text:
Stand and Deliver
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Stand and Deliver (disambiguation).
Stand and Deliver
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Ramón Menéndez
Produced by
Tom Musca
Written by
Ramón Menéndez
Tom Musca
Starring
Edward James Olmos
Lou Diamond Phillips
Rosanna DeSoto
Andy García
Music by
Craig Safan
Cinematography
Tom Richmond
Edited by
Nancy Richardson
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Release date
February 13, 1988 (1988-02-13) (Miami)
March 11, 1988 (1988-03-11) (United States)
Running time
102 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$1.6 million[1]
Box office
$13.9 million[2]
Stand and Deliver is a 1988 American drama film based on the true story of high school math teacher Jaime Escalante. For portraying Escalante, Edward James Olmos was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor at the 61st Academy Awards.[3] The film was added to the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress in 2011.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Historical accuracy
4 Accolades
5 Legacy
6 In popular culture
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Plot[edit]
Escalante (Olmos) becomes a math teacher at James A. Garfield High School in East Los Angeles. The school is full of Hispanic students from working-class families who are far below their grade level in terms of academic skills and also have a lot of social problems. Escalante seeks to change the school culture to help the students excel in academics. He soon realizes the untapped potential of his class and sets a goal of having the students taking AP Calculus by their senior year. Escalante instructs his class under the philosophy of ganas, roughly translating to "desire" or "motivation."
The students begin taking summer classes in advanced mathematics with Escalante, who must withstand the cynicism of the other faculty, which feels that the students are not capable enough. As they struggle with the lower expectations that they face in society, Escalante helps them to overcome adversity and to pass the AP Calculus exams.
To his dismay, the Educational Testing Service questions the success of the students, insisting there is too much overlap in their errors and suggesting the students cheated. Escalante defends his students and feels that the allegations are based more on racial and economic perceptions. He offers to have the students retake the test months later, and the students all succeed in passing the test again, despite only a day to prepare, which ends all concerns of cheating.
Cast[edit]
Edward James Olmos as Jaime Escalante
Lou Diamond Phillips as Angel David Guzman
Rosanna DeSoto as Fabiola Escalante
Andy García as Dr. Ramirez
Ingrid Oliu as Lupe
Will Gotay as Pancho
Lydia Nicole as Rafaela Fuentes
Vanessa Marquez as Ana Delgado
James Victor as Mr. Delgado, Ana's father
Estelle Harris as school secretary
Historical accuracy[edit]
Ten of the students agreed to sign waivers to allow the College Board their exam parts to Jay Mathews, the author of Escalante: The Best Teacher in America. Mathews found that nine of them had made "identical silly mistakes" on free response question 6. Mathews heard from two of the students that during the exam, a piece of paper had been passed around with that flawed solution.[4] Twelve students, including the nine with the identical mistakes, retook the exam, and most of them received the top 4 and 5 scores. In 1987, 27% of all Mexican Americans who scored 3 or higher on the calculus AP exam were students at Garfield High.[5] Mathews wrote in Los Angeles Times that the Ana Delgado character "was the only teenage character in the film based on a real person"[6] and that her name had been changed.
Escalante first began teaching at Garfield High School in 1974 and taught his first AP Calculus course in 1978 with a group of 14 students. Only five students remained in the course at the end of the year, only two of whom passed the AP Calculus exam.[7] Reason stated, "Unlike the students in the movie, the real Garfield students required years of solid preparation before they could take calculus. So Escalante established a program at East Los Angeles College where students could take those classes in intensive seven-week summer sessions. Escalante and [principal Henry] Gradillas were also instrumental in getting the feeder schools to offer algebra in the eighth and ninth grades.[8]
Escalante himself described the film as "90% truth, 10% drama." He stated that several points were left out of the film. He pointed out that no student who did not know multiplication tables or fractions was ever taught calculus in a single year. Also, he suffered inflammation of the gall bladder, not a heart attack.
Accolades[edit]
Award
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
Ref(s)
Academy Awards Best Actor Edward James Olmos Nominated [9]
Golden Globe Awards Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama [10]
Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture Lou Diamond Phillips
Independent Spirit Awards Best Feature Tom Musca Won [11]
Best Director Ramón Menéndez
Best Male Lead Edward James Olmos
Best Supporting Male Lou Diamond Phillips
Best Supporting Female Rosanna De Soto
Best Screenplay Ramón Menéndez
Tom Musca
Best Cinematography Tom Richmond Nominated
Legacy[edit]
In December 2011, Stand and Deliver was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.[12] The Registry said the film was "one of the most popular of a new wave of narrative feature films produced in the 1980s by Latino filmmakers" and that it "celebrates in a direct, approachable, and impactful way, values of self-betterment through hard work and power through knowledge."[12]
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2003: AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:
Jaime A. Escalante – Nominated Hero[13]
2006: AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – #86[14]
In popular culture[edit]
The episode of South Park entitled "Eek, a Penis!" borrows heavily from the plot of Stand and Deliver, with Cartman assuming a similar role to that played by Edward James Olmos, but in the film, the students were falsely accused of cheating. In the episode, the students actually cheated and got away with it.[15][16]
American senator Rand Paul (R-KY) was accused of plagiarizing near-verbatim portions of the plot summary from the Wikipedia article on Stand and Deliver in two speeches on immigration.[17][18]
See also[edit]
1988 in film
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers
List of American films of 1988
Greater Los Angeles portal
Film portal
1980s portal
Education portal
Latino and Hispanic American portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Klady, Leonard (January 8, 1989). "Box Office Champs, Chumps : The hero of the bottom line was the 46-year-old 'Bambi'". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ "Stand and Deliver (1988)". BoxOfficeMojo.com. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "'Rain Man' Given 8 Oscar Nominations; Sigourney 2 : Hoffman Wins 6th Acting Nod". Articles.LATimes.com. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jay Mathews: Retest D.C. Classes That Had Dubious Exam Results in '08". The Washington Post. 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Jay Mathews: Retest D.C. Classes That Had Dubious Exam Results in '08". The Washington Post. 2009-09-14. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Jay Mathews:Lessons For a Lifetime". Los Angeles Times. 2010-04-04. Retrieved 2015-11-12.
Jump up ^ Woo, Elaine (2010-03-31). "Jaime Escalante dies at 79; math teacher who challenged East L.A. students to 'Stand and Deliver' - pp. 1-2". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2012-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Jerry Jesness:Stand and Deliver Revisited". Reason. July 2002. Retrieved 2015-11-12.
Jump up ^ "THE 61ST ACADEMY AWARDS - 1989". Oscars.org. Academy Awards. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Winners & Nominees 1989". GoldenGlobes,org. Golden Globe Awards. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "32 Years of Nominees & Winners, 1986-2017" (PDF). FilmIndependent.org. Independent Spirit Awards. Retrieved 3 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "2011 National Film Registry More Than a Box of Chocolates". Library of Congress. December 28, 2011. Retrieved December 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains Nominees" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-08-14.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers" (PDF). American Film Institute. Retrieved 2016-08-14.
Jump up ^ "South Park: "Eek, A Penis!"". The A.V. Club. 10 April 2008. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "South Park: "Eek!, A Penis!" Review". IGN. IGN. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Rand Paul Has Given Speeches Plagiarized From Wikipedia Before". Buzzfeed. 29 Oct 2013. Retrieved 30 Oct 2013.
Jump up ^ "More Wikipedia copying in Rand Paul Speeches". The Rachel Maddow Show. 29 Oct 2013. Retrieved 30 Oct 2013.
External links[edit]
Stand and Deliver on IMDb
Stand and Deliver at AllMovie
Stand and Deliver at Rotten Tomatoes
Stand and Deliver at Box Office Mojo
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Ramón Menéndez
Stand and Deliver (1988)
Money for Nothing (1993)
Gotta Kick It Up! (2002)
[show]
v
t
e
Independent Spirit Award for Best Film
After Hours (1985)
Platoon (1986)
River's Edge (1987)
Stand and Deliver (1988)
Sex, Lies, and Videotape (1989)
The Grifters (1990)
Rambling Rose (1991)
The Player (1992)
Short Cuts (1993)
Pulp Fiction (1994)
Leaving Las Vegas (1995)
Fargo (1996)
The Apostle (1997)
Gods and Monsters (1998)
Election (1999)
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000)
Memento (2001)
Far from Heaven (2002)
Lost in Translation (2003)
Sideways (2004)
Brokeback Mountain (2005)
Little Miss Sunshine (2006)
Juno (2007)
The Wrestler (2008)
Precious (2009)
Black Swan (2010)
The Artist (2011)
Silver Linings Playbook (2012)
12 Years a Slave (2013)
Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014)
Spotlight (2015)
Moonlight (2016)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stand_and_Deliver&oldid=800679482"
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text:
Rollover protection structure
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
"ROPS" redirects here. For other uses, see Rops (disambiguation).
A rollover protection system or rollover protection structure (ROPS) (/roʊps/ or /ˌɑːroʊpiˈɛs/) is a system or structure intended to protect equipment operators and motorists from injuries caused by vehicle overturns or rollovers. Like rollcages and rollbars in cars and trucks, a ROPS involves bars attached to the frame that maintain a space for the operator's body in the event of rollover.
Unimog fire engine with roll over protection structures
ROPS bar on a Fordson tractor.
Roll over protection structure on an MF 135. Photo: K.A. Gallis.
Commonly found on heavy equipment (i.e. tractors), earth-moving machinery and UTVs used in construction, agriculture and mining, ROPS structures are defined by various regulatory agencies, including the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).[1] The regulations include both a strength requirement as well as an energy absorption requirement of the structure. Some dump trucks add a protrusion to their boxes that cover the operator's compartment for ROPS purposes.
ROPS are commonly fitted to 4x4's, pickup trucks, earth moving equipment, soil compactors and utes used in the mining industry. Products such as this were developed out of necessity so employees travelling around or within mine sites were provided with extra protection in the event of a fleet vehicle roll over.[2]
In the US, ROPS designs have to be certified by a Professional Engineer, who will normally require a destructive test. The structure will be tested at a reduced temperature (where the metal is more brittle), or fabricated from materials that have satisfactory low temperature performance.[3]
In Australia and most other countries, the International Organization for Standardization has guidelines for destructively testing ROPS structures on earthmoving machinery, excavators, forestry equipment and tractors. Theoretical performance analysis of major new design ROPS is not permitted as an alternative to physical testing.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Variants
2 History
2.1 Rollover injury and fatality
2.2 Usage rates
2.3 ROPS adoption
2.3.1 Barriers to ROPS installation in the United States
2.3.2 Programs to increase ROPS installation in the U.S.
3 Current efforts to increase ROPS adoption in the United States
3.1 National Tractor Safety Coalition (NTSC)
3.2 National ROPS Rebate Program
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Variants[edit]
Some tractor operators have raised concerns about using ROPS in low-clearance environments, such as in orchards and buildings. In response, NIOSH developed an Automatically Deploying Rollover Protective Structure (AutoROPS) which stays in a lowered position until a rollover condition is determined, at which time it deploys to a fully extended and locked position. It is currently working with manufacturers to streamline the commercialization of this technology.[5] The Division of Safety Research branch of NIOSH has developed cost-effective rollover protection structures (CROPS) for four tractor models (Ford 8N, Ford 3000, Ford 4000, Massey Ferguson 135), in an effort to provide safety for older model tractors.[6]
Some automobile models have begun to adopt the phrase, substituting system for structure in the ROPS acronym, notably the Volvo C70 convertible models, and Jaguar XK. Their ROPS structures consist of two pyrotechnically charged roll hoops hidden behind the rear seats that will pop up in the case of a roll-over to protect the occupants. If the roof is up, the system will still work, shattering the rear window at the same time.[7]
History[edit]
Rollover injury and fatality[edit]
Tractor rollover has become one of the leading causes of occupational death in the agricultural industry. In the United States from 1992 to 2005, 1,412 workers were killed from tractor rollover, with roughly 10,000 suffering an injury.[8] These rollover fatalities represented about 20% of all agricultural fatalities.[9] During 2003 to 2010, 933 workers in agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting industries were killed as a result of tractor rollover, accounting for over 63% of all tractor-related deaths.[10] The National Safety Council estimates that between 150 and 200 tractor operators are killed due to rollover in the U.S. each year.[11] Researchers have also attempted to estimate the chances that a tractor rollover will result in a fatality of the operator. An adjusted probability of about 8 deaths per 100 tractor overturns (8%) was extrapolated using data from the Kentucky Fatality Assessment and Control Evaluation (FACE) Program.[11] Furthermore, youth are particularly at risk of being crushed or pinned by a machine (all-terrain vehicle, tractor, etc.) that is not equipped with a rollover bar. All-terrain vehicles and tractors continue to be leading causes of fatal injury among youth in agricultural settings.[12]
The installation of Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS) on older tractors that lack these protective devices has been identified as a viable solution for reducing overturn fatality rates among U.S. farmers.[13][14][15] When worn with a seat belt, these engineering controls are 99% effective in preventing operator death if an overturn occurs.[16][17] The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (USA) estimates that fatality rates from tractor overturns in the U.S. could be reduced by a minimum of 71% if all tractors were equipped with ROPS.[18] When paired with proper seat belt use on tractors, NIOSH estimates that ROPS could eliminate nearly all fatalities caused by tractor and lawn mower overturns.[5] Without a seat belt, the ROPS is still 70% effective in preventing operator death,[19] though there is a possibility that the rider may be thrown from the tractor during the overturn, and thus left unprotected by the ROPS.[18]
Usage rates[edit]
Research from Sweden shows that the fatality rate from tractor rollover remains stable when ROPS prevalence rates range from 40% to 75%; only until the rate of ROPS adoption reaches 75% to 80% does the fatality rate from rollover fall significantly, to near-zero.[8] The latest estimates of tractors equipped with ROPS in the United States show that 59% of tractors were ROPS-equipped in 2006, an increase from the 38% in 1993. With steady increases in the installation of ROPS, it is projected that the rollover fatality rate will decline steadily, until reaching a rate near zero by 2028.[19]
ROPS usage has also appeared to be linked to a number of factors. There is regional variation in ROPS usage within the United States, as estimates from 2006 showed that tractor operators in the South had the highest prevalence of ROPS usage at 65%, while the Northeast had the lowest prevalence of ROPS usage at 51%.[8] The West and Midwest reported rates of 60% and 56% respectively.[8]
Age of tractor operator is a large risk factor, as increasing age is associated with decreasing rates of ROPS usage.[19] The oldest group of tractor operators, those ages 65 and above, have the lowest rate of overall ROPS usage at 42%.[19] Additionally, older tractor operators are more likely to suffer fatality and severe injury outcomes following tractor rollover than younger operators.[8] Along with the age of the tractor operator, the age of the tractor itself is a risk factor. Older tractor models are less likely to be equipped with ROPS, possibly owing to impracticality in installation or to mandated installations in newer models. Further, older tractors are more dangerous than newer tractors, possessing narrow front ends and a higher center of gravity, as well as being more prone to operational failure.[20]
Economics also appears to be a major factor in rates of ROPS adoption. Farms with low value of sales, part-time operations, and smaller acreage are less likely to employ ROPS-equipped tractors than farms with high value of sales, full-time operations, and larger acreage.[19] Additionally, farms that use more hired labor over non-hired labor (family) are found to have fewer fatal tractor overturns.[8] Overall, farms that are more economically viable are more likely to install ROPS on tractors than smaller, lower-income farms.[19]
ROPS adoption[edit]
Tractor rollover deaths have been identified as a public health problem since the 1920s.[9] Research efforts from several countries towards the development of engineering controls to reduce injury from rollover persisted for several decades before any legislation took place[21]. In 1959, Sweden became the first country to enact ROPS legislation, requiring all newly manufactured tractors in the country to have ROPS installed.[10] This requirement was expanded in 1965, requiring all tractors in Sweden, regardless of manufacture date, to have ROPS installed if it was operated by an employee and not the actual owner.[10][22] Similar legislation requiring ROPS installation has been enacted in Australia, Germany, and Denmark.[9]
In the United States, standards for ROPS design and utilization for tractors were first developed in 1967 by the American Society for Agricultural and Biological Engineers.[10] ROPS legislation was passed in 1975, with OSHA requiring that all tractors manufactured from 25 October 1976 onwards be equipped with ROPS.[10] In 1985, the development of a new voluntary safety standard by the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (S318.10) encouraged an initiative by American tractor manufacturers to equip new tractors over 20 horsepower with ROPS.[19][23]
Agricultural health and safety researchers have observed that increases in ROPS protected tractors in the United States can largely be tied to attrition (older tractors without ROPS being replaced with newer tractors with ROPS) vs. installation of ROPS.[14] Additional studies have indicated the need to promote and facilitate ROPS installation on older tractors, as many farmers are unwilling to replace their older tractors.[9][24][25] Overall, these studies demonstrate that relying on the eventual replacement of ROPS is not an expeditious solution to tractor overturn deaths and will result in the death of many U.S. tractor operators over the next few decades.[14][26]
Barriers to ROPS installation in the United States[edit]
Over the past few decades, quantitative and qualitative research studies have attempted to identify farmers’ potential barriers to ROPS adoption.[27][28][29] Cost, time to find and install ROPS parts, and dismissal of personal risk have all been prominently identified barriers to ROPS adoption.[28][30][31] Research also shows that knowledge of tractor overturn risks and the benefits of ROPS installation do not appear to stimulate farmer interest in installing ROPS.[32] Equipment dealers have also cited a number of barriers, such as a perceived lack of farmer interest, injury liability, difficulty recovering expenses and a lack of understanding amongst dealers regarding the magnitude of the overturn fatality problem, which negatively impacts dealers’ interest in ROPS installation.[33]
Programs to increase ROPS installation in the U.S.[edit]
Several strategies have been employed to address these barriers and motivate farmers to install ROPS. In 1985, equipment manufacturers launched a promotional campaign to encourage ROPS installation activities, although industry representatives state the campaign did not stimulate considerable interest in ROPS installation in the farm community [1]. Education has also been largely employed by extension agents and agricultural health and safety educators as a means for increasing ROPS installations [1], although evaluations of educational interventions indicate they do not markedly decrease agricultural worker injury rates or increase ROPS installation activity.[32][34] However, in Kentucky, a community awareness campaign did appear to increase interest in ROPS installation.[35] Various state farm bureaus (VA, NC, and IL) have also offered financial incentives for members to install ROPS [1] [5], while an online ROPS Inventory Site called the KY ROPS Guide, was developed to assist farmers searching for ROPS.[36]
In 2006, the New York ROPS Rebate Program was launched in an effort to increase access to ROPS among New York tractor operators; this addressed the Northeastern United States' consistently lower rates of ROPS usage than other regions of the United States.[37] The program has since expanded to seven states including NY, PA, VT, NH, WI, MA, and MN.[38]
These programs incorporate a number of components that build on prior ROPS research. These include targeted promotions, rebates for 70% of the cost to install ROPS (with varying caps on farmers out of pocket expense) and toll-free ROPS hotline assistance with the ROPS purchase and ordering process.[39] Rebate funding is provided via state funding resources or private industry / fundraising campaigns.[40] Programs have increased farmer interest in ROPS installation with an average of 1,200 calls annually to the ROPS hotline and farmers are generally satisfied with these services (99% of program participants would recommend the program to other farmers).[41] Programs have also documented the prevention of injury and death for farmers who have participated in these installation programs.[42]
Current efforts to increase ROPS adoption in the United States[edit]
National Tractor Safety Coalition (NTSC)[edit]
In an effort to build on the momentum of prior ROPS interventional efforts to create a national ROPS installation solution, a number of research, government and industry groups organized a two-day ‘Whole-System-in-the-Room’ workshop in Chicago, IL on May 2014.[43] The purpose of the meeting was to outline a national strategy for ROPS installation that all stakeholders could agree on and to engage multiple industry groups in strategy implementation efforts. Close to 50 organizations were represented at the meeting and included representatives from the following industry groups: manufacturers and dealers, agricultural organizations, health and safety organizations, financial and insurance groups, government organizations, researchers, private corporations, media, farmers/farm safety advocates.[44] By the end of the meeting, the National Tractor Safety Coalition was officially organized with the mission "to prevent tractor-related injuries and deaths in U.S. agriculture by developing and implementing collaborative, stakeholder-driven, evidence-based solutions." A detailed list of common goals are featured in the NIOSH Science Blog "The National Tractor Safety Coalition: Taking a new systems-approach to a well-known problem."[45]
Currently the Coalition includes 87 members from a number of agricultural or health related organizations. These organizations include: NIOSH, American Farm Bureau Federation, Farm Foundation, and several Universities, Extension agencies, NIOSH Agricultural Safety and Health Centers, State Departments of Health, and insurance companies, among others [32]. Some members serve on the NTSC Steering Committee, which meets on a monthly basis and provide guidance on the overarching initiative to expand ROPS installation programs nationally while others provide assistance on various aspects of national ROPS implementation efforts, such as promotions, testimonials, congressional outreach or networking. A manufacturing and technology task force has also been assembled, and provides guidance to the group on technical issues [30].
National ROPS Rebate Program[edit]
NTSC activities are focused on building the necessary structure and support for a National ROPS Rebate Program that will mirror the existing ROPS programs in NY, VT, PA, NH, MA, WI, and MN. Additional information on the NRRP can be found at www.ROPSR4U.com.[39] Given the NTSC’s broad mission to address tractor-related deaths, the group seeks to tackle issues such as run-overs or implement entanglements once a National ROPS Rebate Program has been sustainably established.
See also[edit]
Active rollover protection
Gyroscope
Roll cage
Side Impact Protection System
WHIPS
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See OSHA Roll-Over Protective Structures, Direct Final Rule.
Jump up ^ "History of ROPS". Minecorp. Archived from the original on 11 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Agricultural Safety and Health". web.extension.illinois.edu/agsafety/factsheets/rops.cfm. 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "ISO Update". International Organization for Statistics. May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b See National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (US) NIOSH Program Portfolio: Traumatic Injury: Selected Research-to-Practice Efforts Addressing Traumatic Injury Problems: Automatically deployed roll-over-protection structure (ROPS).
Jump up ^ "CDC - Agricultural Safety: Cost-effective Rollover Protection Structures". NIOSH. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "picture of broken c70 window and deployed ROPS". Retrieved 21 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Myers, John R.; Hendricks, Kitty J. (2010). "Agricultural tractor overturn deaths: Assessment of trends and risk factors". American Journal of Industrial Medicine. 53 (7): 662–72. doi:10.1002/ajim.20775. PMID 19894222.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Murphy, Dennis J.; Myers, John; McKenzie Jr, E.A.; Cavaletto, Richard; May, John; Sorensen, Julie (2010). "Tractors and Rollover Protection in the United States". Journal of Agromedicine. 15 (3): 249–63. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2010.484309. PMID 20665310.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Biddle, Elyce Anne; Keane, Paul R. (2012). "Action Learning: A New Method to Increase Tractor Rollover Protective Structure (ROPS) Adoption". Journal of Agromedicine. 17 (4): 398–409. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2012.713842. PMC 4721555  . PMID 22994641.
^ Jump up to: a b Cole, HP; Myers, ML; Westneat, SC (2006). "Frequency and severity of injuries to operators during overturns of farm tractors". Journal of agricultural safety and health. 12 (2): 127–38. doi:10.13031/2013.20386. PMID 16724789.
Jump up ^ Weichelt, Bryan; Gorucu, Serap (2018-02-17). "Supplemental surveillance: a review of 2015 and 2016 agricultural injury data from news reports on AgInjuryNews.org". Injury Prevention: injuryprev–2017–042671. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2017-042671. ISSN 1353-8047. PMID 29386372.
Jump up ^ Murphy, Dennis J.; Myers, John; McKenzie, E. A.; Cavaletto, Richard; May, John; Sorensen, Julie (2010-07-01). "Tractors and rollover protection in the United States". Journal of Agromedicine. 15 (3): 249–263. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2010.484309. ISSN 1545-0813. PMID 20665310.
^ Jump up to: a b c Conway, George A. (2010-01-01). "Retrofitting roll bars and seatbelts for old U.S. tractors to prevent farm deaths: now or never". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 16 (1): 3–4. doi:10.13031/2013.29250. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 20222266.
Jump up ^ "Public Health Focus: Effectiveness of Rollover Protective Structures for Preventing Injuries Associated with Agricultural Tractors". MMWR. 42 (3): 57–59. 1993.
Jump up ^ NIOSH Center Directors. National Agricultural Tractor Safety Initiative. E. Swenson, ed. Seattle: University of Washington, 2004.
Jump up ^ Myers, M. L. (2000-02-01). "Prevention effectiveness of rollover protective structures--Part I: Strategy evolution". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 6 (1): 29–40. doi:10.13031/2013.17812. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 10938751.
^ Jump up to: a b "CDC - NIOSH Science Blog - Preventing Death and Injury in Tractor Overturns with Roll-Over Protective Structures". NIOSH. Retrieved 10 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Loringer, Kelly A.; Myers, John R. (2008). "Tracking the prevalence of rollover protective structures on U.S. Farm tractors: 1993, 2001, and 2004". Journal of Safety Research. 39 (5): 509–17. doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2008.08.003. PMID 19010124.
Jump up ^ Sorensen, J. A.; May, J.; Ostby-Malling, R.; Lehmen, T.; Strand, J.; Stenlund, H.; Weinehall, L. W.; Emmelin, M. (2008). "Encouraging the installation of rollover protective structures in New York State: The design of a social marketing intervention". Scandinavian Journal of Public Health. 36 (8): 859–69. doi:10.1177/1403494808089655. PMID 19004904.
Jump up ^ Rudolphi, Josie M.; Campo, Shelly; Gerr, Fred; Rohlman, Diane S. (2018-05). "Social and Individual Influences on Tractor Operating Practices of Young Adult Agricultural Workers". Journal of Adolescent Health. 62 (5): 605–611. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.11.300. ISSN 1054-139X. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ The Swedish Work Environment Authority's regulation AFS 2004:06, page 10 (in Swedish)
Jump up ^ Alkhaledi, Khaled; Means, Kenneth; McKenzie, Eugene; Smith, James (2013). "Reducing occupational fatalities by using NIOSH 3rd generation automatically deployable rollover protective structure". Safety Science. 51 (1): 427–31. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2012.08.004.
Jump up ^ Myers, J. R. (2010-10-01). "Factors associated with the prevalence of non-ROPS tractors on farms in the U.S". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 16 (4): 265–278. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 21180350.
Jump up ^ Sorensen, JA; Conway, G; DeSpain, M; Wyckoff, S; Bayes, B; May, JJ (2011). "Dealing with tractors that can't be retrofitted: Exploring the viability of a tractor trade-in program". Journal of Agromedicine. 16 (1): 30–39.
Jump up ^ Myers, M. L.; Pana-Cryan, R. (2000-02-01). "Prevention effectiveness of rollover protective structures--Part II: Decision analysis". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 6 (1): 41–55. doi:10.13031/2013.2911. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 10938752.
Jump up ^ Sorensen, J. A.; May, J. J.; Jenkins, P. L.; Jones, A. M.; Earle-Richardson, G. B. (2006-08-01). "Risk perceptions, barriers, and motivators to tractor ROPS retrofitting in the New York state farm community". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 12 (3): 215–226. doi:10.13031/2013.21229. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 16981445.
^ Jump up to: a b Sorensen, J. A.; May, J. J.; Paap, K.; Purschwitz, M. A.; Emmelin, M. (2008-01-01). "Encouraging farmers to retrofit tractors: a qualitative analysis of risk perceptions among a group of high-risk farmers in New York". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 14 (1): 105–117. doi:10.13031/2013.24127. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 18376539.
Jump up ^ Jenkins, PL; Sorensen, JA; Yoder, A; Myers, M; Murphy, D; Cook, G; Wright, F; Bayes, B; May, JJ (2012). "Prominent Barriers and Key Motivators to Installing ROPS: An Analysis of Survey Responses from Pennsylvania and Vermont". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 18 (2): 103–112. doi:10.13031/2013.41328.
Jump up ^ Hallman, E. M. (2005-02-01). "ROPS retrofitting: measuring effectiveness of incentives and uncovering inherent barriers to success". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 11 (1): 75–84. doi:10.13031/2013.17898. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 15782890.
Jump up ^ Sanderson, W. T.; Madsen, M. D.; Rautiainen, R.; Kelly, K. M.; Zwerling, C.; Taylor, C. D.; Reynolds, S. J.; Stromquist, A. M.; Burmeister, L. F. (2006-02-01). "Tractor overturn concerns in Iowa: perspectives from the Keokuk county rural health study". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 12 (1): 71–81. doi:10.13031/2013.20198. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 16536175.
^ Jump up to: a b May, JJ; Sorensen, JA; Burdick, PA; Earle-Richardson, GB; Jenkins, PL (2006). "Rollover Protection on New York Tractors and Farmers Readiness to Change". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 12 (3): 199–213. doi:10.13031/2013.21228.
Jump up ^ Tonelli, S. M.; Donham, K. J.; Leedom-Larson, K.; Sanderson, W.; Purschwitz, M. (2009-10-01). "Retrofitting tractors with rollover protective structures: perspective of equipment dealers". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 15 (4): 365–375. doi:10.13031/2013.28890. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 19967910.
Jump up ^ Rautiainen, RH; Lehtola, MM; Day, LM; Schonstein, E; Suutarinen, J; Salminen, S; Verbeek (2008). "Interventions for preventing injuries in the agricultural industry". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 1: CD006398. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd006398.pub2.
Jump up ^ Myers, M. L.; Cole, H. P.; Westneat, S. C. (2005-06-01). "Cost effectiveness of a dealer's intervention in retrofitting rollover protective structures". Injury Prevention: Journal of the International Society for Child and Adolescent Injury Prevention. 11 (3): 169–173. doi:10.1136/ip.2004.007039. ISSN 1353-8047. PMC 1730229  . PMID 15933410.
Jump up ^ "ROPS Guide". warehouse.ca.uky.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-05.
Jump up ^ Sorensen, JA; Jenkins, PL; Bayes, B; Madden, E; Purschwitz, MA; May, JJ (2013). "Increases in ROPS pricing from 2006-2012 and the impact on ROPS demand". Journal of agricultural safety and health. 19 (2): 115–24. PMID 23923731.
Jump up ^ "ROPS Retrofit Program".
^ Jump up to: a b "Rollover Protective Structure ROPS Retrofit Program". www.ropsr4u.org. Retrieved 2016-11-05.
Jump up ^ Sorensen, Julie A.; Brewer, Devon; Wyckoff, Lynae; Horsman, Melissa; Scott, Erika; May, John J. (2013-06-01). "Building Safety Partnerships Using Social Network Analysis". Social Marketing Quarterly. 19 (2): 67–75. doi:10.1177/1524500413483457. ISSN 1524-5004.
Jump up ^ Rebecca Russell. ROPS Hotline Coordinator. Personal Communication. 2 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Sorensen, J. A.; Jenkins, P.; Bayes, B.; Clark, S.; May, J. J. (2010-01-01). "Cost-effectiveness of a ROPS social marketing campaign". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 16 (1): 31–40. doi:10.13031/2013.29247. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 20222269.
Jump up ^ Tinc, P. J.; Ayers, P. D.; May, J. J.; Purschwitz, M. A.; Sorensen, J. A. (2015-04-01). "Creating a National Coalition to Address Tractor Overturn Fatalities". Journal of Agricultural Safety and Health. 21 (2): 105–112. ISSN 1074-7583. PMID 26204786.
Jump up ^ Tinc, Pamela J.; Ayers, Paul; May, John J.; Purschwitz, Mark A.; Park, Samantha; Bayes, Barbara; Sorensen, Julie (2016-01-01). "Implementing a National Tractor Safety Program: Using "Whole System in a Room" to Mobilize Partners and Implement Solutions". Journal of Agromedicine. 21 (2): 127–131. doi:10.1080/1059924X.2016.1142916. ISSN 1545-0813. PMID 26788905.
Jump up ^ Sorensen J and Tinc P. The National Tractor Safety Coalition: Taking a new systems-approach to a well-known problem. 12 August 2014. Accessed 2 November 2016.
External links[edit]
The Kentucky ROPS Guide
Legislation in the EU: Council Directive 87/402/EEC of 25 June 1987 on roll over protection structures mounted in front of the driver's seat on narrow-track wheeled agricultural and forestry tractors. It was modified several times, for the latest version refer to the consolidated version.
ROPS test procedure (US State of Washington)
ROPS Decider
ROPS Rebate Program
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text:
Results of the War of 1812
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Results of the War of 1812 between Great Britain and the United States, 1812-1815, involved with no geographical changes. The main result of the war was two centuries of peace between the United States and Britain. All the causes of the war had disappeared with the end of the war between Britain and France and with the destruction of the power of Indians to block American expansion into the Northwest. American fears of the Native Americans ended, as did British plans to create a buffer Native American state. The American quest for honor after its humiliations by the British were satisfied. The final collapse of the opposition Federalist Party opened an "Era of good feelings" with lessened partisanship and an exuberant spirit. The British paid little attention to the war, concentrating instead on their final defeat of Napoleon in 1815. The U.S. failed to gain any territory from British North America, contrary to many American politicians' hopes and expectations, but it did gain land from Spain.[1]
After Napoleon's defeat in 1814, Britain was no longer at war with France and there were no restrictions on trade; the British suspended their policy of impressment of American sailors, and never resumed it, but they insisted they still had the right to resume it. Americans regained their honour[2] and proclaimed victory in what they called a "second war of independence" for the decisive defeat of the British invaders at New Orleans seemed to prove that Britain could never regain control of America,[3] and the threat of secession by New England ended with the failure of the Hartford Convention.
In Britain, the importance of the conflict was totally overshadowed by European triumphs: Napoleon had returned from exile in March 1815, and was finally defeated at Waterloo 100 days later.
Upper Canada emerged from the war with a sense of unity and pride as part of the British Empire. Anglophone Canadians claimed the war as a victory for their freedom from American control and credited their militia for the repulse of American invasions. Francophone Canadians largely ignore the war.
Contents
[hide]
1 Efforts to end the war
2 Negotiations
3 Native American affairs
4 Canada
5 Britain
6 United States
6.1 Impact on U.S. military
7 Honour
8 Economic impact
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
11.1 Memory of the war
12 External links
Efforts to end the war[edit]
Efforts to end the war began in 1812 when the chief U.S. diplomat in London proposed an armistice in return for a renunciation of impressments; the British refused. Later, in 1812, when the British captured Detroit and news of the repeal of the Orders reached Washington, Sir George Prevost arranged an armistice with his counterpart Henry Dearborn. However, President James Madison decided to continue the war. In 1813, Russia offered to mediate a peace, but London rejected the offer, because it might compromise British interests in Europe.[4] Finally, Great Britain and the United States agreed to commence peace negotiations in January 1814: the talks were delayed.
Negotiations[edit]
At last in August 1814, peace discussions began in the neutral city of Ghent. Both sides began negotiations with unrealistic demands. The U.S. wanted an end to all British maritime practices it deemed objectionable and also demanded cessions of Canadian territory and guaranteed fishing rights off Newfoundland. The British announced as an essential element of the peace treaty their long-standing goal of creating an Indian barrier state, a large "neutral" Indian state that would cover most of the Old Northwest. It would be independent of the United States and under the tutelage of the British, who would use it to block American expansion and to build up their control of the fur trade.[5] London dropped the demand when the Americans adamantly refused and indicated it would end the negotiations. The British had been weakened by the collapse of Tecumseh's Confederacy after the Battle of the Thames in 1813 and no longer controlled adequate supply lines to support an Indian barrier state.[6] Britain also wanted to keep the far-northeastern parts of Maine that had been captured to provide a land corridor to Quebec from the maritime colonies.
After months of negotiations, against the background of changing military victories, defeats and losses, the parties finally realized that their nations wanted peace and there was no real reason to continue the war. Now each side was tired of the war. Export trade was all but paralyzed and after Napoleon fell in 1814 France was no longer an enemy of Britain, so the Royal Navy no longer needed to stop American shipments to France, and it no longer needed more seamen. The British were preoccupied in rebuilding Europe after the apparent final defeat of Napoleon. The negotiators agreed to return to the status quo ante bellum with no changes in boundaries. Both sides signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814. The next and final step would be formal ratification by each government.[7]
The British—but not the Americans—knew, when they signed, that a battle was imminent at New Orleans (it was fought on January 8, 1815).[8] This treaty finally went into effect when it was formally ratified by both sides in February 1815.
The Treaty of Ghent failed to secure official British acknowledgment of American maritime rights, but in the century of peace between the worlds naval powers from 1815 until World War I these rights were not seriously violated. The British navy ended the practices that angered Americans, for they were no longer needed after Napoleon. American pride and honor was built as a result of the Indian threat being ended, and through rejoicing surrounding American victory at New Orleans.[9] In doing so, the United States had successfully created sense of becoming fully independent from Britain.[10]
Native American affairs[edit]
A key reason that American frontiersmen were so much in favor of the war in the first place was the threat by various Native American tribes, which they blamed on intervention by British agents in Canada. In addition, they wanted access to lands that the British acknowledged belonged to the U.S. but that the British were blocking by inciting and arming the Native Americans. With the death of Tecumseh in battle in 1813, the First Nation military power ended. The natives were the main losers in the war, losing British protection, and never regained their influence.[11]
In the Southeast, Andrew Jackson's destruction of Britain's allies, the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, ended the threat of Native American hostilities in that region. It opened vast areas in Georgia and Alabama for settlement as plantations and farmlands. The U.S. occupied all of West Florida during the war and in 1819 purchased the rest of Florida from Spain, thus closing the base of weapons for hostile tribes. Creek Indians who escaped to Spanish Florida joined the Seminoles there, and put up a long resistance known as the Seminole Wars.[12]
In the treaty, the British promised not to arm the Native Americans in the U.S. from Canada (nor even trade with them), and the U.S.-Canada border was largely pacified. However, some Americans assumed that the British continued to conspire with their former Native American allies in an attempt to forestall U.S. hegemony in the Great Lakes region. Such perceptions were faulty, argues Calloway (1987). After the Treaty of Ghent, the Native Americans in the Great Lakes region became an undesirable burden to British policymakers.[13]
Canada[edit]
Some in Washington had expected the largely American population of Upper Canada to throw off the "British yoke", but that did not happen. After 1815, British officials, Anglican clergy and Canadians loyal to the Empire tried to spot and root out American ideals, such as democracy and republicanism. Thus, the British and Loyalist elite were able to set the different colonies, of what would later become Canada, on a different course from that of their former enemy. Canada discouraged further American immigration.[14]
When the United States attacked British North America, most of the British forces were engaged in the Napoleonic Wars. Thus, British North America had minimal troops to defend against the United States, who had a much larger (though poorly trained) military force. For most of the war, British North America stood alone against a much stronger American force. Reinforcements from the United Kingdom did not arrive until 1814, the final year of the war. The repelling of the American force helped to foster British loyalties in the colonies that later became Canada.
The nationalistic sentiment caused a suspicion of such American ideas as republicanism, which would frustrate political reform in Upper and Lower Canada until the Rebellions of 1837. However, the War of 1812 started the process that ultimately led to Canadian Confederation in 1867. Canadian writer Pierre Berton has written that, although later events such as the rebellions and the Fenian raids of the 1860s were more important, Canada would have become part of the United States if the War of 1812 had not taken place, because more and more American settlers would have arrived and Canadian nationalism would not have developed.
The War of 1812 was highly significant in Britain's North American colonies. After the war, British sympathizers portrayed the war as a successful fight for national survival against an American democratic force that threatened the peace and stability the Canadians desired. Throughout the war, most of Canada's inhabitants assigned the war to an American desire to annex the British colonies, a perception reinforced by American Generals like William Hull, who issued proclamations stating that Canada would be annexed.[15]
An alleged Canadian myth from the war was that Canadian militiamen had performed admirably, while the British officers were largely ineffective. Jack Granatstein has termed this the "militia myth", and he feels it has had a deep effect on Canadian military thinking, which placed more stress on a citizens' militia than on a professional standing army. The United States suffered from a similar "frontiersman myth" at the start of the war, believing falsely that individual initiative and marksmanship could be effective against a well-disciplined British battle line. Granatstein argues that the militia was not particularly effective in the war and that any British military success was the work of British regular forces and the result of British domination over the sea. Isaac Brock, for example, was reluctant to trust the militia with muskets.[16]
Others argue that, in fact, the Canadian militia played important roles in several key engagements, including at the Battle of Chateauguay where they were central to defeating the American advance on Montreal in the fall of 1813.[17][18] Historian Robert Henderson has referred to this as "The myth of the Militia myth".[19] See: Canadian Units of the War of 1812
During the war, British officers constantly worried that the Americans would block the St. Lawrence River, which forms part of the Canada–U.S. border. If the U.S. military had done so, there would have been no British supply route for Upper Canada, where most of the land battles took place, and British forces would likely have had to withdraw or surrender all western British territory within a few months. British officers' dispatches after the war exhibited astonishment that the Americans never took such a simple step, but the British were not willing to count on the enemy repeating the mistake: as a result, Britain commissioned the Rideau Canal, an expensive project connecting Kingston, on Lake Ontario, to the Ottawa River, providing an alternative supply route that bypassed the part of the St. Lawrence River along the U.S. border. The settlement at the northeastern end of the canal, where it joins the Ottawa River, later became the city of Ottawa, Canada's fourth-largest city and its capital (placed inland to protect it from U.S. invasion—known then as the 'defensible back-country'). Because population away from the St. Lawrence shores was negligible, the British, in the years following the war, took great lengths to ensure that back-country settlement was increased. They settled soldiers and initiated assisted-immigration schemes, offering free land to farmers, mostly tenants of estates in the south of Ireland. The canal project was not completed until 1832 and was never used for its intended purpose.[20]
Britain[edit]
In contrast to Canada, the War of 1812 is seldom remembered in Britain today, as the conflict was quickly forgotten by the British public. Chiefly, this is because it was overshadowed by the dramatic events of the contemporary Napoleonic wars, and because Britain herself neither gained nor lost anything by the peace settlement, except for the fact that it kept control of Canada.[21]
The Royal Navy was acutely conscious that the United States Navy had won single-ship duels during the war, even though they had no strategic effect. Particular attention was given these battles because American propaganda had projected them as battles of equal force, when actually the only single ship duel where the forces were equal (although the British had fewer men) was the Battle of Boston Harbor which the British won. Furthermore, Britain had effectively won the war on the ocean as almost the entire US Navy was blockaded and unable to fight. British honor was restored when the USS President was captured and taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships that participated in battles of so-called equal force where actually much larger than the British ships they were engaged with.[22]
American privateers and commerce raiders had captured approximately 1200 British merchant ships, sending insurance rates up and embarrassing the Admiralty. Nevertheless, 50% of all American privateers were captured by the British while the privateers only captured 5% to 7% of British commerce. Meanwhile for every 14 American merchant ships that traded before the start of the war only 1 ship dared leave port during the war despite the American effort to double maritime trade. Furthermore of the few ships that left port, a total 1400 were captured. In addition, Britain did win many sea battles. The Royal Navy had been able to deploy overwhelming strength to American waters, annihilating rather than merely denting American maritime trade, and driving the American economy close to bankruptcy. The Royal Navy would emerge unchecked from the conflict.[23]
The British Army regarded the 1812-15 conflict in Canada and America as a sideshow. Only one regiment, the 41st, was awarded a battle honor (Detroit) from the war. The army was more interested in the lessons of the Peninsular War in Spain. The battle New Orleans could be conveniently attributed to poor leadership or insuperable physical obstacles and British attention was given to the Royal Navy's successful capture of the American flagship which the Americans conveniently overlooked.[24] If generalship had been better, it was believed, then British would have been successfully at New Orleans. Due to the huge, overwhelming success and pre-eminence of the Duke of Wellington in Europe, the British army was to make no change to its systems of recruitment, discipline and awards of commissions for more than half a century.
The British suffered 5,000 killed or wounded soldiers and sailors in the war.
United States[edit]
The gloom in New England, which staunchly opposed the war, culminated in December 1814, as delegates from five states met secretly in the Hartford Convention. It demanded constitutional amendments to protect New England's interests against the West and the South. Secession talk was rife and the region might have threatened to secede from the Union, if their demands had been ignored, but the news of peace ended the movement.
The United States had faced near-disaster in 1814, but the victories at the Battle of New Orleans and the Battle of Baltimore and what seemed to be a successful fight against the United Kingdom increased national patriotism and helped to unite the United States into one nation. Meanwhile, the loss of the American flagship USS President was conveniently overlooked by the public. The best-known patriotic legacy of the war was The Star Spangled Banner. The words are by Francis Scott Key, who after the bombardment of Fort McHenry set them to the music of a British drinking song, "To Anacreon in Heaven." In 1889 the U.S. Navy began using The Star Spangled Banner at flag-raising ceremonies, a practice copied by the Army. In 1931, Congress made it the U.S. National Anthem.[25]
Although all of the original objectives of the war had failed, the American people saw the War of 1812 as evidence of the success of the democratic experiment. The war ushered in a period of American history that has frequently been called "the Era of Good Feelings," a time when, at least on the surface, most Americans felt unified behind a common purpose. The War of 1812 convinced the country that it could fend off any foreign threats and that its focus should be on expansion at home.
With the collapse of the Hartford Convention and news of the triumph at the Battle of New Orleans, Americans had cause for celebration. In February, President James Madison sent Congress the treaty of peace. He congratulated the nation on the close of a war "waged with the success which is the natural result of the wisdom of the legislative councils, of the patriotism of the people, of the public spirit of the militia, and of the velour of the military and naval forces of the country." The spirit of nationalism and pride led to the collapse of the nay-sayer Federalist Party and the new Era of Good Feelings.[26]
One indirect result of the War of 1812 was the later election to the presidency of war heroes Andrew Jackson and of William Henry Harrison. Both of these men won military fame which had much to do with their elections. Another indirect result was the decline of Federalist power.
Impact on U.S. military[edit]
During the war a total of 2,260 American soldiers and sailors were killed. The war cost the United States about $200 million. Neither the United States nor Great Britain gained any military advantage. Indirectly the United States made some gains.[27]
A significant military development was the increased emphasis by General Winfield Scott on professionalism in the U.S. Army officer corps and in particular, the training of officers at the United States Military Academy ("West Point"). This new professionalism would become apparent during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). After the Texas Annexation by the U.S., the term Manifest Destiny became a widely used political term for those who propagated American expansionism and military pride.[28]
In a related development, the United States officially abandoned its reliance on the militia for its defense. Moreover, Army Corps of Engineers (which at that time controlled West Point), began building fortifications around New Orleans as a response to the British attack on the city during the war. This effort then grew into numerous civil river works, especially in the 1840s and 1850s under General Pierre Beauregard. The Corps remains the authority over Mississippi (and other) river works.
The embarrassing defeat of Fort Madison in what is now Iowa and Fort McKay in Prairie du Chien led to the fortification of the Mississippi, with the expansion of Fort Belle Fontaine near St. Louis, and the construction of Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien, and Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota. Removal of all Indians from the Mississippi Valley became a top priority for the U.S. government.[29]
Honour[edit]
Historian Norman Risjord has emphasized the central importance of honour as a cause the war.[30] Americans of every political stripe saw the need to uphold national honour, and to reject the treatment of the United States by Britain as a third class nonentity. Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response.[31] This quest for honour was a major cause of the war in the sense that most Americans who were not involved in mercantile interests or threatened by Indian attack strongly endorsed the preservation of national honour.[32] Chesapeake–Leopard Affair in which the HMS Leopard attacked the USS Chesapeake in June 1807 was a decisive event.[33] Historians have documented the importance of honour in shaping public opinion in a number of states, including Massachusetts,[34] Ohio,[35] Pennsylvania,[36][37] and Tennessee,[38] as well as the territory of Michigan.[39] Americans widely celebrated the conclusion of the war as successful, especially the spectacular defeat of the main British invasion army at New Orleans, while conveniently overlooking the loss of their flagship the very next week. For the next century it was often called "the Second American War for Independence" and it propelled Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison to the White House.[40] Americans felt they had restored their sense of honour.
National honour, the reputation of republican government, and the continuing supremacy of the Republican party had seemed to be at stake.... National honour had [now] been satisfied," says historian Lance Banning, "Americans celebrated the end of the struggle with a brilliant burst of national pride. They felt that they had fought a second war for independence, and had won.[41]
According to Historians such as Andrew Lambert and William James, British honor was challenged because deserters from the Royal Navy were granted citizenship in the United States. This led to the impressment of American citizens into the Royal Navy. In 1811, the Little Belt Affair would anger the Admiraly and embarrass the United States. This would lead to the British having a particular interest in capturing the United States flagship USS President. Although the British would effectively disable the vast majority of the United States Navy during the war by having the ships blockaded, the single ship actions that the American's won embarrassed the Admiralty. Specific attention was given to these battles as the American's claimed there were between ships of equal force.[42]
The British effectively restored their honor by capturing the sloop of war USS Frolic and more importantly the flagship USS President . Both ships were taken to Britain for all to see that the American ships of the so-called engagements of equal force were much larger than the British ships they had fought in single ship duels. Furthermore, the United States failed at abolishing impressment when the treaty was signed, but the British did not continue the practice as the Napoleonic Wars had ended so they no longer needed as many sailors. In doing so British honor was restored, only for the entire conflict to be overshadowed by the defeat of Napoleon.[43]
Economic impact[edit]
Although during the War of 1812 the United States' economy was severely damaged by the British blockade, the aftermath gave a dramatic boost to the manufacturing capabilities of the United States. The British blockade of the American coast created a shortage of cotton cloth in the United States, leading to the creation of a cotton-manufacturing industry, beginning at Waltham, Massachusetts by Francis Cabot Lowell. The war also spurred on construction of the Erie Canal project, which was built to promote commercial links yet was also perceived as having military uses should the need ever arise.[44] As the charter of the First Bank of the United States had been allowed to expire in 1811, the federal government was ill-prepared to finance the war and resorted to such expediencies as the suspension of specie payment and the issuance of Treasury Notes. These actions set a precedent for future Federal responses to financial crises. Also, this exposure of the nation's financial weaknesses explained in part the Congressional decision to charter the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. The readiness of Southern leaders especially John C. Calhoun to support such a measure also indicates a high degree of national feeling.[45] Perhaps the clearest sign of a new sense of national unity was the victorious Democratic-Republican Party, its long-time foes, the Federalists, vanishing from national politics. The result was an Era of Good Feelings with the lowest level of partisanship ever seen.[46]
Canadians, however, contrasted their post-war economic stagnation to the booming American economy, which Desmond Morton believes led to the Rebellions of 1837.[47] During the war, Bermudian privateers, with their fast Bermuda sloops, were to capture 298 ships (the total captures by all British naval or privateering vessels between the Great Lakes and the West Indies was 1,593 vessels).[48]
See also[edit]
Chronology of the War of 1812
Origins of the War of 1812
War of 1812
Treaty of Ghent
Anglo-American Convention of 1818
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Taylor, Alan (2010). The Civil War of 1812. Random House. pp. 137–139. ISBN 978-0-679-77673-4.
Jump up ^ Bradford Perkins, ed. The Causes of the War of 1812: National Honor or National Interest? (1962)
Jump up ^ Hickey p. 300; Barry Schwartz, "The Social Context of Commemoration: A Study in Collective Memory." Social Forces 61#2 (1982), p. 312 in JSTOR.
Jump up ^ Benn (2002), p. 81.
Jump up ^ Dwight L. Smith"A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea." Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61#2-4 (1989): 46-63.
Jump up ^ Francis M. Carroll (2001). A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783-1842. U. of Toronto Press. p. 24.
Jump up ^ Robert V. Remini, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1992), pp. 94-122.
Jump up ^ Pratt (1955), pp. 135-7.
Jump up ^ Bertram Wyatt-Brown, "Andrew Jackson's Honor," Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Spring, 1997), pp. 1-36 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Watts (1989)
Jump up ^ Walter R. Borneman, 1812: The War That Forged a Nation (2005), p. 269.
Jump up ^ Robert Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (2002), pp. 277-82.
Jump up ^ Colin G. Calloway, Crown and Calumet: British-Indian Relations, 1783-1815 (1987)
Jump up ^ Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812 (2010), p. 443.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Alan (2010). The Civil War of 1812. Random House. pp. 137–139. ISBN 978-0-679-77673-4.
Jump up ^ J. L. Granatstein, Canada's army: waging war and keeping the peace (2004), p. 4.
Jump up ^ http://www.warof1812.ca/lacolle1812.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.warof1812.ca/chatgy.htm
Jump up ^ Robert Henderson "The myth of the 'Militia Myth' Dorchester Review (Volume 3 No. 1 Spring/Summer 2013)
Jump up ^ J. L. Granatstein, Canada's army: waging war and keeping the peace (2004), p. 15.
Jump up ^ Jeremy Black, The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon (2009), pp. 221-32.
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Benn, p. 84.
Jump up ^ George Dangerfield, The Era of Good Feelings (1952), ch 1.
Jump up ^ War of 1812. (2006). Compton's by Britannica. Retrieved April 1, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. (The Curious End of the War)
Jump up ^ Weigley (1973)
Jump up ^ Prucha, Francis P. (1969) The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier 1783–1846. Macmillan, New York
Jump up ^ Norman K. Risjord, "1812: Conservatives, War Hawks and the Nation's Honor." William and Mary Quarterly: A Magazine of Early American History (1961): 196-210. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Robert L. Ivie, "The metaphor of force in prowar discourse: The case of 1812." Quarterly Journal of Speech 68#3 (1982), pp. 240-253.
Jump up ^ Bradford Perkins, The causes of the War of 1812: National honor or national interest? (1962).
Jump up ^ Spencer Tucker, Injured Honor: The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, June 22, 1807 (Naval Institute Press, 1996)
Jump up ^ William Barlow and David O. Powell. "Congressman Ezekiel Bacon of Massachusetts and the Coming of the War of 1812." Historical Journal of Massachusetts 6#2 (1978): 28.
Jump up ^ William R. Barlow, "Ohio’s Congressmen and the War of 1812." Ohio History 72 (1963): 175-94.
Jump up ^ Victor Sapio, Pennsylvania and the War of 1812 (University Press of Kentucky, 2015)
Jump up ^ Martin Kaufman, "War Sentiment in Western Pennsylvania: 1812." Pennsylvania History (1964): 436-448.
Jump up ^ William A. Walker, "Martial Sons: Tennessee Enthusiasm for the War of 1812." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 20.1 (1961): 20+
Jump up ^ William Barlow, "The Coming of the War of 1812 in Michigan Territory." Michigan History 53 (1969): 91-107.
Jump up ^ Andrew Robertson; et al. (2010). Encyclopedia of U.S. Political History. SAGE Publications. p. 372.
Jump up ^ Lance Banning (1980). The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology. Cornell UP. p. 295.
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Lambert, Andrew: The Challege: Britain against America in The War of 1812, Kindle edition
Jump up ^ Stanley Engerman and Robert E. Gallman, eds. The Cambridge economic history of the United States: the colonial era: Volume 1 (2000), p. 372.
Jump up ^ Wiltse (1944)
Jump up ^ George Dangerfield, The Awakening of American Nationalism, 1815-1828 (1966), ch. 1.
Jump up ^ Desmond Morton, A Military History of Canada (2007), p. 71.
Jump up ^ Walter Brownell Hayward, Bermuda past and present (1910), pp. 58-66.
Further reading[edit]
Further information: List of books about the War of 1812
Berton, Pierre; The Invasion of Canada: 1812-1813 (1980). ISBN 0-7710-1244-6; Flames Across the Border: 1813-1814 (1981); reissued as Pierre Berton's War of 1812 (Toronto: Anchor Canada, 2011); popular Canadian narrative; 928pp
Bickham, Troy, The Weight of Vengeance: The United States, The British Empire, and the War of 1812 (Oxford University Press, 2012) ISBN 978-0195391787
Black, Jeremy. The War of 1812 in the Age of Napoleon (2009) by English military historian
Borneman, Walter R. 1812: The War That Forged a Nation (2004), popular American version
Burt, A. L. The United States, Great Britain and British North America from the Revolution to the Establishment of Peace after the War of 1812. (1940) online edition
Heidler, Donald & Jeanne T. Heidler (eds) Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (2nd ed 2004) 636pp; most comprehensive guide; 500 entries by 70 scholars from several countries
Hickey, Donald R. Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812. (2006) ISBN 0-252-03179-2
Hickey, Donald R. The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict. ISBN 0-252-06059-8 (1990), standard scholarly history.
Hickey, Donald R. 187 Things You Should Know about the War of 1812 (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 2012), 170 pp.
Hitsman, J. M. The Incredible War of 1812 (1965), survey by Canadian scholar
Jensen, Richard. "Military History on the Electronic Frontier: Wikipedia Fights the War of 1812," The Journal of Military History 76#4 (October 2012): 523-556; online version; the debate here on Wikipedia
Langguth, A. J. Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence (2006) 495pp, popular history
Latimer, Jon, 1812: War with America (Harvard, 2007). A British naval perspective.
Perkins, Bradford. Castelereagh and Adams: England and the United States, 1812-1823. (1964), the standard scholarly diplomatic history
Remini, Robert Vincent, Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union (1991), pp. 94–122.
Stagg, J.C.A. The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent (Cambridge Essential Histories, 2012) brief overview by New Zealand scholar
Taylor, Alan. The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies (2010) by Pulitzer Prize winner
Tucker, Spencer C., ed. The Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (3 vol: ABC-CLIO, 2012), 1034pp.
Zuehlke, Mark. For Honour's Sake: The War of 1812 and the Brokering of an Uneasy Peace. (2007) by Canadian military historian.
Memory of the war[edit]
Austen, Ian. “Canada Puts Spotlight on War of 1812, With USA as Villain.” New York Times 7 October 2012. online
Coates, Colin M., and Cecilia Morgan. Heroines and History: Representations of Madeleine de Verchères and Laura Secord (U of Toronto Press, 2002).
Eamon, Michael. "The War Against Public Forgetfulness: Commemorating 1812 in Canada" London Journal of Canadian Studies (2014) 29#1 pp. 134–185 online
Forest, Timothy S. "Epic Triumph, Epic Embarrassment or Both? Commemorations of the War of 1812 Today in Niagara Region," Ontario History 104#1 (2012), pp. 96+.
Hammack Jr., James W. (1976). Kentucky and the Second American Revolution: The War of 1812. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 107–112.
Knowles, Norman. Inventing the Loyalists: the Ontario Loyalist Tradition and the Creation of Usable Pasts (U of Toronto Press, 1997)
MacDonald, Heather. "Heroes and Identity: Two-Hundred Years in the Making," The Great Lakes Journal of Undergraduate History (2013) 1#1 Article 6 online
Morgan, Cecilia. ""Remembering 1812 in the 1840s: John Richardson and the Writing of the War", London Journal of Canadian Studies (2014) 29#1 pp. 39–69 online
Robertson, James Tyler. "For God, King, and Country: Nineteenth-Century Methodist Interpretations of the War of 1812" London Journal of Canadian Studies (2014) 29#1 pp. 1–38; Canadian Methodists online
Sheppard, George. Plunder, Profit, and Paroles: A Social History of the War of 1812 in Upper Canada (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1994)
Tiro, Karim M. "Now You See It, Now You Don’t: The War of 1812 in Canada and the United States in 2012." Public Historian 35#1 (2013): 87-97. in JSTOR
Wasson, Jeffrey. "Inventing a Foundation Myth: Upper Canada in the War of 1812" (Clark University, 2014) online
External links[edit]
A Question of Identity: War of 1812, a 1966 National Film Board of Canada documentary on the war's role in fostering a sense of Canadian identity
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values: 米英戦争の結果 – Japanese

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