text:
Federalism in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Federalism in India describes the distribution of legal authority across national, state and local governments in the nation of India.
The Constitution of India establishes a federal structure to the Indian government, declaring it to be a "Union of States". Part XI of the Indian constitution specifies the distribution of legislative, administrative and executive powers between the Union/Federal/Central government and the States of India.[1] The legislative powers are categorised under a Union List, a State List and a Concurrent List, representing, respectively, the powers conferred upon the Union government, those conferred upon the State governments and powers shared among them.
This federalism is asymmetric in that the devolved powers of the constituent units are not all the same. The state of Jammu and Kashmir was accorded a higher degree of autonomy than other States under Article 370.[1] Union Territories are unitary type, directly governed by the Union government. Article 1 (1) of the constitution stipulates two tier-governance with an additional local elected government. Delhi and Puducherry were accorded legislatures under Article 239AA and 239A, respectively.[1]
Part of a series on
Constitution of India
Preamble
Parts[show]
Fundamental Rights
PART
I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ IVA ∙ V ∙ VI ∙ VII
VIII ∙ IX ∙ IXA ∙ IXB ∙ X ∙ XI ∙ XII ∙ XIII ∙ XIV
XV ∙ XVI ∙ XVIA ∙ XVII ∙ XVIII ∙ XIX ∙ XX ∙ XXI
XXII
Schedules[show]
First ∙ Second ∙ Third ∙ Fourth ∙ Fifth
Sixth ∙ Seventh ∙ Eighth ∙ Ninth
Tenth ∙ Eleventh ∙ Twelfth
Appendices[show]
I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ V
Amendments[show]
List ∙ 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 5 ∙ 6 ∙ 7 ∙ 8 ∙ 9 ∙ 10 ∙ 11 ∙ 12 ∙ 13 ∙ 14 ∙ 15 ∙ 16 ∙ 17 ∙ 18 ∙ 19 ∙ 20 ∙ 21 ∙ 22 ∙ 23 ∙ 24 ∙ 25 ∙ 26 ∙ 27 ∙ 28 ∙ 29 ∙ 30 ∙ 31 ∙ 32 ∙ 33 ∙ 34 ∙ 35 ∙ 36 ∙ 37 ∙ 38 ∙ 39 ∙ 40 ∙ 41 ∙ 42 ∙ 43 ∙ 44 ∙ 45 ∙ 46 ∙ 47 ∙ 48 ∙ 49 ∙ 50 ∙ 51 ∙ 52 ∙ 53 ∙ 54 ∙ 55 ∙ 56 ∙ 57 ∙ 58 ∙ 59 ∙ 60 ∙ 61 ∙ 62 ∙ 63 ∙ 64 ∙ 65 ∙ 66 ∙ 67 ∙ 68 ∙ 69 ∙ 70 ∙ 71 ∙ 72 ∙ 73 ∙ 74 ∙ 75 ∙ 76 ∙ 77 ∙ 78 ∙ 79 ∙ 80 ∙ 81 ∙ 82 ∙ 83 ∙ 84 ∙ 85 ∙ 86 ∙ 87 ∙ 88 ∙ 89 ∙ 90 ∙ 91 ∙ 92 ∙ 93 ∙ 94 ∙ 95 ∙ 96 ∙ 97 ∙ 98 ∙ 99 ∙ 100 ∙ 101
Related topics[show]
Union List
State List
Concurrent List
Basic structure doctrine
Uniform civil code
v
t
e
The fundamental rights of citizens vary by state per Article 31 (B), as changes are added to Constitution schedule IX by constitutional amendments.[2]
Contents
1 Legislative powers
1.1 Union List
1.2 State List
1.3 Concurrent List
1.4 Other (residuary) subjects
2 Executive powers
3 Financial powers
4 Disputes
5 Territories
6 Jammu and Kashmir
7 Issues
7.1 Unitary bias
7.2 Appointment and role of governors
7.3 Economic federalism
7.4 Political economy
8 Government of India Act (1935) vs Constitution of India (1950)
9 Comparison with USA and EU
10 See also
11 References
Legislative powers[edit]
The divsion of powers are defined by the constitution and the legislative powers are divided into three lists:[3]
Union List[edit]
Main article: Union List
Union List consists of 100 items (earlier 97) on which the parliament has exclusive power to legislate including: defence, armed forces, arms and ammunition, atomic energy, foreign affairs, war and peace, citizenship, extradition, railways, shipping and navigation, airways, posts and telegraphs, telephones, wireless and broadcasting, currency, foreign trade, inter-state trade and commerce, banking, insurance, control of industries, regulation and development of mines, mineral and oil resources, elections, audit of Government accounts, constitution and organisation of the Supreme Court, High Courts and union public service commission, income tax, custom duties and export duties, duties of excise, corporation tax, taxes on capital value of assets, estate duty and terminal taxes.[4][1]
State List[edit]
Main article: State List
State List consists of 61 items (earlier 66 items). Uniformity is desirable but not essential on items in this list: maintaining law and order, police forces, healthcare, transport, land policies, electricity in the state, village administration, etc. The state legislature has exclusive power to make laws on these subjects. In certain circumstances, the parliament can make laws on subjects mentioned in the State List, but to do so the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) must pass a resolution with a two-thirds majority that it is expedient to legislate in the national interest.[1]
Though states have exclusive powers to legislate with regards to items on the State List, articles 249, 250, 252, and 253 mention situations in which the Union government can legislate.[4]
Concurrent List[edit]
Main article: Concurrent List
Concurrent List consists of 52 (earlier 47) items. Uniformity is desirable but not essential on items in this list. The list mentions: marriage and divorce, transfer of property other than agricultural land, education, contracts, bankruptcy and insolvency, trustees and trusts, civil procedure, contempt of court, adulteration of foodstuffs, drugs and poisons, economic and social planning, trade unions, labour welfare, electricity, newspapers, books and printing press NS stamp duties.[4][1]
Other (residuary) subjects[edit]
Subjects not mentioned in any of the three lists are known as residuary subjects. However, many provisions in the constitution outside these lists permit parliament or state legislative assembly to legislate. Excluding the provisions of the constitution outside these lists per Article 245, the power to legislate on such subjects, rests with the parliament exclusively per Article 248.[5] Parliament shall legislate on residuary subjects following the Article 368 procedure as constitutional amendments.
In case the above lists are to be expanded or amended, the legislation should be done by the Parliament under its constituent power per Article 368 with ratification by the majority of the states. Federalism is part of the basic structure of the Indian constitution which cannot be altered or destroyed through constitutional amendments under the constituent powers of the Parliament without undergoing judicial review by the Supreme Court.
Executive powers[edit]
The Union and States have independent executive staffs controlled by their respective governments. In legislative and administrative matters, the Central government cannot overrule the constitutional rights/powers of a state government except when presidential rule is declared in a State. The Union's duty is to ensure that the government of every State is carried on in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution as per Article 355 and Article 256. The State governments cannot violate the Central laws in administrative matters. When a State violates the Constitution, Presidential rule is imposed under Article 356 and the President takes over the State’s administration with ex post facto consent of the Parliament per Article 357.
Financial powers[edit]
Article 282 accords financial autonomy in spending financial resources available to the states for public purpose.[1][6] Article 293 allows States to borrow without limit without consent from the Union government. However, the Union government can insist upon compliance with its loan terms when a state has outstanding loans charged to the consolidated fund of India or a federally-guaranteed loan.[7]
The President of India constitutes a Finance Commission every five years to recommend devolution of Union revenues to State governments.
Under Article 360, the President can proclaim a financial emergency when the financial stability or credit of the nation or of any part of its territory is threatened. However, no guidelines define "financial emergency" for the country or a state or a union territory or a panchayat or a municipality or a corporation.
Such an emergency must be approved by the Parliament within two months by a simple majority and has never been declared. A state of financial emergency remains in force indefinitely until revoked by the President. The President can reduce the salaries of all government officials, including judges of the supreme court and high courts, in cases of a financial emergency. All money bills passed by the State legislatures are submitted to the President for approval. He can direct the state to observe economy measures.
Disputes[edit]
States can make agreements among themselves. When a dispute arises with other states or a Union Territory or the central government, the Supreme Court adjudicates per Article 141. However, Article 262 excludes Supreme Court jurisdiction with respect to adjudication of disputes in the use, distribution or control of interstate river waters.
Under Article 263 the President can establish an interstate council to coordinate/resolve disputes between states and the Union.
Territories[edit]
Article 1 (1) says that India is a Union of States as elaborated under Parts V (The Union) and VI (The States) of the Constitution. Article 1 (3) says territories of India constitute states, union territories and other acquired territories. The concept of union territory was established by the Seventh Amendment.[8] References to Territories of India, are applicable to the whole country including union territories. References to only India, are applicable to states, but not to union territories.
Jammu and Kashmir[edit]
The state of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) has a separate set of applicable laws under Article 370 read with Application to Jammu and Kashmir Order, 1954 (Appendix I and II) of the Indian constitution. Only matters related to defence, foreign relations and communications of Jammu and Kashmir are under the jurisdiction of Union government. Laws enacted by the parliament (including amendments to the constitution) applicable to rest of India are not valid in J&K unless ratified by its state assembly.[9] The Government of India can declare a state of emergency in J&K and impose governor's rule in certain conditions. The state has its own constitution other than applicable Indian constitution.[10] Part XII of the J&K state constitution makes provision to amend its constitution with two-thirds majority by the state assembly. Part VI (The states) and Part XIV (Services) of the Indian constitution are not applicable to J&K per Article 152 and Article 308.
Issues[edit]
The Government of India Act 1935 aimed to establish India as a Federation of States. It emphasized division of powers, independent and apolitical Governors and Governors-General and introduced provincial autonomy for the first time in India. On 26 January 1950, India adopted a new constitution.
Unitary bias[edit]
Article 1 (1) of the constitution says India shall be a union of states and its citizens shall have at least two tiered governance. The people of a Union Territory have every right to opt for statehood. However, the amended (in 1956) Article 3, allows the union government power with prior consent of the President (common head of states and union governments) to (a) form a new state/UT by separating a territory of any state, or by uniting two or more states/UTs or parts of states/UTs, or by uniting any territory to a part of any state/UT; (b) the power to establish new states/UT (which were not previously under India's territory) which were not in existence before.
Appointment and role of governors[edit]
Governor appointments are the responsibility of the President, on the advice of the Union Government. Governors are generally not residents of the state.
Should the constitutional machinery in a state break down, Article 356 allows a state of emergency that dissolves the state government and establishes Presidential rule. No emergency at the centre can dissolve the Union government. Misuse of Article 356 was rampant in the decades following its adoption, during the Indira Gandhi era.[11][12][13][14] In 1991 the Supreme court passed a landmark judgement acknowledging misuse of the article and establishing principles for the Union government to follow before a state emergency can be invoked.
The Lieutenant Governors of Union Territories of India are designed as administrators and are appointed by the President on the advice of the Union government. Lieutenant Governors can override local government policies.[15]
Economic federalism[edit]
States are at liberty to manage their finances as long as that does not lead to financial emergency as per Article 360. The Government of India is trying to impose uniform taxation throughout India and to take over states' tax collection mechanisms without regard to the impacts on individual states.[16][17] Recently the Supreme Court upheld the constitutional right of states to impose an Entry Tax which is against the principle of a general sales tax (GST).[18]
Control of industries, which was a subject in the concurrent list in the 1935 act, was transferred to the Union List. The Union government in 1952 introduced the freight equalisation policy that damaged many Indian states, including West Bengal, Bihar (including present-day Jharkhand), Madhya Pradesh (including present-day Chhattisgarh) and Orissa. These states lost their competitive advantage of holding mineral resources, as factories could now operate anywhere in India. This was not the case in the pre-independence era when business houses such as the Tatas and the Dalmias set up industries in these states, and most of the engineering industry was located in West Bengal. Following the end of the policy in the early 1990s, these states did not catch up with more industrialised states. In 1996, the Commerce & Industry Minister of West Bengal complained that "the removal of the freight equalisation and licensing policies cannot compensate for the ill that has already been done".[19]
National laws permit a private/public limited company to raise loans internally and externally to its capacity. The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003 limits state borrowing even when they have not defaulted/faced a financial emergency. The employees' salary and pension expenditure of many state governments exceed their total revenue, without the President declaring a financial emergency. Article 47 of Directive Principles of the state policy prohibits intoxicating drinks that are injurious to health but is not enforced. Instead many states promote and tax liquor sales.[citation needed]
Political economy[edit]
The government is devolving central funds to the states under specific schemes (NREGA, etc.) whose implementation by the states is controversially subject to government approval, which violates Article 282.[6] The controversy arises from the fact that the grants for centrally sponsored schemes and central plan schemes are under the ruling party's control and discretion. In 2017, the ruling party was accused of ignoring states in need or where poor people are concentrated, in order to pursue partisan goals.[20][21] This was described as pork-barrel politics.[22] The party's nomenclature is designed to convey that the central government is the source of these policies.
Government of India Act (1935) vs Constitution of India (1950)[edit]
Government of India Act 1935[23]
Constitution of India[24]
Defines India as a Federation of States Defines India as a Union of States
Princely states could choose to join or stay out of the federation via the Instrument of Accession States have no right to secede. The Instrument of Accession only applies for the state of J&K via Article 370.
Princely states could have their own constitution Only J&K has its own constitution.
Many states had the right to mint supplementary coins, use state flags, independent civil and criminal codes and maintain state paramilitary forces With the exception of J&K, no state can follow a separate criminal code. Only Goa has a different civil code. Paramilitary forces are controlled by Union government only. No state can mint currency.
The Emperor of India and Governor-General of India are apolitical heads of state The President of India is an indirectly elected head of state.
Provincial governors are appointed by the Governor-General and apolitical Governors are appointed by President on the advice of the Union government.
Governors of provinces need not be residents of the state Governors of states need not be residents of the state.
Right to create, modify or dissolve provinces is solely vested in the hands of the Governor-General of India Right to create, modify or dissolve states is solely vested in the hands of the Parliament of India.
Powers are divided into Federal, Concurrent and Provincial lists Powers are divided into Union, Concurrent and State lists
Residuary powers are vested with the Governor-General of India Residuary powers are vested with the Parliament of India.
A provincial emergency is declared by the Governor-General and the Governor alone can make laws for the province during this period. Provincial assembly remains dissolved. State emergency is declared by the President on the advice of the Union government and the Parliament alone has the power to make laws for the state during the period. State assembly remains dissolved.
A central emergency is declared by the Governor-General and he alone can make laws for the federation during this period. Central legislative assembly remains dissolved. There is no concept of central or Union emergency. Parliament should always be functional.
Judicial matters such as clemency petitions shall be decided by the Governor-General on the advice of judicial councils Judicial matters shall be decided by the President on the advice of the Union government.
Railways and Industries are subject matters in concurrent list Railways and Industries are subject matters in Union List.
Freedom of movement throughout the British Empire and right to own property and settle only in respective provinces Freedom of movement throughout India and right to own property and settle anywhere in India except J&K.
Amendment in the Act is not possible unless made by the Parliament of the United Kingdom Amendment of many articles in the constitution can be made by two-thirds of majority in the Parliament. Some articles would need the assent of half of the state legislatures as well.
Comparison with USA and EU[edit]
Indian federalism comparison with United States (USA) and European Union (EU)
USA
EU
India
A state can not come out of the Union It is a loosely held federation of sovereign countries with monetary union only. A state can leave the union at any time Territorial integrity is not part of the basic structure of the constitution. Territory is ceded to Bangladesh under the 9th and 100th constitutional amendment acts.[25][26]
Merging or splitting of a state not allowed except with the consent of the states affected and the Congress Merging or splitting of a country possible with the citizens consent of respective countries Constitution provides provision for merging with another state or splitting of a state into few states and such powers are vested with the Union government alone under Article 3.
Head of the Union is directly elected by its citizens through popular electoral college. It is a presidential democracy No head of the Union created. Head of the Union (President of India) is indirectly elected whereas head of the Union government (Prime Minister) is usually a leader of the party with majority or largest party in the House of the People who is not directly elected by the people throughout the country and can be either directly elected by the citizens from a particular Lok Sabha constituency as a member of House of the People or can be indirectly elected as the member of Council of States.
Heads of the States are directly elected by their citizens. Heads of constituent units are directly or indirectly elected Head of the States (Governors) are appointed by the President with the advice of Union government whereas Heads of the State governments (Chief Ministers) are usually leaders of the party with majority or largest party in the State legislative assemblies who are not directly elected by the people throughout the state and can be either directly elected by the citizens from a particular Vidhan Sabha constituency or can be indirectly elected as the member of State legislative councils.
Free movement of labour and goods permitted across the states The main purpose of the Union is for the free movement of labour and goods across the states Free movement of labour and goods permitted across the states per Articles 301 and 303.[27] Interstate Migrant Workmen Act 1979 protects the interests of migrant workmen.
A single currency, single foreign policy and common armed forces under the control of union government A single currency, individual foreign policy and individual armed forces A single currency, single foreign policy and common armed forces under the control of Union government.
Every state has constitutional rights to impose taxes and raise debt. EU body has no power to raise taxes and works as a common central bank of all countries except for the United Kingdom Every state has constitutional rights to impose certain taxes and raise debt. Part of Union government revenue is devolved to the states for public purposes.
Predominantly, people speak one language and follow one religion under a secular constitution Multilingual people with predominantly following one religion under secular constitutions Multilingual people following multiple religions under a secular constitution.
Highly developed democratic country Highly developed democratic countries Developing and largest democratic country with one sixth of the world population.
Highly efficient executive and dedicated lawmakers.[citation needed] Highly efficient executive and dedicated lawmakers.[citation needed] The effectiveness of executive and lawmakers hampered by inefficient functioning and corruption. Uneasy relationship of the executive with judiciary with attempts to bring latter under its control. Instances of attempts by Central Government to try to topple opposition-ruled states by unconstitutional means.[28][29][30]
Natur of Indian union and the position of state High standard and prompt justice delivery set up.[citation needed] Substandard and delayed justice delivery set up in a constitutional democracy.[31][32][33] Judges of Supreme Court or High Courts do not give any reasons for not taking up a case for proceedings and many important cases which needs constitutional interpretation keep on pending for many years under the pressure of executive.[34] Highest Judiciary does not take any responsibility morally and sometimes issue name sake written apologies in their judgements.[35]
See also[edit]
Lawmaking procedure in India
President's rule
President of India
Governors of states of India
Part I of the Constitution of India
List of amendments of the Constitution of India
List of Acts of the Parliament of India
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "The Constitution of India". Lawmin.nic.in. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "IX Schedule laws open to review". 2007. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Robert L. Hardgrave and Stanley A. Koachanek (2008). India: Government and politics in a developing nation (Seventh ed.). Thomson Wadsworth. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-495-00749-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c Babulal Fadia (1984). State politics in India Volume I. Radiant publishers, New Delhi. pp. 92–122.
Jump up ^ "Pages 311 & 312 of A. K. Roy, Etc vs Union Of India And Anr on 28 December, 1981". Indiankanoon.org. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Supreme Court Judgement: Bhim Singh vs U.O.I & Ors on 6 May, 2010". Indiankanoon.org. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Article 293 and its application" (PDF). Fincomindia.nic.in. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956". Retrieved 17 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Central acts applicable to J&K state" (PDF). Jklaw.nic.in. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of J&K state" (PDF). Jklegislativeassembly.nic.in. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Singh, Prabhat (11 February 2015). "Has Article 356 been the Centre's AK-56?". Livemint.com. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Fact-Check on the Use and Abuse of President's Rule in India". Thequint.com. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Hegde, Sanjay. "The Judiciary Can Stop the Misuse of Article 356, If It Chooses to Act - The Wire". Thewire.in. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Article 356: Its Use and Misuse". Jagranjosh.com. 1 April 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Supreme Court refuses to stay order declaring L-G Jung Delhi's boss". Hindustantimes.com. 9 September 2016. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Gujarat opposes GST regime". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 21 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "There is merit in Jayalalithaa's arguments against GST bill says Subramanian Swamy". Retrieved 20 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Supreme Court rules states have right to levy entry tax on goods coming in". Dnaindia.com. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Aseema Sinha (2005). The Regional Roots Of Developmental Politics In India: A Divided Leviathan. Indiana University Press. pp. 114–. ISBN 978-0-253-34404-5. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Sharma, Chanchal Kumar (2 February 2017). "A Situational Theory of Pork-Barrel Politics: The Shifting Logic of Discretionary Allocations in India". GIGA Hamburg.
Jump up ^ Sharma, Chanchal Kumar (10 March 2017). "A situational theory of pork-barrel politics". India Review. 16: 14–41.
Jump up ^ Sharma, Chanchal Kumar (26 April 2017). "Who Gets the Most and Why? New Lessons in Pork Barrel Politics from India". BW|Business World. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Government Of India (18 October 2017). "The Government Of India Act 1935". Internet Archive. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA" (PDF). Lawmin.nic.in. Retrieved 18 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Prez assents: Constitution (One Hundredth Amendment) Act, 2015". 1, Law Street. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "The constitution (ninth amendment) act, 1960". Indiacode.nic.in. Retrieved 23 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse in India". Desikanoon.co.in. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "India ranks 76 in Corruption Perception Index". Thehindu.com. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "National Commission to Review the Working of the Article 356 of the constitution". Lawmin.nic.in. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "SC declares NJAC unconstitutional, upholds Collegium". Thehindu.com. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Shailesh Gandhi, Ex Central Information Commissioner. "Don't need 70,000 judges. Just fill vacancies to cut backlog". Blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Rule of law index, 2016". Data.worldjusticeproject.org. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Government biggest litigant need to lessen load on judiciary, PM Modi". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 3 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "What causes judicial delay? Judgements diluting time frames in Code of Civil Procedure worsen the problem of adjournments". Blogs.timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Supreme Court judgement on "The Punjab termination of agreement Act, 2004 (last page)" (PDF). Supremecourtofindia.nic.in. Retrieved 3 December 2016.
show
v
t
e
Government of India
Constitution
Constitution
Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties
Federalism (Union List • State List • Concurrent List)
Executive
Union Government
Prime Minister (list)
Cabinet Ministers
President (list)
Vice President (list)
Civil Services
All India Services (IAS • IFS/IFoS • IPS)
Cabinet Secretary
Secretaries (Defence • Finance • Foreign • Home)
State governments
Chief Minister (list)
Chief Secretary
Governors (list)
Legislative
Parliament
Lok Sabha (Speaker)
Rajya Sabha (Chairman)
Vidhan Sabha
Vidhan Parishad
Leader of the Opposition
Judiciary
Supreme Court (Chief Justice)
High Courts
District Courts
show
v
t
e
State governments of India
State governments
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu and Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Odisha
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Telangana
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
West Bengal
NCT
Delhi
Territories
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Chandigarh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Daman and Diu
Lakshadweep
Puducherry
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federalism_in_India&oldid=864983181"
Categories:
Federalism by country
Federalism in India
Hidden categories:
Articles needing additional references from March 2018
All articles needing additional references
Use dmy dates from May 2017
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
हिन्दी
தமிழ்
Edit links
This page was last edited on 20 October 2018, at 22:07 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values:
/wiki/States_and_territories_of_India
mw-redirect
States and territories of India

values: Article 370 of the Constitution of India

values:
/wiki/Union_Territories
mw-redirect
Union Territories

values:
plainlist
padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0;

values:
/wiki/Fundamental_Rights_in_India
mw-redirect
Fundamental Rights in India

values: Part Five of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Part Six of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Part Seven of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Part Eight of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Part IX of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Part IXA of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Part IXB of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Part Eleven of the Constitution of India

values: Part Twelve of the Constitution of India

values: Part Thirteen of the Constitution of India

values: Part Fourteen of the Constitution of India

values: Part Fifteen of the Constitution of India

values: Part XVIA of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Part Seventeen of the Constitution of India

values: Part Eighteen of the Constitution of India

values: Part Nineteen of the Constitution of India

values: Part Twenty of the Constitution of India

values: Part Twenty-one of the Constitution of India

values: Part Twenty-two of the Constitution of India

values: font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0px 0.4em; text-align: center; display: none;

values: First Schedule to the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Second Schedule to the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Third Schedule to the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fourth Schedule to the Constitution of India

values: Fifth Schedule to the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Sixth Schedule to the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventh Schedule to the Constitution of India

values: Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India

values: Ninth Schedule to the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Tenth Schedule to the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Twelfth Schedule to the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Appendix One of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Appendix Two of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Appendix Three of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Appendix Four of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Appendix Five of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: List of amendments of the Constitution of India

values: First Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Second Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Third Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Tenth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Eleventh Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Twelfth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Fifteenth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Sixteenth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventeenth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighteenth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Twentieth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Twenty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Twenty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Twenty-third Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Twenty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Twenty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Twenty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Twenty-seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Twenty-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Twenty-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Thirtieth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Thirty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Thirty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Thirty-third Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Thirty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Thirty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Thirty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Thirty-seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Thirty-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Thirty-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Fortieth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Forty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Forty-third Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Forty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Forty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Forty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Forty-seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Forty-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Forty-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fiftieth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifty-third Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifty-seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifty-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Fifty-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Sixtieth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Sixty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Sixty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Sixty-third Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Sixty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Sixty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Sixty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Sixty-seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Sixty-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Sixty-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventieth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventy-first Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Seventy-second Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventy-third Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventy-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventy-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventy-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventy-seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventy-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Seventy-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Eightieth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighty-third Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighty-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighty-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighty-seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighty-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Eighty-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Ninetieth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Ninety-first Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Ninety-second Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Ninety-third Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Ninety-fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Ninety-fifth Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: Ninety-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Ninety-seventh Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Ninety-eighth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: Ninety-ninth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: One Hundredth Amendment of the Constitution of India (page does not exist)

values: One Hundred and First Amendment of the Constitution of India

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values: Edit section: Other (residuary) subjects

values:
/wiki/List_of_High_Courts_of_India
mw-redirect
List of High Courts of India

values:
/wiki/Territories_of_India
mw-redirect
Territories of India

values:
/wiki/Article_370
mw-redirect
Article 370

values: Edit section: Appointment and role of governors

values:
/wiki/Article_356
mw-redirect
Article 356

values:
/wiki/Goods_and_Services_Tax_Bill
mw-redirect
Goods and Services Tax Bill

values:
/wiki/General_sales_tax
mw-redirect
General sales tax

values: Ministry of Commerce & Industries (West Bengal)

values: Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2016)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005

values: Edit section: Government of India Act (1935) vs Constitution of India (1950)

values: Edit section: Comparison with USA and EU

values:
/wiki/States_of_India
mw-redirect
States of India

values:
/wiki/Chief_Minister_(India)
mw-redirect
Chief Minister (India)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2018)

values:
/wiki/Constitutional_democracy
mw-redirect
Constitutional democracy

values:
/wiki/Governors_of_states_of_India
mw-redirect
Governors of states of India

values: -moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;

values:
nofollow
http://indiankanoon.org/doc/875590/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://indiankanoon.org/doc/976795/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://jklaw.nic.in/central_acts.pdf

values:
nofollow
http://data.worldjusticeproject.org/
external text

values: Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India

values:
/wiki/File:Emblem_of_India.svg
image
Emblem of India

values:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Vice-President_of_India
mw-redirect
Vice-President of India

values:
/wiki/List_of_Vice_Presidents_of_India
mw-redirect
List of Vice Presidents of India

values:
/wiki/Secretary_to_Government_of_India
mw-redirect
Secretary to Government of India

values:
/wiki/Foreign_Secretary
mw-redirect
Foreign Secretary

values:
/wiki/Chief_Secretary_(India)
mw-redirect
Chief Secretary (India)

values:
/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Rajya_Sabha
mw-redirect
Chairman of the Rajya Sabha

values:
/wiki/District_Courts_of_India
mw-redirect
District Courts of India

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Template:Government of India by state or territory

values: Template talk:Government of India by state or territory

values:
/wiki/State_governments_in_India
mw-redirect
State governments in India

values:
/wiki/Government_of_Punjab_(India)
mw-redirect
Government of Punjab (India)

values: Government of Andaman and Nicobar Islands (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Government_of_Chandigarh
mw-redirect
Government of Chandigarh

values: Government of Dadra and Nagar Haveli (page does not exist)

values: Government of Daman and Diu (page does not exist)

values: Government of Lakshadweep (page does not exist)

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from March 2018

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2018

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Federalism_in_India
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: भारत में संघवाद – Hindi

values: இந்தியக் கூட்டாட்சி முறை – Tamil

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Federalism_in_India rootpage-Federalism_in_India skin-vector action-view


text:
Words per minute
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Words per minute, commonly abbreviated WPM, is a measure of words processed in a minute, often used as a measurement of the speed of typing, reading or Morse code sending and receiving.
Since the length or duration of words is clearly variable, for the purpose of such measurement, the definition of each word is often standardized to be five characters or keystrokes long in English,[1] including spaces and punctuation. For example, under such a method applied to plain English text the phrase "I run" counts as one word, but "rhinoceros" and "let's talk" would both count as two.
Contents
[hide]
1 Alphanumeric entry
2 Stenotype
3 Numeric entry
4 Handwriting
5 Reading and comprehension
6 Speech and listening
7 Morse code
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Alphanumeric entry[edit]
Brandon Raziano found that one study of average computer users in 1998, the average rate for transcription was 33 words per minute, and 19 words per minute for composition.[2] In the same study, when the group was divided into "fast", "moderate", and "slow" groups, the average speeds were 40 wpm, 35 wpm, and 23 wpm, respectively.[3]
With the onset of the era of desktop computers, fast typing skills became much more widespread.
An average professional typist types usually in speeds of 50 to 80 wpm, while some positions can require 80 to 95 (usually the minimum required for dispatch positions and other time-sensitive typing jobs), and some advanced typists work at speeds above 120 wpm.[4] Two-finger typists, sometimes also referred to as "hunt and peck" typists, commonly reach sustained speeds of about 37 wpm for memorized text and 27 wpm when copying text, but in bursts may be able to reach much higher speeds.[3] From the 1920s through the 1970s, typing speed (along with shorthand speed) was an important secretarial qualification and typing contests were popular and often publicized by typewriter companies as promotional tools.
The fastest typing speed on an alphanumeric keyboard, 216 words in one minute, was achieved by Stella Pajunas in 1946 on an IBM electric.[5][6][7] As of 2005[update], writer Barbara Blackburn was the fastest alphanumerical English language typist in the world, according to The Guinness Book of World Records. Using the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard, she maintained 150 wpm for 50 minutes, and 170 wpm for shorter periods. Her top speed was 212 wpm. Current online records of sprint speeds on short text selections are 290 wpm, achieved by Guilherme Sandrini on typingzone.com and 295 wpm achieved by Kathy Chiang on TypeRacer.com. For longer passages, Sean Wrona holds the record with 174 wpm on a 50-minute test taken on hi-games.net.[8]
Stenotype[edit]
Main article: Stenotype
Stenotype keyboards enable the trained user to input text as fast as 225 wpm or faster at very high accuracy for an extended period of time, which is sufficient for real-time activities such as court reporting or closed captioning. While dropout rates are very high—in some cases, only 10%[9] or even less graduate—stenotype students are usually able to reach speeds of 100–120 wpm within six months, which is faster than most alphanumeric typists. Guinness World Records[10] gives 360 wpm with 97.23% accuracy as the highest achieved speed using a stenotype.
Numeric entry[edit]
The numeric entry or 10 key speed is a measure of one's ability to manipulate the numeric keypad found on most modern separate computer keyboards. It is used to measure speed for jobs such as data entry of number information on items such as remittance advice, bills, or checks, as deposited to lockboxes. It is measured in "Keystrokes per hour," or KPH. Many jobs require a certain KPH, often 8,000 or 10,000.
Handwriting[edit]
For an adult population (age range 18–64) the average speed of copying is 68 letters per minute (approximately 13 wpm), with the range from a minimum of 26 to a maximum of 113 letters per minute (approximately 5 to 20 wpm).[11]
A study of police interview records showed that the highest speed fell in the range 120–155 characters per minute, the highest possible limit being 190 characters per minute.[12]
According to various studies the speed of handwriting of 3–7 graders varies from 25 to 94 letters per minute.[13]
Using stenography (shorthand) methods, this rate increases greatly. Handwriting speeds up to 350 words per minute have been achieved in shorthand competitions.[14]
Reading and comprehension[edit]
Words per minute is a common metric for assessing reading speed and is often used in the context of remedial skills evaluation, as well as in the context of speed reading, where it is a controversial measure of reading performance.
A word in this context is the same as in the context of speech.
Research done in 2012[15] measured the speed at which subjects read a text aloud, and found the average speed across 17 different languages to be 184±29 WPM or 863±234 CPM. However, for the languages that use the Latin or Cyrillic alphabets, the number of WPM varied, as low as 161±18 for Finnish and as high as 228±30 for English. The reason for this is different word structures in each language (longer words in such languages as Finnish and shorter words in English). However, the number of characters per minute tends to be around 1000 for all the tested languages. For the tested Asian languages that use particular writing systems (Arabic, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese) these numbers are lower.
Scientific studies have demonstrated that reading—defined here as capturing and decoding all the words on every page—faster than 900 wpm is not feasible given the limits set by the anatomy of the eye.[16]
While proofreading materials, people are able to read English at 200 WPM on paper, and 180 WPM on a monitor.[17] [Those numbers from Ziefle, 1998, are for studies that used monitors prior to 1992. See Noyes & Garland 2008 for a modern tech view of equivalence.]
Speech and listening[edit]
Audiobooks are recommended to be 150–160 words per minute, which is the range that people comfortably hear and vocalize words.[18]
Slide presentations tend to be closer to 100–125 wpm for a comfortable pace,[19] auctioneers can speak at about 250 wpm,[citation needed] and the fastest speaking policy debaters speak from 350[20] to over 500 words per minute.[21] Internet speech calculators show that various things influence words per minute including nervousness.[citation needed]
John Moschitta, Jr., was listed in Guinness World Records, for a time, as the world's fastest speaker, being able to talk at 586 wpm.[22] He has since been surpassed by Steve Woodmore, who achieved a rate of 637 wpm.[23]
Morse code[edit]
Morse code uses variable length sequences of short and long duration signals (dots and dashes) to represent source information[24] e.g. sequences for the letter "K" and numeral "2" are respectively (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄) and (▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄). This variability complicates the measurement of Morse code speed rated in words per minute.
It is standard practice to use two different such standard words to measure Morse code speeds in words per minute. The standard words are: "PARIS" and "CODEX". In Morse code "PARIS" has 50 dot durations, while "CODEX" has 60.
Morse is still widely used by amateur radio operators (hams). Experienced hams routinely send Morse at 20 words per minute, using manually operated hand telegraph keys ; enthusiasts such as members of The CW Operators' Club routinely send and receive Morse code at speeds up to 60 wpm. Twenty words per minute (20wpm) represents the rough upper limit for Morse operators attempting to write down Morse code received by ear using paper and pencil. Many skilled Morse code operators can receive Morse code by ear mentally without writing down the information at speeds up to 70 wpm. To write down the Morse code information manually at speeds higher than 20 wpm it is usual for the operators to use a typewriter or computer keyboard to enable higher speed copying.
The fastest Morse code operator was Theodore Roosevelt McElroy copying at 75.6 wpm using a typewriter at the 1939 world championship.[25]
See also[edit]
Colemak keyboard
Dvorak keyboard
Instructograph
Keystroke dynamics
Morse code
Speed typing contest
Touch typing
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ahmed Sabbir Arif and Wolfgang Stuerzlinger. 2009.Analysis of Text Entry Performance Metrics. In Proceedings of the IEEE Toronto International Conference–Science and Technology for Humanity (TIC-STH '09). IEEE, Washington, DC, US, 100-105.
Jump up ^ Karat CM, Halverson C, Horn D, Karat J (1999). "Patterns of entry and correction in large vocabulary continuous speech recognition systems". Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '99). New York, NY, US: ACM. pp. 568–575. ISBN 0-201-48559-1. doi:10.1145/302979.303160. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Brown, CM (1988). Human-computer interface design guidelines. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing.
Jump up ^ Ayres, Robert U; Martinás, Katalin (2005), "120 wpm for very skilled typist", On the Reappraisal of Microeconomics: Economic Growth and Change in a Material World, Cheltenham, UK & Northampton, Massachusetts: Edward Elgar Publishing, p. 41, ISBN 1-84542-272-4, retrieved 22 November 2010
Jump up ^ 2007-09-12 (2007-09-12). "History of Typewriters – superbeefy.com". superbeefy.com. Retrieved 2014-04-20.
Jump up ^ "World Records in Typing". Owled.com. 2013-10-09. Retrieved 2014-04-20.
Jump up ^ "IBM Archives: Typing posture". 03.ibm.com. Retrieved 2014-04-20.
Jump up ^ Sean Wrona (25 December 2011). "174 wpm on hi-games.net 50 minute test" – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ "Stenotype Institute of Jacksonville Jacksonville - Review & Ranking". American-school-search.com. 2014-04-13. Retrieved 2014-05-13.
Jump up ^ "Fastest realtime court reporter (stenotype writing)". Guinnessworldrecords.com. 2004-07-30. Retrieved 2014-05-13.
Jump up ^ Bledsoe Jr., Dave (2011). "Handwriting Speed in an Adult Population". Advance for Occupational Therapy Practitioners. 27 (22): 10.
Jump up ^ Hardcastle, R. A.; Matthews, C. J. (January 1991). "Speed of writing". Journal of the Forensic Science Society. 31 (1): 21–29. doi:10.1016/s0015-7368(91)73114-9.
Jump up ^ Zaviani, Jenny; Wallen, Margaret (2006). "The Development of Graphomotor Skills". In Henderson, Anne; Pehoski, Charlane. Hand Function in the Child: Foundations for Remediation (2nd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby. p. 228.
Jump up ^ "New World'S Record For Shorthand Speed". New York Times. 1922-12-30. Retrieved 2014-05-13.
Jump up ^ Trauzettel-Klosinski, Susanne; Dietz, Klaus (August 2012). "Standardized Assessment of Reading Performance: The New International Reading Speed Texts IReST". Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 53 (9).
Jump up ^ Bremer, Rod. The Manual: A Guide to the Ultimate Study Method (2 ed.). Fons Sapientiae Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9934964-0-0.
Jump up ^ Ziefle, M (December 1998). "Effects of display resolution on visual performance.". Human factors. 40 (4): 554–68. PMID 9974229. doi:10.1518/001872098779649355.
Jump up ^ Williams, J. R. (1998). Guidelines for the use of multimedia in instruction, Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 42nd Annual Meeting, 1447–1451
Jump up ^ Wong, Linda (2014). Essential Study Skills. Cengage Learning. ISBN 1285965620.
Jump up ^ Chafets, Zev (2006-03-19). "Ministers of Debate". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Falwell Inc.: Inside a Religious, Political, Educational, and Business Empire - Dirk Smillie - Google Boeken. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2014-04-20.
Jump up ^ "John Moschitta set record for fast talking... May 24 in History". Brainyhistory.com. 1988-05-24. Retrieved 2014-04-20.
Jump up ^ "World's Fastest Talker - Steve Woodmore". YouTube. 2011-02-05. Retrieved 2014-04-20.
Jump up ^ International Telecomunications Union, ITU. "International Morse Code Recommendation" (PDF). ITU.
Jump up ^ "Morse code page of Roger J. Wendell - WBŘJNR (WB0JNR)". Rogerwendell.com. Retrieved 2014-04-20.
External links[edit]
Chart – A visual representation of various activities and the corresponding speeds in words-per-minute
Typing Speed Test - Histogram of results in WPM
WebTEM - A Web application to record words per minute and other text entry performance metrics[1]
Jump up ^ Arif, Ahmed Sabbir; Mazalek, Ali (2016-01-01). "WebTEM: A Web Application to Record Text Entry Metrics". Proceedings of the 2016 ACM on Interactive Surfaces and Spaces. ISS '16. New York, NY, US: ACM: 415–420. ISBN 9781450342483. doi:10.1145/2992154.2996791.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Words_per_minute&oldid=801289153"
Categories:
Input/output
Reading (process)
Typing
Writing
Units of temporal rate
Hidden categories:
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2005
All articles containing potentially dated statements
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2014
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Català
Deutsch
Español
Français
हिन्दी
Italiano
Nederlands
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 18 September 2017, at 20:22.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Reading_speed
mw-redirect
Reading speed

value: p

attrs: href title

values: /wiki/Keystroke mw-redirect Keystroke

value: sup

attrs: role tabindex class

values: button 0 togglelink

value: span

values:
/wiki/Computer_user
mw-redirect
Computer user

values:
/wiki/Hunt_and_peck
mw-redirect
Hunt and peck

values:
plainlinks noprint asof-tag update
display:none;

values:
/wiki/Reading_(activity)
mw-redirect
Reading (activity)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2009)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: More information required to make this assertion (May 2014)

values:
/wiki/John_Moschitta,_Jr.
mw-redirect
John Moschitta, Jr.

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1145%2F302979.303160

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.owled.com/typing.html

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9974229

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://www.whaddayaknowabout.com/wpm/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.asarif.com/resources/WebTEM

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2005

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2014

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values:
/wiki/Words_per_minute
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: كلمة في الدقيقة – Arabic

values: शब्द प्रति मिनट – Hindi

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Words_per_minute rootpage-Words_per_minute skin-vector action-view