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Income taxes in Canada
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v
t
e
Income taxes in Canada constitute the majority of the annual revenues of the Government of Canada, and of the governments of the Provinces of Canada. In the fiscal year ending 31 March 2015, the federal government collected nearly three and a half times more revenue from personal income taxes than it did from corporate income taxes.[1]
Tax collection agreements enable different governments to levy taxes through a single administration and collection agency. The federal government collects personal income taxes on behalf of all provinces and territories except Quebec and collects corporate income taxes on behalf of all provinces and territories except Alberta and Quebec. Canada's federal income tax system is administered by the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA).
Canadian federal income taxes, both personal and corporate are levied under the provisions of the Income Tax Act.[2] Provincial and territorial income taxes are levied under various provincial statutes.
The Canadian income tax system is a self-assessment regime. Taxpayers assess their tax liability by filing a return with the CRA by the required filing deadline. CRA will then assess the return based on the return filed and on information it has obtained from employers and financial companies, correcting it for obvious errors. A taxpayer who disagrees with CRA's assessment of a particular return may appeal the assessment. The appeal process starts when a taxpayer formally objects to the CRA assessment. The objection must explain, in writing, the reasons for the appeal along with all the related facts. The objection is then reviewed by the appeals branch of CRA. An appealed assessment may either be confirmed, vacated or varied by the CRA. If the assessment is confirmed or varied, the taxpayer may appeal the decision to the Tax Court of Canada and then to the Federal Court of Appeal.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Constitutional authority
3 Personal income taxes
3.1 Basic calculation
3.2 Provincial and territorial personal income taxes
3.2.1 Quebec
3.3 Personal federal marginal tax rates
3.4 Income not taxed
4 Corporate income taxes
4.1 Corporation types
4.2 Provincial/territorial corporate income taxes
5 Integration of corporate and personal income taxes
6 International comparison (personal income tax)
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Unlike the United Kingdom and the United States, Canada avoided charging an income tax prior to the First World War. The lack of income tax was seen as a key component in Canada's efforts to attract immigrants as Canada offered a lower tax regime compared to almost every other country. Prior to the war, Canadian federal governments relied on tariffs and customs income under the auspices of the National Policy for most of their revenue, while the provincial governments sustained themselves primarily through their management of natural resources (the Prairie provinces being paid subsidies by the federal government as Ottawa retained control of their natural resources for the time being). The federal Liberal Party considered the probable need to introduce an income tax should their negotiation of a free trade agreement with the United States in the early 20th century succeed, but the Conservatives defeated the Liberals in 1911 over their support of free trade. The Conservatives (Tories) opposed income tax as they wanted to attract immigrants primarily from the United Kingdom and the United States, and they wanted to give immigrants some incentive to come to Canada.
Canadian finance minister Sir Thomas White's new temporary "income war tax act" Bill went into Committee of the Whole on July 25, 1917 but faced resistance.[3] Wartime expenses forced the Tories to re-consider their options and in 1918, the wartime government under Sir Robert Borden, imposed a "temporary" income tax to cover expenses. Despite the new tax the Canadian government ran up considerable debts during the war and were unable to forgo income tax revenue after the war ended. With the election of the Liberal government of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, much of the National Policy was dismantled and income tax has remained in place ever since.
Constitutional authority[edit]
The constitutional authority for the federal income tax is found in section 91 paragraph 3 of the Constitution Act, 1867, which assigns to the federal Parliament power over "The raising of Money by any Mode or System of Taxation".
The constitutional authority for the various provincial income taxes is found in section 92 paragraph 2 of the Constitution Act, 1867, which assigns to the legislature of each province the power of "Direct Taxation within the Province in order to the raising of a Revenue for Provincial Purposes". The courts have held that "an income tax is the most typical form of direct taxation".[4]
Personal income taxes[edit]
Canada levies personal income tax on the worldwide income of individual residents in Canada and on certain types of Canadian-source income earned by non-resident individuals. The Income Tax Act, Part I, subparagraph 2(1), states: "An income tax shall be paid, as required by this Act, on the taxable income for each taxation year of every person resident in Canada at any time in the year."
After the calendar year, Canadian residents file a T1 Tax and Benefit Return[5] for individuals. It is due April 30, or June 15 for self-employed individuals and their spouses, or common-law partners. It is important to note, however, that any balance owing is due on or before April 30. Outstanding balances remitted after April 30 may be subject to interest charges, regardless of whether the taxpayer's filing due date is April 30 or June 15.
The amount of income tax that an individual must pay is based on the amount of their taxable income (income earned less allowed expenses) for the tax year. Personal income tax may be collected through various means:
deduction at source - where income tax is deducted directly from an individual's pay and sent to the CRA.
installment payments - where an individual must pay his or her estimated taxes during the year instead of waiting to settle up at the end of the year.
payment on filing - payments made with the income tax return
arrears payments - payments made after the return is filed
Employers may also deduct Canada Pension Plan/Quebec Pension Plan (CPP/QPP) contributions, Employment Insurance (EI) and Provincial Parental Insurance (PPIP) premiums from their employees' gross pay. Employers then send these deductions to the taxing authority.
Individuals who have overpaid taxes or had excess tax deducted at source will receive a refund from the CRA upon filing their annual tax return.
Generally, personal income tax returns for a particular year must be filed with CRA on or before April 30 of the following year.
Basic calculation[edit]
An individual taxpayer must report his or her total income for the year. Certain deductions are allowed in determining "net income", such as deductions for contributions to Registered Retirement Savings Plans, union and professional dues, child care expenses, and business investment losses. Net income is used for determining several income-tested social benefits provided by the federal and provincial/territorial governments. Further deductions are allowed in determining "taxable income", such as capital losses, half of capital gains included in income, and a special deduction for residents of northern Canada. Deductions permit certain amounts to be excluded from taxation altogether.
"Tax payable before credits" is determined using five tax brackets and tax rates. Non-refundable tax credits are then deducted from tax payable before credits for various items such as a basic personal amount, dependents, Canada/Quebec Pension Plan contributions, Employment Insurance premiums, disabilities, tuition and education and medical expenses. These credits are calculated by multiplying the credit amount (e.g., the basic personal amount of $11,038 in 2013) by the lowest tax rate. This mechanism is designed to provide equal benefit to taxpayers regardless of the rate at which they pay tax.
A non-refundable tax credit for charitable donations is calculated at the lowest tax rate for the first $200 in a year, and at the highest tax rate for the portion in excess of $200. Donations can result in a reduction in taxes of between 40–60% of the donation depending on the province of the taxpayer and type of property donated. This tax credit is designed to encourage more generous charitable giving.
Certain other tax credits are provided to recognize tax already paid so that the income is not taxed twice:
the dividend tax credit provides recognition of tax paid at the corporate level on income distributed from a Canadian corporation to individual shareholders; and
the foreign tax credit recognizes tax paid to a foreign government on income earned in a foreign country.
Provincial and territorial personal income taxes[edit]
Provinces and territories that have entered into tax collection agreements with the federal government for collection of personal income taxes ("agreeing provinces", i.e., all provinces and territories except Quebec) must use the federal definition of "taxable income" as the basis for their taxation. This means that they are not allowed to provide or ignore federal deductions in calculating the income on which provincial tax is based.
Provincial and territorial governments provide both non-refundable tax credits and refundable tax credits to taxpayers for certain expenses. They may also apply surtaxes and offer low-income tax reductions.
Canada Revenue Agency collects personal income taxes for agreeing provinces/territories and remits the revenues to the respective governments. The provincial/territorial tax forms are distributed with the federal tax forms, and the taxpayer need make only one payment—to CRA—for both types of tax. Similarly, if a taxpayer is to receive a refund, he or she receives one cheque or bank transfer for the combined federal and provincial/territorial tax refund. Information on provincial rates can be found on the Canada Revenue Agency's website.[6] Individuals in Canada generally pay income taxes on employment and investment income to the province in which they reside on December 31 of the tax year. This ensures that taxpayers who live in one province and work in another, or who move from one province to another in most cases only have to file a tax return for one province. Individuals with business income have to pay tax on the business income to the province in which it was earned. If it was earned in more than one province, it is allocated based on a formula in the Income Tax Regulations. In addition to the income tax levied as a percentage of taxable income, two provinces, Prince Edward Island and Ontario, levy surtaxes as a percentage of tax over a certain threshold.
2017 Provincial Personal Income Tax Rates
Province/Territory Bracket (Rate and Income) Surtax (% of tax)
Alberta $0 – $126,625 $126,625 – $151,950 $151,950 – $202,600 $202,600 – $303,900 over $303,900
10% 12% 13% 14% 15%
British
Columbia
$0 – $38,898 $38,898 – $77,797 $77,797 – $89,320 $89,320 – $108,460 over $108,460
5.06% 7.7% 10.5% 12.29% 14.7%
Manitoba $0 – $31,465 $31,465 – $68,005 over $68,005
10.8% 12.75% 17.4%
New Brunswick $0 – $41,059 $41,059 – $82,119 $82,119 – $133,507 $133,507 – $152,100 over $152,100
9.68% 14.82% 16.52% 17.84% 20.3%
Newfoundland
and Labrador
$0 – $35,851 $35,851 – $71,701 $71,701 – $128,010 $128,010 – $179,214 over $179,214
8.7% 14.5% 15.8% 17.3% 18.3%
Northwest
Territories
$0 – $41,585 $41,585 – $83,172 $83,172 – 135,219 over $135,219
5.9% 8.6% 12.2% 14.05%
Nova Scotia $0 – $29,590 $29,590 – $59,180 $59,180 – $93,000 $93,000 – $150,000 over $150,000
8.79% 14.95% 16.67% 17.5% 21%
Nunavut $0 – $43,780 $43,780 – $87,560 $87,560 – $142,353 over $142,353
4% 7% 9% 11.5%
Ontario $0 – $42,201 $42,201 – $84,404 $84,404 – $150,000 $150,000 – $220,000 over $220,000 $4484 - $5739 Over $5739
5.05% 9.15% 11.16% 12.16% 13.16% 36% 56%
Prince Edward
Island
$0 – $31,984 $31,984 – $63,969 over $63,969 over $12,500
9.8% 13.8% 16.7% 10%
Quebec $0 – $42,705 $42,705 – $85,405 $85,405 – $103,915 over $103,915
15% 20% 24% 25.75%
Saskatchewan $0 – $45,225 $45,225 – $129,214 over $129,214
11% 13% 15%
Yukon $0 – $45,916 $45,916 – $91,831 $91,831 – $142,353 $142,353 – $500,000 over $500,000
6.4% 9% 10.9% 12.8% 15%
Quebec[edit]
Quebec administers its own personal income tax system, and therefore is free to determine its own definition of taxable income. To maintain simplicity for taxpayers, however, Quebec parallels many aspects of and uses many definitions found in the federal tax system.
Quebec chooses to receive part of its health and social transfers in tax points instead of cash. To compensate for this, federal personal income taxes on income earned in Quebec are reduced by 16.5% of federal tax. This is referred to as the Quebec Abatement. [7]
Personal federal marginal tax rates[edit]
The following historical federal marginal tax rates of the Government of Canada come from the website of the Canada Revenue Agency. They do not include applicable provincial income taxes. Data on marginal tax rates from 1998 to 2016 are publicly available.[8] Data on basic personal amounts (personal exemption taxed at 0%) can be found on a year by year basis is also available.[9] Their values are contained on line 300 of either the document "Schedule 1 - Federal Tax", or "General Income Tax and Benefit Guide", of each year by year General Income Tax and Benefit Package listed. The personal exemption is listed as it always applies. Additional deductions may be applied depending on eligibility, see.[10] The most common additional deductions are Canada Pension Plan (CPP), Employment Insurance (EI) and employment credit. Exempt amounts are calculated, multiplied by the lowest tax rate and the result is tax credits that reduce the total amount of tax owed.
Year
Personal Amount
Canadian federal marginal tax rates of taxable income
2017
$11,635 $0 – $45,916 $45,916 - $91,831 $91,831 - $142,353 $142,353 - $202,800 over $202,800
0% 15% 20.5% 26% 29% 33%
2016
$11,474 $0 – $45,282 $45,282 - $90,563 $90,563 - $140,388 $140,388 - $200,000 over $200,000
0% 15% 20.5% 26% 29% 33%
2015
$11,327 $0 – $44,701 $44,701 - $89,401 $89,401 - $138,586 over $138,586
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2014
$11,138 $0 – $43,953 $43,954 - $87,907 $87,908 - $136,270 over $136,270
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2013
$11,038 $0 – $43,561 $43,562 - $87,123 $87,124 - $135,054 over $135,055
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2012
$10,822 $0 – $42,706 $42,707 - $85,413 $85,414 - $132,405 over $132,406
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2011
$10,527 $0 – $41,544 $41,544 - $83,088 $83,088 - $128,800 over $128,800
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2010
$10,382 $0 – $40,970 $40,971 - $81,941 $81,942 - $127,021 over $127,021
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2009
$10,320 $0 – $40,726 $40,727 - $81,452 $81,453 - $126,264 over $126,264
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2008
$9,600 $0 – $37,885 $37,886 - $75,769 $75,770 - $123,184 over $123,184
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2007
$9,600 $0 – $37,178 $37,178 - $74,357 $74,357 - $120,887 over $120,887
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2006
$8,839 $0 – $36,378 $36,378 - $72,756 $72,756 - $118,285 over $118,285
0% 15.25% 22% 26% 29%
2005
$8,648 $0 – $35,595 $35,595 - $71,190 $71,190 - $115,739 over $115,739
0% 15% 22% 26% 29%
2004
$8,012 $0 – $35,000 $35,000 - $70,000 $70,000 - $113,804 over $113,804
0% 16% 22% 26% 29%
2003
$7,756 $0 – $32,183 $32,183 - $64,368 $64,368 - $104,648 over $104,648
0% 16% 22% 26% 29%
2002
$7,634 $0 – $31,677 $31,677 - $63,354 $63,354 - $103,000 over $103,000
0% 16% 22% 26% 29%
2001
$7,412 $0 – $30,754 $30,754 - $61,509 $61,509 - $100,000 over $100,000
0% 16% 22% 26% 29%
2000
$7,231 $0 – $30,004 $30,004 - $60,009 over $60,009
0% 17% 25% 29%
1999
$6,794 $0 – $29,590 $29,590 - $59,180 over $59,180
0% 17% 26% 29%
1998
$6,456 $0 – $29,590 $29,590 - $59,180 over $59,180
0% 17% 26% 29%
Income not taxed[edit]
The following types of income are not taxed in Canada (this list is not exhaustive):
gifts and inheritances;
death benefits paid from a life insurance policy;
lottery winnings;
winnings from betting or gambling for simple recreation or enjoyment;
strike pay;
income earned within a Tax-Free Savings Account;
compensation paid by a province or territory to a victim of a criminal act or a motor vehicle accident*;
certain civil and military service pensions;
income from certain international organizations of which Canada is a member, such as the United Nations and its agencies;
war disability pensions;
RCMP pensions or compensation paid in respect of injury, disability, or death*;
income of First Nations, if situated on a reserve;
capital gain on the sale of a taxpayer’s principal residence;
provincial child tax credits or benefits and Québec family allowances;
Working income tax benefit;
the Goods and Services Tax or Harmonized Sales Tax credit (GST/HST credit), Quebec Sales Tax credit or Saskatchewan Sales Tax Credit; and
the Canada Child Tax Benefit.
Note that, the method by which these forms of income are not taxed can vary significantly, which may have tax and other implications; some forms of income are not declared, while others are declared and then immediately deducted in full. Some of the tax exemptions are based on statutory enactments, others (like the non-taxability of lottery winnings) are based on the non-statutory common law concept of "income". In certain cases, the deduction may require off-setting income, while in other cases, the deduction may be used without corresponding income. Income which is declared and then deducted, for example, may create room for future Registered Retirement Savings Plan (RRSP) deductions. But then the RRSP contribution room may be reduced with a pension adjustment if you are part of another plan, reducing the ability to use RRSP contributions as a deduction.
Deductions which are not directly linked to non-taxable income exist, which reduce overall taxable income. A key example is RRSP contributions, which is a form of tax-deferred savings account (income tax is paid only at withdrawal, and no interim tax is payable on account earnings).
*Quebec changed its rules in 2004 and, legally, this may be taxed or may not – Courts have yet to rule.
Corporate income taxes[edit]
Corporate taxes include taxes on corporate income in Canada and other taxes and levies paid by corporations to the various levels of government in Canada. These include capital and insurance premium taxes; payroll levies (e.g., employment insurance, Canada Pension Plan, Quebec Pension Plan and Workers' Compensation); property taxes; and indirect taxes, such as goods and services tax (GST), and sales and excise taxes, levied on business inputs.
Corporations are subject to tax in Canada on their worldwide income if they are resident in Canada for Canadian tax purposes. Corporations not resident in Canada are subject to Canadian tax on certain types of Canadian source income (Section 115 of the Canadian Income Tax Act).
Effective January 1, 2012, the net federal corporate income tax rate in Canada was 15%, or 11% for corporations able to claim the small business deduction; in addition, corporations are subject to provincial income tax that may range from zero to 16%, depending on the province and the size of the business.[11]
Corporation types[edit]
The taxes payable by a Canadian resident corporation depend on the type of corporation that it is:
A Canadian-controlled private corporation, which is defined as a corporation that is:
resident in Canada and either incorporated in Canada or resident in Canada from June 18, 1971, to the end of the taxation year;
not controlled directly or indirectly by one or more non-resident persons;
not controlled directly or indirectly by one or more public corporations (other than a prescribed venture capital corporation, as defined in Regulation 6700);
not controlled by a Canadian resident corporation that lists its shares on a prescribed stock exchange outside of Canada;
not controlled directly or indirectly by any combination of persons described in the three preceding conditions; if all of its shares that are owned by a non-resident person, by a public corporation (other than a prescribed venture capital corporation), or by a corporation with a class of shares listed on a prescribed stock exchange, were owned by one person, that person would not own sufficient shares to control the corporation; and
no class of its shares of capital stock is listed on a prescribed stock exchange.
A private corporation, which is defined as a corporation that is:
resident in Canada;
not a public corporation;
not controlled by one or more public corporations (other than a prescribed venture capital corporation, as defined in Regulation 6700);
not controlled by one or more prescribed federal Crown corporations (as defined in Regulation 7100); and
not controlled by any combination of corporations described in the two preceding conditions.
A public corporation, defined as a corporation that is resident in Canada and meets either of the following requirements at the end of the taxation year:
it has a class of shares listed on a prescribed Canadian stock exchange; or
it has elected, or the Minister of National Revenue has designated it, to be a public corporation and the corporation has complied with prescribed conditions under Regulation 4800(1) on the number of its shareholders, the dispersing of the ownership of its shares, the public trading of its shares, and the size of the corporation.
If a public corporation has complied with certain prescribed conditions under Regulation 4800(2), it can elect, or the Minister of National Revenue can designate it, not to be a public corporation. Other types of Canadian resident corporations include Canadian subsidiaries of public corporations (which do not qualify as public corporations), general insurers and Crown corporations.
Provincial/territorial corporate income taxes[edit]
Corporate income taxes are collected by the CRA for all provinces and territories except Quebec and Alberta. Provinces and territories subject to a tax collection agreement must use the federal definition of "taxable income", i.e., they are not allowed to provide deductions in calculating taxable income. These provinces and territories may provide tax credits to companies, often in order to provide incentives for certain activities such as mining exploration, film production, and job creation.
Quebec and Alberta collect their own corporate income taxes, and therefore may develop their own definitions of taxable income. In practice, these provinces rarely deviate from the federal tax base in order to maintain simplicity for taxpayers.
Ontario negotiated a tax collection agreement with the federal government under which its corporate income taxes would be collected on its behalf by the CRA starting in 2009.
Integration of corporate and personal income taxes[edit]
In Canada, corporate income is subject to corporate income tax and, on distribution as dividends to individuals, personal income tax. To avoid this "double taxation" of the same income, the personal income tax system, through the gross-up and dividend tax credit (DTC) mechanisms, provides recognition for corporate taxes, based notional federal-provincial corporate tax rates, to taxable individuals resident in Canada who receive dividends from Canadian corporations.
A dividend from a small business ("Canadian-controlled private corporation") is grossed-up by 17 per cent, meaning that the shareholder includes 117 per cent of the dividend amount in income, to reflect the pre-tax income of the small business out of which it has paid the dividend. This income is taxed at the shareholder's personal income tax rate, but a part of the tax is offset by a 10.5217% dividend tax credit (for 2017)[12] to reflect the federal tax paid at the corporate level. There are also provincial dividend tax credits at different rates in different provinces.
For dividends from other Canadian corporations, i.e., "eligible dividends", the gross-up is 38% and the dividend tax credit is 15.0198% (for 2017),[12] reflecting the higher corporate income tax rate paid by larger corporations. Provincial and territorial governments also provide dividend tax credits to reflect provincial/territorial corporate income tax.
International comparison (personal income tax)[edit]
Comparison of total taxes paid by a household earning the country's average wage (as of 2005), including personal income tax, employee and employer social security contributions, payroll taxes and cash benefits. It does NOT include local income tax levied by states and cities. (source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development).
Country
Single
no children
Married
2 children
Country
Single
no children
Married
2 children
Australia
28.3%
16.0%
Korea
17.3%
15.2%
Austria
47.4%
35.5%
Luxembourg
35.3%
12.2%
Belgium
55.4%
40.3%
Mexico
18.2%
18.2%
Canada
31.6%
21.5%
Netherlands
38.6%
29.1%
Czech Republic
43.8%
27.1%
New Zealand
20.5%
14.5%
Denmark
41.4%
29.6%
Norway
37.3%
29.6%
Finland
44.6%
38.4%
Poland
43.6%
42.1%
France
50.1%
41.7%
Portugal
36.2%
26.6%
Germany
51.8%
35.7%
Slovakia
38.3%
23.2%
Greece
38.8%
39.2%
Spain
39.0%
33.4%
Hungary
50.5%
39.9%
Sweden
47.9%
42.4%
Iceland
29.0%
11.0%
Switzerland
29.5%
18.6%
Ireland
25.7%
8.1%
Turkey
42.7%
42.7%
Isle of Man
10%
10%
United Kingdom
33.5%
27.1%
Italy
45.4%
35.2%
United States
29.1%
11.9%
Japan
27.7%
24.9%
Source: OECD, 2005 data [1]
See also[edit]
Canada portal
Book: Canada
Taxation in Canada
Comparison of Canadian tax software
Canadian federal budget
Foreign Accrual Property Income
Harmonized Sales Tax
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fiscal Reference Tables September 2015
Jump up ^ Income Tax Act
Jump up ^ Duhaime, Lloyd (2017). "Canadian Legal History: 1917, Birth of Income Tax 1917, Birth of Income Tax". Lloyd Duhaime, Barrister, Solicitor, Attorney and Lawyer (and Notary Public!). Retrieved July 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Forbes v. A.-G. Man. [1937] A.C. 260,268
Jump up ^ "T1 Tax and Benefit Return" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Canada Revenue Agency
Jump up ^ Finance Canada Quebec Abatement
Jump up ^ "Previous-years' income tax rates in Canada". Canada Revenue Agency.
Jump up ^ "Tax packages". Canada Revenue Agency.
Jump up ^ "Latest TD1 Form".
Jump up ^ "Corporate Tax Rates," Canada Revenue Agency, 15 March 2013, accessed 14 July 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Canada Revenue Agency
External links[edit]
Income Tax Act
The Canadian Tax Foundation
The Department of Finance, Canada - responsible for Canadian tax policy
Canada Revenue Agency - collects income other certain other taxes for the federal, provincial and territorial governments (except Quebec)
CRA tax rates by year - Federal and provincial income tax rates (except Quebec)
Revenu Quebec Income tax rates
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Income_taxes_in_Canada&oldid=828108041"
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Taxation in Canada
Income taxes
Income tax in Canada
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List of Orange Is the New Black episodes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Orange Is the New Black is an American comedy-drama series created by Jenji Kohan, which premiered on July 11, 2013, on Netflix. The series, based on Piper Kerman's memoir Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women's Prison (2010), follows Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling), a happily engaged New Yorker who is sent to a women's federal prison for transporting a suitcase full of drug money across international borders, 10 years prior, for her girlfriend at the time, Alex Vause (Laura Prepon).[1]
As of June 9, 2017,[update] 65 episodes of Orange Is the New Black have been released, concluding the fifth season.[2] Ten of the thirteen episodes of the fifth season were leaked online by hackers prior to its scheduled premiere date.[3][4]
The series has been renewed for its sixth and seventh seasons.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Series overview
2 Episodes
2.1 Season 1 (2013)
2.2 Season 2 (2014)
2.3 Season 3 (2015)
2.4 Season 4 (2016)
2.5 Season 5 (2017)
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Series overview[edit]
Season
Episodes
Originally released
1 13 July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
2 13 June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
3 13 June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
4 13 June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
5 13 June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
Episodes[edit]
Season 1 (2013)[edit]
Main article: Orange Is the New Black (season 1)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date
1
1 "I Wasn't Ready" Michael Trim Liz Friedman & Jenji Kohan Piper July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
2
2 "Tit Punch" Uta Briesewitz Marco Ramirez Red & Piper July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
3
3 "Lesbian Request Denied" Jodie Foster Sian Heder Sophia & Piper July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
4
4 "Imaginary Enemies" Michael Trim Gary Lennon Miss Claudette July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
5
5 "The Chickening" Andrew McCarthy Nick Jones Aleida & Daya July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
6
6 "WAC Pack" Michael Trim Lauren Morelli Nicky & Piper July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
7
7 "Blood Donut" Matthew Penn Sara Hess Watson July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
8
8 "Moscow Mule" Phil Abraham Marco Ramirez Red July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
9
9 "Fucksgiving" Michael Trim Sian Heder Alex July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
10
10 "Bora Bora Bora" Andrew McCarthy Nick Jones Piper & Tricia July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
11
11 "Tall Men with Feelings" Constantine Makris Lauren Morelli Piper & Alex July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
12
12 "Fool Me Once" Andrew McCarthy Sara Hess Pennsatucky July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
13
13 "Can't Fix Crazy" Michael Trim Tara Herrmann & Jenji Kohan none July 11, 2013 (2013-07-11)
Season 2 (2014)[edit]
Main article: Orange Is the New Black (season 2)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date
14
1 "Thirsty Bird" Jodie Foster Tara Herrmann & Jenji Kohan Piper June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
15
2 "Looks Blue, Tastes Red" Michael Trim Jenji Kohan Taystee June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
16
3 "Hugs Can Be Deceiving" Michael Trim Lauren Morelli Suzanne June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
17
4 "A Whole Other Hole" Phil Abraham Sian Heder Morello June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
18
5 "Low Self Esteem City" Andrew McCarthy Nick Jones Gloria June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
19
6 "You Also Have a Pizza" Allison Anders Stephen Falk Poussey June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
20
7 "Comic Sans" Andrew McCarthy Sara Hess Black Cindy June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
21
8 "Appropriately Sized Pots" Daisy von Scherler Mayer Alex Regnery & Hartley Voss Rosa June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
22
9 "40 Oz. of Furlough" S. J. Clarkson Lauren Morelli Red June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
23
10 "Little Mustachioed Shit" Jennifer Getzinger Sian Heder Piper & Alex June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
24
11 "Take a Break from Your Values" Constantine Makris Nick Jones Sister Ingalls June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
25
12 "It Was the Change" Phil Abraham Sara Hess Vee June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
26
13 "We Have Manners. We're Polite." Constantine Makris Jenji Kohan none June 6, 2014 (2014-06-06)
Season 3 (2015)[edit]
Main article: Orange Is the New Black (season 3)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date
27
1 "Mother's Day" Andrew McCarthy Jenji Kohan various June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
28
2 "Bed Bugs and Beyond" Constantine Makris Jim Danger Gray Bennett June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
29
3 "Empathy Is a Boner Killer" Michael Trim Nick Jones Nicky June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
30
4 "Finger in the Dyke" Constantine Makris Lauren Morelli Big Boo June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
31
5 "Fake It Till You Fake It Some More" Nicole Holofcener Tara Herrmann Flaca June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
32
6 "Ching Chong Chang" Anthony Hemingway Sara Hess Chang June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
33
7 "Tongue-Tied" Julie Anne Robinson Sian Heder Norma June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
34
8 "Fear, and Other Smells" Mark A. Burley Nick Jones Alex June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
35
9 "Where My Dreidel At" Andrew McCarthy Jordan Harrison Leanne June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
36
10 "A Tittin' and a Hairin'" Jesse Peretz Lauren Morelli Pennsatucky June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
37
11 "We Can Be Heroes" Phil Abraham Sian Heder Caputo June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
38
12 "Don't Make Me Come Back There" Uta Briesewitz Sara Hess Aleida & Daya June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
39
13 "Trust No Bitch" Phil Abraham Jim Danger Gray & Jenji Kohan various June 11, 2015 (2015-06-11)
Season 4 (2016)[edit]
Main article: Orange Is the New Black (season 4)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date
40
1 "Work That Body for Me" Andrew McCarthy Jenji Kohan none June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
41
2 "Power Suit" Constantine Makris Sara Hess Maria June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
42
3 "(Don't) Say Anything" Andrew McCarthy Jim Danger Gray Soso June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
43
4 "Doctor Psycho" Erin Feeley Carly Mensch Healy June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
44
5 "We'll Always Have Baltimore" Tricia Brock Jordan Harrison Maritza June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
45
6 "Piece of Shit" Uta Briesewitz Lauren Morelli none June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
46
7 "It Sounded Nicer in My Head" Mark A. Burley Nick Jones Lolly June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
47
8 "Friends in Low Places" Phil Abraham Alex Regnery & Hartley Voss none June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
48
9 "Turn Table Turn" Constantine Makris Sara Hess Blanca June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
49
10 "Bunny, Skull, Bunny, Skull" Phil Abraham Carly Mensch none June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
50
11 "People Persons" Lev L. Spiro Nick Jones Suzanne June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
51
12 "The Animals" Matthew Weiner Lauren Morelli Bayley June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
52
13 "Toast Can't Never Be Bread Again" Adam Bernstein Tara Herrmann & Jenji Kohan Poussey June 17, 2016 (2016-06-17)
Season 5 (2017)[edit]
Main article: Orange Is the New Black (season 5)
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Featured character(s)
Original release date
53
1 "Riot FOMO" Andrew McCarthy Jenji Kohan none June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
54
2 "Fuck, Marry, Frieda" Constantine Makris Jordan Harrison Frieda June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
55
3 "Pissters!" Phil Abraham Rebecca Angelo & Lauren Schuker Blum Linda June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
56
4 "Litchfield's Got Talent" Nick Sandow Josh Koenigsberg, Jenji Kohan & Tara Herrmann Alison June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
57
5 "Sing It, White Effie" Phil Abraham Molly Smith Metzler Watson June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
58
6 "Flaming Hot Cheetos, Literally" Andrew McCarthy Lauren Morelli Taystee June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
59
7 "Full Bush, Half Snickers" Uta Briesewitz Anthony Natoli none June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
60
8 "Tied to the Tracks" Michael Trim Carolina Paiz Daya June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
61
9 "The Tightening" Erin Feeley Jordan Harrison Red June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
62
10 "The Reverse Midas Touch" Laura Prepon Rebecca Angelo & Lauren Schuker Blum Piscatella June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
63
11 "Breaking the Fiberboard Ceiling" Wendey Stanzler Lauren Morelli none June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
64
12 "Tattoo You" Mark A. Burley Tara Herrmann & Carolina Paiz Piper & Alex June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
65
13 "Storm-y Weather" Jesse Peretz Lauren Morelli none June 9, 2017 (2017-06-09)
See also[edit]
List of Orange Is the New Black characters
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Itzkoff, Dave (April 30, 2013). "Netflix Prison Series Gets July Release Date". The New York Times. Retrieved June 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Abrams, Natalie (January 17, 2016). "Netflix sets premiere dates for OITNB, Kimmy Schmidt, and more". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved January 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Spangler, Todd (April 29, 2017). "Hacker Leaks Stolen 'Orange Is the New Black' Season 5 Episodes to Piracy Network". Variety. Retrieved April 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bell, Amanda (April 30, 2017). "Orange Is the New Black Season 5 Leaked After Netflix Refuses Ransom Demand". TV Guide. Retrieved April 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Littleton, Cynthia (February 5, 2016). "'Orange Is the New Black' Renewed For 3 Seasons By Netflix". Variety. Retrieved February 5, 2016.
External links[edit]
Official website
List of Orange Is the New Black episodes on IMDb
[hide]
v
t
e
Orange Is the New Black
Characters
Piper Chapman
Alex Vause
Crazy Eyes
Nicky Nichols
Tiffany Doggett
Lorna Morello
Miss Rosa
Episodes
Season 1
"Lesbian Request Denied"
Season 2
Season 3
Season 4
Season 5
Related
Piper Kerman
Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women's Prison
"You've Got Time"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Orange_Is_the_New_Black_episodes&oldid=798746969"
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text:
Mid-ocean ridge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Undersea mountain range.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Mid-oceanic ridge, including a black smoker
A mid-ocean ridge (MOR) is an underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonics.[1] It consists of various mountains linked in chains, typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine. This type of oceanic mountain ridge is characteristic of what is known as an 'oceanic spreading center', which is responsible for seafloor spreading.[2] The production of new seafloor results from mantle upwelling in response to plate spreading; this isentropic upwelling solid mantle material eventually exceeds the solidus and melts. The buoyant melt rises as magma at a linear weakness in the oceanic crust, and emerges as lava, creating new crust upon cooling. A mid-ocean ridge demarcates the boundary between two tectonic plates, and consequently is termed a divergent plate boundary.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Volcanism
1.2 Morphology
2 Formation processes
3 Global system
4 Seawater Chemistry
5 History
5.1 Discovery
5.2 Impact
6 List of oceanic ridges
6.1 List of ancient oceanic ridges
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Description[edit]
Graphic shows a mid-ocean ridge, with magma rising from a chamber below, forming new ocean plate that spreads away from the ridge.
Mid-ocean ridge in Þingvellir National Park, Iceland.
Volcanism[edit]
Mid-ocean ridges are geologically active, with continuing volcanism and seismicity. New magma steadily emerges onto the ocean floor and intrudes into the ocean crust at and near rifts along the ridge axes. The crystallized magma forms new crust of basalt (known as MORB for mid-ocean ridge basalt) and below it (in the lower oceanic crust), gabbro.[3] MORs are formed by two oceanic plates moving away from each other. Hydrothermal vents are a common feature at oceanic spreading centers.[4]
The rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest along the axis of the ridge and age with increasing distance from that axis. New magma of basalt composition emerges at and near the axis because of decompression melting in the underlying Earth's mantle.[5]
The oceanic crust is made up of rocks much younger than the Earth itself. Most oceanic crust in the ocean basins is less than 200 million years old. The crust is in a constant state of "renewal" at the ocean ridges. Moving away from the mid-ocean ridge, ocean depth progressively increases; the greatest depths are in ocean trenches. As the oceanic crust moves away from the ridge axis, the peridotite in the underlying mantle cools and becomes more rigid. The crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the oceanic lithosphere.
Morphology[edit]
See also: Seafloor spreading § Sea floor global topography: half-space model
The bathymetry, or profile of a MOR is largely determined by the seafloor spreading rate at the ridge.[6] Slow spreading ridges (< 5 cm/yr) like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) generally have large, wide rift valleys, sometimes as wide as 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi), and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest that can have relief of up to a 1,000 m (3,300 ft). By contrast, fast spreading ridges (>8 cm/yr) like the East Pacific Rise (EPR) are narrow, sharp incisions surrounded by generally flat topography that slopes away from the ridge over many hundreds of miles.[6] Ultra-slow spreading ridges (< 2 cm/yr), like the Southwest India and the Arctic Ridges form both magmatic and amagmatic ridge segments without transform faults.[7]
The spreading center or axis, commonly connects to a transform fault oriented at right angles to the axis. The flanks of Mid-coean ridges are in many places marked by the inactive scars of transform faults called fracture zones. At faster spreading rates the axes often display Overlapping Spreading Centers that lack connecting transform faults.[8]
The depth of the seafloor (or the height of a location on a mid-ocean ridge above a baselevel) is closely correlated with its age (age of the lithosphere where depth is measured). The age-depth relation can be modeled by the cooling of a lithosphere plate[9][10] or mantle half-space[11] in areas without significant subduction. The overall shape of ridges results from Pratt isostacy: close to the ridge axis there is hot, low-density mantle supporting the oceanic crust. As the oceanic plates cool, away from the ridge axes, the oceanic mantle lithosphere (the colder, denser part of the mantle that, together with the crust, comprises the oceanic plates) thickens and the density increases. Thus older seafloor is underlain by denser material and is deeper. The width of the ridge is hence a function of spreading rate – slow ridges like the MAR have spread much less far (shower a narrower profile) than faster ridges like the EPR (wider profile) for the same amount of cooling and consequent bathymetric deepening.
Formation processes[edit]
Further information: Plate tectonics
Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at trenches.
Two processes, ridge-push and slab pull, are thought to be responsible for the spreading seen at mid-ocean ridges, and there is some uncertainty as to which is dominant. Ridge-push occurs when the growing bulk of the ridge pushes the rest of the tectonic plate away from the ridge, often towards a subduction zone. At the subduction zone, "slab-pull" comes into effect. This is simply the weight of the tectonic plate being subducted (pulled) below the overlying plate dragging the rest of the plate along behind it. The slab pull mechanism is considered to be contributing more than the ridge push.[12]
The other process proposed to contribute to the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" (see image). However, there have been some studies which have shown that the upper mantle (asthenosphere) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough friction to pull the tectonic plate along. Moreover, unlike in the image above, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper 400 km (250 mi), as deduced from seismic tomography and from studies of the seismic discontinuity at about 400 km (250 mi). The relatively shallow depths from which the upwelling mantle rises below ridges are more consistent with the "slab-pull" process. On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the North American Plate are in motion, yet are nowhere being subducted.
The rate at which the mid-ocean ridge creates new material is known as the spreading rate, and is typically measured in mm/yr. As a general rule, fast ridges have spreading (opening) rates of more than 90 mm/year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 50–90 mm/year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 50 mm/year.[6][13]:2 The spreading rate of the North Atlantic Ocean is ~ 25 mm/yr, while in the Pacific region, it is 80–120 mm/yr. Ridges that spread at rates <20 mm/yr are referred to as ultraslow spreading ridges[13]:2 (e.g., the Gakkel Ridge in the Arctic Ocean and the Southwest Indian Ridge) and they provide a much different perspective on crustal formation than their faster spreading brethren.
The mid-ocean ridge systems form new oceanic crust. As crystallized basalt extruded at a ridge axis cools below Curie points of appropriate iron-titanium oxides, magnetic field directions parallel to the Earth's magnetic field are recorded in those oxides. The orientations of the field in the oceanic crust preserve a record of directions of the Earth's magnetic field with time. Because the field has reversed directions at irregular intervals throughout its history, the pattern of geomagnetic reversals in the ocean crust can be used as an indicator of age.[14] Likewise, the pattern of reversals together with age measurements of the crust is used to help establish the history of the Earth's magnetic field.
Global system[edit]
World distribution of mid-oceanic ridges; USGS
The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every ocean, making it the longest mountain range in the world. The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,400 mi) long (several times longer than the Andes, the longest continental mountain range), and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km (49,700 mi) long.[15]
Increased rates of sea-floor spreading (i.e. the expansion of the mid-ocean ridge) has caused global (eustatic) sea-level to rise over very long timescales (millions of years).[16]
The high sea levels that occurred during the Cretaceous period (144–65 Ma) can only be attributed to plate tectonics since thermal expansion and the absence of ice sheets by themselves cannot account for the fact that sea levels were 100–170 meters higher than today.[17]
Increased sea-floor spreading means that the hot young crust at the mid-ocean ridge will form at a faster rate than it can be destroyed at subduction zones. The mid-ocean ridge will then expand and form a broader ridge, taking up more space in the ocean basin and causing sea levels to rise.[17]
Sea-level change can be attributed to other factors (thermal expansion, ice melting). Over very long timescales, however, it is the result of changes in the volume of the ocean basins which are, in turn, affected by rates of sea-floor spreading along the mid-ocean ridges.[18]
Seawater Chemistry[edit]
Mg/Ca Ratio Changes at Mid-Ocean Ridges
Mid-ocean ridges are global scale ion-exchange systems.[19]
Rapid spreading rates will expand the mid-ocean ridge causing basalt reactions with seawater to happen faster. The Magnesium/Calcium ratio will be lower because more magnesium ions are being removed from seawater and consumed by the rock, and more calcium ions are being removed from the rock and released to seawater. A lower Mg/Ca ratio favors the precipitation of Low-Mg calcite polymorphs of calcium carbonate (calcite seas).[19]
Slow spreading at mid-ocean ridges has the opposite effect and will result in a higher Mg/Ca ratio favoring the precipitation of aragonite and High-Mg calcite polymorphs of calcium carbonate (aragonite seas).[19]
Experiments show that most modern High-Mg calcite organisms would have been Low-Mg calcite in past calcite seas,[20] meaning that the Mg/Ca ratio in an organism's skeleton varies with the Mg/Ca ratio of the seawater in which it was grown.
The mineralogy of reef-building and sediment-producing organisms is thus regulated by chemical reactions occurring along the mid-ocean ridge, the rate of which is controlled by sea-floor spreading.[20]
History[edit]
Discovery[edit]
Main article: Plate tectonics § Historical context
Mid-ocean ridges are generally submerged deep in the ocean. It was not until the 1950s, when the ocean floor was surveyed in detail, that their full extent became known.
The Vema, a ship of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, traversed the Atlantic Ocean, recording data about the ocean floor from the ocean surface. A team led by Marie Tharp and Bruce Heezen analyzed the data and concluded that there was an enormous mountain chain running up the middle. Scientists named it the "Mid-Atlantic Ridge".
At first, the ridge was thought to be a phenomenon specific to the Atlantic Ocean. However, as surveys of the ocean floor continued around the world, it was discovered that every ocean contains parts of the mid-ocean ridge system. Although the ridge system runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, the ridge is located away from the center of other oceans.
Impact[edit]
Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912. He stated: "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth".[21] However, Wegener did not pursue this observation in his later works and his theory was dismissed by geologists because there was no mechanism to explain how continents could plow through ocean crust, and the theory became largely forgotten.
Following the discovery of the worldwide extent of the mid-ocean ridge in the 1950s, geologists faced a new task: explaining how such an enormous geological structure could have formed. In the 1960s, geologists discovered and began to propose mechanisms for seafloor spreading. The discovery of mid-ocean ridges and the process of seafloor spreading allowed for Wegner's theory to be expanded so that it included the movement of oceanic crust as well as the continents.[22] Plate tectonics was a suitable explanation for seafloor spreading, and the acceptance of plate tectonics by the majority of geologists resulted in a major paradigm shift in geological thinking.
It is estimated that 20 volcanic eruptions occur each year along earth's mid-ocean ridges and that every year 2.5 km2 (0.97 sq mi) of new seafloor is formed by this process. With a crustal thickness of 1 to 2 km (0.62 to 1.24 mi), this amounts to about 4 km3 (0.96 cu mi) of new ocean crust formed every year.[citation needed]
Oceanic ridge and deep sea vent chemistry
Age of oceanic crust. The red is most recent, and blue is the oldest.
Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory
Seafloor magnetic striping
A demonstration of magnetic striping
List of oceanic ridges[edit]
Main category: Oceanic ridges
Aden Ridge
Cocos Ridge
Explorer Ridge
Gorda Ridge
Juan de Fuca Ridge
American-Antarctic Ridge
Chile Rise
East Pacific Rise
East Scotia Ridge
Gakkel Ridge (Mid-Arctic Ridge)
Nazca Ridge
Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
Central Indian Ridge
Carlsberg Ridge
Southeast Indian Ridge
Southwest Indian Ridge
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Kolbeinsey Ridge (North of Iceland)
Mohns Ridge
Knipovich Ridge (between Greenland and Spitsbergen)
Reykjanes Ridge (South of Iceland)
List of ancient oceanic ridges[edit]
Aegir Ridge
Alpha Ridge
Kula-Farallon Ridge
Pacific-Farallon Ridge
Pacific-Kula Ridge
Phoenix Ridge
See also[edit]
Afar Triangle
Geography of Iceland
List of oceanic landforms
Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor
Slab window
Submarine volcano
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Searle,, Roger (2013). Mid-ocean ridges. New York: Cambridge. ISBN 9781107017528. OCLC 842323181.
Jump up ^ Faulting and Magmatism at Mid‐Ocean Ridges | Geophysical Monograph Series. doi:10.1029/gm106.
Jump up ^ Michael, Peter; Cheadle, Michael (February 20, 2009). "Making a Crust". Science. 323: 1017–18. doi:10.1126/science.1169556.
Jump up ^ Martin, William; Baross, John; Kelley, Deborah; Russell, Michael J. (2008-11-01). "Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 6 (11): 805–814. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1991. ISSN 1740-1526.
Jump up ^ Marjorie Wilson (1993). Igneous petrogenesis. London: Chapman & Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-53310-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Macdonald, K. C. (1982). "Mid-Ocean Ridges: Fine Scale Tectonic, Volcanic and Hydrothermal Processes Within the Plate Boundary Zone". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 10 (1): 155–190. doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.001103.
Jump up ^ Dick, Henry J. B.; Lin, Jian; Schouten, Hans (November 2003). "An ultraslow-spreading class of ocean ridge". Nature. 426 (6965): 405–412. doi:10.1038/nature02128. ISSN 1476-4687.
Jump up ^ Macdonald, Ken C.; Fox, P. J. (1983). "Overlapping spreading centres: new accretion geometry on the East Pacific Rise". Nature. 302 (5903): 55–58. doi:10.1038/302055a0. ISSN 1476-4687.
Jump up ^ Sclater, John G.; Anderson, Roger N.; Bell, M. Lee (1971-11-10). "Elevation of ridges and evolution of the central eastern Pacific". Journal of Geophysical Research. 76 (32): 7888–7915. doi:10.1029/jb076i032p07888. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ Parsons, Barry; Sclater, John G. (1977-02-10). "An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age". Journal of Geophysical Research. 82 (5): 803–827. doi:10.1029/jb082i005p00803. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ Davis, E.E; Lister, C. R. B. (1974). "Fundamentals of Ridge Crest Topography". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. North-Holland Publishing Company. 21: 405–413. Bibcode:1974E&PSL..21..405D. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(74)90180-0.
Jump up ^ Harff, Jan; Meschede, Martin; Petersen, Sven; Thiede, Jörn. Driving Forces: Slab Pull, Ridge Push (2014 ed.). Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_105-1. ISBN 978-94-007-6644-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Searle, Roger (2013). Mid-ocean ridges. New York: Cambridge. p. 2. ISBN 9781107017528. OCLC 842323181.
Jump up ^ Puetz, Stephen; et al. (January 2017). "Quantifying the evolution of the continental and oceanic crust". Earth-Science Reviews. 164: 63–83. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.011.
Jump up ^ "What is the longest mountain range on earth?". Ocean Facts. NOAA. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Church, J.A.; Gregory, J.M. Sea Level Change. pp. 2599–2604. doi:10.1006/rwos.2001.0268.
^ Jump up to: a b Miller, Kenneth G. (2009). Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 879–887. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4411-3_206.
Jump up ^ Kominz, M.A. Sea Level Variations Over Geologic Time. pp. 2605–2613. doi:10.1006/rwos.2001.0255.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hardie, Lawrence; Stanley, Steven (February 1999). "Hypercalcification: Paleontology Links Plate Tectonics and Geochemistry to Sedimentology" (PDF). GSA TODAY. 9 (2): 1–7.
^ Jump up to: a b Ries, Justin B. (2004-11-01). "Effect of ambient Mg/Ca ratio on Mg fractionation in calcareous marine invertebrates: A record of the oceanic Mg/Ca ratio over the Phanerozoic". Geology. 32 (11). doi:10.1130/g20851.1. ISSN 0091-7613.
Jump up ^ Jacoby, W. R. (January 1981). "Modern concepts of earth dynamics anticipated by Alfred Wegener in 1912". Geology. 9: 25–27. Bibcode:1981Geo.....9...25J. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<25:MCOEDA>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Society, National Geographic (2015-06-08). "seafloor spreading". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
External links[edit]
An explanation of relevant tectonic forces
Mid-Oceanic ridge, like baseball seam (The Dynamic Earth, USGS)
Ridge2000, Studying Mid-Ocean Ridges from Mantle to Microbe
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values: ظهر المحيط – Arabic

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values: Средноокеански хребет – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanryg
Oceanryg – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-de
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Μεσοωκεάνια ράχη – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: پشته میانی اقیانوس – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Միջինօվկիանոսային լեռնաշղթա – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: मध्य-महासागर पर्वतमाला – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: רכס מרכז-אוקייני – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: შუაოკეანური ქედები – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values: Vandenyno vidurio kalnagūbris – Lithuanian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values: സമുദ്രമധ്യവരമ്പ് – Malayalam

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਮੱਧ-ਸਮੁੰਦਰੀ ਵੱਟ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nds
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Срединно-океанический хребет – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Средњоокеански гребен – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: நடுக்கடல் முகடு – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: เทือกเขากลางสมุทร – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Океанічні хребти – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Mid-ocean_ridge rootpage-Mid-ocean_ridge skin-vector action-view