text:
Who's Making Love
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"Who's Making Love"
Single by Johnnie Taylor
from the album Who's Making Love...
STS-2005
B-side
"I'm Trying"
Released
October 1968 (1968)
Recorded
1968
Genre
Memphis soul
Length
2:47
Label
Stax
STA-0009
Songwriter(s)
Homer Banks
Bettye Crutcher
Don Davis
Raymond Jackson
Producer(s)
Don Davis
"Who's Making Love" is a song written by Stax Records staffers Homer Banks, Bettye Crutcher, Don Davis and Raymond Jackson and recorded by singer Johnnie Taylor.
Released on the Stax label in the late summer of 1968, it became Taylor's breakthrough single, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot R&B singles chart and number five on the Billboard Hot 100.[1] It became one of the few singles Taylor would become primarily known for in the mainstream. The song featured the Stax house band, Booker T. & the M.G.'s, and Isaac Hayes (on keyboards). It was Taylor's best-selling single before the release of "Disco Lady" almost a decade later.
According to Bettye Crutcher, the lyrics were inspired by the 1920s novelty song "Who Takes Care of the Caretaker's Daughter (While the Caretaker's Busy Taking Care)".[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Chart positions
2 Cover versions
3 References
4 External links
Chart positions[edit]
Chart (1967–68)
Peak
position
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 5
U.S. Billboard Hot R&B singles 1
Cover versions[edit]
Tony Joe White covered the song on his 1968 album Black and White.
The Blues Brothers released a cover version as a single in 1980, which reached number 39 on the US charts.
Latvian Blues Band released a cover version on their 2013 live album Live at the Dream Factory.
Christian McBride included the song in his 2013 album Out Here.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 568.
Jump up ^ Rob Bowman, Soulsville, U.S.A.: The Story of Stax Records, p.163
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"Hey, Western Union Man" by Jerry Butler Billboard Hot R&B Singles number-one single
November 23, 1968 – December 7, 1968 (three weeks) Succeeded by
"I Heard It Through the Grapevine" by Marvin Gaye
[hide]
v
t
e
Johnnie Taylor
Songs
"Who's Making Love"
"Take Care of Your Homework"
"Jody's Got Your Girl and Gone"
"I Believe in You (You Believe in Me)"
"Disco Lady"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Who%27s_Making_Love&oldid=808924661"
Categories:
1968 singles
Johnnie Taylor songs
Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs number-one singles
Songs written by Homer Banks
1980 singles
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text:
Property tax
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Wealth tax.
Taxation
An aspect of fiscal policy
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By country[show]
List of countries by tax rates
Tax revenues as %GDP
Albania
Algeria
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BVI
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v
t
e
A property tax or millage rate[1] is an ad valorem tax on the value of a property, usually levied on real estate. The tax is levied by the governing authority of the jurisdiction in which the property is located. This can be a national government, a federated state, a county or geographical region or a municipality. Multiple jurisdictions may tax the same property. This tax can be contrasted to a rent tax which is based on rental income or imputed rent, and a land value tax, which is a levy on the value of land, excluding the value of buildings and other improvements.
Under a property-tax system, the government requires or performs an appraisal of the monetary value of each property, and tax is assessed in proportion to that value.
Contents
1 Types
2 Jurisdictions
2.1 Australia
2.2 Brazil
2.3 Canada
2.3.1 Calculating Individual Property Taxes
2.3.2 Land Transfer Tax
2.3.2.1 British Columbia
2.3.2.1.1 First time home buyers program
2.3.2.1.2 New home exemption
2.4 Chile
2.5 Egypt
2.6 Greece
2.7 Hong Kong
2.7.1 Net assessable value
2.8 India
2.9 Ireland
2.10 Jamaica
2.11 Lithuania
2.12 Luxembourg
2.13 Netherlands
2.14 United Kingdom
2.15 United States
3 Places without property tax
3.1 Africa
3.2 Europe
3.3 Oceania
3.4 Asia
3.5 United States
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Types[edit]
The four broad types of property taxes are land, improvements to land (immovable man-made objects, such as buildings), personal property (movable man-made objects) and intangible property. Real property (also called real estate or realty) is the combination of land and improvements.
Forms of property tax vary across jurisdictions. Real property is often taxed based on its class. Classification is the grouping of properties based on similar use. Properties in different classes are taxed at different rates. Examples of property classes are residential, commercial, industrial and vacant real property.[2] In Israel, for example, property tax rates are double for vacant apartments versus occupied apartments.[3]
A special assessment tax is sometimes confused with property tax. These are two distinct forms of taxation: one (ad valorem tax) relies upon the fair market value of the property. The other (special assessment) relies upon a special enhancement called a "benefit" for its justification.
The property tax rate is typically given as a percentage. It may be expressed as a per mil (amount of tax per thousand currency units of property value), which is also known as a millage rate or mill (one-thousandth of a currency unit). To calculate the property tax, the authority multiplies the assessed value by the mill rate and then divides by 1,000. For example, a property with an assessed value of $50,000 located in a municipality with a mill rate of 20 mills would have a property tax bill of $1,000 per year.[4]
Jurisdictions[edit]
Property classes, tax rates, assessment rules and valuations vary by jurisdiction.
Australia[edit]
Australian property is taxed at both the state and council (local municipal) level. Taxes are payable by property owners - there is no property tax charged to renters.
A state tax commonly called "stamp duty" is assessed when is property is purchased or transferred. It is typically around 5% of the purchase price, payable by the purchaser. Other transfer charges may also apply, including special fees for investors from overseas.[5]
"Land tax" - also a state tax - is assessed every year on a property's value. Most Australians do not pay land tax, as most states provide a land tax exemption for the primary home or residence. Depending on the state, surcharge tax rates can apply to foreign owners.[6]
"Council rates" is a municipal tax levied by local government. This is assessed each year on a property's value. Council rates are around $1300 per annum for an average Australian household.[7]
Brazil[edit]
Brazil is a Federation Republic, and its federated entities (internal States and Municipalities), as well as the Federal government, levy property taxes. They are all declared in the Federal Constitution.
These are the current property taxes:
Tax on Rural Territorial Property – federal: levied upon real state property on rural areas;
Tax on Urban Territorial Property – municipal: levied upon real state property on urban areas;
Tax on Motorized Vehicles Property – state: levied upon the property of cars, trucks, motorcycles, and the likes;
Tax on Big Fortunes – federal: it is declared on the Federal Constitution, but there is still no regulation defining its incidence.
Canada[edit]
Many provinces levy property tax on real estate based upon land use and value. This is the major source of revenue for most municipal governments. While property tax levels vary across municipalities, a common property assessment or valuation criteria is laid out in provincial legislation. The trend is to use a market value standard for valuation purposes with varying revaluation cycles. Multiple provinces established an annual reassessment cycle where market activity warrants, while others have longer periods between valuation periods.
Calculating Individual Property Taxes[edit]
In Ontario, for most properties (e.g., residential, farms), property taxes can be calculated by multiplying the phased-in assessment indicated on the Property Assessment Notice by the tax rate.
The municipal tax rate x phased-in assessment for the particular taxation year = municipal portion of tax.
The county/regional tax rate x phased-in assessment for the particular taxation year = county/regional portion of tax.
The education tax rate x phased-in assessment for the particular taxation year = education portion of tax.
The municipal portion of tax + county/regional portion of tax + education portion of tax = Total Property Tax.
In some cases (e.g., commercial, industrial, multi-residential properties), the Province or municipality may implement measures that affect the actual taxes paid on a property.
Land Transfer Tax[edit]
Land transfer tax is a provincial tax levied when purchasing a home or land in Canada. All provinces have a land transfer tax, except Alberta and Saskatchewan. In most provinces the tax is calculated as a percentage of the purchase price. In Toronto there is an additional municipal tax.
Ontario, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island and the City of Toronto offer land transfer tax rebates for first-time homebuyers. [8][9]
British Columbia[edit]
In British Columbia the property transfer tax is equal to one percent tax on the first $200,000 of the purchase price, two percent on the remaining amount up to $2 million and three percent on the rest.[10] An additional 15% tax that applies only to non-resident foreign home buyers in Greater Vancouver started on August 2, 2016. The definition of foreign buyer includes international students and temporary foreign workers. Anti-avoidance measures include fines of $100,000 for individuals and $200,000 for corporations.[11]
First time home buyers program[edit]
The First Time Home Buyers Program is a program by the BC government that offers qualifying first-time homebuyers a reduction or elimination of the property transfer tax. It can be used in conjunction with the B.C. Home Owner Mortgage and Equity Partnership.[12]
The First Time Home Buyers Tax Credit is also available in Ontario, which offers First Time Home Buyers a 750 dollar tax Rebate. In 2017 the Ontario Government also released the Land Transfer Tax Rebate, which allowed for up to 4,000 dollar rebate - ensuring that first time home buyers of homes valued under 368,000 dollars would not pay land transfer tax.[13]
New home exemption[edit]
The Newly Built Home Exemption is a program that reduces or eliminates the property transfer tax on new homes. The amount is limited to $13,000 for qualifying individuals who must be either a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident. The property purchased must be located in British Columbia, have a fair market value of $750,000, be smaller than 1.25 acres and be used as a principle residence. It can be used in conjunction with the B.C. Home Owner Mortgage and Equity Partnership.[14]
Chile[edit]
The land property tax, called "territorial tax" or "contribution", is an annual amount paid quarterly by the property's owner. It is determined as a percentage of the property's "fiscal value", which is calculated by the Internal Revenue Service, based on the property's land and built area, construction materials, age and use. The fiscal value, which is usually much lower than the market value, may be disputed by the owner. The annual levy varies between 1 and 2% of this value, depending on the property's use (residential, agricultural or commercial). Residential properties valued below US$40K (as of 2013) are not taxed; those above that threshold are taxed only on the amount exceeding US$40K.[15] Revenues go to the municipality administering the property's commune.[16] All municipalities contribute a share of the revenue to a "common municipal fund" that is then redistributed back to municipalities according to a their needs (commune's poverty rate, etc.).[17][18] Additionally, municipalities charge a quarterly trash collection tax, which is often paid together with the territorial tax (if applicable).
Egypt[edit]
The law imposes a tax on each property. Public buildings are excluded (such as government buildings), as are religious buildings (mosques and churches). Families owning private properties worth up to LE 2 million ($290,000) are exempt. commercial stores with an annual rent value over LE 1,200 are not exempt.[19]
Greece[edit]
Greece has a Municipal and a Government property tax. The municipal property tax (ΤΑΠ/ΔΤ/ΔΦ) is included in electricity bills and incorporates, among others, charges for street cleaning and lighting. The Government property tax (ENFIA) is a combination of the individual asset's tax based upon floor-area and a progressive real-estate wealth tax per individual which is based on the estimated net-worth of all properties and can reach 2%.
Hong Kong[edit]
In Hong Kong, the "property tax" is not an ad valorem tax; it is actually an income tax.
According to HK Inland Revenue Ordinance IRO s5B, all property owners are not be subject to this tax unless they received a consideration, like rental income for the year of assessment. The property tax is computed on the net assessable value at the standard rate. The period of assessment is from 1 April to 31 March.
Net assessable value[edit]
The formula is:
Net assessable value = 80% of Assessable value.
HK property tax payable = Net assessment value X Property tax standard rate
Assessable value = Rental income + Premium + (Rental bad debt recovered — Irrecoverable rent) – Rates paid by owner.
India[edit]
Property tax or 'house tax' is a local tax on buildings, along with appurtenant land. It is and imposed on the Possessor (not the custodian of property as per 1978, 44th amendment of constitution). It resembles the US-type wealth tax and differs from the excise-type UK rate. The tax power is vested in the states and is delegated to local bodies, specifying the valuation method, rate band, and collection procedures. The tax base is the annual rental value (ARV) or area-based rating. Owner-occupied and other properties not producing rent are assessed on cost and then converted into ARV by applying a percentage of cost, usually four percent. Vacant land is generally exempt. Central government properties are exempt. Instead a 'service charge' is permissible under executive order. Properties of foreign missions also enjoy tax exemption without requiring reciprocity. The tax is usually accompanied by service taxes, e.g., water tax, drainage tax, conservancy (sanitation) tax, lighting tax, all using the same tax base. The rate structure is flat on rural (panchayat) properties, but in the urban (municipal) areas it is mildly progressive with about 80% of assessments falling in the first two brackets.[20]
Ireland[edit]
Main article: Local Property Tax (Ireland)
A Local Property Tax came into effect in Republic of Ireland on 1 July 2013, and is collected by the Revenue Commissioners. The tax is on residential properties. The property owner is liable (though in the case of leases over twenty years, the tenant is liable). The revenue funds the provision of services by local authorities. Such services currently include public parks, libraries, open spaces and leisure amenities, planning and development, fire and emergency services, maintenance and street cleaning and lighting.
The tax is based upon market value, taxed via a system of market bands. The initial national central rate of the tax is 0.18% of a property's value up to €1 million. Properties valued over €1 million are assessed 0.25% on the excess. From 1 January 2015, local authorities are able to vary LPT rates -/+ 15% of the national central rate.
In the case of properties valued over €1 million, no banding applies – 0.18% is charged on the first €1 million (€1,800) and 0.25% on the balance. The government estimates that 85% to 90% of all properties fall within the first five taxation bands.[21][22]
Jamaica[edit]
This tax is paid annually and is based on a percentage of the unimproved value of a property.
Lithuania[edit]
The tax period for a property tax is a calendar year. Property tax rate ranging from 0.3% to 1% the tax value of real estate is determined by the municipality.
Since January 1st 2015 if the persons property value is higher than 220 000 euros, 0.5 per cent of property tax is applied for exceeding amount.
Luxembourg[edit]
Property tax in Luxembourg is calculated on the basis of the property's "unitary value" determined by tax authorities and levied by the communes. The tax is calculated as property unitary value * assessment rate * communal rate. The assessment rate is determined by the legislator and generally ranges from 0.7% to 1%. The communal rate is set by the communal authority and varies from 120% to 900% depending on the municipality.
Luxembourg has minimal property taxes compared to its neighbours in Benelux or in the European Union. It amounts to more or less €150 for a €500 000 apartment in Luxembourg City.[23][24]
Netherlands[edit]
Property tax (Dutch: Onroerendezaakbelasting (OZB)) is levied on property on a municipal basis. Only the owners of residential property and people who rent/own commercial space are taxed. People who rent a home do not pay property tax. Municipalities combine their property taxes with a tax for garbage collection and for the sewer system. Owners and users of property and land also pay taxes based on the value of property to the water boards for flood protection and water and wastewater treatment ("waterschapsbelasting"). A percentage of the value of a house ("huurwaardeforfait") is added to the income of the owner, so the owner of a house pays more income tax. All property-related taxes are based on the value of the house estimated by the municipality.
United Kingdom[edit]
See also: Business rates in England and Wales
In the UK the ownership of residential property or land is not taxed, a situation almost unique in the OECD.[25][26][27] Instead, the Council Tax is usually paid by the resident of a property, and only in the case of unoccupied property does the owner become liable to pay it (although owners can often obtain a discount or an exemption for empty properties).[28]
Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs (HMRC) guidelines state:
"Council Tax is a tax on property. In principle it may be an allowable deduction in those instances where other property-based expenses are deductible."[29]
The Valuation Tribunal Service states that:
"The tax is a mix of a property tax and a personal tax. Generally, where two or more persons reside in a dwelling the full tax is payable. If one person resides in the dwelling then 75% is payable. An empty dwelling attracts only a 50% charge unless the billing authority has made a determination otherwise."[30]
The Council Tax depends on the value of the property, but is not calculated as a simple percentage. Instead, the property is allocated to a Council Tax band, (9 in England and 8 in Scotland and Wales). Valuation is carried out by the Valuation Office Agency under the auspices of Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs (HMRC).[31][32]
United States[edit]
Main article: Property tax in the United States
In the United States, property tax on real estate is usually levied by local government, at the municipal or county level. Rates vary across the states, between about 0% and 4% of the home value.[33] The assessment is made up of two components—the improvement or building value and the land or site value. The property tax is the main tax supporting local education, police/fire protection, local governments, some free medical services and most of other local infrastructure. Many state and local jurisdictions add personal property taxes. (See exceptions below.)
Places without property tax[edit]
Africa[edit]
Kenya[34]
Mauritania[35]
Namibia[36]
Europe[edit]
Faroe Islands[37]
Malta[38]
Oceania[edit]
Palau[39]
Norfolk Island[40]
Cook Islands[41]
Asia[edit]
China[citation needed]
United States[edit]
In Alaska, "...only a small portion of the land mass is subject to a property tax. ...only 24 municipalities in Alaska (either cities or boroughs) levy a property tax."[42] There is no tax on the private land in American Samoa, the Territory of Palmyra Island or Kingman Reef in the Pacific Ocean insular areas.[43]
See also[edit]
Allodial title
Land value tax
Udal title
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Millage Rate" at Investopedia.
Jump up ^ "Real Property Tax Rates – otr".
Jump up ^ Bousso, Nimrod (20 May 2013). "Interior Minister Approves Doubling Property Taxes on Vacant Israeli Apartments" – via Haaretz.
Jump up ^ "Connecticut Office of Policy Management: Mill Rates". Retrieved 2010-10-04.
Jump up ^ Office, Australian Taxation. "State and territory taxes". www.ato.gov.au. Retrieved 2018-01-08.
Jump up ^ content_publisher (2016-11-23). "Land tax surcharge". www.revenue.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 2018-01-08.
Jump up ^ Australia, Local Government Association of South. "Council Rates". Retrieved 2018-01-08.
Jump up ^ "Land Transfer Tax Calculator Canada – Rates & Rebates".
Jump up ^ "Land Transfer Tax".
Jump up ^ "B.C. to hit foreign buyers of Metro Vancouver homes with 15% property tax".
Jump up ^ "Ontario considers following B.C. on taxing foreign real estate investors".
Jump up ^ "First Time Home Buyers' Program – Housing Action".
Jump up ^ https://www.fin.gov.on.ca/en/bulletins/ltt/1_2008.html
Jump up ^ "Newly Built Home Exemption – Housing Action".
Jump up ^ "DFL-1 16-DIC-1998 MINISTERIO DE HACIENDA – Ley Chile – Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional".
Jump up ^ "Preguntas Frecuentes de Bienes Raíces".
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ REGLAMENTO PARA LA APLICACION DEL ARTICULO 38 DEL DECRETO LEY N° 3.063, DE 1979, MODIFICADO POR EL ARTICULO 1° DE LA LEY N° 20.237
Jump up ^ "Egypt's amended property tax law to take effect in July: Finance ministry – Economy – Business – Ahram Online". english.ahram.org.eg. Retrieved 2017-01-27.
Jump up ^ Datta, Abhijit. (1992). Local Government Finances: Trends, Issues and Reforms, in Bagchi, Amaresh. et al. (Eds.), State Finances in India, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House for the NIPFP...
Jump up ^ Revenue Commissioners (Ireland) – Local Property Tax (LPT), Frequently Asked Questions (5 December 2012)
Jump up ^ Budget 2013 (Ireland) – ANNEX B – Local Property Tax (LPT) (5 December 2013)
Jump up ^ "Property Tax | Le Gouvernement du Grand Duché de Luxembourg". www.guichet.public.lu. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
Jump up ^ "Luxembourg Tax Smart Card". www.nexvia.lu/#!tax-smart-card/glc4v. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
Jump up ^ editor, Patrick Wintour Political (7 December 2015). "Labour has 'moral mission' to tackle inequality, says Tristram Hunt" – via The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "Opinion".
Jump up ^ "The Real Hope for Home Ownership".
Jump up ^ "Council Tax – GOV.UK".
Jump up ^ "BIM46840 – Specific deductions: rent and rates: Council Tax". www.hmrc.gov.uk. Retrieved 2015-09-18.
Jump up ^ "Council Tax Guidelines". Archived from the original on 3 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Council Tax bands and rates | Westminster City Council". www.westminster.gov.uk. Retrieved 2015-09-18.
Jump up ^ "Council tax bands and rates – guide | Lambeth Council". www.lambeth.gov.uk. Retrieved 2015-09-18.
Jump up ^ "The Tax Foundation — Property Taxes on Owner-Occupied Housing by State, 2004–2009". 2009. Retrieved 2010-10-04.
Jump up ^ Deloitte Kenya Highlights 2013 pdf
Jump up ^ Deloitte Mauritania Highlights 2013 pdf
Jump up ^ Deloitte Namibia Highlights 2013 pdf
Jump up ^ eTax, Nordisk. "Faroe Islands".
Jump up ^ "British Expat Forum • View forum – Malta".
Jump up ^ "Palau (US department of State)".
Jump up ^ "A hidden paradise with no income tax or property tax… – Sovereign Man".
Jump up ^ "Why Invest in the Cook Islands – is it that good – really?".
Jump up ^ "Alaska Tax Facts". Alaska Department of Commerce, Community and Economic Development: Office of the State Assessor. Retrieved May 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "GAO/OGC-98-5 – U.S. Insular Areas: Application of the U.S. Constitution". U.S. Government Printing Office. November 7, 1997. Retrieved May 9, 2017.
Further reading[edit]
Slack, E., & Bird, R. M. (2014). The Political Economy of Property Tax Reform, OECD Working Papers on Fiscal Federalism 18, OECD Publishing.
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Cat o' nine tails
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Cat o' nine tails (disambiguation).
A leather cat o' nine tails pictured with a U.S. dollar bill for size comparison. A U.S. dollar bill is about 6 inches (about 15 cm) long, so the total length would be about 30 inches (75 cm).
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The cat o' nine tails, commonly shortened to the cat, is a type of multi-tailed whip that originated as an implement for severe physical punishment, notably in the Royal Navy and Army of the United Kingdom, and also as a judicial punishment in Britain and some other countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Description
2.1 Variations
3 Historical punishments
3.1 Naval types and use
3.1.1 Flogging round the fleet
3.2 British Army
3.3 Prison usage
3.4 Penal colonies in Australia
3.4.1 Slavery
4 Modern uses and types
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
Etymology[edit]
The term first appears in 1695,[1] although the design is much older. It was probably so called in reference to its "claws", which inflict parallel wounds. There are equivalent terms in many languages, usually strictly translating, and also some analogous terms referring to a similar instrument's number of tails (cord or leather), such as the Dutch zevenstaart (seven tail[s]), negenstaart (nine tail[s]), the Spanish gato de nueve colas or the Italian gatto a nove code.
Description[edit]
The cat is made up of nine knotted thongs of cotton cord, about 2 1⁄2 feet or 76 cm long, designed to lacerate the skin and cause intense pain.
It traditionally has nine thongs as a result of the manner in which rope is plaited. Thinner rope is made from three strands of yarn plaited together, and thicker rope from three strands of thinner rope plaited together. To make a cat o' nine tails, a rope is unravelled into three small ropes, each of which is unravelled again.
Variations[edit]
Variations exist, either named cat (of x tails) or not, such as the whip used on adult Egyptian prisoners which had a cord on a cudgel branching into seven tails, each with six knots, used only on adult men, with boys being subject to caning, until Egypt banned the use of the device in 2001.[2]
Sometimes the term "cat" is used incorrectly to describe various other punitive flogging devices with multiple tails in any number, even one made from 80 twigs (so rather a limp birch) to flog a drunk or other offender instead of 80 lashes normally applicable under shariah law. The closed cat, one without tails, was called a starter.
Historical punishments[edit]
Naval types and use[edit]
The naval cat, also known as the "captain's daughter" (which in principle was used under his authority) weighed about 13 ounces (370 grams) and was composed of a handle connected to nine thinner pieces of line, with each line knotted several times along its length.[3] Formal floggings — those ordered by captain or court martial — were administered ceremonially on deck, the crew being summoned to "witness punishment" and the prisoner being brought forward by marines with fixed bayonets.[3]
During the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the naval cat's handle was made of rope about 2 feet (0.61 m) long and about 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter, and was traditionally covered with red baize cloth. The tails were made of cord about a quarter inch (6 mm) in diameter and typically 2 feet long.[citation needed] Drunkenness or striking an officer might incur a dozen lashes, which could be administered on the authority of the ship's captain. Greater punishments were generally administered following a formal court martial, with Royal Navy records reflecting some standard penalties of two hundred lashes for desertion, three hundred for mutiny, and up to five hundred for theft. The offence of sodomy generally drew the death penalty, though one eighteenth century court martial awarded a punishment of one thousand lashes - a roughly equivalent sentence as there was no likelihood of survival.[4]
A new cat was made for each flogging by a bosun's mate and kept in a red baize bag until use. If several dozen lashes were awarded, each could be administered by a fresh bosun's mate—a left-handed one could be included to assure extra painful crisscrossing of the wounds. One dozen was usually awarded as a highly sensitizing prelude to running the gauntlet.[citation needed]
For summary punishment of Royal Navy boys, a lighter model was made, the reduced cat, also known as boy's cat, boy's pussy or just pussy, that had only five tails of smooth whip cord. If formally convicted by a court martial, however, even boys would suffer the punishment of the adult cat. While adult sailors received their lashes on the back, they were administered to boys on the bare posterior, usually while "kissing the gunner's daughter" (bending over a gun barrel), just as boys' lighter "daily" chastisement was usually over their (often naked) rear-end (mainly with a cane – this could be applied to the hand, but captains generally refused such impractical disablement – or a rope's end). Bare-bottom discipline was a tradition of the English upper and middle classes, who frequented public schools,[5] so midshipmen (trainee officers, usually from 'good families', getting a cheaper equivalent education by enlisting) were not spared, at best sometimes allowed to receive their lashes inside a cabin. Still, it is reported that the 'infantile' embarrassment of bare-bottom punishment was believed essential for optimal deterrence; cocky miscreants might brave the pain of the adult cat in the macho spirit of "taking it like a man" or even as a "badge of honour".
On board training ships, where most of the crew were boys, the cat was never introduced, but their bare bottoms risked, as in other naval establishments on land, "the sting of the birch", another favourite in public schools.
Flogging round the fleet[edit]
"The severest form of flogging was a flogging round the fleet. The number of lashes was divided by the number of ships in port and the offender was rowed between ships for each ship's company to witness the punishment."[6] Penalties of hundreds of lashes were imposed for the gravest offences, including sedition and mutiny. The prisoner was rowed around the fleet in an open boat and received a number of his lashes at each ship in turn, for as long as the surgeon allowed. Sentences often took months or years to complete, depending on how much a man was expected to bear at a time. Normally 250–500 lashes would kill a man, as infections would spread."[7] After the flogging was completed, the sailor's lacerated back was frequently rinsed with brine or seawater, which was thought to serve as a crude antiseptic (now known not to be the case). Although the purpose was to control infection, it caused the sailor to endure additional pain, and gave rise to the expression, "rubbing salt into his wounds," which came to mean vindictively or gratuitously increasing a punishment or injury already imposed.
British Army[edit]
The British Army had a similar multiple whip, though much lighter in construction, made of a drumstick with attached strings. The flogger was usually a drummer rather than a strong bosun's mate. Flogging with the cat o' nine tails fell into disuse around 1870.
Whereas the British naval cat rarely cut (contrary to graphic films) but rather abraded the skin, the falls (tresses) of the British Army cat were lighter (around 1/8th of an inch) and the string was in fact codline - a very dense material akin to tarred string. Although the total whip would weigh only a fraction of a naval rope cat, the thin, dense codline tresses were far more likely to cut the skin.
It was also used elsewhere in the empire, notably at the penal colonies in Australia, and also in Canada (a dominion in 1867) where it was used until 1881. An 1812 drawing[8] shows a drummer apparently lashing the buttocks of a naked soldier who is tied with spread legs on an A-frame made from sergeants' half pikes. In many places, soldiers were generally flogged stripped to the waist.
Prison usage[edit]
The cat-o'-nine-tails was also used on adult convicts in prisons; a 1951 memorandum[9] (possibly confirming earlier practice) ordered all UK male prisons to use only cat o' nine tails (and birches) from a national stock at Wandsworth prison, where they were to be 'thoroughly' tested before being supplied in triplicate to a prison whenever a flogging was pending for use as prison discipline. In the 20th century, this use was confined to very serious cases involving violence against a prison officer, and each flogging had to be confirmed by central government.
Penal colonies in Australia[edit]
Especially harsh floggings were given with it in secondary penal colonies of early colonial Australia, particularly at such places as Norfolk Island (apparently this had 9 leather thongs, each with a lead weight, meant as the ultimate deterrent for hardened life-convicts), Port Arthur and Moreton Bay (now Brisbane).[citation needed]
Slavery[edit]
It was used on slave trade ships to punish the slaves.[citation needed]
Modern uses and types[edit]
Main article: Judicial corporal punishment
Judicial corporal punishment was removed from the statute book in Great Britain in 1948. The cat was still being used in Australia in 1957 and is still in use in a few Commonwealth countries, although the cane is used in more countries.
Judicial corporal punishment has been abolished or declared unconstitutional since 1997 in Jamaica, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, South Africa, Zambia, Uganda (in 2001) and Fiji (in 2002).
However, some former colonies in the Caribbean have reinstated flogging with the cat. Antigua and Barbuda reinstated it in 1990, followed by the Bahamas in 1991 (where, however, it was subsequently banned by law)[10] and Barbados in 1993 (only to be formally declared inhumane and thus unconstitutional by the Barbados Supreme Court).
Trinidad & Tobago never banned the "Cat". Under the Corporal Punishment (Offenders over Sixteen) Act 1953, use of the "Cat" was limited to male offenders over the age of 16. The age limit was raised in 2000 to 18.
The Government of Trinidad & Tobago has been accused of torture and "cruel, inhuman and degrading" treatment of prisoners, and in 2005 was ordered by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights to pay US $50,000 for "moral damages" to a prisoner who had received 15 strokes of the "Cat" plus expenses for his medical and psychological care; it is unclear whether the Court's decisions were implemented. Trinidad & Tobago did not acknowledge the Court's jurisdiction, since it had denounced the American Convention on Human Rights several years before the Court started hearing this case.[11]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cat o' nine tails.
Flagellation
Judicial corporal punishment
Physical punishment (includes comparison of disciplinary implements)
Scourge
Tawse
Whip
References[edit]
Jump up ^ William Congreve's love for love and first mention of cat o nine tails see page 32 and the fourth dialogue down spoken by Ben.
Jump up ^ Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, Egypt: 2001, U.S. State Department.
^ Jump up to: a b Lavery, Brian (1989). Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organisation 1793-1815. Naval Institute Press. p. 218. ISBN 9781591146124.
Jump up ^ Rodger, N. A. M. (1986). The Wooden World: An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. p. 227. ISBN 0870219871.
Jump up ^ Humphries, Stephen (1981). Hooligans or Rebels?: An oral history of working-class childhood and youth 1889–1939. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-12982-0.
Jump up ^ Broadside. Crime and Punishment
Jump up ^ Flogging Round the Fleet[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Fort Henry, Canada.
Jump up ^ Memorandum to prisons re: Birches and Cats-o'-nine tails, PRO HO 323/13, National Archives.
Jump up ^ Bahamas Penal Code Archived 2011-06-15 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ Case of Caesar v. Trinidad and Tobago, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Judgment of March 11, 2005.
Further reading[edit]
William Congreve's Love for Love and the first mention of cat of nine tails in literature see page 32 and the fourth dialogue down spoken by Ben
CORporalPUNishment website – here an illustrated example among many other articles, mainly on the adult cat
EtymologyOnLine
Joseph W. Bean, Flogging, Greenery Press, 2000. ISBN 1-890159-27-1.
Male Genitorture on Wipipedia, a specialist BDSM wiki.
Ecstagony- Dictionary of flogging instruments, with some illustrations
Article and downloadable pdf file on corporal punishment in Trinidad and Tobago by Harvard Law School
Inter-American Court of Human Rights orders Trinidad to pay compensation for flogging and humiliation of prisoners in March 2005
Amnesty International report on use of the Cat o' nine tails on 6 Oct. 2006 in Bahamas
Amnesty International report recording use of Cat o' nine tails on woman and young boy in Trinidad
Inter-American Court of Human Rights' decisions and documents
Use of Cat o' nine tails on World Corporal Punishment Topics site
Judicial caning in Fiji in 1998
Review of Lord Invader's calypso album of 1959
Play sample of Lord Invader's calypso "Cat o' nine tails" here
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text:
St. Francis Preparatory School
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
St. Francis Prep
Address
6100 Francis Lewis Boulevard
New York City (Fresh Meadows, Queens), New York 11365
United States
Coordinates
40°44′32″N 73°46′34″W / 40.74222°N 73.77611°W / 40.74222; -73.77611
Information
Type
Private
Motto
Deus Meus et Omnia
(My God and My All)
Religious affiliation(s)
Roman Catholic
Established
1858
Oversight
Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn
President
Leonard Conway
Principal
Patrick McLaughlin '73
Faculty
137
Grades
9–12
Gender
Coeducational
Enrollment
2750[1] (2008)
Average class size
30
Color(s)
Red and Blue
Fight song
On For Ol' St Francis
Mascot
Terrier
Nickname
Prep
Team name
Terriers
Rival
Holy Cross High School (Flushing) (BOYS) and Mary Louis (GIRLS)
Accreditation
Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools[2]
Publication
The Little Portion Literary Magazine
Newspaper
The Seraph
Yearbook
San Fran
Tuition
$9,550
Website
http://www.sfponline.org/
St. Francis Preparatory School, commonly known as St. Francis Prep, is a private, independent Catholic college preparatory school in the Fresh Meadows neighborhood of the New York City Borough of Queens, in the State of New York. It is the largest non-diocesan Catholic high school in the United States.[3] St. Francis is run by the Franciscan Brothers of Brooklyn, who maintain a residence on the top floor of the school. The school has a student body of about 2,750 students and graduates between 600 and 700 students annually.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Co-curricular activities and athletics
3 Notable alumni
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
St. Francis Preparatory originated as St. Francis Academy, a small all-boys high school on 300 Baltic Street in Brooklyn, New York, founded by the Franciscans Brothers of Brooklyn (O.S.F.).[3] The college section became St. Francis College, a private predominantly undergraduate college in Brooklyn Heights. It took its current name in 1935, then moved to a larger facility in Williamsburg, Brooklyn in 1952.[4] The school moved to its current location in Fresh Meadows, Queens in 1974 when it acquired the facility that formerly housed Bishop Reilly High School, a co-educational Catholic high school. The school began admitting female students that same year.[4] A fitness center was added recently and the science labs are being updated.[citation needed] There are currently plans to add a three-story addition to the rear of the existing building.[citation needed] The upgrades to the art rooms will support students in the studio, digital and the performing arts.[5]
Co-curricular activities and athletics[edit]
St. Francis Prep has a rivalry with Holy Cross High School, fueled particularly by their football teams. Known as the "Battle of the Boulevard" due to the two schools being located only 2 miles apart on Francis Lewis Boulevard,[6] the rivalry between the Prep Terriers and the Holy Cross Knights has been called "arguably the greatest rivalry in New York City football."[7]
The St. Francis Prep girls tennis team has been undefeated for 17 consecutive years, making them 17 time CHSAA champions.[citation needed] In 2015 the St. Francis Prep Varsity Handball team won their 13th consecutive CHSAA championship (with an undefeated season).[citation needed]
Notable alumni[edit]
Ted Alexandro, stand-up comedian
Frank J. Aquila, corporate lawyer
Marco Battaglia, NFL football player
Michelle Betos, NWSL goalkeeper
Des Bishop, stand-up comedian
Vincent DePaul Breen, former Bishop of Diocese of Metuchen
Patti Ann Browne, news anchor for the Fox News Channel[8]
Julie Chen, news anchor for CBS and hostess of reality show Big Brother[9]
Carlos Dengler, former bassist of band Interpol
Gerry DiNardo, former college football coach and current Big Ten Network commentator
James Dooley, Emmy Award-winning composer
Sonny Dove (1963), college and NBA basketball player, fourth pick of 1967 NBA draft
Peter Facinelli, actor[10]
Kyle Flood, Rutgers University head football coach.
Eric Gioia, New York City councilman[11]
Dan Henning, NFL football player and coach[12]
Ed Jenkins, NFL football player
Vince Lombardi, former Green Bay Packers coach and namesake of the Lombardi Award and the Vince Lombardi Trophy[13]
Glen Mazzara, writer and television producer
Bill Pickel, NFL football player and sports broadcaster
Frank Serpico, New York police officer known for uncovering corruption[14]
Father Robert S. Smith, American Catholic priest, author, and educator
Joe Torre, former MLB player, former New York Mets, Atlanta Braves, St. Louis Cardinals, New York Yankees and Los Angeles Dodgers manager [15]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "St. Francis Preparatory School Online". Sfponline.org. Retrieved 2009-12-04.
Jump up ^ MSA-CSS. "MSA-Commission on Secondary Schools". Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2009-05-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Gustafson, Anna (November 28, 2008). "Students, Faculty Reflect on 150 Years of St. Francis Prep". The New York Daily News.
^ Jump up to: a b "About St. Francis Preparatory School". SFPonline.org.
Jump up ^ Rhoades, Liz (December 4, 2008). "St. Francis Prep readies building expansion plan". Queens Chronicle. Retrieved 2009-01-13. [dead link]
Jump up ^ Samuel, Ebenezer (October 7, 2008). "St. Francis Prep Cruises Past Holy Cross in Battle of the Boulevard". The New York Daily News.
Jump up ^ "Live Blog: Holy Cross-St. Francis Prep Football". Five Boro Sports.
Jump up ^ "Patti Ann Browne '83". St. Francis Preparatory Alumni. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "JackMyersLunchAtMichaels.com - CBS' Julie Chen: Unique Blend of Cultural Influences Motivates Big Brother Host". JackMyers.com. September 21, 2007. Retrieved 2009-01-13.
Jump up ^ "Peter Facinelli's Twitter account". December 16, 2009. Retrieved December 17, 2009.
Jump up ^ "New York City Council: District 26 - Eric N. Gioia". New York City Council. Retrieved 3 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "Dan Henning - Miami Dolphins". Miami Dolphins official site. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "Hall of Famers: Vince Lombardi". Pro Football Hall of Fame. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "Frank Serpico '54". St. Francis Preparatory Alumni. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Newell, Kevin. "The Joe Torre Story". Scholastic Corporation. Retrieved 2009-01-07.
External links[edit]
School website
[show]
v
t
e
Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn
Bishops
Ordinaries
John Loughlin
Charles Edward McDonnell
Thomas Edmund Molloy
Bryan Joseph McEntegart
Francis Mugavero
Thomas Vose Daily
Nicholas Anthony DiMarzio
Auxiliary bishops
Gerald Barbarito
Anthony Bevilacqua
John Joseph Boardman
Frank Joseph Caggiano
Ignatius Anthony Catanello
Raymond Francis Chappetto
Octavio Cisneros
Joseph Peter Michael Denning
Raymond Augustine Kearney
Charles Richard Mulrooney
George Mundelein
Edmund Joseph Reilly
Paul Robert Sanchez
Guy Sansaricq
John J. Snyder
Joseph Michael Sullivan
René Arnold Valero
Bishops who served as priests in the diocese
Vincent DePaul Breen
Edward Bernard Scharfenberger
Churches
Cathedral
Cathedral Basilica of St. James, Brooklyn
Co-Cathedral
Co-Cathedral of St. Joseph, Brooklyn
Basilicas
Basilica of Our Lady of Perpetual Help, Brooklyn
Basilica of Regina Pacis, Brooklyn
Parishes
Church of St. Francis of Assisi and St. Blaise, Brooklyn
Church of the Holy Innocents, Brooklyn
Holy Cross Church, Queens
Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal, Queens
Our Lady of Victory Church, Brooklyn
Queen of All Saints Church, Brooklyn
St. Adalbert, Queens
St. Barbara's Church, Brooklyn
Saint Benedict Joseph Labre Church, Queens
Saint Cecilia's Catholic Church, Brooklyn
St. Michael's Church, Brooklyn
St. Sebastian Church, Queens
St. Stanislaus Kostka Church, Queens
Transfiguration, Queens
Former parishes
Church of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary,Brooklyn
St. Blaise's Church, Brooklyn
St. Monica's Church, Queens
Education
Seminary
Cathedral Preparatory School and Seminary, Queens
High schools, Brooklyn (Diocese and independent)
Bishop Kearney High School
Bishop Loughlin Memorial High School
Cristo Rey Brooklyn High School
Fontbonne Hall Academy
Nazareth Regional High School
St. Edmund Preparatory High School
St. Joseph High School
Saint Saviour High School of Brooklyn
Xaverian High School
High schools, Queens (Diocese and independent)
Archbishop Molloy High School
Cathedral Preparatory School and Seminary
Christ the King Regional High School
Holy Cross High School
Monsignor McClancy Memorial High School
St. Agnes High School
St. Francis Preparatory School
St. John's Preparatory School
The Mary Louis Academy
High schools, former
Bishop Ford Central Catholic High School, Brooklyn
Miscellany
Other
DeMarco v. Holy Cross High School
Michael Himes
Holy Cross Cemetery, Brooklyn
New Evangelization Television
St. Charles Cemetery
St. Vincent's Catholic Medical Center
The Tablet
Catholicism portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St._Francis_Preparatory_School&oldid=818198360"
Categories:
Private high schools in Queens, New York
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text:
Cold front
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Not to be confused with Cold wave.
The symbol of a cold front: a blue line with triangles pointing in the direction of travel
A retreating cold front with clear air behind
A cold front over the eastern and central region of the United States of America
A cold front is the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, replacing at ground level a warmer mass of air, which lies within a fairly sharp surface trough of low pressure. It forms in the wake of an extratropical cyclone, at the leading edge of its cold air advection pattern, which is also known as the cyclone's dry conveyor belt circulation. Temperature changes across the boundary can exceed 30 °C (54 °F).[1] When enough moisture is present, rain can occur along the boundary. If there is significant instability along the boundary, a narrow line of thunderstorms can form along the frontal zone. If instability is less, a broad shield of rain can move in behind the front, which increases the temperature difference across the boundary. Cold fronts are stronger in the fall and spring transition seasons and weakest during the summer.
Contents
1 Development of cold fronts
2 Clouds
3 Precipitation
3.1 Frontogenetical circulation
4 Temperature changes
5 Characteristics of boundaries around an extratropical cyclone
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Development of cold fronts[edit]
The cooler and denser air wedges under the less-dense warmer air, lifting it. This upward motion causes lowered pressure along the cold front and can cause the formation of a narrow line of showers and thunderstorms when enough moisture is present. On weather maps, the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangles/spikes (pips) pointing in the direction of travel. A cold front's location is at the leading edge of the temperature drop off, which in an isotherm analysis would show up as the leading edge of the isotherm gradient, and it normally lies within a sharp surface trough.[2] Cold fronts move faster than warm fronts and can produce sharper changes in weather. Since cold air is denser than warm air, it rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary.[3]
In the northern hemisphere, a cold front usually causes a shift of wind from southwest to northwest clockwise, also known as veering, and in the southern hemisphere a shift from northwest to southwest (anticlockwise, backing). Normally, cold fronts can be marked by these characteristics:
Weather phenomenon
Prior to the passing of the front
While the front is passing
After the passing of the front
Temperature Warm Cooling suddenly Steadily cooling
Atmospheric pressure Decreasing steadily Lowest, then sudden increase Increasing steadily
Winds
Southwest to southeast (northern hemisphere)
Northwest to northeast (southern hemisphere)
Gusty; shifting
North to west, usually northwest (northern hemisphere)
South to west, usually southwest (southern hemisphere)
Precipitation/conditions* Light patchy rain can be produced by stratocumulus or stratus in the warm sector. In summer, sometimes thunderstorms if a preceding squall line is present. Prolonged rain (nimbostratus) or thunderstorms (cumulonimbus): depends on conditions. Showers, then clearing
Clouds* Often preceded by cirrus, cirrostratus then altostratus like a warm front (but usually with smaller amounts of these clouds). Areas of cirrocumulus and altocumulus within cirrostratus and altostratus more commonly seen than at a warm front. Larger cumulus clouds under the higher cloud types than at a warm front, where stratocumulus and cumulus humilis usually occur. Some of these cumulus clouds may produce showers ahead of the front. Cumulonimbus and cumulus congestus producing frequent showers, with a sheet of upper altostratus, through which the sun can sometimes be seen. Less commonly nimbostratus occurs with continuous rain. Patchy altocumulus or stratocumulus and higher cirrus clouds along with fast moving stratus fractus then eventually scattered cumulus and sometimes cumulonimbus.
Visibility* Fair to poor in haze Poor, but improving Good, except in showers
Dew Point High, steady Sudden drop Falling
*provided there is sufficient moisture.
Clouds[edit]
If the cold front is highly unstable, cumulonimbus clouds producing thunderstorms commonly form along the front. Anvil cirrus clouds may spread a considerable distance downwind from the thunderstorms.[4] The other cloud types associated with a cold front depend on atmospheric conditions such as air mass stability and wind shear.[5] As the front approaches, middle-étage gives way to altostratus and low-level stratocumulus with intermittent light precipitation if the warm airmass being displaced by the cold front is mostly stable. With significant airmass instability, vertically developed cumulus or cumulonimbus with showers and thunderstorms will form along the front.
After the passage of the cold front, the sky usually clears as high pressure builds in behind the system, although significant amounts of cumulus or stratocumulus, often in the form of long bands called cloud streets may persist if the air mass behind the front remains humid.[6] Small and unchanging amounts of cumulus or cirrus clouds in an otherwise clear sky are usually indications of continuing fair weather as long as the barometric pressure remains comparatively high.
Precipitation[edit]
A cold front as it appeared on the National Weather Service Wichita, Kansas WSR-88D on April 3, 2011. The thin blue line labeled "cold front" is the front, with severe thunderstorms seen developing behind the front, which is moving towards the bottom right.
A cold front commonly brings a narrow band of precipitation that follows along the leading edge of the cold front. These bands of precipitation are often very strong,[7] and can bring severe thunderstorms, hailstorms[8] and/or tornadoes. In the spring, these cold fronts can be very strong, and can bring strong winds when the pressure gradient is higher than normal. During the winter months, cold fronts sometimes come through an area with little or no precipitation. Wider rain bands can occur behind cold fronts which tend to have more stratiform, and less convective, precipitation.[9] These rainstorms sometimes bring flooding, and can move very slowly when the storm steering it is strong and embedded within a meridional flow pattern (with more pole to equator motion rather than west to east motion). In the winter, cold fronts can bring cold spells, and occasionally snow. In the spring or summer in temperate latitudes, hail may occasionally fall along with the rain. If moisture is not sufficient, such as when a system has previously moved across a mountain barrier, cold fronts can pass without cloudiness.
Frontogenetical circulation[edit]
Frontogenesis is the process of creating or steepening the temperature gradient of a front. During this process the atmosphere reacts in an attempt to restore balance, the consequence is a circular motion along the front where air is being lifted up, along the cold front and dropping downward, behind the frontal boundary. This is the actual force of upward motion along a front that is responsible for clouds and precipitation.
As the temperature gradient steepens during frontogenesis, the thermal wind becomes imbalanced. To maintain balance, the geostrophic wind aloft and below adjust, such that regions of divergence/convergence form. Mass continuity would require a vertical transport of air along the cold front where there is divergence (lowered pressure). Although this circulation is described by a series of processes, they are actually occurring at the same time, observable along the front as a thermally direct circulation. There are several factors that influence the final shape and tilt of the circulation around the front, ultimately determining the kind and location of clouds and precipitation.[5][10]
Temperature changes[edit]
Cold fronts are the leading edge of cooler air masses, hence the name "cold front". They have stronger temperature changes during the fall (autumn) and spring and during the middle of winter. Temperature changes associated with cold fronts can be as much as 50 °F (30 °C). When cold fronts come through, there is usually a quick, yet strong gust of wind, that shows that the cold front is passing. In surface weather observations, a remark known as FROPA is coded when this occurs.[11] The effects from a cold front can last from hours to days. The air behind the front is cooler than the air it is replacing and the warm air is forced to rise, so it cools. As the cooler air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air, clouds form and rain occurs.
Characteristics of boundaries around an extratropical cyclone[edit]
Occluded cyclone example. The triple point is the intersection of the cold, warm, and occluded fronts.
Cold fronts form when a cooler air mass moves into an area of warmer air in the wake of a developing extratropical cyclone. The warmer air interacts with the cooler air mass along the boundary, and usually produces precipitation. Cold fronts often follow a warm front or squall line. Very commonly, cold fronts have a warm front ahead but with a perpendicular orientation. In areas where cold fronts catch up to the warm front, the occluded front develops. Occluded fronts have an area of warm air aloft. When such a feature forms poleward of an extratropical cyclone, it is known as a trowal, which is short for TRough Of Warm Air aLoft.[12] A cold front is considered a warm front if it begins to retreat ahead of the next extratropical cyclone along the frontal boundary, and called a stationary front if it stalls.
See also[edit]
Cold wave
Air mass
Surface weather analysis
Texas Norther
Weather front
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Cold December: 2013". www.climate.umn.edu. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
Jump up ^ David Roth (2006-12-14). "Unified Surface Analysis Manual" (PDF). Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
Jump up ^ Paul M. Markowski; Yvette P. Richardson (2011-09-20). Mesoscale Meteorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley and Sons. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-119-96667-8. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
Jump up ^ Lee M. Grenci; Jon M. Nese (2001). A World of Weather: Fundamentals of Meteorology: A Text / Laboratory Manual (3 ed.). Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. pp. 207–212. ISBN 978-0-7872-7716-1. OCLC 51160155.
^ Jump up to: a b Preview Text, Holton, James R., 2004: An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology. Academic Press, 277 pp.
Jump up ^ Weston, K. J. (1980). "An observational study of convective cloud streets". Tellus. 32 (5): 433. doi:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1980.tb00970.x.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Prefrontal squall line. Retrieved on 2008-12-24.
Jump up ^ Schemm, S.; L. Nisi, A. Martinov; D. Leuenberg & O. Martius (2016). "On the link between cold fronts and hail in Switzerland". Atmospheric Science Letters. 17 (5): 315–325. doi:10.1002/asl.660.
Jump up ^ K. A. Browning and Robert J. Gurney (1999). Global Energy and Water Cycles. Retrieved on 2008-12-26.
Jump up ^ Preview Text, Carlson, Toby N., 1991: Mid-Latitude Weather Systems. HarperCollins, 435 pp.
Jump up ^ Nav Canada (January 2005). Aviation Weather Services Guide. p. 36.
Jump up ^ St. Louis University (2003-08-04). "What is a TROWAL? via the Internet Wayback Machine". Archived from the original on 2006-09-16. Retrieved 2006-11-02.
External links[edit]
Cold Front: transition zone from warm air to cold air
Weather Fronts
Fronts: the boundaries between air masses
Weather portal
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