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2015 Sugar Bowl
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2015 Allstate Sugar Bowl
CFP Semifinal at the Sugar Bowl
81st Allstate Sugar Bowl
85 Yards Through the Heart of the South
The Zeke Streak
2015 Sugar Bowl logo
Alabama Crimson Tide Ohio State Buckeyes
(12–1) (12–1)
35 42
Head coach:
Nick Saban Head coach:
Urban Meyer
AP Coaches CFP
1 1 1
AP Coaches CFP
5 4 4
1
2
3
4
Total
Alabama 14 7 7 7 35
Ohio State 6 14 14 8 42
Date
January 1, 2015
Season
2014
Stadium
Mercedes-Benz Superdome
Location
New Orleans, Louisiana
MVP
Offensive: Ohio State RB Ezekiel Elliott[1]
Defensive: Ohio State LB Darron Lee[2]
Favorite
Alabama by 7[3]
Referee
Land Clark (Pac-12)[4]
Halftime show
The Ohio State University Marching Band and the University of Alabama Million Dollar Band
Attendance
74,682[4]
United States TV coverage
Network
ESPN/ESPN Deportes
Announcers
Brad Nessler, Todd Blackledge and Holly Rowe (ESPN)
Nielsen ratings
15.2 (28.3 million viewers)
Sugar Bowl
< 2014 2016 >
1 vs. 4 Seed CFP Semifinal Game
2015 Orange >
The 2015 Sugar Bowl was a college football game that was played on January 1, 2015 at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. It was the 81st Sugar Bowl, and a semifinal game in the College Football Playoff. It was one of the 2014–15 bowl games that concluded the 2014 FBS football season. Sponsored by the Allstate insurance company, the game was officially known as the College Football Playoff Semifinal at the Allstate Sugar Bowl.
In the game, the fourth-ranked Ohio State Buckeyes defeated the top-ranked Alabama Crimson Tide by a score of 42–35.[5] The Buckeyes advanced to the College Football Playoff Championship Game against the Oregon Ducks, which was played January 12 at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas.
The contest was televised on ESPN and ESPN Deportes, with a radio broadcast on ESPN Radio and XM Satellite Radio. Kickoff time was set for 8:30 PM, Eastern Standard Time, but was delayed until after the end of the Rose Bowl. With 28,271,000 viewers, the game was the most watched cable television program in American history at the time.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Teams
1.1 Alabama
1.2 Ohio State
2 Game summary
2.1 Scoring summary
2.2 Statistics
3 References
Teams[edit]
The participants were announced on December 7, 2014, based on the final rankings by the College Football Playoff selection committee. The Rose Bowl hosted the other College Football Playoff semifinal game between No. 3 Florida State and No. 2 Oregon.[7] When not hosting the semifinals of the new CFP system (once every three years), the Sugar Bowl typically features the Southeastern Conference (SEC) and Big 12 Conference champions.
Alabama[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: 2014 Alabama Crimson Tide football team
The Alabama Crimson Tide entered the season ranked 2nd in the AP and Coaches polls behind defending National Champions Florida State. Along with Ohio State, the Crimson Tide were considered a preseason favorite for a berth in the inaugural College Football playoff. After losing offensive coordinator Doug Nussmeier to Michigan, the Crimson Tide added former Oakland Raiders, Tennessee, and USC head football coach Lane Kiffin as their offensive coordinator.[8] Among other changes came a change at quarterback with a controversy between Blake Sims and Florida State transfer Jacob Coker. Initially, Coker was considered to be the favorite for the starting job; however, Sims, a more mobile quarterback, was named the starter shortly before the season began. Alabama played its first game of the season in Atlanta in the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game against the West Virginia Mountaineers, pulling away late to win 33–23. After two easy wins against Florida Atlantic and Southern Miss, Alabama played Florida, a rival from the SEC East Division. Florida took an early 14–7 lead but the Crimson Tide eventually took control behind strong performances by Blake Sims and wide receiver Amari Cooper. In the next game, Alabama played fellow SEC West Division foe Ole Miss. In that game, which was played in Oxford, Mississippi, Ole Miss upset the #3 Crimson Tide 23–17 after a shaky performance by Blake Sims. At this point in the season, Alabama's playoff hopes were in doubt as three SEC teams (Mississippi State, Ole Miss, and Auburn) were ranked in the initial College Football Playoff rankings ahead of the #5 Crimson Tide. In their next four games, the Tide handily beat Tennessee and Texas A&M but struggled against last place Arkansas and West Division rivals LSU, winning 14–13 against the Razorbacks and 20–13 in overtime versus the Tigers. Through these games, Sims struggled while Amari Cooper's success propelled the Tide offense to narrow wins. At this point in the season, speculation rose whether Jakob Coker would be moved into the starting role for the struggling Sims.
Alabama entered its annual contest against #1 Mississippi State as the #5 team in the College Football Playoff standings. The Bulldogs were having a season like no other in their history, winning decisively against then-highly ranked Texas A&M and Auburn, respectively. Dak Prescott, the senior quarterback for the Bulldogs, was thriving under Dan Mullen's system and was at the time a top Heisman Trophy candidate. In the game, the Crimson Tide came out strong, building an early 19–0 lead on Mississippi State. The Bulldogs brought the score to 19–13 before Alabama scored one last touchdown to effectively end the game. The final score was 25–20 after a late Mississippi State touchdown.[9] In the game, the Crimson Tide's stifling defense overwhelmed Dak Prescott and forced him into the worst game of his 2014 season. Following the game, the Crimson Tide jumped to #1 in the standings while the Bulldogs dropped to #4. After a routine win against Western Carolina, the Crimson Tide then looked on to the Auburn Tigers. In the previous season, the Tigers won one of the most thrilling games in the history of college football 34–28 in the Iron Bowl with a late field goal return for a touchdown (now dubbed the "Kick Six"). In this edition of the Iron Bowl, Auburn jumped on multiple interceptions by Blake Sims to stay ahead of the Crimson Tide; however, a second half turnaround by Sims saw Alabama win the highest scoring edition of the Iron Bowl, 55–44. The next week, the #1 ranked Crimson Tide routed the SEC East Division champion Missouri Tigers, 42–13, in the SEC Championship, all but securing a #1 seed in the playoff and a Sugar Bowl berth the following morning.
Ohio State[edit]
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Main article: 2014 Ohio State Buckeyes football team
The Ohio State Buckeyes entered the 2014 season ranked #5 in both the AP and Coaches polls. They were an early favorite, along with Alabama, to make it to inaugural College Football Playoff. Two weeks before the season started, two-time Big Ten Offensive player of the year and Heisman Trophy candidate Braxton Miller was injured in practice. It was determined that Miller had a torn labrum which required surgery, and the Buckeyes looked to J. T. Barrett, an unproven redshirt freshman.[10] The Buckeyes were underwhelming in their opener against Navy, winning 34–17 after trailing for a majority of the game. The next week, the Buckeyes played Virginia Tech at home and, surprisingly, lost the decision 35–21. Barrett's inexperience along with the inexperience of the offensive line proved costly in the Buckeyes' defeat to the Hokies. After the loss, the Buckeyes coasted through their next four games, scoring over 50 points in each matchup versus Kent State, Cincinnati, Maryland, and Rutgers, respectively. Following a 31–24 overtime victory against Penn State in Happy Valley, the Buckeyes were ranked No. 16 in the initial College Football Playoff rankings. The Buckeyes jumped to 14th in the CFP rankings following a 55–14 dismantling of rival Illinois and were ready for a primetime matchup against the #8 Michigan State Spartans.
Ever since the Spartans defeated the Buckeyes by a score of 34–24 in the 2013 Big Ten Football Championship Game, the 2014 edition was highly anticipated. Due to Ohio State's loss to Virginia Tech and Braxton Miller's injury, the game lost a bit of its luster. Regardless, College Gameday made the trip to East Lansing as the Spartans were two-point favorites over the Buckeyes. In a show of their offensive strength, J. T. Barrett and the Buckeyes handily defeated the Spartans 49–37. Following the win, Ohio State was back in the Playoff hunt and Barrett was an established Heisman Trophy candidate. Following close wins against the Minnesota Golden Gophers and the Indiana Hoosiers, the Buckeyes entered their rivalry game against Michigan ranked #6 and just outside a playoff spot. In the game, Ohio State struggled early before pulling away to a 42–28 victory against their rivals. The win came at a cost, however, as J. T. Barrett was injured in the fourth quarter with a broken ankle.[11]
Following Barrett's injury during the Michigan Game, Ohio State turned to their third-string quarterback, Cardale Jones, for the Big Ten Championship game against Wisconsin. Because #4 Mississippi State lost in the Egg Bowl, Ohio State moved from #6 to #5 despite the loss of Barrett. Due to the game being Jones' first collegiate start, the Buckeyes entered as a 4.5 point underdog to the West Division champion Badgers. Ohio State, however, proved the oddsmakers wrong as Jones shined in a 59–0 rout of Wisconsin to capture the program's 35th Big Ten Championship and a potential College Football Playoff berth. The next morning, it was announced that Ohio State's win had propelled them to #4 in the final College Football Playoff rankings, securing their spot in the Sugar Bowl against #1 Alabama.
Game summary[edit]
Scoring summary[edit]
[hide]Scoring summary
Quarter
Time
Drive
Team
Scoring information
Score
Plays
Yards
TOP
ALA
OSU
1 11:32 10 80 2:26 OSU 22-yard field goal by Sean Nuernberger 0 3
1 9:25 2 33 0:28 ALA Derrick Henry 25-yard touchdown run, Adam Griffith kick good 7 3
1 5:17 11 71 4:08 OSU 21-yard field goal by Sean Nuernberger 7 6
1 2:06 8 79 3:11 ALA Amari Cooper 15-yard touchdown reception from Blake Sims, Adam Griffith kick good 14 6
2 8:07 5 15 2:02 ALA T. J. Yeldon 2-yard touchdown run, Adam Griffith kick good 21 6
2 2:55 12 71 5:12 OSU Ezekiel Elliott 3-yard touchdown run, Sean Nuernberger kick good 21 13
2 0:12 6 77 1:20 OSU Michael Thomas 13-yard touchdown reception from Evan Spencer, Sean Nuernberger kick good 21 20
3 12:44 6 75 2:16 OSU Devin Smith 47-yard touchdown reception from Cardale Jones, Sean Nuernberger kick good 21 27
3 3:21 – – – OSU Interception returned 41 yards for touchdown by Steve Miller, Sean Nuernberger kick good 21 34
3 1:01 7 84 2:20 ALA Blake Sims 5-yard touchdown run, Adam Griffith kick good 28 34
4 3:24 4 95 2:00 OSU Ezekiel Elliott 85-yard touchdown run, 2-point pass good 28 42
4 1:59 6 65 1:25 ALA Amari Cooper 6-yard touchdown reception from Blake Sims, Adam Griffith kick good 35 42
"TOP" = time of possession. For other American football terms, see Glossary of American football.
35
42
Source: [4]
Statistics[edit]
Statistics
Alabama
Ohio State
First downs 21 23
Plays–yards 70–407 78–537
Rushes–yards 34–170 42–281
Passing yards 237 256
Passing: Comp–Att–Int 22–36–3 19–36–1
Time of possession 28:41 31:19
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wasserman, Ari (January 2, 2015). "Five-star production: How Ezekiel Elliott's transformation has Ohio State Buckeyes on verge of national title". cleveland.com. Northeast Ohio Media Group, LLC. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Landis, Bill (January 2, 2015). "Ohio State football: Buckeyes LB Darron Lee's cocky, confident play got him an MVP vs. Alabama". cleveland.com. Northeast Ohio Media Group, LLC. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "College Football Lines, NCAA College Football Lines At Bovada Online Sportsbook". Bovada. Archived from the original on December 31, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stats
Jump up ^ "Cardale Jones, in 2nd career start, leads Ohio State in upset of Alabama". ESPN. Associated Press. January 1, 2015. Retrieved January 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Margolis, Rachel. "College Football Playoff Semifinals – Cable’s Largest Two Audiences in History". ESPN.com. 2015-01-02.
Jump up ^ "Ohio State bumps TCU from CFP". ESPN.com. December 8, 2014. Retrieved January 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Rascoff, Spencer, and Stan Humphries. Zillow Talk : The New Rules Of Real Estate. [N.p.]: Grand Central Publishing, 2015. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). Web. 13 Feb. 2015.
Jump up ^ [Price, S. L. "Mississippi." Sports Illustrated 121.21 (2014): 62-70. Academic Search Complete. Web. 22 Feb. 2015.]
Jump up ^ Naveau, Jim. "Buckeyes send a message with 59-0 win." Lima News, The (OH) 7 December 2014: Newspaper Source. Web. 22 February 2015.
Jump up ^ [[Ridenour, Marla. "Ohio State notebook: Injured quarterback J.T Barrett enjoys championship, looks forward to starting rehab." Akron Beacon Journal (OH) 14 Jan. 2015: Newspaper Source. Web. 13 Feb. 2015. ]]
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Anti-Corn Law League
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A meeting of the Anti-Corn Law League in Exeter Hall in 1846
The Anti-Corn Law League was a successful political movement in Great Britain aimed at the abolition of the unpopular Corn Laws, which protected landowners’ interests by levying taxes on imported wheat, thus raising the price of bread at a time when factory-owners were trying to cut wages. The League was a middle-class nationwide organization that held many well-attended rallies on the premise that a crusade was needed to convince parliament to repeal the corn laws. Its long-term goals included the removal of feudal privileges, which it denounced as impeding progress, lowering economic well-being, and restricting freedom. The League played little role in the final act in 1846 when Sir Robert Peel led the successful battle for repeal. However, its experience provided a model that was widely adopted in Britain and other democratic nations to demonstrate the organization of a political pressure group with the popular base.
Contents
[hide]
1 Corn Laws
2 The League
3 Model for other lobbying organisations
4 Critics
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
7.1 Scholarly studies
7.2 Historiography
7.3 Contemporary publications
8 External links
Corn Laws[edit]
The Corn Laws were taxes on imported grain introduced in 1815,[1] and designed to keep prices high for cereal producers in Great Britain. The laws indeed did raise food prices, and became the focus of opposition from urban groups who had less political power than rural Britain. The corn laws initially prohibited foreign corn completely from being imported at below 80s a quarter,[2] a process replaced by a sliding scale in 1828.[3] Such import duties still made it expensive for anyone to import grain from other countries, even when food supplies were short. The laws were supported by Conservative (and Whig) landowners, and opposed by urban industrialists and workers. The League was responsible for turning public and elite opinion against the laws. It was a large, nationwide middle-class moral crusade with a utopian vision. Its leading advocate Richard Cobden, according to historian Asa Briggs, promised that repeal would settle four great problems simultaneously:
First, it would guarantee the prosperity of the manufacturer by affording him outlets for his products. Second, it would relieve the 'condition of England question' by cheapening the price of food and ensuring more regular employment. Third, it would make English agriculture more efficient by stimulating demand for its products in urban and industrial areas. Fourth, it would introduce through mutually advantageous international trade a new era of international fellowship and peace. The only barrier to these four beneficent solutions was the ignorant self-interest of the landlords, the 'bread-taxing oligarchy, unprincipled, unfeeling, rapacious and plundering.'[4]
The League[edit]
The first Anti-Corn Law Association was set up in London in 1836; but it was not until 1838 that the nation-wide League, combining all such local associations, was founded, with Richard Cobden and John Bright among its leaders.[5] Cobden was the chief strategist; Bright was its great orator. A representative activist was Thomas Perronet Thompson, who specialized in the grass-roots mobilisation of opinion through pamphlets, newspaper articles, correspondence, speeches, and endless local planning meetings.[6] The League was based in Manchester and had support from numerous industrialists, especially in the textile industry.[7]
The League borrowed many of the tactics first developed by the anti-slavery crusaders, while also attempting to replicate its mantle of moral reform.[8] Among these were the use of emotionally charged meetings and closely argued tracts: nine million were distributed by a staff of 800 in 1843 alone.[9] The League also used its financial strength and campaign resources to defeat protectionists at by-elections by enfranchising League supporters through giving them a 40 shilling freehold:[10] the strategy certainly alarmed the Tories,[11] but was expensive and led to numerous defeats, which the League blamed on the tyrannical power of the landlords.[citation needed] One of the most nationally visible efforts came in the 1843 election in Salisbury. Its candidate was defeated and it was unable to convince voters regarding free trade. However, the League did learn lessons that helped to transform its political tactics. It learned to concentrate on elections where there was a good expectation of victory.[12]
Nevertheless the League had a restricted capability for contesting electoral seats, and its role in the final act of 1846 was largely that of creating a favourable climate of opinion. 1845 saw Lord John Russell, the Whig leader, declare for complete repeal of the corn duty as the only way to satisfy the League;[13] while the Tory leader, Sir Robert Peel, had also been privately won over by Cobden's reasoning to the league's way of thinking.[14] When the crunch came, Peel put through a (staggered) repeal through Parliament without a general election,[15] to the applause of Cobden and Bright.[16]
The League then prepared to dissolve itself.[17] The Tory victory of 1852 saw preparations to revive the League, however, in order to keep a watching brief on Protectionist forces; and it was only after Disraeli’s 1852 budget that Cobden felt able to write to George Wilson: “The Budget has finally closed the controversy with Protection...The League may be dissolved when you like”.[18] Many of its members thereafter continued their political activism in the Liberal Party, with the goal of establishing a fully free-trade economy.
W.H. Chaloner argues that the repeal in 1846 marked a major turning point, making free trade the national policy into the 20th century, and demonstrating the power of "Manchester-school" industrial interests over protectionist agricultural interests. He says repeal stabilized wheat prices in the 1850s and 1860s; however other technical developments caused the fall of wheat prices from 1870-1894.[19]
Model for other lobbying organisations[edit]
The League marked the emergence of the first powerful national lobbying group into politics, one with a centralized office, consistency of purpose, rich funding, very strong local and national organization, and single-minded dedicated leaders. It elected men to Parliament. Many of its procedures were innovative, while others were borrowed from the anti-slavery movement. It became the model for later reform movements.[20]
The model of the League led to the formation of the Lancashire Public School Association to campaign for free, locally-financed and controlled secular education in Lancashire. It later became the National Public School Association. It had little success because national secular education, was a divisive issue even among the radical groups However it did help convert the Liberal Party from its laissez-faire philosophy to that of a more interventionist character.[21]
Historian A. C. Howe argues:
Although historians remain divided on the impact of the league on Peel's decision to abandon the corn laws it was undoubtedly, in appearance, the most successful of nineteenth-century single-issue pressure groups, in its ability to generate enthusiasm, support, and unparalleled financial backing. Although its potential was not realized, it had shown the capacity for an extra-parliamentary middle-class organization to reshape politics so as to reflect the anti-aristocratic objectives of a determined band of entrepreneurial politicians.
It remained the model for many diverse pressure groups, for example the United Kingdom Alliance, the National Educational League, the Navy League, the Tenant League in Ireland, and the National Society in Piedmont, as well as those specifically related to free trade, including the Edwardian Tariff Reform League and Free Trade Union, and in the 1950s S. W. Alexander's Anti-Dear Food League. It also inspired imitators in France, Germany, the Low Countries, Spain, and the United States. The league had only temporarily reshaped the landscape of parliamentary politics but it had helped create a vibrant popular attachment to free trade within British political culture that would last well into the twentieth century.[22]
Critics[edit]
R. S. Surtees satirized the league in his 1845 novel, Hillingdon Hall. His cockney protagonist refers to “the ‘umbuggery of its ways...strong symptoms of utilitarian self-interest”; while a roguish actor is shown being couched as a paid lecturer for the League: “you have nothing to do but repeat the same old story over and over again….Whatever is wrong, lay it to the corn tax. If a man can’t pay his Christmas bills, attribute it to the bread tax”.[23]
See also[edit]
Manchester Liberalism
Canada Corn Act
Meat riots
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ E Halévy, The Liberal Awakening (London 1961) p. 4
Jump up ^ E Halévy, The Liberal Awakening (London 1961) p. 5
Jump up ^ E Halévy, The Liberal Awakening (London 1961) p. 249
Jump up ^ Asa Briggs, The Making of Modern England 1783–1867: The Age of Improvement (1959) p. 314
Jump up ^ E Halévy, The Triumph of Reform (London 1961) p. 330-4
Jump up ^ Michael J. Turner, "The ‘Bonaparte of free trade’ and the Anti-Corn Law League." Historical Journal 41.4 (1998): 1011-1034.
Jump up ^ Spall, 1988.
Jump up ^ Simon Morgan, "The Anti-Corn Law League and British anti-slavery in transatlantic perspective, 1838–1846." Historical Journal"" 52.1 (2009): 87-107.
Jump up ^ G M Trevelyan, British History in the 19th Century (London 1922) p. 270
Jump up ^ Eric J. Evans, The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain 1783–1870 (2nd ed. 1996, pp. 280–81)
Jump up ^ E Halévy, Victorian Years (London 1961) p. 110-1
Jump up ^ Ronald K. Huch, "The Anti-Corn Law League and the Salisbury Election of November 1843." Canadian Journal of History 6.3 (1971): 247-256.
Jump up ^ E Halévy, Victorian Years (London 1961) p. 115
Jump up ^ G M Trevelyan, British History in the 19th Century (London 1922) p. 268
Jump up ^ Norman Gash, Sir Robert Peel: The Life of Sir Robert Peel after 1830 (1972) pp. 575–76.
Jump up ^ E Halévy, Victorian Years (London 1961) p. 123-5
Jump up ^ «As no other gentleman has anything to address to this meeting, it is now my duty to say that the Anti-Corn-Law League stands conditionally dissolved» [George Wilson at a meeting of the Council of the Anti-Corn Law League held in Manchester Town Hall (Thursday 2 July 1846)]
Jump up ^ E Halévy, Victorian Years (London 1961) p. 325-8
Jump up ^ W. H. Chaloner, "The Anti-Corn Law League," History Today (1968) 18#3 pp 196-204
Jump up ^ Briggs, The Making of Modern England, p. 116
Jump up ^ Donald K. Jones, "The Educational Legacy of the Anti‐Corn Law League." History of Education 3.1 (1974): 18-35.
Jump up ^ A. C. Howe, ‘Anti-Corn Law League (act. 1839–1846)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press. accessed 8 Nov 2017
Jump up ^ R S Surtees, Hillingdon Hall (Stroud 2006) p. 44-7 and p. 39
Further reading[edit]
Scholarly studies[edit]
Briggs, Asa. The Making of Modern England 1783–1867: The Age of Improvement (1959) pp. 312–25, short interpretive history
Edsall, Nicholas C. Richard Cobden, independent radical (Harvard University Press, 1986)
Halévy, Elie. Victorian years, 1841–1895 (Vol. 4) (Barnes & Noble, 1961) pp. 3–150; narrative history
Hinde, Wendy. Richard Cobden: A Victorian Outsider (Yale University Press, 1987.)
Howe, Anthony. Free Trade and Liberal England. 1846–1946 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997).
Lawson-Tancred, Mary. "The Anti-League and the Corn Law Crisis of 1846." Historical Journal (1960) 3#2 pp. 162–83.
McCord, Norman: The Anti-Corn Law League 1838–1846. (Allen & Unwin, 1958)
Mosse, George L. "The Anti-League: 1844–1846." Economic History Review (1947) 17#2 pp. 134–42. in JSTOR; the organized opposition to the League
Pickering, Paul A and Alex Tyrrell. The people's bread, a history of the Anti-Corn Law League. (Leicester University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-7185-0218-3)
Spall, Richard Francis Spall Jr. "Free Trade, Foreign Relations, and the Anti-Corn-Law League," International History Review 10#3 (1988), pp. 405-432 online
Steelman, Aaron (2008). "Anti-Corn Law League". In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 14–15. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n9. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
Trentmann, Frank. Free Trade Nation. Commerce, Consumption, and Civil Society in Modern Britain (Oxford University Press, 2008).
Historiography[edit]
Loades, David Michael, ed. Reader's guide to British history (Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 2003) vol 1. pp. 56–57, 185–86, 283–84
Contemporary publications[edit]
Ashworth, Henry: Recollections of Richard Cobden and the Anti-Corn Law League, 2 editions, London 1876 and 1881
Bright, John: Speeches of John Bright, M.P., on the American Question. With an introduction by Frank Moore. [With a portrait.]. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1865.
Leech, H. J. (ed.): The public letters of the Right Hon. John Bright. London: Low, Marston & Co., 1895. Reprint New York, NY: Kraus Reprint, 1969.
Prentice, Archibald: History of the Anti-cornlaw-league. (London. 1853, 2 vol.). 2. ed. with a new introduction. by W. H. Chaloner. London: Cass, 1968.
Rogers, Thorold (ed.): Speeches on Questions of Public Policy, by John Bright, M.P.. 1868.
Rogers, Thorold (ed.): Public Addresses. 1879.
Archibald Philipp Primrose (Earl of Rosebery): Lord Rosebery's Speech on the Anti-Corn Law League and Free Trade, Manchester 1897. London: Cobden Club, 1898.
Smith, George Barnett: The Life and Speeches of the Right Hon. John Bright, M.P., 2 vols., 1881.
Vince, Charles: John Bright (1898); Speeches on Parliamentary Reform by John Bright, M.P., revised by Himself (1866).
External links[edit]
The Online Library of Liberty
66 contemporary British ilustrations about free trade, 1830s-1910s
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Great Pyramid of Giza
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The Great Pyramid of Giza
Owner
Khufu
Location
Giza pyramid complex, Giza, Egypt
Coordinates
29°58′45.03″N 31°08′03.69″E / 29.9791750°N 31.1343583°E / 29.9791750; 31.1343583Coordinates: 29°58′45.03″N 31°08′03.69″E / 29.9791750°N 31.1343583°E / 29.9791750; 31.1343583
Ancient name
Khufu's Horizon
Architect
Hemiunu [1]
Constructed
c. 2580–2560 BC (4th dynasty)
Type
True pyramid
Height
146.7 metres (481 ft) or 280 cubits (ancient)
138.8 metres (455 ft) (contemporary)
Base
230.34 metres (756 ft) or 440 cubits
Volume
2,583,283 cubic metres (91,227,778 cu ft)
Slope
51°52'±2'
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Criteria
Cultural: (i), (iii), (vi)
Reference
86-002
Inscription
1979 (3rd Session)
Location of Great Pyramid of Giza
Related media on Wikimedia Commons
[edit on Wikidata]
The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex bordering what is now El Giza, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact.
Based on a mark in an interior chamber naming the work gang and a reference to fourth dynasty Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu, Egyptologists believe that the pyramid was built as a tomb over a 10 to 20-year period concluding around 2560 BC. Initially at 146.5 metres (481 feet), the Great Pyramid was the tallest man-made structure in the world for more than 3,800 years. Originally, the Great Pyramid was covered by casing stones that formed a smooth outer surface; what is seen today is the underlying core structure. Some of the casing stones that once covered the structure can still be seen around the base. There have been varying scientific and alternative theories about the Great Pyramid's construction techniques. Most accepted construction hypotheses are based on the idea that it was built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.
There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. The so-called[2] Queen's Chamber and King's Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The main part of the Giza complex is a setting of buildings that included two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu (one close to the pyramid and one near the Nile), three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives, an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, a raised causeway connecting the two temples, and small mastaba tombs surrounding the pyramid for nobles.
Transparent view of Khufu's pyramid from SE. Taken from a 3d model
Contents
[hide]
1 History and description
2 Materials
2.1 Casing stones
2.2 Construction theories
3 Interior
3.1 Queen's Chamber
3.2 Grand Gallery
3.3 King's Chamber
3.4 Modern entrance
4 Pyramid complex
5 Boats
6 Looting
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History and description
Timeline and map of the Great Pyramid of Giza and the other Wonders of the Ancient World
It is believed[by whom?] the pyramid was built as a tomb for Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenicised as "Cheops") and was constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon), is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.[3] It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).[4]
Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh.[5] Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the northeastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide (1/50 of an inch).[6]
Great Pyramid of Giza from a 19th-century stereopticon card photo
The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years,[7] unsurpassed until the 160-metre-tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length.[8] The base is horizontal and flat to within ±15 mm (0.6 in).[9] The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc)[10] based on true north, not magnetic north,[11] and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.[12]
The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 royal cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760/280 royal cubits equates to 2π to an accuracy of better than 0.05% (corresponding to the well-known approximation of π as 22/7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it".[13] Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder's design".[14] Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the finished building.[15] In 2013 rolls of papyrus called The diary of Merer were discovered written by some of those who delivered stone and other construction materials to Khufu's brother at Giza.[16]
Materials
The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King's" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Traditionally, ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering into them some wooden wedges, which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid.[17] It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.[18]
Casing stones
Casing stone in the British Museum.[19]
At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing stones" – slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face slope with a seked of 5½ palms to give the required dimensions. Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1303, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. Many more casing stones were removed from the great pyramids by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo not far from Giza. These limestone casings can still be seen as parts of these structures. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.
Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision that has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation.[5] Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres" and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible".[20] It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie's "cement") that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed, which enabled the masons to set the stones exactly.[21][22]
Construction theories
Main article: Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
Clay seal bearing the name of Khufu from the great pyramid. On display at the Musée du Louvre.
Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid's construction techniques.[23] Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labour was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.[24]
One mystery of the pyramid's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1-to-1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means".[25] He also argues for a 14-year time span for its construction.[26] A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 14,500 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.[27]
Interior
Diagram of the interior structures of the Great Pyramid. The inner line indicates the pyramid's present profile; the outer line indicates the original profile.
The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23" through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.[28]
28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and slopes up at almost precisely the same angle to reach the Grand Gallery. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long. One must use the Robbers' Tunnel (see below) to access the Ascending Passage. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen's Chamber". The passage is 1.1m (3'8") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.
Queen's Chamber
Richard Pococke's sketch of Pyramid of Cheops from 1754.
The "Queen's Chamber"[2] is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high. The original depth of the niche was 1.04 metres (3.4 ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters.[citation needed]
In the north and south walls of the Queen's Chamber there are shafts, which unlike those in the King's Chamber that immediately slope upwards (see below), are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed a shaft similar to those in the King's Chamber must also exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black diorite (a type of rock) and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.[29]
The shafts in the Queen's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, Upuaut 2. After a climb of 65 m (213 ft),[30] he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors" with two eroded copper "handles". Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it.[31] The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.[32]
Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project. Realizing the problem was that the National Geographic Society's camera was only able to see straight ahead of it, they instead used a fiber-optic "micro snake camera" that could see around corners. With this they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles" embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be for decorative purposes. They also found the reverse side of the "door" to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.[33]
Grand Gallery
The Grand Gallery of the Great Pyramid of Giza
The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68 metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery rather than resting on the block beneath it, which would have resulted in an unacceptable cumulative pressure at the lower end of the Gallery.[citation needed]
At the upper end of the Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837-1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J. S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.
The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage.[34] This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.[citation needed]
At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some metres long and approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from these now-vanished doors.
King's Chamber
Sarcophagus in the King's chamber
The "King's Chamber"[2] is 20 cubits or 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 10 cubits or 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 11 cubits and 5 digits or 5.852 metres (19 feet 2 inch) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to circulate air inside the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog-leg course through the masonry, indicating no intention to directly sight stars through them. They were long believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts" for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king’s spirit to the heavens.[35]
The King's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davison's Chamber", "Wellington's Chamber", "Nelson's Chamber", "Lady Arbuthnot's Chamber", and "Campbell's Chamber". It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons' marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang.[36][37]
The entrance of the Pyramid
The only object in the King's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place. Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead.
Modern entrance
Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers' Tunnel, a tunnel purportedly created around AD 820 by Caliph al-Ma'mun's workmen using a battering ram.[38] The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres (89 ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. It is believed that their efforts dislodged the stone fitted in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to hide the entrance to the Ascending Passage and it was the noise of that stone falling and then sliding down the Descending Passage, which alerted them to the need to turn left. Unable to remove these stones, however, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but access is usually forbidden.[39]
Pyramid complex
Main article: Giza pyramid complex
Map of Giza pyramid complex – "Pyramid of Khufu" refers to the Great Pyramid.
The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings including small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 metres (171 ft) north to south and 40 metres (130 ft) east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple. The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[40][41] The basalt blocks show "clear evidence" of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length, capable of cutting at a rate of 1.5 inches (38 mm) per minute. John Romer suggests that this "super saw" may have had copper teeth and weighed up to 300 pounds (140 kg). He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it.[42]
On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as Queens' Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister-wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.
Group photo of Australian 11th Battalion soldiers on the Great Pyramid in 1915.
Aerial photography, taken from Eduard Spelterini's balloon on 21 November 1904
The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow. Mark Lehner has discovered a worker's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as "The Lost City", dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC).[43][44] Recent discoveries by Mark Lehner and his team at the town and nearby, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggest the town and associated living quarters consisting of barracks called "galleries" may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers and sailors who utilized the port. In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived Lehner now suggests the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids or possibly at nearby quarries.[45]
In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans' settlement.[46] Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death.[47] A worker's cemetery used at least between Khufu's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.[48]
Boats
Main article: Khufu ship
There are three boat-shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el-Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.
The result is a cedar-wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.[49]
Looting
Comparison of approximate profiles of the Great Pyramid of Giza with some notable pyramidal or near-pyramidal buildings. Dotted lines indicate original heights, where data are available. In its SVG file, hover over a pyramid to highlight and click for its article.
Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Briar and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began.[50][51] Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom", before the Arab caliph Abdullah al-Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.[38]
I. E. S. Edwards discusses Strabo's mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations". Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo's door was added. He adds: "If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones", in order to explain why al-Ma'mun could not find the entrance.[52]
He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Cheops lies. Edwards notes that the pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus" and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by Pyramid guides.[53]
See also
Djedi Project
Golden Ratio dimensions in Egyptian pyramids
Index of Egypt-related articles
List of archaeoastronomical sites by country
List of Egyptian pyramids
List of largest monoliths in the world including a section on calculating the weight of megaliths
List of tallest freestanding structures
Pyramid inch
Pyramidion
Pyramidology
The Upuaut Project
References
Notes
Jump up ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemiunu.
^ Jump up to: a b c "By themselves, of course, none of these modern labels define the ancient purposes of the architecture they describe." —Romer (2007), p. 8
Jump up ^ Shaw (2003), p. 89
Jump up ^ Levy (2005), p. 17
^ Jump up to: a b Petrie (1883)
Jump up ^ I. E. S. Edwards (1986) [1947]. The Pyramids of Egypt. p. 285.
Jump up ^ Collins (2001), p. 234
Jump up ^ Cole Survey (1925) based on side lengths 230.252m, 230.454m, 230.391m, 230.357m
Jump up ^ Lehner (1997), p. 108
Jump up ^ Petrie (1883), p. 38 For 2600 BC, bisecting the semi-circular path of star 10i Draconis around the North Celestial Pole during the half-day darkness of a mid-winter evening would easily provide accurate true north. See Nature 412:699 (2001); further sources and discussion available via DIO.
Jump up ^ Petrie (1883), p. 125
Jump up ^ Petrie (1883), p. 39
Jump up ^ Verner (2003), p. 70
Jump up ^ Petrie Wisdom of the Egyptians 1940: 30
Jump up ^ Rossi, Corina (2007), Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-69053-9
Jump up ^ Stille, Alexander. "The World's Oldest Papyrus and What It Can Tell Us About the Great Pyramids". Retrieved 2015-09-27.
Jump up ^ Lehner (1997)
Jump up ^ Romer (2007), p. 157
Jump up ^ "British Museum – Limestone block from the pyramid of Khufu". britishmuseum.org.
Jump up ^ Romer (2007), p. 41
Jump up ^ Clarke, Somers; Reginal Engelbach (1991). Ancient Egyptian construction and architecture. Dover Publications. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0-486-26485-1.
Jump up ^ Stocks, Denys Allen (2003). Experiments in Egyptian archaeology: stoneworking technology in ancient Egypt. Routledge. pp. 182–183. ISBN 978-0-415-30664-5.
Jump up ^ "Building the Great Pyramid". BBC. 3 February 2006.
Jump up ^ Verner (2001), p. 75–82
Jump up ^ Romer (2007), p. 327, 329–337
Jump up ^ Romer (2007)
Jump up ^ "Civil Engineering". June 1999. Archived from the original on 8 June 2007.
Jump up ^ "Unfinished Chamber". Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 11 August 2008.
Jump up ^ "Lower Northern Shaft". The Upuaut Project. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Will the Great Pyramid's Secret Doors Be Opened?". Fox News. 12 December 2011. Archived from the original on 12 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Gupton, Nancy (4 April 2003). "Ancient Egyptian Chambers Explored". National Geographic. Retrieved 11 August 2008.
Jump up ^ "Third "Door" Found in Great Pyramid". National Geographic. 23 September 2002. Retrieved 11 August 2008.
Jump up ^ "First images from Great Pyramid's chamber of secrets". New Scientist. Reed Business Information. 25 May 2011. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Lehner, Mark (1997). The Complete Pyramids. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 113. ISBN 0-500-05084-8.
Jump up ^ Jackson & Stamp (2002), p. 79, 104
Jump up ^ "Vyse, H. (1840) Operations Carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837: With an Account of a Voyage into Upper Egypt, and an Appendix. Vol I.". Internet Archive. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "Dallas and Dr Zahi Hawass inside the Great Pyramid". BBC. Retrieved 15 September 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Tyldesley (2007), p. 38
Jump up ^ Tyldesley (2007), pp. 38–40
Jump up ^ Shafer, Byron E.; Dieter Arnold (2005). Temples of Ancient Egypt. I.B. Tauris. pp. 51–52. ISBN 978-1-85043-945-5.
Jump up ^ Arnold, Dieter; Nigel Strudwick; Helen Strudwick (2002). The encyclopaedia of ancient Egyptian architecture. I.B. Tauris. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-86064-465-8.
Jump up ^ Romer
Jump up ^ "Egyptian Pyramids – Lost City of the Pyramid Builders – AERA – Ancient Egypt Research Associates". aeraweb.org.
Jump up ^ "Dating the Lost City of the Pyramids – Mark Lehner & AERA – Ancient Egypt Research Associates". aeraweb.org.
Jump up ^ "Ruins of Bustling Port Unearthed at Egypt's Giza Pyramids". Livescience.com. 2014-01-28. Retrieved 2014-08-21.
Jump up ^ Zahi Hawass: '"Giza, workmen’s community", In: Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Compiled and edited by Kathryn A. Bard. London/New York 1999, ISBN 0-415-18589-0 pp. 423–426
Jump up ^ Hawass, Zahi; Ashraf Senussi (2008). Old Kingdom Pottery from Giza. Supreme Council of Antiquities. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-977-305-986-6.
Jump up ^ Hawass, Zahi. "The Discovery of the Tombs of the Pyramid Builders at Giza". Retrieved 21 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Khufu's Second Boat". Institute of Egyptology. Tokyo, Japan: Waseda University. Retrieved 2012-12-26.
Jump up ^ Brier 1999, p. 164. Books.google.co.uk. 1999. ISBN 9780313303135. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Cremin 2007 p. 96. Books.google.co.uk. 2007. ISBN 9780711228221. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Edwards (1986), p. 99–100
Jump up ^ Edwards (1986), p. 990–91
Bibliography
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Calter, Paul A. (2008). Squaring the Circle: Geometry in Art and Architecture. Key College Publishing. ISBN 1-930190-82-4.
Clayton, Peter A. (1994). Chronicle of the Pharaohs. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05074-0.
Cole, JH. (1925). Determination of the Exact Size and Orientation of the Great Pyramid of Giza. Cairo: Government Press. SURVEY OF EGYPT Paper No. 39.
Collins, Dana M. (2001). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510234-5.
Cremin, Aedeen (2007). Archaeologica. Frances Lincoln. ISBN 978-0-7112-2822-1.
Edwards, I. E. S. (1986) [1962]. The Pyramids of Egypt. Max Parrish.
Gahlin, Lucia (2003). Myths and Mythology of Ancient Egypt. Anness Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-84215-831-7.
Hassan, Selim (1960). The Great Pyramid of Khufu and its Mortuary Chapel With Names and Titles of Vols. I-X of the Excavations at Giza (PDF). Ministry of Culture and National Orientation, Antiquities Department of Egypt. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 January 2013.
Jackson, K.; Stamp, J. (2002). Pyramid : Beyond Imagination. Inside the Great Pyramid of Giza. BBC Worldwide Ltd. ISBN 978-0-563-48803-3.
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Scarre, Chris (1999). The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World. Thames & Hudson, London. ISBN 978-0-500-05096-5.
Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (1992). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-68-7.
Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
Siliotti, Alberto (1997). Guide to the pyramids of Egypt; preface by Zahi Hawass. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-7607-0763-4.
Smyth, Piazzi (1978). The Great Pyramid. Crown Publishers Inc. ISBN 0-517-26403-X.
Tyldesley, Joyce (2007). Egypt: How a lost civilization was rediscovered. BBC Books. ISBN 978-0-563-52257-7.
Verner, Miroslav (2001). The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt's Great Monuments. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-1703-1.
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External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Great Pyramid of Giza.
Pyramids at DMOZ
Building the Khufu Pyramid
"The Giza Plateau Mapping Project". Oriental Institute.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Pyramid_of_Giza&oldid=807492303"
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