Great Lakes, the world's largest system of freshwater lakes, is 1,344,200 square kilometres (518,998.5 sq mi), of which 839,200 km2 (324,016.9 sq mi) is in Canada and 505,000 km2 (194,981.6 sq mi) is in the United States. The basin covers parts of Ontario and Quebec in Canada, parts of Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin, and nearly the entirety of the state of Michigan in the United States. The average discharge below the Saguenay River is 16,800 cubic metres per second (590,000 cu ft/s). At Quebec City, it is 12,101 m3/s (427,300 cu ft/s). The average discharge at the river's source, the outflow of Lake Ontario, is 7,410 m3/s (262,000 cu ft/s).[2]
The Saint Lawrence River includes Lake Saint-Louis south of Montreal, Lake Saint Francis at Salaberry-de-Valleyfield and Lac Saint-Pierre east of Montreal. It encompasses four archipelagoes: the Thousand Islands chain near Alexandria Bay, New York and Kingston, Ontario; the Hochelaga Archipelago, including the Island of Montreal and Île Jésus (Laval); the Lake St. Pierre Archipelago (classified biosphere world reserve by the UNESCO in 2000)[6] and the smaller Mingan Archipelago. Other islands include Île d'Orléans near Quebec City and Anticosti Island north of the Gaspé. It is the second longest river in Canada.
Lake Champlain and the Ottawa, Richelieu, Saint-Maurice, Saint-François and Saguenay rivers drain into the Saint Lawrence.
The Saint Lawrence River is in a seismically active zone where fault reactivation is believed to occur along late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic normal faults related to the opening of Iapetus Ocean. The faults in the area are rift related and are called the Saint Lawrence rift system.
According to the United States Geological Survey, the Saint Lawrence Valley is a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian division, containing the Champlain and Northern physiographic section.[7] However, in Canada, where most of the valley is, it is instead considered part of a distinct Saint Lawrence Lowlands physiographic division, and not part of the Appalachian division at all.[8]
History[edit]
Map of 1543 showing Cartier's discoveries
Basque settlements and sites dating from the 16th and 17th centuries
Though the Norse explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in the 11th century and were followed by fifteenth and early sixteenth century European mariners, such as John Cabot, the brothers Gaspar, Miguel Corte-Real, and Alonso Sanchez. The first European explorer known to have sailed up the Saint Lawrence River itself was Jacques Cartier. At that time, the land along the river was inhabited by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians; at the time of Cartier's second voyage in 1535. Because Cartier arrived in the estuary on Saint Lawrence's feast day, he named it the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.[9] The Saint Lawrence River is partly within the U.S. and as such is that country's sixth oldest surviving European place-name.[10]
The earliest regular Europeans in the area were the Basques, who came to the St Lawrence Gulf and River in pursuit of whales from the early 16th century. The Basque whalers and fishermen traded with indigenous Americans and set up settlements, leaving vestiges all over the coast of eastern Canada and deep into the Saint Lawrence River. Basque commercial and fishing activity reached its peak before the Armada Invencible's disaster (1588), when the Spanish Basque whaling fleet was confiscated by King Philip II of Spain and largely destroyed. Initially, the whaling galleons from Labourd were not affected by the Spanish defeat.
Until the early 17th century, the French used the name Rivière du Canada to designate the Saint Lawrence upstream to Montreal and the Ottawa River after Montreal. The Saint Lawrence River served as the main route for European exploration of the North American interior, first pioneered by French explorer Samuel de Champlain.
Control of the river was crucial to British strategy to capture New France in the Seven Years' War. Having captured Louisbourg in 1758, the British sailed up to Quebec the following year thanks to charts drawn up by James Cook. British troops were ferried via the Saint Lawrence to attack the city from the west, which they successfully did at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The river was used again by the British to defeat the French siege of Quebec under the Chevalier de Lévis in 1760.
Because of the virtually impassable Lachine Rapids, the Saint Lawrence was once continuously navigable only as far as Montreal. Opened in 1825, the Lachine Canal was the first to allow ships to pass the rapids. An extensive system of canals and locks, known as the Saint Lawrence Seaway, was officially opened on 26 June 1959 by Elizabeth II (representing Canada) and President Dwight D. Eisenhower (representing the United States). The Seaway now permits ocean-going vessels to pass all the way to Lake Superior.
During the Second World War, the Battle of the St. Lawrence involved submarine and anti-submarine actions throughout the lower Saint Lawrence River and the entire Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Strait of Belle Isle and Cabot Strait from May to October 1942, September 1943, and again in October and November 1944. During this time, German U-boats sank several merchant marine ships and three Canadian warships.
In the late 1970s, the river was the subject of a successful ecological campaign (called "Save the River"), originally responding to planned development by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The campaign was organized, among others, by Abbie Hoffman.[citation needed]
Resident whales[edit]
See also: Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park
Watching fin whales off Tadoussac
Beluga whale (Near Threatened)
Sperm whale (Vulnerable)
Minke whale
Fin whale (Endangered)
Blue whale (Endangered)
Northern bottlenose whale
Northern Atlantic right whale (now rarer due to Endangered status, but increasing in St. Lawrence regions since in 1995 or 1998[11])[12][13][14][15]
Bowhead whale (very occasionally, historically common)
North Atlantic gray whale (Extinct)[16]
Humpback whale
Sources[edit]
The source of the North River in the Mesabi Range in Minnesota (Seven Beaver Lake) is considered to be the source of the Saint Lawrence River. Because it crosses so many lakes, the water system frequently changes its name. From source to mouth, the names are:
North River[17]
Saint Louis River[18]
Lake Superior
Saint Marys River
Lake Huron
Saint Clair River
Lake Saint Clair
Detroit River
Lake Erie
Niagara River
Lake Ontario
The Saint Lawrence River also passes through Lake Saint-Louis and Lake Saint-Pierre in Quebec.
Saint Lawrence River between Quebec City (left foreground) and Lévis (seen at right). The Île d'Orléans appears in the central distance.
Works[edit]
The Saint Lawrence River is at the heart of many Quebec novels (Anne Hébert's Kamouraska, Réjean Ducharme's L'avalée des avalés), poems (in works of Pierre Morency, Bernard Pozier), and songs (Leonard Cohen's "Suzanne", Michel Rivard's "L'oubli", Joe Dassin's "Dans les yeux d'Émilie"), and André Gagnon's "Le Saint-Laurent"). The river was the setting for the Canadian television drama series Seaway. The river has also been portrayed in paintings, notably by the Group of Seven. In addition, the river is the namesake of Saint-Laurent Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority.
In 1980 Jacques Cousteau traveled to Canada to make two films on the Saint Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, Cries from the Deep and St. Lawrence: Stairway to the Sea.[19]
Musician David Usher released the song "St. Lawrence River" on his Little Songs album in 1998.[20]
The novel and film Black Robe is set primarily on the St. Lawrence River during the 17th century.
See also[edit]
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
Estuary of Saint Lawrence
Lac Saint-Pierre
Lachine Rapids
RMS Empress of Ireland
Saint Lawrence Seaway
Steamboats in Canada
NEPCO 140 Oil Spill
Boldt Castle
Container on barge
Grindstone Island
Jorstadt Castle
Wellesley Island
List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem)
List of longest rivers of Canada
List of Quebec rivers
List of Ontario rivers
List of New York rivers
List of crossings of the Saint Lawrence River
Geography of Canada portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Natural Resources Canada, Atlas of Canada - Rivers
^ Jump up to: a b c Benke, Arthur C.; Cushing, Colbert E. (2005). Rivers of North America. Academic Press. pp. 989–990. ISBN 978-0-12-088253-3. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Rudes, B. Tuscarora English Dictionary Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999
Jump up ^ Arkus, Mike (27 October 2014). "Down the St. Lawrence, the World's Largest Estuary: Canadian Odyssey on the Looney Front - Part 21". Huffington Post. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Samuel Edward (October 2007). The Saint Lawrence: Its Basin and Border-lands. Heritage Books. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7884-2252-2. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Lac Saint-Pierre et son archipel. Pleinairalacarte.com (2008-11-07). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
Jump up ^ "Physiographic divisions of the conterminous U.S." U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Physiographic Regions of Canada" (PDF). Natural Resources Canada. Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Johnson, William Henry (2007-05-20). French Pathfinders in North America. Gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
Jump up ^ The Spanish names Florida, Dry Tortugas, Cape Canaveral, Appalachian, and California appeared earlier.....From Spanish historian Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas's accounts, published in 1601 -- Stewart, George (1945). Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. New York: Random House. pp. 11–17, 29.
Jump up ^ "Une baleine noire en vue! Merci d'appeler Urgences Mammifères Marins! - Baleines en direct".
Jump up ^ "Introduction". Archived from the original on 22 October 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Hear them coming: right whales return to the Gulf of St. Lawrence". Fisheries and Oceans Canada Homepage. 2013-04-22. Retrieved 2016-02-05.
Jump up ^ "Une baleine noire dans le Parc marin du Saguenay-Saint-Laurent".
Jump up ^ "Une baleine noire observée près de l'île Rouge - Baleines en direct".
Jump up ^ Regional Species Extinctions - Examples of regional species extinctions over the last 1000 years and more.
Jump up ^ "Saint Lawrence River and Seaway". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
Jump up ^ "Saint Lawrence". MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Ohayon, Albert (2009). "When Cousteau Came to Canada". NFB.ca. National Film Board of Canada. Retrieved 2009-10-25.
Jump up ^ https://www.amazon.ca/Little-Songs-Usher-David/dp/B000065Q67/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&qid=1410971002&sr=8-5&keywords=little+songs
Further reading[edit]
Creighton, Donald Grant (2002) [1937], The empire of the St. Lawrence: a study in commerce and politics (reprint), University of Toronto Press, ISBN 0-8020-8418-4
Dawson, Samuel Edward (2003), The Saint Lawrence: Its Basin and Border-lands, Heritage Books, ISBN 0-7884-2252-9
Ellis, William S. (May 1980). "Canada's Highway to the Sea". National Geographic. Vol. 157 no. 5. pp. 586–623. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
McNeese, Tim (2005), The St. Lawrence River, Chelsea House Publishers, ISBN 0791082458
Parham, Claire Puccia (2009), The St. Lawrence Seaway and Power Project : an oral history of the greatest construction show on earth, Syracuse University, ISBN 978-0-8156-0913-1
Stagg, Ronald (2010), The Golden Dream: A History of the St. Lawrence Seaway, Dundurn Press, ISBN 978-1-55002-887-4
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saint Lawrence River.
Regional Geography of the Saint Lawrence River
Information about Juniper Island (Ontario)
St. Lawrence Parks Commission (Ontario)
Great Lakes Saint Lawrence Seaway System
Safe Passage: Aids to Navigation on the Saint Lawrence – Historical essay, illustrated with drawings and photographs
Annotated Bibliography on St. Lawrence County and Northern New York region.
International Saint Lawrence River Board of Control
Saint Lawrence River from The Canadian Encyclopedia
Saint Lawrence River Cam
Watch the Jacques Cousteau documentary, St. Lawrence: Stairway to the Sea
The Steamboats Sir James Kemp and Lord Dalhousie on the River St. Lawrence, Upper Canada in 1833 by D.J. Kennedy, Historical Society of Pennsylvania

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