text:
Islam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the religion. For the history of Islamic civilization, see History of Islam. For other uses, see Islam (disambiguation).
Part of a series on
Islam
Beliefs[hide]
Oneness of God
Prophets
Revealed books
Angels
Predestination
Day of Resurrection
Practices[hide]
Profession of faith
Prayer
Fasting
Alms-giving
Pilgrimage
Texts and laws[hide]
Quran
Sunnah
Hadith
Sharia (law)
Fiqh (jurisprudence)
Kalam (dialectic)
History[hide]
Timeline
Muhammad
Ahl al-Bayt
Sahabah
Rashidun
Imamate
Caliphate
Spread of Islam
Culture and society[hide]
Calendar
Festivals
Academics
Art
Moral teachings
Children
Denominations
Feminism
Women
Madrasa
Mosque
Philosophy
Politics
Proselytizing
Animals
LGBT
Science
Demographics
Economics
Finance
Social welfare
Related topics[hide]
Criticism of Islam
Islam and other religions
Islamism
Islamophobia
Glossary
Islam portal
v
t
e
Islam (/ˈɪslɑːm/[note 1]) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion teaching that there is only one God (Allah)[1] and that Muhammad is a messenger of God.[2][3] It is the world's second-largest religion[4] and the fastest-growing major religion in the world,[5][6][7] with over 1.8 billion followers or 24.1% of the global population,[8] known as Muslims.[9] Muslims make up a majority of the population in 50 countries.[4] Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, unique[10] and has guided mankind through prophets, revealed scriptures and natural signs.[3][11] The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the verbatim word of God, and the teachings and normative example (called the sunnah, composed of accounts called hadith) of Muhammad (c. 570–8 June 632 CE).
Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Abraham, Moses and Jesus.[12][13][14] As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered and final revelation of God.[15] Like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches a final judgment with the righteous rewarded paradise and unrighteous punished in hell.[16][17] Religious concepts and practices include the Five Pillars of Islam, which are obligatory acts of worship, and following Islamic law, which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, from banking and welfare to women and the environment.[18][19] The cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are home to the three holiest sites in Islam.[20]
Apart from the theological viewpoint,[21][22][23] Islam is historically believed to have originated in the early 7th century CE in Mecca,[24] and by the 8th century the Umayyad Islamic caliphate extended from Iberia in the west to the Indus River in the east. The Islamic Golden Age refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century, during the Abbasid Caliphate, when much of the historically Islamic world was experiencing a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing.[25][26][27] The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders and conversion to Islam by missionary activities (dawah).[28]
Most Muslims are of one of two denominations:[29][30] Sunni (75–90%)[31] or Shia (10–20%).[32] About 13% of Muslims live in Indonesia,[33] the largest Muslim-majority country, 31% in South Asia,[34][35] the largest population of Muslims in the world,[36] 23% in the Middle East-North Africa,[37] where it is the dominant religion[38] and 15% in Sub-Saharan Africa.[39][40][41] Sizeable Muslim communities are also found in the Americas, the Caucasus, China, Europe, the Mainland Southeast Asia, the Philippines, and Russia.[42]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology and meaning
2 Articles of faith
2.1 Concept of God
2.2 Angels
2.3 Revelations
2.4 Prophets and sunnah
2.5 Resurrection and judgment
2.6 Divine will
3 Acts of worship
3.1 Testimony
3.2 Prayer
3.3 Charity
3.4 Fasting
3.5 Pilgrimage
3.6 Recitation and memorization of the Quran
4 Law and jurisprudence
4.1 Scholars
4.2 Schools of jurisprudence
4.3 Economics
4.4 Jihad
5 Society
5.1 Family life
5.2 Etiquette and diet
5.3 Social responsibilities
5.4 Character
5.5 Government
6 History
6.1 Muhammad (610–632)
6.2 Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)
6.3 Classical era (750–1258)
6.4 Pre-Modern era (1258–20th century)
6.5 Modern times (20th century–present)
7 Denominations
7.1 Sunni
7.2 Shia
7.3 Sufism
7.4 Other denominations
7.5 Non-denominational Muslims
7.6 Derived religions
8 Demographics
9 Culture
9.1 Architecture
9.2 Art
9.3 Calendar
10 Criticism
11 See also
12 References
12.1 Notes
12.2 Citations
12.3 Books and journals
12.3.1 Encyclopedias
13 Further reading
14 External links
Etymology and meaning
The Kaaba in Mecca is the direction of prayer and destination of pilgrimage for Muslims
Islam (Arabic: الإسلام, IPA: [alʔisˈlaːm] ( listen)) is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root S-L-M which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness, and peace.[43] In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God".[44][45] Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means "submission" or "surrender". Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "one who submits" or "one who surrenders". The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal state: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He opens his heart to Islam."[46] Other verses connect Islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion."[47] Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[48] In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).[49][50]
Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims' religion, parallel to Jesus Christ in Christianity. Some authors, however, continue to use the term Muhammadanism as a technical term for the religious system as opposed to the theological concept of Islam that exists within that system.[51]
Articles of faith
Main articles: Aqidah and Iman
Faith (Iman) in the Islamic creed (Aqidah) is often represented as the six articles of faith, notably spelled out in the Hadith of Gabriel.
Concept of God
Main articles: God in Islam and Allah
Medallion showing the word "Allah" (God) in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey.
Islam is often seen as having the simplest doctrines of the major religions.[6] Its most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد). God is described in chapter 112 of the Quran as: "Say, He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him" (112:1-4).[52] Muslims repudiate polytheism and idolatry, called Shirk, and reject the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God.[53][54][55][56] God is described and referred to by certain names or attributes, the most common being Al-Rahmān, meaning "The Compassionate" and Al-Rahīm, meaning "The Merciful" (See Names of God in Islam).[57]
Muslims believe that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's sheer command, "'Be' and so it is,"[58] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[59] He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.[60] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states, "I am nearer to him than (his) jugular vein."[61] God consciousness is referred to as Taqwa.
Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews to reference God, while ʾilāh (Arabic: إله) is the term used for a deity or a god in general.[62] Other non-Arab Muslims might use different names as much as Allah, for instance "Tanrı" in Turkish, "Khodā" in Persian or Ḵẖudā in Urdu.
Angels
Main article: Islamic view of angels
Islamic calligraphy of the Archangel Israfil (reflects upon how angels are most commonly represented in Islam).
Belief in angels is fundamental to the faith of Islam. The Arabic word for angel (Arabic: ملك malak) means "messenger", like its counterparts in Hebrew (malʾákh) and Greek (angelos). Angels do not possess any bodily desires are not subject to temptations nor do they eat, drink or procreate. Angels' duties include communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. Muslims believe that angels are made of light. They are described as "messengers with wings—two, or three, or four (pairs): He [God] adds to Creation as He pleases..."[63] Some scholars have emphasized a metaphorical reinterpretation of the concept of angels.[64] Pictorial depictions of angels are generally avoided in Islamic art, as the idea of giving form to anything immaterial is not accepted.[65] Muslims therefore do not generally share the perceptions of angelic pictorial depictions, such as those found in Western art.
Revelations
Main articles: Quran, Wahy, and Islamic holy books
See also: History of the Quran
The first chapter of the Quran, Al-Fatiha, consisting of seven verses.
The Islamic holy books are the records which most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[66] The Quran (literally, "Reading" or "Recitation") is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is widely regarded as the finest literary work in the Arabic language.[67][68]
Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death on June 8, 632.[69] While Muhammad was alive, all of these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[70]
The Quran is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined, contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are primarily concerned with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and moral issues relevant to the Muslim community.[71]
The Quran is more concerned with moral guidance than legal instruction, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[72] Muslim jurists consult the hadith ("reports"), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[73] The set of rules governing proper pronunciation is called tajwid.
Muslims usually view "the Quran" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Quran.[74]
Prophets and sunnah
Main articles: Prophets in Islam, Sunnah, and Hadith
The Arabic word for prophets preceded by the honorific "peace be upon them".
Muslims identify the prophets of Islam (Arabic: أنۢبياء anbiyāʾ ) as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Quran, the prophets were instructed by God to bring the "will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Quran mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[75]
Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law bearing prophet (Seal of the prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[76] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as verbatim words of God quoted by Muhammad but is not part of the Quran.
A hadith involves two elements- a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. Hadiths can be classified, by studying the narration, as "authentic" or "correct", called Sahih (Arabic: صَحِيْح), "good", called Ḥasan (Arabic: حَسَن) or "weak", called Ḍaʻīf (Arabic: ضَعِيْف) among others. Muhammad al-Bukhari[77] collected over 300,000 hadith, but only included 2,602 distinct hadith that passed the tests that codified them as authentic into his book Sahih al-Bukhari,[77] which is considered by Sunnis to be the most authentic source after the Quran.[78][79] Another famous source(s) of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[80][81][82]
Resurrection and judgment
Main article: Qiyama
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Quran and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[83]
On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Qurʼan in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as, "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it (99:7) and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (99:8)." The Qurʼan lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief in God (Arabic: كفر kufr), and dishonesty; however, the Qurʼan makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity, prayer and compassion towards animals,[84][85] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Qurʼanic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[86] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (Arabic: يوم الدين), "Day of Religion";[87] as-sāʿah (Arabic: الساعة), "the Last Hour";[88] and al-Qāriʿah (Arabic: القارعة), "The Clatterer".[89]
Islamic apocalyptic literature describing Armageddon is often known as fitna or malahim. The Mahdi (prophesied redeemer) will be sent and with the help of Jesus, will battle the Antichrist. They will triumph, liberating Islam from cruelty, and this will be followed by a time of serenity with people living true to religious values.[90]
Divine will
Main article: Qadar
The concept of divine will is referred to as al-qadā wa'l-qadar (Arabic: قدر), which literally derives from a root that means to measure. Everything, good and bad, is believed to have been decreed.[91]
Acts of worship
See also: Five Pillars of Islam
There are five basic religious acts in Islam, collectively known as 'The Pillars of Islam' (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion"), which are considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the creed (shahadah), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) almsgiving (zakah), (4) fasting during Ramadan, and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime.[92] Both Shia and Sunni sects agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.[93] Apart from these, Muslims also perform other religious acts. Notable among them are charity (Sadaqah) and recitation of the Quran.
Testimony
Main article: Shahadah
Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar with inscriptions of the Islamic declaration of faith
The Shahadah,[94] which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "'ašhadu 'al-lā ilāha illā-llāhu wa 'ašhadu 'anna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh", or "I testify that there is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger of God."[95] This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[96]
Prayer
Main article: Salat
See also: Mosque and Jumu'ah
Muslim men prostrating during prayer in the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus.
Ritual prayers are called Ṣalāh or Ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة). Salat is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with him that expresses gratitude and worship. Performing prayers five times a day is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Quran.[97] The prayers are done with the chest in direction of the kaaba though in the early days of Islam, they were done in direction of Jerusalem. The act of supplicating is referred to as dua.
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. A large mosque for gathering for Friday prayers or Eid prayers are called masjid jāmi.[98] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. In Medina, Al-Masjid al-Nabawi, or the Prophet's Mosque, was also a place of refuge for the poor.[99] Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century, and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[100]
Charity
Main articles: Zakat and Sadaqah
"Zakāt" (Arabic: زكاة zakāh "alms") is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy and for those employed to collect Zakat; also, for bringing hearts together, freeing captives, for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the (stranded) traveller.[101][102] It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". Conservative estimates of annual zakat is estimated to be 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions.[103] The amount of zakat to be paid on capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5% (1/40) per year,[104] for people who are not poor.
Sadaqah means optional charity which is practiced as religious duty and out of generosity.[105] Both the Quran and the hadith have put much emphasis on spending money for the welfare of needy people,[106] and have urged the Muslims to give more as an act of optional charity.[107] The Quran says: Spend something (in charity) out of the substance which We have bestowed on you, before Death should come to any of you (63:10). One of the early teachings of Muhammad was that God expects men to be generous with their wealth and not to be miserly (Quran %3Averse%3D1 107 :1–7).[108] Accumulating wealth without spending it to address the needs of the poor is generally prohibited and admonished.[109] Another kind of charity in Islam is waqf which means perpetual religious endowment.
Fasting
Main article: Sawm
Further information: Sawm of Ramadan
Fasting (Arabic: صوم ṣawm) from food and drink, among other things, must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. Sawm is not obligatory for several groups for whom it would constitute an undue burden. For others, flexibility is allowed depending on circumstances, but missed fasts usually must be made up quickly.[110]
Pilgrimage
Main articles: Hajj and Umrah
Pilgrims at the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca during Hajj
The obligatory Islamic pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Arabic: حج), has to be performed during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include: spending a day and a night in the tents in the desert plain of Mina, then a day in the desert plain of Arafat praying and worshiping God, following the foot steps of Abraham; then spending a night out in the open, sleeping on the desert sand in the desert plain of Muzdalifah; then moving to Jamarat, symbolically stoning the Devil recounting Abraham's actions;[111][112][113] then going to Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba which Muslims believe was built as a place of worship by Abraham; then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, while she was looking for water for her son Ismael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[114] Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, can be undertaken at any time of the year.
Recitation and memorization of the Quran
Men reading the Quran in a mosque
Muslims recite and memorize the whole or part of the Quran as acts of virtue. Reciting the Quran in the correct manner has been described as an excellent act of worship.[115] Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran at the month of Ramadan.[116] In Islamic societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran.[116] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day.[115] Apart from this, almost every Muslim memorizes some portion of the Quran because they need to recite it during their prayers.
Law and jurisprudence
Part of a series on
Islamic jurisprudence
(fiqh)
Ritual[show]
Salat
Raka'ah
Qibla
Turbah
Sunnah salat
(Tahajjud
Tarawih)
Nafl salat
Sawm
Hajj
Ihram (clothing
Mut'ah)
Tawaf
Umrah (and Hajj)
Political[show]
Islamic leadership
Caliphate
Imamah
Wilayat al-faqih
Bay'ah
Dhimmi
Marital[show]
Marriage
Contract
Mahr
Misyar
Halala
Urfi
Mut‘ah
Polygyny
Divorce
Khula
Iddah
Kafa'ah
Adoption
Sexual[show]
Masturbation
Hygiene
Sexual violation
Zina
Awrah
Criminal[show]
Hudud
Blasphemy
Maisir (gambling)
Zina (illicit sex)
Hirabah (unlawful warfare)
Fasad ("mischief")
Rajm (stoning)
Tazir (discretionary)
Qisas (retaliation)
Diya (compensation)
Etiquette[show]
Adab
Gender segregation
Mahram
Honorifics
Rada
Toilet
Economic[show]
History
Zakat
Jizya
Nisab
Khums
Sadaqah (Waqf)
Bayt al-mal
Banking
Riba
Murabaha
Takaful
Sukuk
Inheritance
Hygiene[show]
Sexual
Toilet
Taharah
Ihram
Wudu
Masah
Ghusl
Tayammum
Miswak
Najis
Dietary
Dhabihah
Alcohol
Pork
Comparison with kashrut
Military[show]
Jihad
Hudna
Istijarah (asylum)
Prisoners of war
Islamic studies
v
t
e
Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh
Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition.[117] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[118][119] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.[117]
Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (authentic hadith), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus).[120] Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[118] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law, ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.[118] Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories: mandatory, recommended, permitted, abhorred, and prohibited.[118][119] Thus, some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.[119]
Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwas) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.[118][119] In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[119] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.[119] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[119][121] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for full implementation of sharia.[119][121] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[122][123][124]
Scholars
Main article: Ulama
Imam teaches the Quran in Crimea, (1850s, lithograph by Carlo Bossoli)
Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ulema (Arabic: علماء) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a mufti (Arabic: مفتي) and often issues judicial opinions, called fatwas. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (Arabic: فقيه). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a muhaddith. A qadi is a judge in an Islamic court. Honorific titles given to scholars include shiekh, mullah and maulvi. Imam (Arabic: إمام) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services.
Schools of jurisprudence
Main article: Madhab
The main Islamic madh'habs (schools of law) of Muslim countries or distributions
A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali and sometimes Ẓāhirī while the two major Shia schools are Ja'fari and Zaidi. Each differ in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh. The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and by extension do not have a madhab.[125] The practice of an individual interpretating law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[126]
Economics
Main article: Islamic economic jurisprudence
To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, Islamic economic jurisprudence encourages trade,[127] discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (usury; the term is riba in Arabic).[128][129] Therefore, wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury, which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable.[130] Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.[131]
Grabbing other people's land is also prohibited. The prohibition of usury has resulted in the development of Islamic banking. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state, was immediately used to help the poor. Then in 634, Umar formally established the welfare state Bayt al-mal. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.[132][133][134][135]
Jihad
Main articles: Jihad, Islamic military jurisprudence, and List of expeditions of Muhammad
Jihad means "to strive or struggle" (in the way of God). Jihad, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the Devil, and aspects of one's own self (such as sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.[136] Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect.[137][138] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[139] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi'a and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[140]
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-believer/non-Muslim combatants.[141][142] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[143][144] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[145] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[144] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's[146] occultation in 868 AD.[147]
Society
Family life
See also: Islam and children, Women in Islam, and Marriage in Islam
The dome of the Carol I Mosque in Constanța, Romania, topped by the Islamic crescent
In a Muslim family, the birth of a child is attended with some religious ceremonies. Immediately after the birth, the words of Adhan is pronounced in the right ear of the child. In the seventh day, the aquiqa ceremony is performed in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[148] The head of the child is also shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of the child's hair is donated to the poor.[148] Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly members of family also undertake the task of teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge, and religious practices to the children.[149] Marriage, which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract which consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[150] Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[151][152] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands is prohibited in Islam.[153] However, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny, that is, they can have more than one wife at the same time, up to a total of four, per Sura 4 Verse 3. A man does not need approval of his first wife for a second marriage as there is no evidence in the Qur'an or hadith to suggest this.[154][155][156] The testimony of a woman is deemed in Islam to be worth half that of a man.[157] With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world there are many variations on Muslim Weddings. Generally in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears.[158]
With regard to inheritance, a son's share is double that of a daughter's.[159]
Certain religious rites are performed during and after the death of a Muslim. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce the Shahada as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After the death, the body is bathed properly by the members of the same gender and then enshrouded in a threefold white garment called kafan.[160] Placing the body on a bier, it is first taken to a mosque where funeral prayer is offered for the dead person, and then to the graveyard for burial.
Etiquette and diet
Main articles: Adab (behavior) and Islamic dietary laws
Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu 'alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is also practiced in Islam. Islamic burial rituals include saying the Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") over the bathed and enshrouded dead body, and burying it in a grave. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, with the exception of game that one has hunted or fished for oneself. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[161]
Social responsibilities
Main article: Islam and humanity
In a Muslim society, various social service activities are performed by the members of the community. As these activities are instructed by Islamic canonical texts, a Muslim's religious life is seen incomplete if not attended by service to humanity.[162] In fact, In Islamic tradition, the idea of social welfare has been presented as one of its principal values.[162] The 2:177 verse of the Quran is often cited to encapsulate the Islamic idea of social welfare.[163][note 2] Similarly, duties to parents, neighbors, relatives, sick people, the old, and minorities have been defined in Islam. Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age have been made a religious obligation.[149][164] A two-fold approach is generally prescribed with regard to duty to relatives: keeping good relations with them, and offering them financial help if necessary.[165] Severing ties with them has been admonished. Regardless of a neighbor's religious identity, Islam teaches Muslims to treat neighboring people in the best possible manner and not to cause them any difficulty.[166][167] Concerning orphaned children, the Quran forbids harsh and oppressive treatment to them while urging kindness and justice towards them. It also rebukes those who do not honor and feed orphaned children (Quran 89:17-18).
Character
Main article: Morality in Islam
The Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life. Proper moral conduct, good deeds, righteousness, and good character come within the sphere of the moral guidelines.[168] In Islam, the observance of moral virtues is always associated with religious significance because it elevates the religious status of a believer[169] and is often seen as a supererogatory act of worshipping.[170] One typical Islamic teaching on morality is that imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is permissible and just; but forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded the highest excellence.[169] The Quran says: 'Repel (evil) with what is best' (41:34). Thus, a Muslim is expected to act only in good manners as bad manners and deeds earn vices.[171] The fundamental moral qualities in Islam are justice, forgiveness, righteousness, kindness, honesty, and piety.[168] Other mostly insisted moral virtues include but not limited to charitable activities, fulfillment of promise, modesty and humility, decency in speech, tolerance, trustworthiness, patience, truthfulness, anger management, and sincerity of intention.
As a religion, Islam emphasizes the idea of having a good character as Muhammad said: 'The best among you are those who have the best manners and character' (Sahih al-Bukhari, 8:73:56). In Islam, justice is not only a moral virtue but also an obligation to be fulfilled under all circumstances.[172] The Quran and the hadith describe God as being kind and merciful to His creatures, and tell people to be kind likewise. As a virtue, forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam, and is regarded as an important Muslim practice.[173] About modesty, Muhammad is reported as saying: ' Every religion has its characteristic, and the characteristic of Islam is modesty'.[174]
Government
Main articles: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic state, Islam and secularism, Islamic democracy, Sultanate, Khanate, Imamate, Emirate, Mansa (title), and Caliphate
Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. Currently no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, but steps have been taken to implement some of its tenets.[175][176][177]
History
Main articles: History of Islam and Spread of Islam
A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam
Muhammad (610–632)
Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam
See also: Early social changes under Islam
Muslim tradition views Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) as the seal of the prophets.[178] During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God, conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel (Jibril). Muhammad's companions memorized and recorded the content of these revelations, known as the Quran.[179]
During this time, Muhammad in Mecca preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and to worship one God. Although some converted to Islam, the leading Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers. This resulted in the Migration to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the Aksumite Empire). Many early converts to Islam were the poor and former slaves like Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan élite felt that Muhammad was destabilising their social order by preaching about one God and about racial equality, and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and to their slaves.[180][181][182][183]
After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and the Meccan boycott of the Hashemites, Muhammad's relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah.[184][185]
The Constitution established:
the security of the community
religious freedoms
the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons)
the security of women
stable tribal relations within Medina
a tax system for supporting the community in time of conflict
parameters for exogenous political alliances
a system for granting protection of individuals
a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws and have their own judges.[186][187][188]
All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all external threats and to live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the Battle of Badr in 624 – a Muslim victory, and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the Battle of Uhud, which ended inconclusively.
The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[189] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[190]
The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the Salaf, with the companions of Muhammad being known as the Sahaba. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith Abu Hureyrah, recorded and compiled what would constitute the sunnah.
Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)
Further information: Muslim conquests, First Fitna, and Second Fitna
Dome of the Rock built by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the end of the Second Fitna.
With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Abu Bakr, a companion and close friend of Muhammad, was made the first caliph. Under Abu Bakr, Muslims put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[191] The Quran was compiled into a single volume at this time.
Abu Bakr's death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar ibn al-Khattab as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first four caliphs are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs").[192] Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into the parts of the Persian and Byzantine territories.[193]
When Umar was assassinated by Persians in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The standard copies of the Quran were also distributed throughout the Islamic State. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. This led to the first civil war (the "First Fitna") over who should be caliph. Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. To avoid further fighting, the new caliph Hasan ibn Ali signed a peace treaty, abdicating to Mu'awiyah, beginning the Umayyad dynasty, in return that he not name his own successor.[194] These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the first four leaders, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that only Ali and some of his descendants should rule; they became known as the Shia.[195] Mu'awiyah appointed his son, Yazid I, as successor and after Mu'awiyah's death in 680, the "Second Fitna" broke out, where Husayn ibn Ali was killed at the Battle of Karbala, a significant event in Shia Islam.
The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[196] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.[197][198]
The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the Tabi'un, followed by the Tabi' al-Tabi'in. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the influential committee, "The Seven Fuqaha of Medina",[199][200] headed by Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr.[201] Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta,[202] as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[203][204][205]
The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented non-Arab converts (mawali), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[206]
Classical era (750–1258)
Further information: Islamic Golden Age, Hadith studies, and Islamic philosophy
During this time, the Delhi Sultanate took over northern parts of Indian subcontinent. Religious missions converted Volga Bulgaria to Islam. Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song dynasty.[207]
The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated circa 1200.
This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".[208] Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,[209][210] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.[211][212] The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[213] The doctorate is argued to date back to the licenses to teach in Muslim law schools.[214] Standards of experimental and quantification techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,[215] were introduced. An important pioneer in this, Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".[216][217][218][219] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[215] It is argued that the data used by Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions was gathered and that Al-Jahiz proposed a theory of natural selection.[220][221] Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America.[222][223] Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).[224][225]
Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[226] During the early Abbasid era, the major Sunni hadith collections were compiled by scholars such as Bukhari and Muslim while major Shia hadith collections by scholars such as Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh were also compiled. The Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. In the 9th century, al-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law by codifying the principles of jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah.[227] Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn Kathir in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers Al-Farabi and Avicenna sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.[228]
Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the mutazilite philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called kalam, which refers to dialectic.[229] Many orthodox Muslims rejected mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months.[230] The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school founded by Al-Ash'ari.
Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf (Sufism).[231] Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by Al-Ghazali, who developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.[232]
The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.[233] The Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.[234]
Pre-Modern era (1258–20th century)
Abdülmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty.
Islam spread with Muslim trade networks and Sufi orders activity that extended into Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia and the Malay archipelago.[235][236] Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[237] The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[238][239]
The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.[240] The Reconquista, launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, succeeded in 1492. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the Mughal dynasty in India.[241] The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[242]
The majority and oldest group among Shia at that time, the Zaydis, named after the great grandson of Ali, the scholar Zayd ibn Ali, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.[243][244][245] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[246] The ensuing mandatory conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam for the largely Sunni population also ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the Zaidi and Ismaili sects.[247] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Shiism by calling it the Jaafari Madh'hab.[248]
A revival movement during this period was an 18th-century Salafi movement led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the desecration of shrines around the world, including that of Muhammad and his companions in Mecca and Medina.[249][250] In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.
Modern times (20th century–present)
Further information: Islamic revival
The flag of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[251] The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[252] Muslim immigrants began arriving, many as guest workers and largely from former colonies, in several Western European nations since the 1960s.
There are more and more new Muslim intellectuals who increasingly separate perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.[253] Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and they stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters".[254] Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.[255]
Secular powers such as the Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans,[256] and Communist Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion.[257] About half a million Muslims were killed in Cambodia by communists who, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god.[258] In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in Tunisia.[259][260]
Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival.[261] Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[262] Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned.[263] In Iran, revolution replaced a secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the Arab Spring.[264] The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[265]
Piety appears to be deepening worldwide.[266][267][268] In many places, the prevalence of the hijab is growing increasingly common[269] and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased.[270] With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges.[267]
It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "driven primarily by differences in fertility rates and the size of youth populations among the world's major religions, as well as by people switching faiths."[271] Perhaps as a sign of these changes, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in East and West Africa.[272][273]
Denominations
Main article: Islamic schools and branches
See also: Shia–Sunni relations
An overview of the major schools and branches of Islam.
Sunni
[show]
Part of a series on

Sunni Islam
Beliefs[show]
Monotheism
Prophets and messengers
Holy books
Angels
Judgement Day
Predestination
Five Pillars[show]
Declaration of Faith
Prayer
Charity
Fasting
Pilgrimage
Rightly-Guided Caliphs[show]
Abu Bakr
Umar ibn al-Khattab
Uthman ibn Affan
Ali ibn Abi Talib
Sunni schools of law[show]
Hanafi
Maliki
Shafi'i
Hanbali
Others
Zahiri
Awza'i
Thawri
Laythi
Jariri
Sunni schools of theology[show]
Ash'ari
Maturidi
Traditionalist
Others:
Mu'tazila
Murji'ah
Contemporary movements[show]
Ahl-i Hadith
Al-Ahbash
Barelvi
Deobandi
Islamic Modernism
Salafi movement
Wahhabism
Holy sites[show]
Jerusalem
Mecca
Medina
Mount Sinai
Lists[show]
Literature
Kutub al-Sittah
Islam portal
v
t
e
Main article: Sunni Islam
Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni hadith books.
The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 75%–90% of all Muslims[31] and is arguably the world's largest religious denomination.[274] Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means "people of the tradition [of Muhammad]".[6][275][276][277][278]
Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act according to the Quran and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights.
The Sunnis follow the Quran and the Hadith, which are recorded in sunni traditions known as Al-Kutub Al-Sittah (six major books). For legal matters derived from the Quran or the Hadith, many follow four sunni madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable.[279] Ahl al-Hadith is a movement that deemphasized sources of jurisprudence outside the quran and sunnah, such as informed opinion (ra'y).
The Salafi movement claim to take the first three generations of Muslims, known as the salaf, as exemplary models.[280] In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia. The Deobandi movement is a reformist movement originating in South Asia, influenced by the Wahhabi movement.[281]
Shia
[show]
Part of a series on

Shia Islam
Beliefs and practices[show]
Monotheism
Holy Books
Prophethood
Succession to Muhammad
Imamate
Angels
Judgment Day
Mourning of Muharram
Intercession
Clergy
The Four Companions
Arba'een Pilgrimage
Holy days[show]
Ashura
Arba'een
Mawlid
Eid al-Fitr
Eid al-Adha
Eid al-Ghadeer
History[show]
The verse of purification
Two things
Mubahala
Khumm
Fatimah's house
First Fitna
Second Fitna
Battle of Karbala
Branches of Shi‘i Islam[show]
Zaydi Shia
Imami Shia
Twelvers
Ja'faris
Batinis
Alevism
Bektashism
Ghulat
Alawites
Hurufism
Qizilbash
Ismāʿīlīs
Nizaris
Taiyabi-Musta‘līs
Dawoodi
Sulaymani
Alavi
Batiniyya
Druze
Pamiris
Extinct sects
Ahl al-Kisa[show]
Muhammad
Ali
Fatimah
Hasan
Hussein
Holy women[show]
Fatimah
Khadija bint Khuwaylid
Umm Salama
Zaynab bint Ali
Umm Kulthum bint Ali
Umm ul-Banin
Fatimah bint Hasan
Sukayna bint Husayn
Rubab
Shahrbanu
Fātimah bint Mūsā
Hakimah Khātūn
Narjis
Fatimah bint Asad
Umm Farwah bint al-Qasim
Shia Islam portal
v
t
e
Main article: Shia Islam
See also: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
The Imam Hussein Shrine in Karbala, Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.
The Shia constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch.[32]
While the Sunnis believe that a Caliph should be elected by the community, Shia's believe that Muhammad appointed his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor and only certain descendants of Ali could be Imams. As a result, they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr, Uthman ibn al-Affan and Umar ibn al-Khattab. Other points of contention include certain practices viewed as innovating the religion, such as the mourning practice of tatbir, and the cursing of figures revered by Sunnis. However, Jafar al-Sadiq himself disapproved of people who disapproved of his great grand father Abu Bakr and Zayd ibn Ali revered Abu Bakr and Umar.[282][283] More recently, Ali Khamenei[284] and Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani[285] condemned the practice.
Shia Islam has several branches, the most prominent being the Twelvers (the largest branch), Zaidis and Ismailis. Different branches accept different descendants of Ali as Imams. After the death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq who is considered the sixth Imam by the Twelvers and the Ismaili's, the Ismailis recognized his son Isma'il ibn Jafar as his successor whereas the Twelver Shia's (Ithna Asheri) followed his other son Musa al-Kadhim as the seventh Imam. The Zaydis consider Zayd ibn Ali, the uncle of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, as their fifth Imam, and follow a different line of succession after him. Other smaller groups include the Bohra as well as the Alawites and Alevi.[286] Some Shia branches label other Shia branches that do not agree with their doctrine as Ghulat.
Sufism
Main article: Sufism
See also: Sufi–Salafi relations
Mawlānā Rumi's tomb, Konya, Turkey
Sufism, or tasawwuf (Arabic: تصوف), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Classical Sufi scholars have focused on the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[287][288][289] Hasan al-Basri was inspired by the ideas of piety and condemnation of worldliness preached by Muhammad and these ideas were later further developed by Al-Ghazali. Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of Muhammad.[290][291][292][293] Sufi practices such as veneration of saints have faced stiff opposition from followers of Salafism and Wahhabism, who have sometimes physically attacked Sufi places of worship, leading to deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.
The Barelvi movement is a Sufi-influenced revivalist movement within Sunni Islam with over 200 million followers,[294] largely in South Asia.[295][296] Sufism enjoyed a strong revival in central Asia and South Asia. Central Asia is considered to be a center of Sufism. Sufism has played a significant role in fighting against Tsars of Russia and Soviet colonization. Here, Sufis and their different orders are the main religious sources.[297][298] Sufism is also strong in African countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[299][300]
Other denominations
Ahmadiyya is an Islamic reform movement (with Sunni roots) founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad[301] that began in India in 1889 and is practiced by 10 to 20 million[302] Muslims around the world. Ahmad claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies concerning the arrival of the 'Imam Mahdi' and the 'Promised Messiah'.
The Ibadi is a sect that dates back to the early days of Islam and is a branch of Kharijite and is practiced by 1.45 million Muslims around the world.[303] Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers.
Mahdavia is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th-century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri
The Quranists are Muslims who generally reject the Hadith.
Non-denominational Muslims
Main article: Nondenominational Muslim
Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[304][305][306][307] Prominent figures who refused to identify with a particular Islamic denomination have included Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani,[308] Muhammad Iqbal[309] and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.[310] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[299][311][312][313] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.[299]
Derived religions
Some movements, such as the Druze, Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam and whether each is separate a religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Bahai Faith.[314] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late fifteenth century Punjab, incorporates aspects of both Islam and Hinduism. African American Muslim movements include the Nation of Islam, Five-Percent Nation and Moorish scientists.
Demographics
Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah
See also: List of countries by Muslim population
World Muslim population by percentage (Pew Research Center, 2014).
A comprehensive 2009 demographic study of 232 countries and territories reported that 23% of the global population, or 1.57 billion people, are Muslims. Of those, it is estimated that over 75–90% are Sunni and 10–20% are Shia[39][275][315] with a small minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 57 countries are Muslim-majority,[316] and Arabs account for around 20% of all Muslims worldwide.[317] The number of Muslims worldwide increased from 200 million in 1900 to 551 million in 1970,[318] and tripled to 1.6 billion by 2010.[271]
The majority of Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[319] Approximately 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[320][321] In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Iran and Turkey are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[322][323]
Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[324][325][326][327] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.[328] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,[329] and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas, with between 2,454,000, according to Pew Forum, and approximately 7 million Muslims, according to the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), in the United States.[39][330]
According to the Pew Research Center, Islam is set to equal Christianity in number of adherents by the year 2050. Islam is set to grow faster than any other major world religion, reaching a total number of 2.76 billion (an increase of 73%). High fertility rates play a factor, with Islam having a rate of 3.1 compared to the world average of 2.5, and the minimum replacement level for a population at 2.1. Age also plays a role in these numbers due to the fact that Islam has the highest number of adherents under the age of 15 (34% of the total religion) of any major religion (Christianity's is 27%). Sixty percent of Muslims are between the ages of 16 and 59, while only 7% are aged 60+ (the smallest percentage of any major religion). Countries such as Nigeria and the Republic of Macedonia are expected to have Muslim majorities by 2050. In India, the Muslim population will be larger than any other country. Europe's domestic population is set to shrink as opposed to their Islamic population which is set to grow to 10% of Europe's total.[271] According to BBC News, the rates of growth of Islam in Europe reveal that the growing number of Muslims is due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates.[331]
Culture
Main article: Islamic culture
The term "Islamic culture" could be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[332] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[333] sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".
Architecture
Main article: Islamic architecture
Perhaps the most important expression of Islamic architecture is that of the mosque.[334] Varying cultures have an effect on mosque architecture. For example, North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan contain marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[335] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javan styles.
Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali
Great Mosque of Xi'an in Xi'an, China
Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan
Art
Main article: Islamic art
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by Muslim populations.[336] It includes fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.
While not condemned in the Quran, making images of human beings and animals is frowned on in many Islamic cultures and connected with laws against idolatry common to all Abrahamic religions, as 'Abdullaah ibn Mas'ood reported that Muhammad said, "Those who will be most severely punished by Allah on the Day of Resurrection will be the image-makers" (reported by al-Bukhaari, see al-Fath, 10/382). However this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods, and there are examples of paintings of both animals and humans in Mughal, Persian and Turkish art. The existence of this aversion to creating images of animate beings has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[337]
The phrase Bismillah in 18th-century Ottoman calligraphy in the Thuluth style.
Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz
Calendar
Islamic calendar
Months
Muharram
Safar
Rabi' al-awwal
Rabi' al-Thani
Jumada al-awwal
Jumada al-Thani
Rajab
Sha'ban
Ramadan
Shawwal
Dhu al-Qidah
Dhu al-Hijjah
v
t
e
Main article: Islamic calendar
The phases of the Moon form the basis for the Islamic calendar.
The formal beginning of the Muslim era was chosen, reportedly by Caliph Umar, to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset.[338] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj pilgrimage.[339]
Criticism
Main article: Criticism of Islam
Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry and often explained it in apocalyptic terms.[340] Later there appeared criticism from the Muslim world itself, and also from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.[341][342][343]
Objects of criticism include the morality of the life of Muhammad, the last law bearing prophet of Islam, both in his public and personal life,[343][344] as seen in medieval Christian views on Muhammad. Issues relating to the authenticity and morality of the Quran, the Islamic holy book, are also discussed by critics.[345][346] Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Islamic nations, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.[347][348] In wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[349]
See also
Main article: Outline of Islam
Book: Abrahamic religions
Book: Islam
Criticism of Islam
Challenge of the Quran
Glossary of Islam
History of Islam
Islam and violence
Islam and other religions
Islam by country
Islamic economics
Islamic ethics
Islam and humanity
Morality in Islam
Islamic literature
Islamic mythology
Islamic schools and branches
Islamic studies
List of Muslim empires and dynasties
List of notable converts to Islam
Lists of Muslims
Major religious groups
Muslim world
Religious conversion#Islam
Scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts
Timeline of Muslim history
Islam in South Asia
References
Notes
Jump up ^ There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is /z/ or 2/s/, and whether the a is pronounced /ɑː/, /æ/ or (when the stress is on the first syllable) /ə/ (Merriam Webster). The most common are /ˈɪzləmˌ ˈɪsləmˌ ɪzˈlɑːmˌ ɪsˈlɑːm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and /ˈɪzlɑːmˌ ˈɪslɑːm/ (American Heritage Dictionary).
Jump up ^ The verse reads: 'It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards East or West; but it is righteousness to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity, to fulfill the contracts which we have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the God fearing'
Citations
Jump up ^ quran.com: [1]
Jump up ^ John L. Esposito (2009). "Islam. Overview". In John L. Esposito. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Subscription required (help)). Profession of Faith [...] affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of God, the last and final prophet.
^ Jump up to: a b F. E. Peters (2009). "Allāh". In John L. Esposito. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Subscription required (help)). the Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based [...] on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of humankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses, Jesus, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the "Peoples of the Book."
^ Jump up to: a b "The Global Religious Landscape". Pew Forum. 18 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Burke, Daniel (April 4, 2015). "The world's fastest-growing religion is .." CNN. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lippman, Thomas W. (2008-04-07). "No God But God". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others.
Jump up ^ PBS - Islam: Empire of Faith - Faith - Islam Today.
Jump up ^ "Why Muslims are the world's fastest-growing religious group". Pew Research Center. 2017-04-06. Retrieved 2017-05-11.
Jump up ^ According to Oxford Dictionaries, "Muslim is the preferred term for 'follower of Islam,' although Moslem is also widely used."
Jump up ^ Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Allah". [[[:Template:Google.com/books?id=OZbyz Hr-eIC]] Encyclopedia of Islam] Check |url= value (help). Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts on File. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
Jump up ^ İbrahim Özdemir (2014). "Environment". In Ibrahim Kalin. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Subscription required (help)). When Meccan pagans demanded proofs, signs, or miracles for the existence of God, the Qurʾān's response was to direct their gaze at nature's complexity, regularity, and order. The early verses of the Qurʾān, therefore, reveal an invitation to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth, and everything that can be seen in the environment [...] The Qurʾān thus makes it clear that everything in Creation is a miraculous sign of God (āyah), inviting human beings to contemplate the Creator.
Jump up ^ "People of the Book". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18.
Jump up ^ Reeves, J. C. (2004). Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality. Leiden [u.a.: Brill. Page 177
Jump up ^ http://www.cnn.com/2015/10/21/living/yom-kippur-muslims/index.html, retrieved 10-1-2016
Jump up ^ Bennett (2010, p. 101)
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ www.al-islam.org
Jump up ^ Esposito (2002b, p. 17)
Jump up ^ * Esposito (2002b, pp. 111,112,118)
"Shari'ah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ Trofimov, Yaroslav (2008), The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine, New York, p. 79, ISBN 0-307-47290-6
Jump up ^ Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 9, 12. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
Jump up ^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
Jump up ^ Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
Jump up ^ Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society. Psychology Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6. {
Jump up ^ George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, pp. 245, 250, 256–7. New York University Press, ISBN 0-8147-8023-7.
Jump up ^ King, David A. (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks". Isis. 74 (4): 531–555. doi:10.1086/353360.
Jump up ^ Hassan, Ahmad Y (1996). "Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century". In Sharifah Shifa Al-Attas. Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, Proceedings of the Inaugural Symposium on Islam and the Challenge of Modernity: Historical and Contemporary Contexts, Kuala Lumpur, August 1–5, 1994. International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization (ISTAC). pp. 351–399. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
Jump up ^ The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir Thomas Walker Arnold, pg.125-258
Jump up ^ Harney, John (January 3, 2016). "How Do Sunni and Shia Islam Differ?". The New York Times. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ Almukhtar, Sarah; Peçanha, Sergio; Wallace, Tim (January 5, 2016). "Behind Stark Political Divisions, a More Complex Map of Sunnis and Shiites". The New York Times. Retrieved January 6, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b
"Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. October 7, 2009. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Of the total Muslim population, 10-13% are Shia Muslims and 87-90% are Sunni Muslims.
Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
"Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Retrieved December 20, 2012. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.
"Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population...
^ Jump up to: a b See
"Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population". Pew Research Center. 2009-10-07. Retrieved 2013-09-24. The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10-13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10-15%. Some previous estimates, however, have placed the number of Shias at nearly 20% of the world's Muslim population.
"Shia". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Retrieved December 5, 2011. Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide...
"Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Shia Islam represents 10-20% of Muslims worldwide...
Jump up ^ Miller (2009, pp. 8,17)
Jump up ^ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013-01-01). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 9780415448512.
Jump up ^ "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050date=2015-04-02". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 2017-02-07.
Jump up ^ Diplomat, Akhilesh Pillalamarri, The. "How South Asia Will Save Global Islam". The Diplomat. Retrieved 2017-02-07.
Jump up ^ "Middle East-North Africa Overview". 7 October 2009.
Jump up ^ "Region: Middle East-North Africa". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Miller (2009)
Jump up ^ "Region: Sub-Saharan Africa". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica Book of the Year 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica, (2003) ISBN 978-0-85229-956-2 p.306 According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, as of mid-2002, there were 376,453,000 Christians, 329,869,000 Muslims and 98,734,000 people who practiced traditional religions in Africa. Ian S. Markham, (A World Religions Reader. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.) is cited by Morehouse University as giving the mid-1990s figure of 278,250,800 Muslims in Africa, but still as 40.8% of the total population. These numbers are estimates, and remain a matter of conjecture. See Amadu Jacky Kaba. The spread of Christianity and Islam in Africa: a survey and analysis of the numbers and percentages of Christians, Muslims and those who practice indigenous religions. The Western Journal of Black Studies, Vol 29, Number 2, June 2005. Discusses the estimations of various almanacs and encyclopedium, placing Britannica's estimate as the most agreed figure. Notes the figure presented at the World Christian Encyclopedia, summarized here, as being an outlier. On rates of growth, Islam and Pentecostal Christianity are highest, see: The List: The World's Fastest-Growing Religions, Foreign Policy, May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Muslim Population by Country". The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Dictionary listing for Siin roots derived from Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon via www.studyquran.co.uk
Jump up ^ Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton School Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 9780132230858.
Jump up ^ "What does Islam mean?". The Friday Journal. 2011-02-06. Archived from the original on 2011-03-14.
Jump up ^
Quran 6:125, Quran 61:7, Quran 39:22
Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Quran 5:3, Quran 3:19, Quran 3:83
Jump up ^
Quran 9:74, Quran 49:14
Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Esposito, John L. (2000-04-06). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. pp. 76–77. ISBN 9780195107999.
Jump up ^ Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission. Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8232-2584-2.
Jump up ^ Kenneth G. Wilson, The Columbia Guide to Standard American English (ISBN 0231069898), page 291: Muhammadan and Mohammedan are based on the name of the prophet Mohammed, and both are considered offensive.
Jump up ^
Quran 112:1–4
Esposito (2002b, pp. 74–76)
Esposito (2004, p. 22)
Griffith (2006, p. 248)
D. Gimaret. "Allah, Tawhid". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ God Created the Universe with the Purpose to Serve Humankind: God Created ... By Fateh Ullah Khan Page 298 [ Khan, Fateh Ullah (2009). God Created the Universe with the Purpose to Serve Humankind: God Created Humankind to Worship Him and Appointed Him as Viceroy in Earth to See how He Behaves. Fateh Ullah Khan Gandapur. pp. 298–. ISBN 978-969-9399-00-8.
Jump up ^ Turfe, Tallal Alie (1985). Islamic Unity and Happiness. TTQ, Inc. p. 37. ISBN 9780940368477.
Jump up ^ What is Islam? By Jamaal Zarabozo Page 37. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Agwan, A.R.; Khan, N.K. (2000). A – E. Global Vision Publishing. p. 357. ISBN 9788187746003.
Jump up ^ Bentley, David (September 1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 0-87808-299-9.
Jump up ^
Quran 2:117
"Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
Jump up ^
"Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence". Patheos.com. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
Quran 51:56
Jump up ^
"Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
Quran 2:186
Jump up ^ Quran 50:16
Jump up ^
"God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 2010-12-18.
"Islam and Christianity", Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
L. Gardet. "Allah". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^
Quran 35:1
Esposito (2002b, pp. 26–28)
W. Madelung. "Malā'ika". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Gisela Webb. "Angel". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.
Jump up ^ Guessoum, Nidhal (30 October 2010). Islam's Quantum Question: Reconciling Muslim Tradition and Modern Science. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-075-6.
Jump up ^ Kaiyume Baksh (2007). Islam and Other Major World Religions. Trafford Publishing. pp. 163–. ISBN 978-1-4251-1303-2.
Jump up ^
Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
Esposito (1998, pp. 6,12)
Esposito (2002, pp. 4–5)
Peters (2003, p. 9)
Buhl, F; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. * Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
Jump up ^ Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.
Jump up ^ Esposito (2004, pp. 17,18,21)
Jump up ^ Al Faruqi; Lois Ibsen (1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". Asian Music (Autumn – Winter 1987): 3–4.
Jump up ^
"Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
"Qur'an". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ Esposito (2004, p. 79)
Jump up ^
Esposito (2004, pp. 79–81)
"Tafsir". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^
Teece (2003, pp. 12,13)
Turner (2006, p. 42)
"Qur'an". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. : The word Quran was invented and first used in the Qurʼan itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation.
Jump up ^
Momem (1987, p. 176)
"Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ * Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.666* J. Robson. "Hadith". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. * D. W. Brown. "Sunna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
^ Jump up to: a b Read, Study, Search Online. Sahih Bukhari. Retrieved on 2013-07-28.
Jump up ^ [ Brown, Jonathan (5 June 2007). The Canonization of Al-Bukh?r? and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunn? ?ad?th Canon. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-15839-1.
Jump up ^ Muqaddimah Ibn al-Salah, pg. 160-9 Dar al-Ma'aarif edition
Jump up ^ Meri, Josef W. (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. USA: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96690-0.
Jump up ^ www.al-islam.org
Jump up ^ www.al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith
Jump up ^
"Resurrection", The New Encyclopedia of Islam (2003)
"Avicenna". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. : Ibn Sīnā, Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Sīnā is known in the West as "Avicenna".
L. Gardet. "Qiyama". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Animals in Islam By Basheer Ahmad Masri Page 27
Jump up ^ What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam:Second Edition: Second Edition By John L. Esposito Page 130
Jump up ^
Smith (2006, p. 89); Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, p.565
"Heaven", The Columbia Encyclopedia (2000)
Asma Afsaruddin. "Garden". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.
"Paradise". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ Quran 1:4
Jump up ^ Quran 6:31
Jump up ^ Quran 101:1
Jump up ^ Yahya, Harun (12 May 2010). Portents And Features of the Mahdi's Coming. Global Publishing. Kindle Edition.
Jump up ^ *Cohen-Mor (2001, p. 4): "The idea of predestination is reinforced by the frequent mention of events 'being written' or 'being in a book' before they happen: 'Say: "Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us..." ' "* Ahmet T. Karamustafa. "Fate". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. : The verb qadara literally means "to measure, to determine". Here it is used to mean that "God measures and orders his creation".
Jump up ^ "Hajj – ReligionFacts". www.religionfacts.com. Retrieved 2015-11-21.
Jump up ^ Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online
Jump up ^ Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 3, 39, 85, 27–272
Jump up ^ N Mohammad (1985), The doctrine of jihad: An introduction, Journal of Law and Religion, 3(2): 381-397
Jump up ^
Farah (1994), p.135
Momen (1987), p.178
"Islam", Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (2004)
Jump up ^
Esposito (2002b, pp. 18,19)
Hedáyetullah (2006, pp. 53–55)
Kobeisy (2004, pp. 22–34)
Momen (1987, p. 178)
Jump up ^ Budge, E.A. Wallis (June 13, 2001). Budge's Egypt: A Classic 19th century Travel Guide. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 123–128. ISBN 0-486-41721-2.
Jump up ^ Skinner Keller, Rosemary; Ruether, Rosemary Radford; Marie Cantlon (2006). Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America: Native American creation stories. Indiana University Press. pp. 615–. ISBN 0-253-34687-8.
Jump up ^
Pedersen, J.; Hillenbrand, R.; Burton-Page, J. "Masdjid". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
"Mosque". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ Qurʼan, Surat al-Tawbah 9:60 "Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for freeing captives and for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the cause of Allah and for the (stranded) traveller – an obligation (imposed) by Allah . And Allah is Knowing and Wise."
Jump up ^ Ariff, Mohamed (1991). The Islamic Voluntary Sector in Southeast Asia: Islam and the Economic Development of Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 55–. ISBN 978-981-3016-07-1.
Jump up ^ "Analysis: A faith-based aid revolution in the Muslim world?". IRIN. 2012-06-01. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
Jump up ^ Medani Ahmed and Sebastian Gianci, Zakat, Encyclopedia of Taxation and Tax Policy, p. 479
Jump up ^ Said, Abdul Aziz; et al. (2006). Contemporary Islam: Dynamic, Not Static. Taylor & Francis. p. 145. ISBN 9780415770118.
Jump up ^ Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
Jump up ^
Quran 2:177
Esposito (2004, p. 90)
"Zakat". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
"Zakat". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.
Jump up ^ Holt, P. M., Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis (2000). The Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-521-21946-4. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
Jump up ^
Quran 2:184
Esposito (2004, pp. 90,91)
"Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ Davids, Abu Muneer Ismail (2006). Getting the Best Out of Hajj By Abu Muneer Ismail Davids. ISBN 9789960980300. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Peters, F. E (2009-01-10). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians By F. E. Peters Page 20. ISBN 1400825482. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Alhuseini, Sayed / Farouq M. (17 April 2012). Islam and the Glorious Ka’abah: none. iUniverse. pp. 61–. ISBN 978-1-4697-8590-5.
Jump up ^
Farah (1994, pp. 145–147)
Goldschmidt (2005, p. 48)[citation not found]
"Hajj". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
^ Jump up to: a b Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana University Press. p. 70. ISBN 0-253-21627-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. pp. 42–43. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
^ Jump up to: a b "British & World English: sharia". Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Islamic Law". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Vikør, Knut S. (2014). "Sharīʿah". In Emad El-Din Shahin. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Esposito, John L.; DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2001). Women in Muslim Family Law. Syracuse University Press. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-0-8156-2908-5. Quote: "[...], by the ninth century, the classical theory of law fixed the sources of Islamic law at four: the Quran, the Sunnah of the Prophet, qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (consensus)."
^ Jump up to: a b Mayer, Ann Elizabeth (2009). "Law. Modern Legal Reform". In John L. Esposito. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ An-Na'im, Abdullahi A (1996). "Islamic Foundations of Religious Human Rights". In Witte, John; van der Vyver, Johan D. Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective: Religious Perspectives. pp. 337–59. ISBN 978-90-411-0179-2.
Jump up ^ Hajjar, Lisa (2004). "Religion, State Power, and Domestic Violence in Muslim Societies: A Framework for Comparative Analysis". Law & Social Inquiry. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.2004.tb00329.x. JSTOR 4092696.
Jump up ^ Al-Suwaidi, J. (1995). Arab and western conceptions of democracy; in Democracy, war, and peace in the Middle East (Editors: David Garnham, Mark A. Tessler), Indiana University Press, see Chapters 5 and 6; ISBN 978-0253209399[page needed]
Jump up ^ Encyclopedeia of Eminent Thinkers – Page 38, K. S. Bharathi – 1998
Jump up ^ Weiss (2002, pp. 3,161)
Jump up ^
International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 203
Quran 4:29
Jump up ^ Karim, Shafiel A. (2010). The Islamic Moral Economy: A Study of Islamic Money and Financial Instruments. Boca Raton, FL: Brown Walker Press. ISBN 978-1-59942-539-9.
Jump up ^ Financial Regulation in Crisis?: The Role of Law and the Failure of Northern Rock By Joanna Gray, Orkun Akseli Page 97
Jump up ^
Ibn Majah Vol 3 Hadith 2289
International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment By Mamarinta P. Mababaya Page 202
Islamic Capital Markets: Theory and Practice By Noureddine Krichene Page 119
Jump up ^
Abu Daud Hadith 2015
Ibn Majah Vold 3 Hadith 2154
The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment By Zamir Iqbal, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, Hossein Askari Page 75
Jump up ^ Al-Buraey, Muhammad (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective. KPI. pp. 254–. ISBN 978-0-7103-0333-2.
Jump up ^ The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus
Jump up ^ Al-Buraey, Muhammad (1985). Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective. KPI. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0-7103-0059-1.
Jump up ^ Akgündüz, Ahmed; Öztürk, Said (2011). Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths. IUR Press. pp. 539–. ISBN 978-90-90-26108-9. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Firestone (1999) pp. 17–18
Jump up ^ Reuven Firestone (1999), The Meaning of Jihād, p. 17–18
Jump up ^ Britannica Encyclopedia, Jihad
Jump up ^
Brockopp (2003, pp. 99–100)
Esposito (2003, p. 93)
"jihad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^
Firestone (1999, p. 17)
"Djihad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Peters, Rudolph; Cook, David (2014). "Jihād". The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Tyan, E. (2012). "D̲j̲ihād". In P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. (Subscription required (help)). CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Firestone (1999, p. 17)
^ Jump up to: a b "Djihād". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror, Mary R. Habeck, Yale University Press, p.108–109, 118
Jump up ^ Seyyed Hossein Nasr The Heart of Islam, Enduring Values for Humanity (April., 2003), pp 72
Jump up ^ Sachedina (1998, pp. 105,106)
^ Jump up to: a b Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 120. ISBN 0-253-21627-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts on File. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
Jump up ^
Waines (2003, pp. 93–96)
The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p.339
Esposito (1998, p. 79)
Jump up ^ Newby, Gordon D. (2002). A concise encyclopedia of Islam (Repr. ed.). Oxford: Oneworld. p. 141. ISBN 1851682953.
Jump up ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2001). Islam : religion, history, and civilization. New York: HarperOne. p. 68. ISBN 0060507144.
Jump up ^ "Why Can't a Woman have 2 Husbands?". 14 Publications. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Section 30
Jump up ^ Validity of second marriage without consent of first
Jump up ^ IslamWeb Fatwa Q&A
Jump up ^ I'laam al-Muwaqqa'een, part 1, p. 75
Jump up ^ Eaton, Gai (2000). Remembering God: Reflections on Islam. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society. pp. 92–3. ISBN 978-0946621842.
Jump up ^ Qur'an, [Quran 4:11].
Jump up ^ Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
Jump up ^
Quran 5:5
Curtis (2005, p. 164)
Esposito (2002b, p. 111)
Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws Archived 2013-09-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Ghamidi (2001): The Dietary Laws Archived 2007-05-02 at the Wayback Machine.
Ghamidi (2001): Various types of the prayer Archived 2013-09-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Ersilia Francesca. "Slaughter". Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online.
^ Jump up to: a b Matt Stefon, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York City: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
Jump up ^ Corrigan, John; Denny, Frederick; Jaffee, Martin S (2016). Jews, Christians, Muslims: A Comparative Introduction to Monotheistic Religions. Routledge. p. 245. ISBN 9781317347002. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Muhammad Shafi Usmani. Maariful Quran. English trans. By Muhammad Taqi Usmani
Jump up ^ Al-Sheha, Abdur Rahman. Human Rights in Islam and Common Misconceptions. Riyadh. p. 65.
Jump up ^ Bouhdiba, Abdelwahab, ed. (1998). The Individual and Society in Islam: Volume 2 of The different aspects of Islamic culture. UNESCO. p. 238. ISBN 9789231027420.
Jump up ^ al-Sheha, Abdur Rahman. Human Rights in Islam and Common Misconceptions. Riyadh. pp. 74–5.
^ Jump up to: a b Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopedia of Islam. Facts on File. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana: Indiana University Press. p. 116. ISBN 0-253-21627-3.
Jump up ^ Oliver Leaman, ed. (2006). "The Qur'an". The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 140. ISBN 9-78-0-415-32639-1.
Jump up ^ Juan E. Campo, ed. (2009). "Encyclopedia of Islam". Encyclopedia of Islam. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
Jump up ^ Khadduri, Majid (1984). The Islamic Conception of Justice. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 10. ISBN 9780801869747.
Jump up ^ Oliver Leaman, ed. (2006). "The Qur'an". The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 214. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
Jump up ^ Imam Kamil Mufti (2006). Modesty: An Overview. IslamReligion.com Retrieved 19 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Barazangi, Nimat Hafez; Zaman, M. Raquibuz; Afzal, Omar (1996). Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1382-4.
Jump up ^ Amuzegar, Jahangir (1997-02-15). Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar. ISBN 9781860641046. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Curtis, Glenn E.; Hooglund, Eric (18 July 2008). Iran: A Country Study. Government Printing Office. pp. 196–. ISBN 978-0-8444-1187-3.
Jump up ^
Esposito (1998, p. 12)
Esposito (2002b, pp. 4–5)
F. E. Peters (2003), p.9
"Muhammad". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^
Quran 18:110
Buhl, F; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Ünal, Ali (2006). The Qurʼan with Annotated Interpretation in Modern English. Tughra Books. pp. 1323–. ISBN 978-1-59784-000-2.
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Slaves and Slavery
Jump up ^ Bilal b. Rabah, Encyclopedia of Islam
Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p.36
Jump up ^ Serjeant (1978), p. 4.
Jump up ^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina. pp. 227-228 Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date – specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624). Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact 8 different treaties which can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival. R. B. Serjeant. "The Sunnah Jâmi'ah, Pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrîm of Yathrib: Analysis and Translation of the Documents Comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'." in The Life of Muhammad: The Formation of the Classical Islamic World: Volume iv. Ed. Uri Rubin. Brookfield: Ashgate, 1998, p. 151 and see same article in BSOAS 41 (1978): 18 ff. See also Caetani. Annali dell'Islam, Volume I. Milano: Hoepli, 1905, p. 393. Julius Wellhausen. Skizzen und Vorabeiten, IV, Berlin: Reimer, 1889, p 82f who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra. Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624. Even Moshe Gil a skeptic of Islamic history argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. Moshe Gil. "The Constitution of Medina: A Reconsideration." Israel Oriental Studies 4 (1974): p. 45.
Jump up ^ R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42, Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of Medina". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^
Peters (2003, pp. 78,79,194)
Lapidus (2002, pp. 23–28)
Jump up ^ Buhl, F; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^
Holt & 1977a), p. 57)
Hourani & 2003), p. 22)
Lapidus & 2002), p. 32)
Madelung (1996, p. 43)
Tabatabaei (1979, pp. 30–50)
Jump up ^ John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Rightly Guided Caliphs". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-2018 (inactive 2017-03-26). (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ See
Holt (1977a, p. 74)
Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Holt (1977a), pp.67–72
Jump up ^ Waines (2003) p.46
Jump up ^ Donald Puchala, Theory and History in International Relations, page 137. Routledge, 2003.
Jump up ^ Esposito (2010), p.38
Jump up ^ Hofmann (2007), p.86
Jump up ^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 505
Jump up ^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH 829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page 54-59
Jump up ^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978-603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad Page 522
Jump up ^ "Al-Muwatta'". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Coulson, Noel James (1964). History of Islamic Law by N. J. Coulson page 103. ISBN 9780748605149. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Houtsma, M. Th. (1993). E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936. BRILL. pp. 207–. ISBN 90-04-09791-0.
Jump up ^ Moshe Sharon, Studies in Islamic History and Civilization: In Honour of Professor David Ayalon. Page 264 [3]
Jump up ^ Lapidus (2002, p. 56); Lewis (1993, pp. 71–83)
Jump up ^ "Islam in China". BBC. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
Jump up ^
Holt (1977a, pp. 80,92,105)
Holt (1977b, pp. 661–663)
Lapidus (2002, p. 56)
Lewis (1993, p. 84)
Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ Micheau, Françoise. "Encyclopedia of the History of Islamic Science: Technology, alchemy and life": 991–2. , in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 985–1007)
Jump up ^ "The beginnings of modern medicine: the Caliphate". Planetseed.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-15. Retrieved 2011-01-29.
Jump up ^ Alatas, Syed Farid (2006). "From Jami'ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue". Current Sociology. 54 (1): 112–32. doi:10.1177/0011392106058837.
Jump up ^ Imamuddin, S. M. (1981). Muslim Spain 711–1492 AD. Brill Publishers. p. 169. ISBN 90-04-06131-2.
Jump up ^ The Guinness Book of Records. 1998. p. 242. ISBN 0-553-57895-2.
Jump up ^ Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77]. doi:10.2307/604423. JSTOR 604423.
^ Jump up to: a b Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8 page 23, 42, 84.
"Despite the fact that they did not have a quantified theory of error they were well aware that an increased number of observations qualitatively reduces the uncertainty."
Jump up ^ Haq, Syed (2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISSN 1703-7603. Retrieved 2014-10-22.
Jump up ^ G. J. Toomer. Review on JSTOR, Toomer's 1964 review of Matthias Schramm (1963) Ibn Al-Haythams Weg Zur Physik Toomer p.464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method."
Jump up ^ Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009). "The 'first true scientist'". BBC News. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Gorini, Rosanna (October 2003). "Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision" (PDF). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. 2 (4): 53–55. Retrieved 2008-09-25.
Jump up ^ Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-30). "It's time to herald the Arabic science that prefigure Darwin and Newton". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
Jump up ^ Al-Khalili, Jim (2008-01-29). "Science: Islam's forgotten geniuses". London: The Telegraph. Retrieved 2011-12-13.
Jump up ^ Haviland, Charles (2007-09-30). "The roar of Rumi – 800 years on". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
Jump up ^ "Islam: Jalaluddin Rumi". BBC. 2009-09-01. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
Jump up ^ (Gaudiosi 1988)[citation not found]
Jump up ^ (Hudson 2003, p. 32)[citation not found]
Jump up ^ Lapidus (2002), p.86
Jump up ^ Weiss (2002, pp. xvii,162)
Jump up ^
Lapidus (2002), p.160
Waines (2003) p.126,127
Jump up ^ Esposito (2010, p. 88)
Jump up ^ Doi, Abdur Rahman (1984). Shariah: The Islamic Law. London: Ta-Ha Publishers. p. 110. ISBN 0-907461-38-7.
Jump up ^
Lapidus (2002, pp. 90,91)
"Sufism". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ Esposito (2004, pp. 104,105)
Jump up ^ "Mecca (Saudi Arabia)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
Jump up ^
Lapidus (2002, pp. 103–143)
"Abbasid Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.
Jump up ^ "The Spread of Islam" (PDF). Retrieved 2 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Ottoman Empire". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 6 May 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. pg 292. United States of America: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0375-X.
Jump up ^ Dillon, Michael (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community. Curzon. p. 37. ISBN 0-7007-1026-4.
Jump up ^ Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean. Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications, 2006. pg170. Print. ISBN 1-59008-040-8
Jump up ^ Lapidus (2002), pp.358,378–380,624
Jump up ^ "New Turkey". Al-Ahram Weekly (488). 29 June – 5 July 2000. Archived from the original on 4 October 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-16.
Jump up ^ Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice By Mahmoud A. El-Gamal Page 122 [4]
Jump up ^ The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts Page 917 [5]
Jump up ^ The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War By Frederic M. Wehrey Page 91 [6]
Jump up ^ Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p.321
Jump up ^ "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica
Jump up ^ Nadir Shah and the Ja 'fari Madhhab Reconsidered, Ernest Tucker, Iranian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1/4, Religion and Society in Islamic Iran during the Pre-Modern Era (1994), pp. 163-179, Published by: International Society for Iranian Studies [7]
Jump up ^ Esposito (2010, p. 146)
Jump up ^ "Graves desecrated in Mizdah". Libyan Herald. 4 September 2013. Retrieved 2 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Muslim Minorities in the West: Visible and Invisible By Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Jane I. Smith, pg 271
Jump up ^ Bulliet, Richard, Pamela Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, and David Northrup. The Earth and Its Peoples. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. ISBN 0-618-42770-8
Jump up ^ Nigosian (2004, pp. 41)
Jump up ^ Esposito (2004, pp. 118,119,179) and Lapidus (2002, pp. 823–830)
Jump up ^ Rippin (2001, p. 288)
Jump up ^ * Goldman, Merle (1986). "Religion in Post-Mao China". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 483 (1): 146–156. doi:10.1177/0002716286483001013.
Jump up ^ Page18* Elsie, Robert. 2000. A Dictionary of Albanian Religion, Mythology, and Folk Culture. C. Hurst & Co. ISBN 978-1-85065-570-1.
Jump up ^ Perrin, Andrew (October 10, 2003). "Weakness in numbers". TIME. Retrieved 2013-09-24. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ "Huge rally for Turkish secularsim". BBC News. 2011-04-29. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
Jump up ^ Saleh, Heba (2011-10-15). "Tunisia moves against headscarves". BBC News. Retrieved 2011-12-06.
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World, Thomson Gale, 2004
Jump up ^ "Political Islam: A movement in motion". Economist Magazine. 3 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Are secular forces being squeezed out of Arab Spring?". BBC News. 2011-08-09. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
Jump up ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (2011-12-03). "Egypt's vote puts emphasis on split over religious rule". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-12-08.
Jump up ^ "Organization of the Islamic Conference". BBC News. 2010-12-26. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
Jump up ^ "Ultraconservative Islam on rise in Mideast". MSNBC. 2008-10-18. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Laying down the law: Islam's authority deficit. The Economist. 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
Jump up ^ Slackman, Michael (2008-12-23). "Jordanian students rebel, embracing conservative Islam". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
Jump up ^ Slackman, Michael (2007-01-28). "In Egypt, a new battle begins over the veil". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-15.
Jump up ^ Beech, Hannah (2007-02-22). "Why Indonesia matters". TIME. Retrieved 2013-09-24. (subscription required)
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010-2050". Pew Research Center. April 2, 2015. Retrieved March 18, 2016.
Jump up ^ Onishi, Norimitsu (2001-11-01). "Rising Muslim power causes unrest in Nigeria and elsewhere". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Muslims say their faith growing fast in Africa". wwrn.org. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ CARL BIALIK (9 April 2008). "Muslims May Have Overtaken Catholics a While Ago". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 5 September 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Islām". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
Jump up ^ "Islam Today". Islam: Empire of Faith (2000). PBS. Retrieved 2010-08-25. Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's third fastest growing religion.
Jump up ^ "Understanding Islam". Susan Headden. U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-25.
Jump up ^ "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-07-03.
Jump up ^
Esposito (2003, pp. 275,306)
"Shariah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
"Sunnite". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Jump up ^ Salafi Islam GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Deobandis – Oxford Reference". oxfordreference.com. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-522 (inactive 2017-03-26).
Jump up ^ The waning of the Umayyad caliphate by Tabarī, Carole Hillenbrand, 1989, p37, p38
Jump up ^ The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol.16, Mircea Eliade, Charles J. Adams, Macmillan, 1987, p243.
Jump up ^ "Imam Khamenei: Insulting Symbols of Sunni Brothers Forbidden". Rohama.org. 2 October 2010. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Shiite leaders forbid insults against Sunnis". Al-monitor. 2014-07-11. Retrieved 2016-01-06.
Jump up ^
Kramer (1987), Syria's Alawis and Shiism pp.237–254
Shia branches Archived 2004-10-25 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Trimingham (1998), p.1
Jump up ^
Esposito (2003, p. 302)
Malik (2006, p. 3)
Turner (1998, p. 145)
"Afghanistan: A Country Study – Sufism". Library of Congress Country Studies. 1997. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
Jump up ^ Ahmed Zarruq, Zaineb Istrabadi, Hamza Yusuf Hanson. The Principles of Sufism. Amal Press. 2008.
Jump up ^ Corrections of Popular Versions of Poems From Rumi's Divan
Jump up ^ Ibrahim Gamard, Rumi and Self-Discovery
Jump up ^ Chittick, William C (2008). Sufism: A Beginner's Guide. ISBN 9781780740522. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1993-01-01). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. ISBN 9780791415153. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "Barelvi – Oxford Reference". oxfordreference.com. doi:10.1093/acref/9780192800947.001.0001/acref-9780192800947-e-908 (inactive 2017-03-26).
Jump up ^ Usha Sanyal. Generational Changes in the Leadership of the Ahl-e Sunnat Movement in North India during the Twentieth Century. Modern Asiantudies (1998), Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ "Ahl al-Sunnah wa'l-Jamaah". oxfordreference.com. doi:10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095357101 (inactive 2017-03-26).
Jump up ^ Alvi, Farhat. "The Significant Role of Sufism in Central Asia" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Sufism in Southeast Asia: Reflections and Reconsiderations". JSTOR 20071709.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Chapter 1: Religious Affiliation". The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity. Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. August 9, 2012. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Sufism and Religious Brotherhoods in Senegal", Babou, Cheikh Anta, The International Journal of African Historical Studies, v. 40 no. 1 (2007) pp. 184–6
Jump up ^ "Who Are the Ahmadi?". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
Jump up ^
Breach of Faith. Human Rights Watch. June 2005. p. 8. Retrieved March 29, 2014. Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate
Larry DeVries; Don Baker; Dan Overmyer (2011-01-01). Asian Religions in British Columbia. University of Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-1662-5. Retrieved March 29, 2014. The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world
Juan Eduardo Campo (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. p. 24. ISBN 0-8160-5454-1. Retrieved March 29, 2014. The total size of the Ahmadiyya community in 2001 was estimated to be more than 10 million
"Ahmadiyya Muslims". pbs.org. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
A figure of 10-20 million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also Ahmadiyya by country.
Jump up ^ Robert Brenton Betts (2013-07-31). The Sunni-Shi'a Divide: Islam's Internal Divisions and Their Global Consequences. pp. 14–15. ISBN 9781612345222. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Benakis, Theodoros (13 January 2014). "Islamophoobia in Europe!". New Europe. Brussels. Retrieved 20 October 2015. Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims – those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.
Jump up ^ Longton, Gary Gurr (2014). "Isis Jihadist group made me wonder about non-denominational Muslims". The Sentinel. Retrieved 21 October 2015. THE appalling and catastrophic pictures of the so-called new extremist Isis Jihadist group made me think about someone who can say I am a Muslim of a non-denominational standpoint, and to my surprise/ignorance, such people exist. Online, I found something called the people's mosque, which makes itself clear that it's 100 per cent non-denominational and most importantly, 100 per cent non-judgmental.
Jump up ^ Kirkham, Bri (2015). "Indiana Blood Center cancels 'Muslims for Life' blood drive". Archived from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 21 October 2015. Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a non-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.
Jump up ^ Pollack, Kenneth (2014). Unthinkable: Iran, the Bomb, and American Strategy. p. 29. ISBN 9781476733937. Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims
Jump up ^ Cughtai, Muhammad Ikram (2005). Jamāl Al-Dīn Al-Afghāni: An Apostle of Islamic Resurgence. p. 454. Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, al- Afghani revised to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar with his own interpretation of Islam.
Jump up ^ Jones, Justin (2011-10-24). Shi'a Islam in Colonial India: Religion, Community and Sectarianism. pp. 25–26. ISBN 9781139501231.
Jump up ^ Ahmed, Khaled. "Was Jinnah a Shia or a Sunni?". The Friday Times. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Burns, Robert (2011-12-01). Christianity, Islam, and the West. p. 55. ISBN 9780761855606. 40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations
Jump up ^ Tatari, Eren (2014). Muslims in British Local Government: Representing Minority Interests in Hackney, Newham and Tower Hamlets. p. 111. ISBN 9789004272262. Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi
Jump up ^ Lopez, Ralph (2008). Truth in the Age of Bushism. p. 65. ISBN 9781434896155. Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."
Jump up ^ House of Justice, Universal. "One Common Faith". reference.bahai.org. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
Jump up ^ CIA retrieved 21 December 2011
Jump up ^ Miller (2009, p. 11)
Jump up ^ Ba-Yunus, Ilyas; Kone, Kassim (2006). Muslims in the United States. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 172. ISBN 0-313-32825-0.
Jump up ^ Whaling, Frank (1987). Religion in today's world: the religious situation of the world from 1945 to the present day. T & T Clark. p. 38. ISBN 0-567-09452-9.
Jump up ^ "Islam: An Overview in Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 2008-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-16. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ "Secrets of Islam". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 2013-09-24. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University (2005).
Jump up ^ Miller (2009, pp. 15,17)
Jump up ^ "Number of Muslim by country". nationmaster.com. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
Jump up ^ www.amar.org.ir , official statistics site of Iran
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook – China". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
Jump up ^ "China (includes Hong Kong, Macau, and Tibet)". State.gov. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
Jump up ^ "NW China region eyes global Muslim market". China Daily. 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
Jump up ^ "Muslim Media Network". Muslim Media Network. 2008-03-24. Archived from the original on 2008-03-27. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
Jump up ^ Secrets of Islam, U.S. News & World Report. Information provided by the International Population Center, Department of Geography, San Diego State University.
Jump up ^
Esposito (2004, pp. 2,43)
"Islamic World". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
"Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-01-09.
"Muslims in Europe: Country guide". BBC News. BBC. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
"Religion in Britain" (PDF). National Statistics. Office for National Statistics. 2003-02-13. Retrieved 2006-08-27.
Jump up ^ The Mosque in America: A National Portrait Archived 2010-06-17 at the Wayback Machine. Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR). April 26, 2001. Retrieved on 2010-08-01.
Jump up ^ "site". BBC News. 2005-12-23. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
Jump up ^ "'Islamic' Culture: A Groundless Myth". nytimes.com. 4 November 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Esposito (2010, p. 56)
Jump up ^ "Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)
Jump up ^ Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). Elizabeth Allo Isichei, A history of African societies to 1870, page 175. Cambridge University Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2. Retrieved 2010-08-06.
Jump up ^ Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Richard Ettinghauset and Architecture 650–1250, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08869-8, p.3
Jump up ^ Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (May 1, 2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199812578. Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural represenation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.
Jump up ^ Patheos Library – Islam Sacred Time – Patheos.com
Jump up ^ Ghamidi (2001): Customs and Behavioral Laws Archived 2013-09-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Erwin Fahlbusch (1999). The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 2. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 759. ISBN 9789004116955.
Jump up ^ Warraq, Ibn (2003). Leaving Islam: Apostates Speak Out. Prometheus Books. p. 67. ISBN 1-59102-068-9.
Jump up ^ Kammuna, Ibn (1971). Examination of the Three Faiths. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Moshe Perlmann. pp. 148–49.
^ Jump up to: a b Oussani, Gabriel. "Mohammed and Mohammedanism". Newadvent.org. Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 16, 2006.
Jump up ^ Warraq, Ibn (March 1, 2000). The Quest for Historical Muhammad (1st ed.). Amherst, Mass.: Prometheus Books. p. 103. ISBN 1-57392-787-2.
Jump up ^ Bible in Mohammedian Literature., by Kaufmann Kohler Duncan B. McDonald, Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 22, 2006.
Jump up ^ Spencer, Robert (October 25, 2002). Islam Unveiled: Disturbing Questions About the World's Fastest Growing Faith. Encounter Books. pp. 22–63. ISBN 1-893554-58-9.
Jump up ^ "Saudi Arabia - Country report - Freedom in the World - 2005".
Jump up ^ Timothy Garton Ash (2006-10-05). "Islam in Europe". The New York Review of Books.
Jump up ^ Modood, Tariq (April 6, 2006). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5.
Books and journals
Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. 14 (1).
Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World (2.00 ed.). I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-257-9.
Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8264-9944-8.
Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina press. ISBN 1-57003-471-0.
Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513398-6.
Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0-8138-1946-4.
Esposito, John (2010). Islam: The Straight Path (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539600-3.
Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
Esposito, John; Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2000a). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513526-1.
Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.
Esposito, John (2002a). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516886-0.
Esposito, John (2002b). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3.
Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4.
Esposito, John (2004). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd Rev Upd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518266-8.
Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-8120-1853-0.
Farah, Caesar (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-7641-2226-2.
Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512580-0.
Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan. Dar al-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690.
Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Davidson, Lawrence (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7.
Griffith, Ruth Marie; Savage, Barbara Dianne (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-8370-9.
Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2002). Muslims in the West: from sojourners to citizens. Oxford University Press.
Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24073-5.
Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55369-842-5.
Hofmann, Murad (2007). Islam and Qur'an. ISBN 978-1-59008-047-4.
Holt, P.M; Lewis, Bernard (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29136-4.
Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K.S; Lewis, Bernard (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29137-2.
Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8.
Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-313-32472-7.
Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-0453-3.
Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.
Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7102-0462-0.
Lewis, Bernard (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285258-2.
Lewis, Bernard (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-83280-7.
Lewis, Bernard (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9518-2.
Lewis, Bernard (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (Reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-051605-5.
Lewis, Bernard (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0-8129-6785-2.
Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.
Malik, Jamal; Hinnells, John R (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-27408-7.
Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85859-3.
Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2013-09-24.
Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5.
Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-067700-7.
Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: its history, teaching, and practices. Indiana University Press.
Patton, Walter M. (April 1900). "The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. Brill Academic Publishers. 16 (3): 129. doi:10.1086/369367. ISBN 90-04-10314-7.
Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
Rahman, H. U. (1999). Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE (3rd ed.). Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.
Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-21781-1.
Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-511915-0.
Siljander, Mark D. and John David Mann. A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide. First ed. New York: Harper One, 2008. ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8
Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515649-2.
Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press. ISBN 0-87395-272-3.
Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7496-4796-4.
Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512058-2.
Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-34106-X.
Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-415-17458-9.
Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53906-4.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 0-85224-245-X.
Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4.
Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 90-04-12066-1.
Encyclopedias
William H. McNeill; Jerry H. Bentley; David Christian, eds. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1.
Gabriel Oussani, ed. (1910). Catholic Encyclopedia.
Paul Lagasse; Lora Goldman; Archie Hobson; Susan R. Norton, eds. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.
Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean (2008). "Islam". In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 256–58. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n155. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Erwin Fahlbusch; William Geoffrey Bromiley, eds. (2001). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company, and Brill. ISBN 0-8028-2414-5.
John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522393-4.
Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
Richard C. Martin; Said Amir Arjomand; Marcia Hermansen; Abdulkader Tayob; Rochelle Davis; John Obert Voll, eds. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.
Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers.
Salamone Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8.
Glasse Cyril, ed. (2003). New Encyclopedia of Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0759101906.
Further reading
Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6
Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6.
Arberry, A. J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6.
Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4
Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0
Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9.
A. Khanbaghi (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. I. B. Tauris.
Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5
Kramer (ed.), Martin (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-03813-2.
Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3.
Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.
Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5.
Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices (New ed.). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2.
Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.
Tausch, Arno (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world. With Almas Heshmati and Hichem Karoui (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8.
Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3.
External links
Find more aboutIslamat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guide from Wikivoyage
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Data from Wikidata
Academic resources
Patheos Library – Islam
University of Southern California Compendium of Muslim Texts
Divisions in Islam
Online resources
Islam, article at Encyclopædia Britannica
Islam at DMOZ
Directories
Islam (Bookshelf) at Project Gutenberg
Islam from UCB Libraries GovPubs
[show]
v
t
e
Islam topics
Outline of Islam
Beliefs
God in Islam
Tawhid
Muhammad
In Islam
Prophets of Islam
Five Pillars
Shahada
Salah
Sawm
Zakat
Hajj
History
Leaders
Timeline of Muslim history
Conquests
Golden Age
Historiography
Sahaba
Ahl al-Bayt
Shi'a Imams
Caliphates
Rashidun
Umayyad
Abbasid
Córdoba
Fatimid
Almohad
Sokoto
Ottoman
Religious texts
Quran
Sunnah
Hadith
Tafsir
Seerah
Denominations
Sunni
Shia
Ibadi
Nation of Islam
Ahmadiyya
Quranism
Non-denominational
Life
Culture
Animals
Art
Calendar
Children
Clothing
Holidays
Mosques
Madrasas
Moral teachings
Music
Philosophy
Political aspects
Qurbani
Science
medieval
Social welfare
Women
LGBT
Islam by country
[show]
Law
Jurisprudence
Economics
Banking
Economic history
Sukuk
Takaful
Murabaha
Riba
Hygiene
Ghusl
Miswak
Najis
Tayammum
Toilet
Wudu
Marriage
Sex
Marriage contract
Mahr
Mahram
Masturbation
Nikah
Nikah Mut‘ah
Zina
Other aspects
Cleanliness
Criminal
Dhabiĥa
Dhimmi
Divorce
Diet
Ethics
Etiquette
Gambling
Gender segregation
Honorifics
Hudud
Inheritance
Jizya
Leadership
Ma malakat aymanukum
Military
POWs
Slavery
Sources of law
Theological
baligh
kalam
[show]
Islamic studies
Arts
Arabesque
Architecture
Calligraphy
Carpets
Gardens
Geometric patterns
Music
Pottery
Medieval science
Alchemy and chemistry
Astronomy
Cosmology
Geography and cartography
Mathematics
Medicine
Ophthalmology
Physics
Philosophy
Early
Contemporary
Eschatology
Theological
Other areas
Astrology
Creationism (evolution)
Feminism
Inventions
Liberalism and progressivism
Literature
poetry
Psychology
Shu'ubiyya
Conversion to mosques
Other religions
Christianity
Mormonism
Protestantism
Hinduism
Jainism
Judaism
Sikhism
Related topics
Apostasy
Criticism of Islam
Cultural Muslim
Islamism
Criticism
Post-Islamism
Islamophobia
Incidents
Islamic terrorism
Islamic view of miracles
Domestic violence
Nursing
Persecution of Muslims
Quran and miracles
Qutbism
Symbolism
Islam portal
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Religion
[show]
Major religious groups and religious denominations
Abrahamic
Judaism
Orthodox
Haredi
Hasidic
Modern
Conservative
Reform
Karaite
Reconstructionist
Renewal
Humanistic
Haymanot
Christianity
Catholicism
Eastern Catholic Churches
Eastern Christianity
Church of the East
Assyrian Church of the East
Eastern Orthodoxy
Oriental Orthodoxy
Ethiopian Orthodoxy
Independent Catholicism
Old Catholicism
Protestantism
Adventism
Anabaptism
Anglicanism
Baptists
Calvinism
Presbyterianism
Congregationalism
Continental Reformed
Lutheranism
Methodism
Pentecostalism
Evangelicalism
Nontrinitarianism
Jehovah's Witnesses
Mormonism
Jesuism
Nondenominational
Islam
Sunni
Hanafi
Maliki
Hanbali
Shafi'i
Shia
Twelver
Isma'ilism
Zaidiyyah
Ahmadi
Ibadi
Non-denominational
Quranism
Zahirism
Salafism
Wahhabism
Ahl al-Hadith
Mahdavia
European Islam
Nation of Islam
Others
Bábism
Azáli Bábism
Bahá'í Faith
Druze
Mandaeism
Rastafari
Samaritanism
Indian religions
Hinduism
Vaishnavism
Shaktism
Shaivism
Ayyavazhi
Smartism
Balinese
Buddhism
Mahayana
Chan
Zen
Thiền
Seon
Pure Land
Nichiren
Madhyamaka
Tiantai
Theravada
Vajrayana
Tibetan
Shingon
Newar
Bon
Navayana
Others
Jainism
Digambara
Śvētāmbara
Sikhism
Gurung shamanism
Bon Lamaism
Kirant Mundhum
Iranian
Manichaeism
Yazdânism
Yazidism
Ishikism
Ali-Illahism
Yarsanism
Zoroastrianism
European
Armenian
Baltic
Dievturība
Druwi
Romuva
Caucasian
Celtic
Druidry
Germanic
Hellenism
Italo-Roman
Romanian
Slavic
Uralic
Finnish
Hungarian
Uralic
Mari
Mordvin
Udmurt
Central and
Northern Asian
Burkhanism
Chuvash
Manchu
Mongolian
Siberian
Tengrism
East Asian
Benzhuism
Bimoism
Bon
Cheondoism
Confucianism
Dongbaism
Faism
Hmongism
Jeungsanism
Luoism
Meishanism
Mileism
Muism
Neo-Confucianism
Ryukyuan religion
Shenism
Shigongism
Shinto
Taoism
Tenrikyo
Wuism
Yiguandao
Southeast Asian
Burmese
Caodaism
Satsana Phi
Malaysian
Marapu (Sumba)
Indonesian
Kaharingan
Hoahaoism
Javanism
Philippine
Vietnamese
Đạo Mẫu
African
Traditional
Akan
Akamba
Baluba
Bantu
Berber
Bushongo
Cushitic
Dinka
Efik
Fon and Ewe
Guanche
Igbo
Isoko
Lotuko
Lozi
Lugbara
Maasai
Mbuti
San
Serer
Tumbuka
Waaq
Yoruba
Zulu
Diasporic
Candomblé
Kumina
Obeah
Quimbanda
Palo
Santería
Umbanda
Vodou
Voodoo
Winti
Other groups
Bathouism
Bongthingism
Donyi-Polo
Dravidian
Kiratism
Sanamahism
Sarnaism
Aboriginal Australian
Native American
Mesoamerican
Hawaiian
Polynesian
Recent
Discordianism
Eckankar
Jediism
New Age
New Thought
Pastafarianism
Raëlism
Satanism
Scientology
Thelema
Unitarian Universalism
Wicca
[show]
Historical religions
Prehistoric
Paleolithic
Near East
Arabian
Egyptian
Mesopotamian
Semitic
Indo-European
Asia
Proto-Indo-Iranian
Armenian
Ossetian
Vedic
Zoroastrianism
Mithraism
Zurvanism
Gnosticism
Manichaeism
Europe
Celtic
Germanic
Anglo-Saxon
Continental
Norse
Greek
Gnosticism
Neoplatonism
Manichaeism
Balkan
Roman
Slavic
[show]
Topics
Aspects
Apostasy / Disaffiliation
Behaviour
Beliefs
Clergy
Conversion
Deities
Entheogens
Ethnic religion
Denomination
Faith
Fire
Folk religion
God
Meditation
Monasticism
monk
nun
Mysticism
Mythology
Nature
Ordination
Orthodoxy
Orthopraxy
Prayer
Religious experience
Ritual
liturgy
sacrifice
Spirituality
Supernatural
Symbols
Truth
Water
Worship
Theism
Animism
Deism
Dualism
Henotheism
Monotheism
Nontheism
Panentheism
Pantheism
Polytheism
Transtheism
Religious studies
Anthropology
Cognitive science
Comparative
Development
Evolutionary origin
Evolutionary psychology
History
Philosophy
Neurotheology
Psychology
Sociology
Theology
Theories
Women
Religion and
society
Agriculture
Business
Clergy
monasticism
ordination
Conversion
evangelism
missionary
proselytism
Education
Fanaticism
Freedom
pluralism
syncretism
toleration
universalism
Fundamentalism
Growth
Happiness
Homosexuality
Minorities
National church
National religiosity levels
Religiocentrism
Political science
Populations
Schism
Science
State
Theocracy
Vegetarianism
Video games
Violence
persecution
terrorism
war
Wealth
Secularism and
irreligion
Antireligion
Deism
Agnosticism
Atheism
Criticism
LaVeyan Satanism
Deconstruction
Humanistic Judaism
Irreligion by country
Objectivism
Secular humanism
Secular theology
Secularization
Separation of church and state
Unaffiliated
Overviews
and lists
Index
Outline
Timeline
Abrahamic prophets
Deification
Deities
Founders
Mass gatherings
New religious movements
Organizations
Religions and spiritual traditions
Scholars
Category
Portal
Authority control
LCCN: sh85068390
GND: 4027743-4
HDS: 11392
NDL: 00564585
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islam&oldid=812024240"
Categories:
Islam
Monotheistic religions
Abrahamic religions
610 establishments
Religious organizations established in the 7th century
Hidden categories:
Pages containing links to subscription-only content
Pages with URL errors
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
All articles with broken links to citations
Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from April 2016
CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter
Webarchive template wayback links
Pages with DOIs inactive since 2017
Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages
Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages
Articles containing Arabic-language text
Articles with hAudio microformats
CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list
Articles with DMOZ links
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
View source
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Wikibooks
Wikinews
Wikiquote
Wikiversity
Wikivoyage
Wiktionary
Languages
Acèh
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
አማርኛ
Ænglisc
العربية
Aragonés
ܐܪܡܝܐ
Arpetan
অসমীয়া
Asturianu
Avañe'ẽ
Авар
Azərbaycanca
تۆرکجه
Bamanankan
বাংলা
Bahasa Banjar
Bân-lâm-gú
Basa Banyumasan
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
भोजपुरी
Bikol Central
Bislama
Български
Boarisch
བོད་ཡིག
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Буряад
Català
Чӑвашла
Cebuano
Čeština
Chi-Chewa
ChiShona
Corsu
Cymraeg
Dansk
Davvisámegiella
Deitsch
Deutsch
ދިވެހިބަސް
Dolnoserbski
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Estremeñu
Euskara
فارسی
Fiji Hindi
Føroyskt
Français
Frysk
Furlan
Gaeilge
Gaelg
Gagauz
Gàidhlig
Galego
ગુજરાતી
𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺
गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
Хальмг
한국어
Hausa
Hawaiʻi
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hornjoserbsce
Hrvatski
Ido
Igbo
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Interlingue
Ирон
IsiZulu
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
Kalaallisut
ಕನ್ನಡ
Къарачай-малкъар
ქართული
कॉशुर / کٲشُر
Қазақша
Kernowek
Kiswahili
Kongo
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Ladino
Лакку
Лезги
ລາວ
لۊری شومالی
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Ligure
Limburgs
Lingála
La .lojban.
Lumbaart
Magyar
मैथिली
Македонски
Malagasy
മലയാളം
Malti
मराठी
მარგალური
مصرى
مازِرونی
Bahasa Melayu
Baso Minangkabau
Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄
Mirandés
Молдовеняскэ
Монгол
မြန်မာဘာသာ
Nāhuatl
Nederlands
Nedersaksies
नेपाली
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Napulitano
Нохчийн
Nordfriisk
Norfuk / Pitkern
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Nouormand
Novial
Occitan
ଓଡ଼ିଆ
Oromoo
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
पालि
پنجابی
Papiamentu
پښتو
Patois
ភាសាខ្មែរ
Piemontèis
Tok Pisin
Plattdüütsch
Polski
Português
Qaraqalpaqsha
Qırımtatarca
Română
Rumantsch
Runa Simi
Русиньскый
Русский
Саха тыла
संस्कृतम्
Sardu
Scots
Shqip
Sicilianu
සිංහල
Simple English
سنڌي
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Ślůnski
Soomaaliga
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Basa Sunda
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
Taqbaylit
Татарча/tatarça
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
ತುಳು
Türkçe
Türkmençe
ᨅᨔ ᨕᨘᨁᨗ
Українська
اردو
ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
Vahcuengh
Vèneto
Vepsän kel’
Tiếng Việt
Võro
Walon
文言
West-Vlams
Winaray
Wolof
吴语
Xitsonga
ייִדיש
Yorùbá
粵語
Zazaki
Zeêuws
Žemaitėška
中文
डोटेली
Kabɩyɛ
Edit links
This page was last edited on 25 November 2017, at 14:13.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: class id

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Islam_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Islam (disambiguation)

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

values: font-size:105%;padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;text-align:center;padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;

values:
/wiki/Imamah_(Shia_doctrine)
mw-redirect
Imamah (Shia doctrine)

values:
/wiki/Muslim_holidays
mw-redirect
Muslim holidays

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0.1em;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.5em;

values:
/wiki/Conversion_to_Islam
mw-redirect
Conversion to Islam

values:
/wiki/Islam_in_South_Asia
mw-redirect
Islam in South Asia

values:
/wiki/Arabic_language
mw-redirect
Arabic language

values: Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

values:
/wiki/Active_participle
mw-redirect
Active participle

values:
/wiki/Islamic_view_of_Jesus
mw-redirect
Islamic view of Jesus

values:
/wiki/Purpose_of_life
mw-redirect
Purpose of life

values:
/wiki/Holy_Spirit_(Islam)
mw-redirect
Holy Spirit (Islam)

values:
/wiki/Prophets_in_Islam
mw-redirect
Prophets in Islam

values:
/wiki/Islamic_theology
mw-redirect
Islamic theology

values:
/wiki/Adam_(Bible)
mw-redirect
Adam (Bible)

values:
/wiki/Islamic_view_of_Noah
mw-redirect
Islamic view of Noah

values:
/wiki/Islamic_view_of_Moses
mw-redirect
Islamic view of Moses

values:
/wiki/Seal_of_the_prophets
mw-redirect
Seal of the prophets

values:
/wiki/Resurrection_of_the_Dead
mw-redirect
Resurrection of the Dead

values:
/wiki/Islamic_views_of_sin
mw-redirect
Islamic views of sin

values:
/wiki/Mughal_Emperor
mw-redirect
Mughal Emperor

values:
/wiki/Convert_to_Islam
mw-redirect
Convert to Islam

values:
/wiki/Places_of_worship
mw-redirect
Places of worship

values:
/wiki/Al-Masjid_al-Nabawi
mw-redirect
Al-Masjid al-Nabawi

values:
/wiki/Bonded_labour
mw-redirect
Bonded labour

values:
/wiki/Sawm_of_Ramadan
mw-redirect
Sawm of Ramadan

values:
/wiki/Masjid_al-Haram
mw-redirect
Masjid al-Haram

values:
/wiki/Al-Safa_and_Al-Marwah
mw-redirect
Al-Safa and Al-Marwah

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 1.5em 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Nikah_Misyar
mw-redirect
Nikah Misyar

values:
/wiki/Nikah_mut%E2%80%98ah
mw-redirect
Nikah mut‘ah

values:
/wiki/Sexual_Violation_in_Islamic_Law
mw-redirect
Sexual Violation in Islamic Law

values:
/wiki/Gender_segregation_and_Muslims
mw-redirect
Gender segregation and Muslims

values:
/wiki/Muslim_hygienical_jurisprudence
mw-redirect
Muslim hygienical jurisprudence

values: Comparison of Islamic and Jewish dietary laws

values:
/wiki/Usul_al-fiqh
mw-redirect
Usul al-fiqh

values:
/wiki/Islamic_economic_jurisprudence
mw-redirect
Islamic economic jurisprudence

values:
/wiki/Islamic_banking
mw-redirect
Islamic banking

values:
/wiki/General_mobilization
mw-redirect
General mobilization

values:
/wiki/Offensive_jihad
mw-redirect
Offensive jihad

values:
/wiki/Imamah_(Shi%27a_twelver_doctrine)
mw-redirect
Imamah (Shi'a twelver doctrine)

values:
/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba_Mosque
mw-redirect
Constanța Mosque

values:
/wiki/Islamic_crescent
mw-redirect
Islamic crescent

values:
/wiki/Adab_(behavior)
mw-redirect
Adab (behavior)

values:
/wiki/As-Salamu_Alaykum
mw-redirect
As-Salamu Alaykum

values:
/wiki/Grave_(burial)
mw-redirect
Grave (burial)

values:
/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage
mw-redirect
Alcoholic beverage

values:
/wiki/Muslim_scriptures
mw-redirect
Muslim scriptures

values: margin-left: auto; margin-right:auto; overflow:hidden; width:auto; max-width:1008px;

values:
/wiki/Aksumite_Empire
mw-redirect
Aksumite Empire

values:
/wiki/Bilal_ibn_Rabah_al-Habashi
mw-redirect
Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi

values:
/wiki/Hijra_(Islam)
mw-redirect
Hijra (Islam)

values:
/wiki/Abu_Hureyrah
mw-redirect
Abu Hureyrah

values:
/wiki/Muslim_conquests
mw-redirect
Muslim conquests

values:
/wiki/Umar_ibn_al-Khattab
mw-redirect
Umar ibn al-Khattab

values:
/wiki/Uthman_ibn_al-Affan
mw-redirect
Uthman ibn al-Affan

values:
/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib
mw-redirect
Ali ibn Abi Talib

values:
/wiki/Rightly_Guided_Caliphs
mw-redirect
Rightly Guided Caliphs

values:
/wiki/Sassanid_Empire
mw-redirect
Sassanid Empire

values:
/wiki/The_election_of_Uthman
mw-redirect
The election of Uthman

values:
/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty
mw-redirect
Umayyad dynasty

values:
/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sassanid_Wars
mw-redirect
Byzantine–Sassanid Wars

values:
/wiki/Umar_ibn_Abd_al-Aziz
mw-redirect
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz

values:
/wiki/Abbas_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib
mw-redirect
Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib

values:
/wiki/Hunain_ibn_Ishaq
mw-redirect
Hunain ibn Ishaq

values:
/wiki/University_of_Al_Karaouine
mw-redirect
University of Al Karaouine

values:
/wiki/Six_major_Hadith_collections
mw-redirect
Six major Hadith collections

values:
/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_%E1%B8%A4an%C4%ABfa
mw-redirect
Abū Ḥanīfa

values:
/wiki/Ahmad_bin_Hanbal
mw-redirect
Ahmad bin Hanbal

values:
/wiki/Tafsir_ibn_Kathir
mw-redirect
Tafsir ibn Kathir

values:
/wiki/Mamun_al_Rashid
mw-redirect
Mamun al Rashid

values:
/wiki/Hasan_al-Basri
mw-redirect
Hasan al-Basri

values:
/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_II
mw-redirect
Abdülmecid II

values:
/wiki/Malay_archipelago
mw-redirect
Malay archipelago

values:
/wiki/Taqi_al-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf
mw-redirect
Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf

values:
/wiki/Fall_of_the_Ottoman_Empire
mw-redirect
Fall of the Ottoman Empire

values: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam

values:
/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abdul_Wahhab
mw-redirect
Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab

values:
/wiki/Ibn_al-Qayyim
mw-redirect
Ibn al-Qayyim

values:
/wiki/Idolatry_in_Islam
mw-redirect
Idolatry in Islam

values: Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia

values:
/wiki/Guest_workers
mw-redirect
Guest workers

values:
/wiki/Liberal_Islam
mw-redirect
Liberal Islam

values:
/wiki/Red_Guards_(China)
mw-redirect
Red Guards (China)

values:
/wiki/Jamal-al-Din_al-Afghani
mw-redirect
Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani

values:
/wiki/File:Basmala.svg
image
Bismillahir Rahmanir Rahim

values:
/wiki/Aqidah_(Islamic_theology)
mw-redirect
Aqidah (Islamic theology)

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values:
/wiki/Traditionalist_Theology_(Islam)
mw-redirect
Traditionalist Theology (Islam)

values: vertical-navbox nowraplinks collapsible collapsed

values:
/wiki/Sahih_Al-Bukhari
mw-redirect
Sahih Al-Bukhari

values:
/wiki/Al-Kutub_Al-Sittah
mw-redirect
Al-Kutub Al-Sittah

values:
/wiki/Deobandi_movement
mw-redirect
Deobandi movement

values:
/wiki/F%C4%81timah_bint_M%C5%ABs%C4%81
mw-redirect
Fātimah bint Mūsā

values:
/wiki/Jafar_al-Sadiq
mw-redirect
Jafar al-Sadiq

values:
/wiki/Grand_Ayatollah
mw-redirect
Grand Ayatollah

values:
/wiki/Jalaluddin_Rumi
mw-redirect
Jalaluddin Rumi

values:
/wiki/Junaid_Baghdadi
mw-redirect
Junaid Baghdadi

values:
/wiki/Quran_alone
mw-redirect
Quran alone

values:
/wiki/Nondenominational_Muslim
mw-redirect
Nondenominational Muslim

values:
/wiki/Islamic_denomination
mw-redirect
Islamic denomination

values:
/wiki/Jamal_ad-Din_al-Afghani
mw-redirect
Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani

values:
/wiki/Bahai_Faith
mw-redirect
Bahai Faith

values:
/wiki/Moorish_scientists
mw-redirect
Moorish scientists

values:
/wiki/List_of_Muslim_majority_countries
mw-redirect
List of Muslim majority countries

values:
/wiki/Mosque_of_Uqba
mw-redirect
Mosque of Uqba

values:
/wiki/Mosques_in_Indonesia
mw-redirect
Mosques in Indonesia

values:
/wiki/Ceramics_(art)
mw-redirect
Ceramics (art)

values:
/wiki/List_of_notable_converts_to_Islam
mw-redirect
List of notable converts to Islam

values: Scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts

values:
/wiki/Timeline_of_Muslim_history
mw-redirect
Timeline of Muslim history

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-3

values: -moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external autonumber
http://quran.com/2/255

values: The site requires a paid subscription to access this page.

values:
/wiki/Facts_on_File
mw-redirect
Facts on File

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F353360

values: Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.studyquran.co.uk/20_SIIN.htm

values:
nofollow
http://www.sahih-bukhari.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.religionfacts.com/hajj

values:
/wiki/J._Burton-Page
mw-redirect
J. Burton-Page

values:
/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam_Online
mw-redirect
Encyclopaedia of Islam Online

values:
/wiki/Britannica_Educational_Publishing
mw-redirect
Britannica Educational Publishing

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values: Template:Harvard citation documentation#Wikilink to citation does not work

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/4092696

values: This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2016)

values: Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter

values:
nofollow
external text
http://islamqa.info/en/61

values:
/wiki/Muhammad_Shafi_Usmani
mw-redirect
Muhammad Shafi Usmani

values:
/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Qur%27an
mw-redirect
Encyclopedia of the Qur'an

values:
/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Islam
mw-redirect
Encyclopedia of Islam

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.planetseed.com/node/17129

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F604423

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/604423

values:
/wiki/Nomanul_Haq
mw-redirect
Nomanul Haq

values:
/wiki/G._J._Toomer
mw-redirect
G. J. Toomer

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/10.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7016090.stm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.yale.edu/yup/pdf/cim6.pdf

values: font-size:0.95em; font-size: 90%; color: #555

values:
nofollow
external text
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6604643.stm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6053380.stm

values:
/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service
mw-redirect
Public Broadcasting Service

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/20071709

values:
nofollow
external text
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8711026.stm

values:
/wiki/Patheos_Library
mw-redirect
Patheos Library

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Javed_Ahmed_Ghamidi
mw-redirect
Javed Ahmed Ghamidi

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/52901690

values:
/wiki/G.R._Hawting
mw-redirect
G.R. Hawting

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F369367

values:
/wiki/Allameh_Tabatabaei
mw-redirect
Allameh Tabatabaei

values:
/wiki/William_Montgomery_Watt
mw-redirect
William Montgomery Watt

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em;

values:
nofollow
external text
//lccn.loc.gov/2008009151

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912

values:
/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_the_Qur%27an
mw-redirect
Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an

values:
/wiki/A._J._Arberry
mw-redirect
A. J. Arberry

values: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list

values:
/wiki/The_Sealed_Nectar
mw-redirect
The Sealed Nectar

values:
/wiki/Fazlur_Rahman
mw-redirect
Fazlur Rahman

values: padding-bottom: 0.75em; text-align: center;

attrs: alt src width height style srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: display: inline-block; width: 31px; line-height: 31px; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: display: inline-block; margin-left: 4px; width: 182px; vertical-align: middle;

values: border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.75em;

values: metadata plainlinks plainlist mbox-small

values: border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0.75em; background:#f9f9f9;

values:
/wiki/Islam_and_science
mw-redirect
Islam and science

values:
LawJurisprudence
font-size:114%;margin:0 4em
hlist hlist-separated

values:
/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence
mw-redirect
Islamic theological jurisprudence

values:
/wiki/Ilm_al-Kalam
mw-redirect
Ilm al-Kalam

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup

values:
/wiki/Arabesque_(Islamic_art)
mw-redirect
Arabesque (Islamic art)

values: Geography and cartography in medieval Islam

values: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world

values: Liberalism and progressivism within Islam

values: Conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques

values:
/wiki/Islam_and_Protestantism
mw-redirect
Islam and Protestantism

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Independent_Catholic_churches
mw-redirect
Independent Catholic churches

values:
/wiki/Kirant_Mundhum
mw-redirect
Kirant Mundhum

values:
/wiki/Italo-Roman_neopaganism
mw-redirect
Italo-Roman neopaganism

values:
/wiki/Isoko_people
mw-redirect
Isoko people

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup

values:
/wiki/Germanic_paganism
mw-redirect
Germanic paganism

values:
/wiki/Norse_religion
mw-redirect
Norse religion

values:
/wiki/Slavic_mythology
mw-redirect
Slavic mythology

values:
/wiki/Religious_belief
mw-redirect
Religious belief

values:
/wiki/Development_of_religion
mw-redirect
Development of religion

values:
/wiki/Religion_and_happiness
mw-redirect
Religion and happiness

values: Relationship between religion and science

values: List of religions and spiritual traditions

values: Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions

values: List of people who have been considered deities

values: List of founders of religious traditions

values: List of largest peaceful gatherings in history

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4027743-4

values: Category:Religious organizations established in the 7th century

values: Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content

values: Category:All articles with broken links to citations

values: Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from April 2016

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Pages with DOIs inactive since 2017

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages

values: Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages

values: Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text

values: Category:Articles with hAudio microformats

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Islam
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
This page is protected.
You can view its source [ctrl-alt-e]

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Alemannisch
als
als
interlanguage-link-target

values: إسلام – Arabic

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Aragonese
an
an
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islame
Islame – Arpitan
frp
frp
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isl%C3%A3
Islã – Guarani
gn
gn
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ислам – Avaric

values:
https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silameya
Silameya – Bambara
bm
bm
interlanguage-link-target

values: ইসলাম – Bangla

values:
https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Banjar
bjn
bjn
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: Іслам – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Central Bikol
bcl
bcl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Bislama
bi
bi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Bavarian
bar
bar
interlanguage-link-target

values: དབྱི་སི་ལམ་ཆོས་ལུགས། – Tibetan

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Cebuano
ceb
ceb
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Nyanja
ny
ny
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Shona
sn
sn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamu
Islamu – Corsican
co
co
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle

values:
https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islaam
Islaam – Pennsylvania German
pdc
pdc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values: އިސްލާމް – Divehi

values:
https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Lower Sorbian
dsb
dsb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ισλάμ – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamo
Islamo – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Extremaduran
ext
ext
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Faroese
fo
fo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Friulian
fur
fur
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_Islam
Yn Islam – Manx
gv
gv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioslam
Ioslam – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values: 𐌹𐍃𐌻𐌰𐌼 – Gothic

values:
https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Goan Konkani
gom
gom
interlanguage-link-target

values: Лал шаҗн – Kalmyk

values:
https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musulunci
Musulunci – Hausa
ha
ha
interlanguage-link-target

values: इस्लाम – Hindi

values:
https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Upper Sorbian
hsb
hsb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamismo
Islamismo – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Iloko
ilo
ilo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Interlingua
ia
ia
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Interlingue
ie
ie
interlanguage-link-target

values: Пысылмон дин – Ossetic

values:
https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Zulu
zu
zu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: אסלאם – Hebrew

values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Javanese
jv
jv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Kalaallisut
kl
kl
interlanguage-link-target

values: ಇಸ್ಲಾಂ ಧರ್ಮ – Kannada

values: Ислам – Kazakh

values:
https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Cornish
kw
kw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uislamu
Uislamu – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisilamu
Kisilamu – Kongo
kg
kg
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamis
Islamis – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Ladino
lad
lad
interlanguage-link-target

values: ສາສະໜາອິສະລາມ – Lao

values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamas
Islamas – Lithuanian
lt
lt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Limburgish
li
li
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamu
Islamu – Lingala
ln
ln
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/musyjda
musyjda – Lojban
jbo
jbo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silamo
Silamo – Malagasy
mg
mg
interlanguage-link-target

values: इस्लाम धर्म – Marathi

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-arz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ms badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Minangkabau
min
min
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-min badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eislan
Eislan – Mirandese
mwl
mwl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ислам – молдовеняскэ

values: အစ္စလာမ်ဘာသာ – Burmese

values:
https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Nāhuatl
nah
nah
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Low Saxon
nds-NL
nds-NL
interlanguage-link-target

values: इस्लाम धर्म – Nepali

values: इस्लाम – Newari

values:
https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Neapolitan
nap
nap
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Northern Frisian
frr
frr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islem
Islem – Norfuk / Pitkern
pih
pih
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Norman
nrm
nrm
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Novial
nov
nov
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values: ଇସଲାମ ଧର୍ମ – Odia

values:
https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islaamaa
Islaamaa – Oromo
om
om
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islom
Islom – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values: इस्लाम धम्म – Pali

values:
https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Papiamento
pap
pap
interlanguage-link-target

values: اسلام – Pashto

values:
https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izlam
Izlam – Jamaican Creole English
jam
jam
interlanguage-link-target

values: សាសនាឥស្លាម – Khmer

values:
https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Piedmontese
pms
pms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Tok Pisin
tpi
tpi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Low German
nds
nds
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Romansh
rm
rm
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Quechua
qu
qu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Іслам – Rusyn

values: Ислаам – Sakha

values: इस्लाम्-मतम् – Sanskrit

values:
https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Sardinian
sc
sc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islami
Islami – Albanian
sq
sq
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Sicilian
scn
scn
interlanguage-link-target

values: ඉස්ලාම් – Sinhala

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values: اسلام – Sindhi

values:
https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Slovak
sk
sk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Silesian
szl
szl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islaam
Islaam – Somali
so
so
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values: இசுலாம் – Tamil

values:
https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Kabyle
kab
kab
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ислам – Tatar

values: ఇస్లాం మతం – Telugu

values: ศาสนาอิสลาม – Thai

values: Ислом – Tajik

values: ಇಸ್ಲಾಮ್ ಧರ್ಮ – Tulu

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-tr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yslam
Yslam – Turkmen
tk
tk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Buginese
bug
bug
interlanguage-link-target

values: اسلام – Urdu

values: ئىسلام دىنى – Uyghur

values:
https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Venetian
vec
vec
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Walloon
wa
wa
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – West Flemish
vls
vls
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lislaam
Lislaam – Wolof
wo
wo
interlanguage-link-target

values: איסלאם – Yiddish

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
Islam – Zeelandic
zea
zea
interlanguage-link-target

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values: इस्लाम – Doteli

values:
https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iizilaam
Iizilaam – Kabiye
kbp
kbp
interlanguage-link-target

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Islam rootpage-Islam skin-vector action-view