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Rostow's stages of growth
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Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth model is one of the major historical models of economic growth. It was published by American economist Walt Whitman Rostow in 1960. The model postulates that economic growth occurs in five basic stages, of varying length:[1]
Traditional society
Transitional society
Take-off
Drive to technological maturity
High mass consumption
Rostow's model is one of the more structuralist models of economic growth, particularly in comparison with the "backwardness" model developed by Alexander Gerschenkron, although the two models are not mutually exclusive.
Rostow argued that economic take-off must initially be led by a few individual economic sectors. This belief echoes David Ricardo's comparative advantage thesis and criticizes Marxist revolutionaries' push for economic self-reliance in that it pushes for the "initial" development of only one or two sectors over the development of all sectors equally. This became one of the important concepts in the theory of modernization in social evolutionism.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Theoretical Framework
3 Stages of Development Process
3.1 Traditional Societies
3.2 Pre-conditions for Take-off
3.3 Take-off
3.4 Drive to Maturity
3.5 Age of High Mass Consumption
3.6 Dark Matter Consumption
4 Criticism of the model
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
Overview[edit]
Below is an outline of Rostow's Five Stages of Growth:
Traditional Society
characterized by subsistence agriculture or hunting and gathering; almost wholly a "primary" sector economy
limited technology
Some advancements and improvements to processes, but limited ability for economic growth because of the absence of modern technologies, lack of class or individual economic mobility, with stability prioritized and change seen negatively
This is where society generally begins before progressing towards the next stages of growth
No centralized nations or political systems.
Pre-conditions to "take-off"
External demand for raw materials initiates economic change.
Development of more productive, commercial agriculture and cash crops not consumed by producers and/or largely exported.
Widespread and enhanced investment in changes to the physical environment to expand production (i.e. irrigation, canals, ports)
Increasing spread of technology and advances in existing technologies
Changing social structure, with previous social equilibrium now in flux
Individual social mobility begins
Development of national identity and shared economic interests.
Take-off
Urbanization increases, industrialization proceeds, technological breakthroughs occur.
"Secondary" (goods-producing) sector expands and ratio of secondary vs. primary sectors in the economy shifts quickly towards secondary.
Textiles and apparel are usually the first "take-off" industry, as happened in Great Britain's classic "Industrial Revolution"
An Example of the Take-off phase is the Agriculture (Green) Revolution in the 1960s.
Drive to Maturity
Diversification of the industrial base; multiple industries expand and new ones take root quickly
Manufacturing shifts from investment-driven (capital goods) towards consumer durables and domestic consumption
Rapid development of transportation infrastructure.
Large-scale investment in social infrastructure (schools, universities, hospitals, etc.)
Age of Mass Consumption
the industrial base dominates the economy; the primary sector is of greatly diminished weight in economy and society
widespread and normative consumption of high-value consumer goods (e.g. automobiles)
consumers typically (if not universally), have disposable income, beyond all basic needs, for additional goods
Urban society (a movement away from rural countrysides to the cities)
Beyond consumption
age of diminishing relative marginal utility as well as an age for durable consumer goods
large families and Americans feel as if they were born into a society that has high economic security and high consumption
a stage where its merely speculation on whether there is further consumer diffusion or what the new generation will bring for growth
Rostow claimed that these stages of growth were designed to tackle a number of issues, some of which he identified himself, writing:
"Under what impulses did traditional, agricultural societies begin the process of their modernization? When and how did regular growth become a built-in feature of each society? What forces drove the process of sustained growth along and determined its contours? What common social and political features of the growth process may be discerned at each stage? What forces have determined relations between the more developed and less developed areas; and what relation if any did the relative sequence of growth bear to outbreak of war? And finally where is compound interest taking us? Is it taking us to communism; or to the affluent suburbs, nicely rounded out with social overhead capital; to destruction; to the moon; or where?"[2][3]
Rostow asserts that countries go through each of these stages fairly linearly, and set out a number of conditions that were likely to occur in investment, consumption, and social trends at each state. Not all of the conditions were certain to occur at each stage, however, and the stages and transition periods may occur at varying lengths from country to country, and even from region to region.[4]
Theoretical Framework[edit]
Rostow's model is a part of the liberal school of economics, laying emphasis on the efficacy of modern concepts of free trade and the ideas of Adam Smith. It disagrees with Friedrich List's argument which states that economies which rely on exports of raw materials may get "locked in", and would not be able to diversify, regarding this Rostow's model states that economies may need to depend on raw material exports to finance the development of industrial sector which has not yet of achieved superior level of competitiveness in the early stages of take-off. Rostow's model does not disagree with John Maynard Keynes regarding the importance of government control over domestic development which is not generally accepted by some ardent free trade advocates. The basic assumption given by Rostow is that countries want to modernize and grow and that society will agree to the materialistic norms of economic growth.[5]
Stages of Development Process[edit]
Traditional Societies[edit]
An economy in this stage has an unlimited production function which barely attains the minimum level of potential output. This does not entirely mean that the economy's production level is static. The output level can still be increased, as there was often a surplus of uncultivated land which can be used for increasing agricultural production. Modern science and technology has yet to be introduced. As a result, these pre-Newtonian societies, unaware of the possibilities to manipulate the external world, rely heavily on manual labor and self-sufficiency to survive.[6] States and individuals utilize irrigation systems in many instances, but most farming is still purely for subsistence. There have been technological innovations, but only on ad hoc basis. All of that this can result in increases in output, but never beyond an upper limit which cannot be crossed. Trade is predominantly regional and local, largely done through barter, and the monetary system is not well developed. Investment's share never exceeds 5% of total economic production.
Wars, famines and epidemics like plague cause initially expanding populations to halt or shrink, limiting the single greatest factor of production: human manual labor. Volume fluctuations in trade due to political instability are frequent; historically, trading was subject to great risk and transport of goods and raw materials was expensive, difficult, slow and unreliable. The manufacturing sector and other industries have a tendency to grow but are limited by inadequate scientific knowledge and a "backward" or highly traditionalist frame of mind which contributes to low labour productivity. In this stage, some regions are entirely self-sufficient.
In settled agricultural societies before the Industrial Revolution, a hierarchical social structure relied on near-absolute reverence for tradition, and an insistence on obedience and submission. This resulted in concentration of political power in the hands of landowners in most cases; everywhere, family and lineage, and marriage ties, constituted the primary social organization, along with religious customs, and the state only rarely interacted with local populations and in limited spheres of life. This social structure was generally feudalistic in nature. Under modern conditions, these characteristics have been modified by outside influences, but the least developed regions and societies fit this description quite accurately..
Pre-conditions for Take-off[edit]
In the second stage of economic growth the economy undergoes a process of change for building up of conditions for growth and take off. Rostow said that these changes in society and the economy had to be of fundamental nature in the socio-political structure and production techniques.[3] This pattern was followed in Europe, parts of Asia, the Middle East and Africa. There is also a second or third pattern in which he said that there was no need for change in socio-political structure because these economies were not deeply caught up in older, traditional social and political structures. The only changes required were in economic and technical dimensions. The nations which followed this pattern were in North America and Oceania (New Zealand and Australia).
There are three important dimensions to this transition: firstly, the shift from an agrarian to an industrial or manufacturing society begins, albeit slowly. Secondly, trade and other commercial activities of the nation broaden the market's reach not only to neighboring areas but also to far-flung regions, creating international markets. Lastly, the surplus attained should not be wasted on the conspicuous consumption of the land owners or the state, but should be spent on the development of industries, infrastructure and thereby prepare for self-sustained growth of the economy later on. Furthermore, agriculture becomes commercialized and mechanized via technological advancement; shifts increasingly towards cash or export-oriented crops; and there is a growth of agricultural entrepreneurship.[7]
The strategic factor is that investment level should be above 5% of the national income. This rise in investment rate depends on many sectors of the economy. According to Rostow capital formation depends on the productivity of agriculture and the creation of social overhead capital. Agriculture plays a very important role in this transition process as the surplus quantity of the produce is to be utilized to support an increasing urban population of workers and also becomes a major exporting sector, earning foreign exchange for continued development and capital formation. Increases in agricultural productivity also lead to expansion of the domestic markets for manufactured goods and processed commodities, which adds to the growth of investment in the industrial sector.
Social overhead capital creation can only be undertaken by government, in Rostow's view. Government plays the driving role in development of social overhead capital as it is rarely profitable, it has a long gestation period, and the pay-offs accrue to all economic sectors, not primarily to the investing entity; thus the private sector is not interested in playing a major role in its development.
All these changes effectively prepare the way for "take-off" only if there is basic change in attitude of society towards risk taking, changes in working environment, and openness to change in social and political organisations and structures. According to Rostow, the preconditions to take-off begins from an external intervention by more developed and advanced societies, which "set in motion ideas and sentiments which initiated the process by which a modern alternative to the traditional society was constructed out of the old culture."[8] The pre-conditions of take-off closely track the historic stages of the (initially) British Industrial Revolution.[9]
Referring to the graph of savings and investment, notably, there is a steep increase in the rate of savings and investment from the stage of "Pre Take-off" till "Drive to Maturity:" then, following that stage, the growing rate of savings and investment moderates. This initial and accelerating steep increase in savings and investment is a pre-condition for the economy to reach the "Take-off" stage and far beyond.
Take-off[edit]
This stage is characterized by dynamic economic growth. As Rostow suggests, all is premised on a sharp stimulus (or multiple stimuli) that is/are any or all of economic, political and technological change. The main feature of this stage is rapid, self-sustained growth.[3][9] Take-off occurs when sector led growth becomes common and society is driven more by economic processes than traditions. At this point, the norms of economic growth are well established and growth becomes a nation's "second nature" and a shared goal.[1] In discussing the take-off, Rostow is noted to have adopted the term "transition", which describes the process of a traditional economy becoming a modern one. After take-off, a country will generally take as long as fifty to one hundred years to reach the mature stage according to the model, as occurred in countries that participated in the Industrial Revolution and were established as such when Rostow developed his ideas in the 1950s.
Per Rostow there are three main requirements for take-off:
1. The rate of productive investment should rise from approximately 5% to over 10% of national income or net national product
2. The development of one or more substantial manufacturing sectors, with a high rate of growth;
3. The existence or quick emergence of a political, social and institutional framework which exploits the impulses to expansion in the modern sector and the potential external economy effects of the take-off.[2]
The third requirement implies that the needed capital must be mobilized from domestic resources and steered into the economy, rather than into domestic or state consumption.Industrialization becomes a crucial phenomenon as it helps to prepare the basic structure for structural changes on a massive scale. Rostow says that this transition does not follow a set trend as there are a variety of different motivations or stimulus which began this growth process.
Take off requires a large and sufficient amount of loanable funds for expansion of the industrial sector which generally come from two sources which are:
Shifts in income flows by way of taxation, implementation of land reforms and various other fiscal measures.
Re-investment of profits earned from foreign trade as has been observed in many East Asian countries. While there are other examples of "Take-off" based on rapidly increasing demand for domestically produced goods for sale in domestic markets, more countries have followed the export-based model, overall and in the recent past. The US, Canada, Russia and Sweden are examples of domestically based "take-off"; all of them, however, were characterized by massive capital imports and rapid adoption of their trading partners' technological advances.[3][10] This entire process of expansion of the industrial sector yields an increase in rate of return to some individuals who save at high rates and invest their savings in the industrial sector activities. The economy exploit their underutilized natural resources to increase their production.[1]
Tentative take-off dates[2]
The take-off also needs a group of entrepreneurs in the society who pursue innovation and accelerate the rate of growth in the economy. For such an entrepreneurial class to develop, firstly, an ethos of "delayed gratification", a preference for capital accumulation over expenditure, and high tolerance of risk must be present. Secondly, entrepreneurial groups typically develop because they can not secure prestige and power in their society via marriage, via participating in well-established industries, or through government or military service (among other routes to prominence) because of some disqualifying social or legal attribute; and lastly, their rapidly changing society must tolerate unorthodox paths to economic and political power.
The ability of a country to make it through this stage depends on the following major factors:
Existence of enlarged, sustained effective demand for the product of key sectors.
Introduction of new productive technologies and techniques in these sectors.
The society's increasing capacity to generate or earn enough capital to complete the take-off transition.
Activities in the key sector should induce a chain of growth in other sectors of the economy, that also develop rapidly.
An example of a country in the Take-off stage of development is Equatorial Guinea. It has the largest increases in GDP growth since 1980 and the rate of productive investment has risen from 5% to over 10% of income or product.
In the table note that Take-off periods of different countries are the same as the industrial revolution in those countries.
Drive to Maturity[edit]
After take-off, there follows a long interval of sustained growth known as the stage of drive to maturity. Rostow defines it "as the period when a society has effectively applied the range of modern technology to the bulk of its resources."[2][3] Now regularly growing economy drives to extend modern technology over the whole front of its economic activity. Some 10-20% of the national income is steadily invested, permitting output regularly to outstrip the increase in population. The makeup of the economy changes unceasingly as technique improves, new industries accelerate, older industries level off. The economy finds its place in the international economy: goods formerly imported are produced at home; new import requirements develop, and new export commodities to match them. The leading sectors in an economy will be determined by the nature of resource endowments and not only by technology.
Tentative drive to maturity dates[2]
On comparing the dates of take-off and drive to maturity, these countries reached the stage of maturity in approximately 60 years.
The structural changes in the society during this stage are in three ways:
Work force composition in agriculture shifts from 75% of the working population to 20%. The workers acquire greater skill and their wages increase in real terms.
The character of leadership changes significantly in the industries and a high degree of professionalism is introduced
Environmental and health cost of industrialization is recognized and policy changes are thus made.
During this stage a country has to decide whether the industrial power and technology it has generated is to be used for the welfare of its people or to gain supremacy over others, or the world in toto.
A prime example of a country in the Drive to Maturity stage is South Africa. It is developing a world-class infrastructure- including a modern transport network, widely available energy, and sophisticated telecommunications facilities. Additionally, the commercial farm sector shed 140,000 jobs, a decline of roughly 20%, in the eleven-year period from 1988 to 1998.
This diversity leads to reduction in poverty rate and increasing standards of living, as the society no longer needs to sacrifice its comfort in order to build up certain sectors.[11]
Age of High Mass Consumption[edit]
The age of high mass consumption refers to the period of contemporary comfort afforded many western nations, wherein consumers concentrate on durable goods, and hardly remember the subsistence concerns of previous stages. Rostow uses the Buddenbrooks dynamics metaphor to describe this change in attitude. In Thomas Mann's 1901 novel, Buddenbrooks, a family is chronicled for three generations. The first generation is interested in economic development, the second in its position in society. The third, already having money and prestige, concerns itself with the arts and music, worrying little about those previous, earthly concerns. So too, in the age of high mass consumption, a society is able to choose between concentrating on military and security issues, on equality and welfare issues, or on developing great luxuries for its upper class. Each country in this position chooses its own balance between these three goals. There is a desire to develop an egalitarian society and measures are taken to reach this goal. According to Rostow, a country tries to determine its uniqueness and factors affecting it are its political, geographical and cultural structure and also values present in its society.[11]
Historically, the United States is said to have reached this stage first, followed by other western European nations, and then Japan in the 1950s.[3]
Dark Matter Consumption[edit]
This step is more of a theoretical speculation by Rostow rather than an analytical step in the process by Rostow.[12] Individuals begin having larger families and do not value income as a pre-requisite for more vacation days. Consumer products become more durable and more diverse.[12] New Americans will behave in a way where the high economic security and level mass consumption is considered normal. Rostow does make the point that it is possible with the large baby boom it could either cause economic issues or dictate an even larger diffusion of consumer goods.[12] With increasing urban and suburban population there will be undoubtedly an increase in consumer goods and services as well.[12]
Criticism of the model[edit]
Rostow is historical in the sense that the end result is known at the outset and is derived from the historical geography of a developed, bureaucratic society.
Rostow is mechanical in the sense that the underlying motor of change is not disclosed and therefore the stages become little more than a classificatory system based on data from developed countries.
His model is based on American and European history and defines the American norm of high mass consumption as integral to the economic development process of all industrialized societies.
His model assumes the inevitable adoption of Neoliberal trade policies which allow the manufacturing base of a given advanced polity to be relocated to lower-wage regions.
Rostow's model does not apply to the Asian and the African countries as events in these countries are not justified in any stage of his model.[citation needed]
The stages are not identifiable properly as the conditions of the take-off and pre take-off stage are very similar and also overlap.
According to Rostow growth becomes automatic by the time it reaches the maturity stage but Kuznets asserts that no growth can be automatic there is need for push always.[citation needed]
There are two unrelated theories of take off one is that take is a sectoral and a non-linear notion and other is that it is highly aggregative.[13]
Rostow's thesis is biased towards a western model of modernization, but at the time of Rostow the world's only mature economies were in the west, and no controlled economies were in the "era of high mass consumption." The model de-emphasizes differences between sectors in capitalistic vs. communistic societies, but seems to innately recognize that modernization can be achieved in different ways in different types of economies.[citation needed]
Another assumption that Rostow took is of trying to fit economic progress into a linear system. This assumption is questioned due to empirical evidence of many countries making 'false starts' then reaching a degree of progress and change and then slipping back. E.g.: In the case of contemporary Russia slipping back from high mass consumption to a country in transition.
Another criticism of Rostow's work is that it consideres large countries with a large population (Japan), with natural resources available at just the right time in its history (Coal in Northern European countries), or with a large land mass (Argentina). He has little to say and indeed offers little hope for small countries, such as Rwanda, which do not have such advantages. Neo-liberal economic theory to Rostow, and many others, does offer hope to much of the world that economic maturity is coming and the age of high mass consumption is nigh.This does leave a potential "grim meathook future" for the outliers, which do not have the resources, political will, or external backing to become competitive with already developed economies.[14] (See Dependency theory)
See also[edit]
Development economics
Ragnar Nurkse
Virtuous circle and vicious circle
Critical minimum effort theory
Strategy of unbalanced growth
Low-level equilibrium trap
Dual economy
Big Push Model
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Rostow, W. W. (1960). "The Five Stages of Growth-A Summary". The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4–16. Archived from the original on 2013-02-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rostow, W. W. (1962). The Stages of Economic Growth. London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 2, 38, 59.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Mishra, Puri (2010). Economics of Development and Planning—Theory and Practice. Himalaya Publishing House. pp. 127–136. ISBN 81-8488-829-5.
Jump up ^ Rostow emphasizes in Stages that "the stages of growth are an arbitrary and limited way of looking at the sequence of modern history: ... to dramatize not merely the uniformities in the sequence of modernization but also—and equally—the uniqueness of each nation's experience."
Jump up ^ "Rostow's Stages of Development vs. Self- Sufficiency". Lewis historical society. 4 January 2011. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
Jump up ^ Rostow, W. W. (1960). The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 10.
Jump up ^ Brett Wallace (2008-02-02). "IB Geography: Development: Rostow Model". Slideshare.net. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
Jump up ^ Seligso, Mitchell A. "The Five Stages of Growth W.W. Rostow". Development and Underdevelopment: The Political Economy of Global Inequality. Lynne Rienner: 12.
^ Jump up to: a b Mallick, Oliver Basu (2005). "Rostow's five-stage model of development and ist [sic] relevance in Globalization" (PDF). School of Social Science Faculty of Education and Arts the University of Newcastle. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Stages of Development". Nvcc.edu. 2004-04-22. Retrieved 2014-03-15.
^ Jump up to: a b http://albahaegeo.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/rostow_lewis.pdf[dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Beckett, Paul A. The Journal of Developing Areas 29.2 (1995): 284-86. Web.
Jump up ^ Itagaki, Yoichi (1963). "Criticism of Rostow's Stage Approach: The Concept of State, System and Type". The Developing Economies. 1 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1049.1963.tb01138.x.
Jump up ^ "Grim Meathook Future" is a quote from new media writer Joshua Ellis "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-03-29. Retrieved 2006-04-18. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) .
Further reading[edit]
Rostow, W. W. (1960). The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge University Press.
Baran, P.; Hobsbawm, E. J. (1961). "The Stages of Economic Growth". Kyklos. 14 (2): 234–242.
Hunt, Diana (1989). "Rostow of the Stages of Growth". Economic Theories of Development: An Analysis of Competing Paradigms. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf. pp. 95–101. ISBN 0-7450-0237-4.
Meier, Gerald M. (1989). "Sequence of Stages". Leading Issues in Economic Development (Fifth ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 69–72. ISBN 0-19-505572-1.
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Stepfamily
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The examples and perspective in this article or section might have an extensive bias or disproportional coverage towards the US. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A stepfamily, blended family or bonus family is a family where at least one parent has children that are not genetically related to the other spouse or partner. Either one parent may have children from a previous relationship. Children in a stepfamily may live with one biological parent, or they may live with each biological parent for a period of time.[1] In addition, visitation rights mean that children in stepfamilies often have contact with both biological parents, even if they permanently live with only one.
A child is referred to as the stepchild, stepdaughter or stepson of their biological parent's new spouse, and that person as the stepparent, stepfather or stepmother of the child.
A stepfather is the husband of one's mother, and not one's biological father.[2] A stepmother is the wife of one's father, and not one's biological mother.[3] A step-grandmother is the wife of one's grandfather, and not one's biological grandmother. A step-grandfather is the husband of one's grandmother, and not one's biological grandfather. A step-uncle is the husband of one's parent's sister (aunt), and not one's uncle. A step-aunt is the wife of one's parent's brother (uncle), and not one's aunt. Similarly, a stepbrother is the son of a stepparent whom one is not biologically related to. A stepsister is the daughter of a stepparent to whom one is not biologically related. A step-grandson is the grandson of one's spouse who one is not biologically related to. A step-granddaughter is the granddaughter of one's spouse to whom one is not biologically related. A step-cousin is the son or daughter of one's aunt's husband (step-uncle) or uncle's wife (step-aunt) who one is not biologically related. A parent's spouse of the same sex may also count as a stepparent.
Alternatively, in Australia Under the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) a "stepparent" in relation to a child, is interpreted as a person who is not a parent of the child; and is, or has been, married to or a de facto partner of, a parent of the child; and treats, or at any time while married to, or a de facto partner of, the parent treated, the child as a member of the family formed with the parent.[4]
A "simple" stepfamily is one in which only one member of the couple has a prior child or children and the couple has not yet had additional children. When both members of the couple have at least one pre-existing child, the new family is "complex" or "blended" from the start; if only one member has one or more prior children but the couple has another child together, the "complex"/"blended" designation replaces the "simple" designation upon the birth of the new child.[5] If both members of the couple have prior children, those children are stepbrothers and stepsisters to one another. Any subsequent child born to the couple is a half-sibling of the respective members' prior children.
If a stepparent legally adopts the partner's child or children, he or she becomes the child's legal parent. In such cases, the parents may stop using the terms "stepparent" and "stepchild" and instead refer to the child simply as their son or daughter; depending on the child's degree of affinity for the adoptive parent and/or approval of the legal proceedings culminating in the child's adoption, the child may likewise drop the "step-" designation from his/her description of the relationship. Even when all parties describe the relationship using the terms applied to biological and adoptive families, however, at least some of the emotional and psychological issues common to stepfamilies may persist.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Challenges
3 Legal status
4 Stepparent adoption in the United States
5 Abuse
6 In research
7 Education
8 See also
9 Footnotes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology[edit]
The earliest recorded use of the prefix step-, in the form steop-, is from an 8th-century glossary of Latin-Old English words meaning "orphan". Steopsunu is given for the Latin word filiaster and steopmoder for nouerca. Similar words recorded later in Old English include stepbairn, stepchild and stepfather. The words are used to denote a connection resulting from the remarriage of a widowed parent and are related to the word ástíeped meaning bereaved, with stepbairn and stepchild occasionally used simply as synonyms for orphan. Words such as stepbrother, stepniece and stepparent appeared much later and do not have any particular connotation of bereavement. Corresponding words in other Germanic languages include: Old High German stiuf- and Old Norse stjúp-.[6]
Challenges[edit]
This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks or Wikivoyage. (July 2014)
According to James Bray, three of the challenges facing a stepfamily are financial and living arrangements, resolving feelings about the previous marriage and anticipating parenting changes.[7]
Additional challenges that a step- or blended family face are those regarding the paternal parents as well as the inherent bond that paternal parents have with their children and vice versa. Stepparents often face significant difficulties when interacting with the paternal parent. Often, paternal parents feel as though the other man or woman is going to ultimately replace them. This is a common feeling for a parent to have when faced with the new circumstance of blended families. .[8]
Legal status[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Although historically stepfamilies are built through the institution of marriage and are legally recognized, it is currently unclear if a stepfamily can be both established and recognized by less formal arrangements, such as when a man or woman with children cohabits with another man or woman outside of marriage. This relationship is becoming more common in all Western countries.[9]
There appear to be many cultures in which these families are recognized socially as de facto families. However, in modern Western culture it is often unclear as to what, if any, social status and protection they enjoy in law.
The stepparent is a "legal stranger" in most of the U.S. and has no legal right to the minor child no matter how involved in the child's life they are. The biological parents (and, where applicable, adoptive parents) hold that privilege and responsibility. If the biological parent does not give up their parental rights and custody of the child, the other parent's subsequent marriage cannot create a parental relationship without the biological parent's written consent before a "child" reaches adulthood. In most cases, the stepparent can not be ordered to pay child support.[10]
Stepparents generally do not have the authority to give legal consent to medical treatment for a stepchild, unless the stepparent has legally adopted the child or been designated a legal guardian. A child's parents or legal guardians may sign a statement authorizing a third party to consent to medical care.[11]
With regard to unmarried couples, one can easily imagine such social and legal recognition, most notably in the case of common law marriage. Unmarried couples today may also find social recognition locally through community consensus.
Still, it is not at all clear what formal parenting roles, rights, responsibilities and social etiquette should exist between "stepparents" and their "stepchildren." This often leaves the parents in unexpected conflicts with each other, their former spouses and the children.
For all the confusion which stepparents may feel, it is often even less clear to the stepchildren what the interpersonal relationships are, or should be, between themselves and their stepsiblings; between themselves and their stepparent; and even between themselves and their birth parents. These relationships can be extremely complex, especially in circumstances where each "stepspouse" may bring children of their own to the home or in households where children are expected to actively participate in each of the newly created families of both birth parents.
Although most stepfamilies can agree on what they do not want to be for one another, they are often hard pressed to agree upon what they do want to be for one another. This makes it difficult for everyone in the family to learn their roles. It is especially difficult for the children, because the roles and expectations of them change as they move between the homes and families of both of their birth parents.
Stepparent adoption in the United States[edit]
In the United States, the most common form of adoption is adopting a stepchild. By adopting a stepchild, the stepparent is agreeing to be fully responsible for their spouse's child. The biological parent not living with the child no longer has any rights or responsibilities for the child, including child support.[12]
Stepparents can become legal parents to their stepchildren through the process of stepparent adoption. Both biological parents, if living, must consent or agree to the adoption. When a stepparent adopts a stepchild, either the non-custodial parent of the child willingly gives up his or her parental rights to the child, or the court terminates the parental rights of the biological parent if there is evidence of abuse or neglect to the child. If a parent is not involved in the child's life, the court can terminate that biological parent's rights on the grounds of abandonment. Grounds for abandonment in most states is no contact between the parent and child for at least one year.
Local laws to complete a stepparent adoption vary. While having the non-custodial parent consent to the adoption is the easiest way to complete a stepparent adoption, it is still possible to have one completed when they either do not consent, or cannot be located.
A stepparent adoption can still occur if the other birth parent refuses to give consent or cannot be located. Most states' laws allow parental rights to be terminated when a parent has willfully failed to pay child support or communicate with the child for a period of time, usually a year.[13]
Stepparent adoption also can occur if the other biological parent is deceased.
Abuse[edit]
Main article: Cinderella effect
A common villain of classic fairy tales is the abusive stepmother. She mistreats her non-biological child by locking them away, or trying to kill them in some cases, and treats her own children very well if she has any. In popular culture phrases like "I'll beat you like a red-headed stepchild" are uttered as a common threat that show just how aware people are about the assumed nature of stepfamily abuse. The thought is that because this child is not the biological child they are more likely to be beaten due to a lack of kinship ties. The research on this topic shows that this issue is not so clearly defined however. The image of the wicked step mother is well known but much of the research available shows more of the abuse coming from stepfathers rather than step mothers.
Stepfathers have been shown to abuse female stepchildren more than males. They are also shown to be more abusive towards female children than biological families, but less abusive than adoptive fathers.[14] The abuse studied with men in mind tends to focus on physical or sexual abuse of children rather than emotional abuse. Neglect is also discussed as a qualifying method of child abuse by step parents in general. In 2004 a U.S. study by Weekes and Weekes-Shackelford found that while biological fathers fatally abuse children 5 and under at a rate of 5.6 per million per year; step fathers were found to have a rate of 55.9 per million per year.[15] A U.K. study done in 2000 had different results which found that many less children responded as being abused by a step parent.[16] Economic factors could also play a role in the abuse of step children. In places with higher levels of social strain abuse may be more prevalent or more violent.[17] Other studies of census data and child neglect and abuse records have found that step parents may be over represented in abuse figures. They found that when the data is balanced, the biological parents have a much higher rate of abuse than the step parents do.[18]
Step mothers are thought to be less violent in their abuse and instead rely mainly on verbal and emotion abuse.
There is little research in the field of parental abuse by children in concern with step children abusing step parents. The abuse of step children by their siblings is also a topic with little research.
In research[edit]
In her book, Becoming a Stepfamily, Patricia Papernow (1993) suggests that each stepfamily goes through seven distinct stages of development, which can be divided into the Early, Middle, and Late stages. The Early stages consist of the Fantasy, Immersion, and Awareness stages. In the Fantasy stage, both children and parents are typically "stuck" in their fantasies or wishes for what their family could be like. The developmental task for this stage is for each member to articulate their wants and needs. In the Immersion stage, the family is typically struggling to live out the fantasy of a "perfect" blended family. In this stage, it is critical for the "insider spouse" (i.e. the biological parent who typically forms the emotional hub of the family) to understand that the feelings of the "outsider spouse" and children are real. The task of this stage is to persist in the struggle to become aware of the various experiences. This stage is followed by the Awareness stage, in which the family gathers information about what the new family looks like (e.g., roles, traditions, "family culture") and how each member feels about it. The tasks of this stage are twofold: individual and joint. The individual task is for each member to begin to put words to the feelings they are experiencing, and to voice their needs to other family members. The joint task is for family members to begin to transcend the "experiential gaps" and to try to form an understanding of other members' roles and experiences.[19]
The Middle stages consist of the Mobilization and Action stages. In the Mobilization stage, the stepparent can begin to step forward to address the family's process and structure. The tasks of this stage are to confront differences in each member's perception of the new family, as well as to influence one another before shaming or blaming begins to take action to reorganize the family structure. The goal here is to make joint decisions about new stepfamily rituals, rules, and roles. The focus in this stage is on the stepfamily's unique "middle ground" (i.e. the "areas of shared experience, shared values, and easy cooperative functioning created over time," p. 39), and on balancing this new middle ground with honoring of past and other relationships.[20]
The Later stages consist of the Contact and Resolution stages. In the Contact stage, the couple is working well together, the boundaries between households are clear, and stepparents have definite roles with stepchildren as "intimate outsiders." The task for this stage is in solidifying the stepparent's role, and in continuing the process of awareness. Finally, in the Resolution stage, the stepfamily's identity has become secure. The family accepts itself for who it is, there is a strong sense of the stepfamily's middle ground, and children feel secure in both households. The task for this stage is to nourish the depth and maturity gained through this process, and to rework any issues that might arise at family "nodal events" (e.g., weddings, funerals, graduations, etc.).[21]
In her book, Stepmonster: A New Look at Why Real Stepmothers Think, Feel, and Act the Way We Do, social researcher Wednesday Martin takes an anthropological approach to examining stepfamily dynamics.[22][23][24] The Daily Mail said that Stepmonster "in the US, has become widely regarded as the 'go to' source for stepmothers, stepchildren, and therapists."[25]
Education[edit]
The prevalence of stepfamilies has increased over the past century with the increase of divorce and remarriage. According to the Step Family Foundation, "over 50% of US families are remarried or recoupled."[26] These families are unique in their experiences facing many challenges which first-married families do not. For example, role ambiguity, dealing with stepchildren, and ex-spouses are only a few of the issues which are unique to these families. In response to these families' desire for assistance, stepfamily education has become an increasingly common topic among scholars and educators. Although still a relatively new facet within the marriage education realm, stepfamily education provides important information which may not be addressed in traditional marriage or relationship education curriculum. As discussed by Adler-Baeder and Higginbotham (2004)[27] a number of curricula are currently available to stepfamilies and family life educators; however, further research is needed in order to determine best-practices for the field. One way in which this gap is being filled is through the current implementation of Healthy Marriage Demonstration Grants[28] in the U.S. As part of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, grants for healthy marriage and responsible fatherhood, which include at-risk and diverse populations such as stepfamilies, are providing important information on the evaluation of stepfamily programs and their effectiveness in servicing stepfamilies.
See also[edit]
Half-sibling
Cinderella effect
Phaedra complex
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ WebMD. "Teen Health: Living with a Stepparent". Retrieved 5 May 2012.
Jump up ^ The Free Dictionary By Farlex. "stepfather". Retrieved 6 May 2012.
Jump up ^ The Free Dictionary By Farlex. "Stepmother". Retrieved 6 May 2012.
Jump up ^ (http://www.stepfamily.org.au/wp-content/uploads/Stepparents-Rights-and-Responsibilities-in-Australia2.pdf)
Jump up ^ See, e.g., http://www.bccf.ca/professionals/blog/2012-09/canadian-stepfamilies-composition-and-complexity (British Columbia Council for Families; source uses Canadian English).
Jump up ^ "step-" The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University Press. 4 April 2000 <Registration required, retrieved 15 December 2006.>
Jump up ^ Bray, PhD, James. "Making stepfamilies work". Retrieved 6 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Tartakovsky, M. (2011). Surviving and Thriving As a Stepfamily. Psych Central. Retrieved on July 19, 2013, from http://psychcentral.com/lib/surviving-and-thriving-as-a-stepfamily/0005770
Jump up ^ "New blends - the legal definition of step-parenting - Family Law Partners". Family Law Partners. 2014-04-11. Retrieved 2016-12-02.
Jump up ^ "All Our Families | Berkeley Law". Berkeley Law. Retrieved 2016-12-02.
Jump up ^ "National Stepfamily Resource Center | Law & Policy FAQ". www.stepfamilies.info. Retrieved 2016-12-02.
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. "Stepparent Adoption". Retrieved 6 May 2012.
Jump up ^ Wortman, Mark A. "Step Parent Adoption". Retrieved 6 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Male Perpetrators of Child Maltreatment: Findings from NCANDS". ASPE. 2015-11-23. Retrieved 2016-12-02.
Jump up ^ "Methods of filicide: Stepparents and genetic parents kill differently" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-12-02.
Jump up ^ "Child Maltreatment in the United Kingdom: a Study of the Prevalence of Abuse and Neglect." (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Stepchildren, Community Disadvantage, and Physical Injury in a Child Abuse Incident: A Preliminary Investigation".
Jump up ^ Mercer, Jean (2012-02-29). "CHILDMYTHS: Who's Abusive? Comparing Step-Parents, Adoptive Parents, and Others". CHILDMYTHS. Retrieved 2016-12-02.
Jump up ^ Papernow, Patricia L. (1993). "Becoming a Stepfamily: Patterns of Development in Remarried Families". San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Jump up ^ Papernow, 1993.
Jump up ^ Paernow, 1993.
Jump up ^ Waterlow, Lucy. "We're not stepmonsters!". Daily Mail. Retrieved 17 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Borchard, Therese. "Stepmonster: 8 Reasons Why Stepmothers are Prone to Depression". Psychology Today. Retrieved 17 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Havrilesky, Heather. "Beware the stepmonster!". Salon. Retrieved 17 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Waterlow, Lucy. "We're Not Stepmonsters". Daily Mail. Retrieved 17 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Stepfamily Statistics". The Step Family Foundation.
Jump up ^ Adler-Baeder,F. & Higginbotham, B. (2004). Implications of remarriage and stepfamily formation for marriage education. Family Relations, 53(5), 448–458.
Jump up ^ "ACF Healthy Marriage Initiative: Funding Opportunities". Acf.hhs.gov. Retrieved 2010-08-11.
References[edit]
Warner, Marina. From the Beast to the Blonde: On Fairy Tales and Their Tellers, ISBN 0-374-15901-7
Tatar, Maria. The Hard Facts of the Grimms' Fairy Tales, ISBN 0-691-06722-8
Tatar, Maria. The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales, ISBN 0-393-05163-3
Further reading[edit]
LeBey, Barbara (2004). Remarried with Children: Ten Secrets for Successfully Blending and Extending Your Family. New York: Bantam.
Martin, Wednesday, Ph.D. (2009). Stepmonster: A New Look at Why Real Stepmothers Think, Feel, and Act the Way We Do. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Papernow, Patricia L. (1993). Becoming a Stepfamily: Patterns of Development in Remarried Families. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ulrike Zartler, Valerie Heinz-Martin, Oliver Arránz Becker (Eds.) (2015). Family Dynamics After Separation: A Life Course Perspective on Post-Divorce Families. Special Issue ZfF, Volume 10, Barbara Budrich, ISBN 978-3-8474-0686-0.
External links[edit]
Look up step- or stepfamily in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Step Parents at DMOZ
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The Gospel of John (film)
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The Gospel of John
Directed by
Philip Saville
Produced by
Garth Drabinsky
Chris Chrisafis
Written by
John Goldsmith
Starring
Henry Ian Cusick
Narrated by
Christopher Plummer
Music by
Jeff Danna
Cinematography
Mirosław Baszak
Edited by
Michel Archand
Distributed by
Visual Bible International
THINKFilm
Release date
26 September 2003 (2003-09-26)
Running time
180 minutes
Country
United Kingdom
Canada
United States
Language
English
Budget
$16 million
Box office
$4,068,087 [1]
The Gospel of John is a 2003 film that is the story of Jesus' life as recounted by the Gospel of John.[2] It is a motion picture that has been adapted for the screen on a word-for-word basis from the American Bible Society's Good News Bible. This three-hour epic feature film follows John's Gospel precisely, without additions to the story from other Gospels, or omission of complex passages.
Contents
1 Production
2 Cast
3 Directors and Producers
4 Other Critical Contributions
5 Criticism
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Production[edit]
This film was created by a constituency of artists from Canada and the United Kingdom, along with academic and theological consultants from around the world. The cast was selected primarily from the Stratford Shakespeare Festival and Soulpepper Theatre Company, as well as Britain's Royal Shakespeare Company and Royal National Theatre. The musical score, composed by Jeff Danna and created for the film, is partially based on the music of the Biblical period. The film was produced by Visual Bible International.
Cast[edit]
The film is narrated by Christopher Plummer and stars Scottish-Peruvian actor Henry Ian Cusick as Jesus. Others cast include British actors Stuart Bunce (John), Richard Lintern (Leading Pharisee), Scott Handy (John the Baptist), Lynsey Baxter (Mary Magdalene), and Canadian actors Diego Matamoros (Nicodemus), Stephen Russell (Pontius Pilate), Daniel Kash (Simon Peter), Cedric Smith (Caiaphas) and Nancy Palk (Samaritan Woman).
Directors and Producers[edit]
The film was directed by Philip Saville and co-produced by Canadian producer Garth Drabinsky and British producer Chris Chrisafis.
Executive producers were Sandy Pearl, Joel B. Michaels, Myron Gottliel and Martin Katz
Other Critical Contributions[edit]
Also involved were screenwriter John Goldsmith, production designer Don Taylor, sound mixer David Lee, makeup artist Trefor Proud, costume designer Debra Hanson, and director of photography and film editors Miroslaw Baszak and Michel Arcand.
The filming production was shot in Toronto, Ontario, and Almeria, Andalucia, Spain.
Criticism[edit]
While the film is largely a faithful depiction of the Gospel of John, some have commented that the inclusion of Mary Magdalene at the Last Supper has no Biblical citation. However, according to the Gospels, she was one of the women who accompanied Jesus and the disciples to Jerusalem, was present at the Crucifixion and burial of Jesus, was the first to whom Jesus appeared at the Resurrection, and was with the disciples in the upperroom after the Resurrection. Thus, like many modern movies about Jesus, the producers are faithfully attempting to help their audience see what the Gospel writers sometimes have not included. [3]
See also[edit]
The Visual Bible: Matthew
The Visual Bible: Acts
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Gospel of John at Box Office Mojo
Jump up ^ John F. A. SawyerThe Blackwell Companion to the Bible and Culture 2012 "Overshadowed by The Passion is British director Philip Saville's The Gospel of John (2003) a film whose text is the Gospel of John, ... The film is narrated by Christopher Plummer, whose authoritative voice makes the text sound like gospel"
Jump up ^ http://www.womeninthebible.net/women-bible-old-new-testaments/mary-magdalene/
External links[edit]
The Gospel of John on IMDb
The Gospel of John at Rotten Tomatoes
Enthusiastic review by Andy Naselli
Arts & Faith Top100 Spiritually Significant Films list
The Blog on The Gospel of John Film
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Gospel_of_John_(film)&oldid=843184222"
Categories:
English-language films
2003 films
Canadian films
British films
Religious epic films
Gospel of John
Biographical films about Jesus
Films directed by Philip Saville
Cultural depictions of John the Baptist
Cultural depictions of Judas Iscariot
Cultural depictions of Pontius Pilate
Portrayals of the Virgin Mary in film
Films set in Jerusalem
Films set in the Roman Empire
Films set in the 1st century
Films about Christianity
Films shot in Almería
Hidden categories:
EngvarB from May 2016
Use dmy dates from May 2016
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This page was last edited on 27 May 2018, at 13:15 (UTC).
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