text:
Last Song (Edward Bear song)
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"Last Song"
Single by Edward Bear
from the album Edward Bear
B-side
"Best Friend"
Released
December 1972
Format
7"
Recorded
1972
Genre
Pop
Length
3:15
Label
Capitol Records
Songwriter(s)
Larry Evoy
Producer(s)
Gene Martynec
Edward Bear singles chronology
"You, Me and Mexico"
(1970) "Last Song"
(1972) "Close Your Eyes"
(1973)
"You, Me and Mexico"
(1970) "Last Song"
(1972) "Close Your Eyes"
(1973)
"Last Song" is a 1972 hit song by Canadian trio Edward Bear. It was the first release from their self-titled third album and was their greatest hit. The song is written in the key of F# Major.
"Last Song" spent 18 weeks on the U.S. charts, and peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100. It reached number one in Canada, and did the same on the Adult Contemporary charts of both nations. "Last Song" was certified gold in the United States by the RIAA.[1]
In 1994, music industry magazine RPM placed "Last Song" at number 20 on its list of the Top 100 Canadian singles since the magazine's founding in 1964.[2]
Contents
1 Chart performance
1.1 Weekly charts
1.2 Year-end charts
2 References
3 External links
Chart performance[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1972-73)
Peak
position
Australia KMR [3] 2
Canadian RPM Top Singles 1
Canadian RPM Adult Contemporary 1
New Zealand [4] 5
US Adult Contemporary (Billboard)[5] 1
US Billboard Hot 100[6] 3
U.S. Cash Box Top 100 3
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1973)
Rank
Australia [7] 20
Canada [8] 11
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 [9] 67
U.S. Cash Box [10] 14
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Gold & Platinum". RIAA. Retrieved 23 July 2017.
Jump up ^ RPM Magazine (27 June, 1994). Top 100 Cancon Tracks 1964-1994. Retrieved from Library and Archives Canada, 11 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Steffen Hung. "Forum - Top 100 End of Year AMR Charts - 1980s (ARIA Charts: Special Occasion Charts)". Australian-charts.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ "flavour of new zealand - search listener". Flavourofnz.co.nz. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ "Edward Bear Chart History (Adult Contemporary)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Edward Bear Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Australian Chart Book". Austchartbook.com.au. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ "Item Display - RPM - Library and Archives Canada". Collectionscanada.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Hits of 1973/Top 100 Songs of 1973". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
Jump up ^ [1]
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song
This 1970s song-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Atomic theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Atomic model" redirects here. For the unrelated term in mathematical logic, see Atomic model (mathematical logic).
This article is about the historical models of the atom. For a history of the study of how atoms combine to form molecules, see History of molecular theory.
The current theoretical model of the atom involves a dense nucleus surrounded by a probabilistic "cloud" of electrons
In chemistry and physics, atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter, which states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms. It began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece and entered the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did indeed behave as if it were made up of atoms.
The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek adjective atomos, meaning "indivisible".[1] 19th century chemists began using the term in connection with the growing number of irreducible chemical elements. While seemingly apropos, around the turn of the 20th century, through various experiments with electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so-called "uncuttable atom" was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist separately from each other. In fact, in certain extreme environments, such as neutron stars, extreme temperature and pressure prevents atoms from existing at all.
Since atoms were found to be divisible, physicists later invented the term "elementary particles" to describe the "uncuttable", though not indestructible, parts of an atom. The field of science which studies subatomic particles is particle physics, and it is in this field that physicists hope to discover the true fundamental nature of matter.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Philosophical atomism
1.2 John Dalton
1.3 Avogadro
1.4 Brownian Motion
1.5 Discovery of subatomic particles
1.6 Discovery of the nucleus
1.7 First steps toward a quantum physical model of the atom
1.8 Discovery of isotopes
1.9 Discovery of nuclear particles
1.10 Quantum physical models of the atom
2 See also
3 Notes
4 Further reading
5 External links
History
Philosophical atomism
Main article: Atomism
The idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old one, appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India. The word "atom" was coined by the ancient Greek philosophers Leucippus and his pupil Democritus.[2][3] However, these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation. Because of this, they could not convince everybody, so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter. It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists, as the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that could easily be explained using the concept of atoms.
John Dalton
Near the end of the 18th century, two laws about chemical reactions emerged without referring to the notion of an atomic theory. The first was the law of conservation of mass, formulated by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789, which states that the total mass in a chemical reaction remains constant (that is, the reactants have the same mass as the products).[4] The second was the law of definite proportions. First proven by the French chemist Joseph Louis Proust in 1799,[5] this law states that if a compound is broken down into its constituent elements, then the masses of the constituents will always have the same proportions, regardless of the quantity or source of the original substance.
John Dalton studied and expanded upon this previous work and developed the law of multiple proportions: if two elements can be combined to form a number of possible compounds, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers. For example: Proust had studied tin oxides and found that their masses were either 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen or 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (these were tin(II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). Dalton noted from these percentages that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen; 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. Dalton found that an atomic theory of matter could elegantly explain this common pattern in chemistry. In the case of Proust's tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.[6]
Dalton believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbed different gases in different proportions - for example, he found that water absorbed carbon dioxide far better than it absorbed nitrogen.[7] Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences in mass and complexity of the gases' respective particles. Indeed, carbon dioxide molecules (CO2) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N2).
Dalton proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and though they cannot be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form more complex structures (chemical compounds). This marked the first truly scientific theory of the atom, since Dalton reached his conclusions by experimentation and examination of the results in an empirical fashion.
Various atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808).
In 1803 Dalton orally presented his first list of relative atomic weights for a number of substances. This paper was published in 1805, but he did not discuss there exactly how he obtained these figures.[7] The method was first revealed in 1807 by his acquaintance Thomas Thomson, in the third edition of Thomson's textbook, A System of Chemistry. Finally, Dalton published a full account in his own textbook, A New System of Chemical Philosophy, 1808 and 1810.
Dalton estimated the atomic weights according to the mass ratios in which they combined, with the hydrogen atom taken as unity. However, Dalton did not conceive that with some elements atoms exist in molecules—e.g. pure oxygen exists as O2. He also mistakenly believed that the simplest compound between any two elements is always one atom of each (so he thought water was HO, not H2O).[8] This, in addition to the crudity of his equipment, flawed his results. For instance, in 1803 he believed that oxygen atoms were 5.5 times heavier than hydrogen atoms, because in water he measured 5.5 grams of oxygen for every 1 gram of hydrogen and believed the formula for water was HO. Adopting better data, in 1806 he concluded that the atomic weight of oxygen must actually be 7 rather than 5.5, and he retained this weight for the rest of his life. Others at this time had already concluded that the oxygen atom must weigh 8 relative to hydrogen equals 1, if one assumes Dalton's formula for the water molecule (HO), or 16 if one assumes the modern water formula (H2O).[9]
Avogadro
The flaw in Dalton's theory was corrected in principle in 1811 by Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro had proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in other words, the mass of a gas's particles does not affect the volume that it occupies).[10] Avogadro's law allowed him to deduce the diatomic nature of numerous gases by studying the volumes at which they reacted. For instance: since two liters of hydrogen will react with just one liter of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature), it meant a single oxygen molecule splits in two in order to form two particles of water. Thus, Avogadro was able to offer more accurate estimates of the atomic mass of oxygen and various other elements, and made a clear distinction between molecules and atoms.
Brownian Motion
In 1827, the British botanist Robert Brown observed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that this Brownian motion was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a hypothetical mathematical model to describe it.[11] This model was validated experimentally in 1908 by French physicist Jean Perrin, thus providing additional validation for particle theory (and by extension atomic theory).
Discovery of subatomic particles
Main articles: Electron and Plum pudding model
The cathode rays (blue) were emitted from the cathode, sharpened to a beam by the slits, then deflected as they passed between the two electrified plates.
Atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter until 1897 when J.J. Thomson discovered the electron through his work on cathode rays.[12]
A Crookes tube is a sealed glass container in which two electrodes are separated by a vacuum. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, cathode rays are generated, creating a glowing patch where they strike the glass at the opposite end of the tube. Through experimentation, Thomson discovered that the rays could be deflected by an electric field (in addition to magnetic fields, which was already known). He concluded that these rays, rather than being a form of light, were composed of very light negatively charged particles he called "corpuscles" (they would later be renamed electrons by other scientists). He measured the mass-to-charge ratio and discovered it was 1800 times smaller than that of hydrogen, the smallest atom. These corpuscles were a particle unlike any other previously known.
Thomson suggested that atoms were divisible, and that the corpuscles were their building blocks.[13] To explain the overall neutral charge of the atom, he proposed that the corpuscles were distributed in a uniform sea of positive charge; this was the plum pudding model[14] as the electrons were embedded in the positive charge like plums in a plum pudding (although in Thomson's model they were not stationary).
Discovery of the nucleus
Main article: Rutherford model
The Geiger-Marsden experiment
Left: Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom with negligible deflection.
Right: Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected by the concentrated positive charge of the nucleus.
Thomson's plum pudding model was disproved in 1909 by one of his former students, Ernest Rutherford, who discovered that most of the mass and positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a very small fraction of its volume, which he assumed to be at the very center.
In the Geiger–Marsden experiment, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden (colleagues of Rutherford working at his behest) shot alpha particles at thin sheets of metal and measured their deflection through the use of a fluorescent screen.[15] Given the very small mass of the electrons, the high momentum of the alpha particles, and the low concentration of the positive charge of the plum pudding model, the experimenters expected all the alpha particles to pass through the metal foil without significant deflection. To their astonishment, a small fraction of the alpha particles experienced heavy deflection. Rutherford concluded that the positive charge of the atom must be concentrated in a very tiny volume to produce an electric field sufficiently intense to deflect the alpha particles so strongly.
This led Rutherford to propose a planetary model in which a cloud of electrons surrounded a small, compact nucleus of positive charge. Only such a concentration of charge could produce the electric field strong enough to cause the heavy deflection.[16]
First steps toward a quantum physical model of the atom
Main article: Bohr model
The planetary model of the atom had two significant shortcomings. The first is that, unlike planets orbiting a sun, electrons are charged particles. An accelerating electric charge is known to emit electromagnetic waves according to the Larmor formula in classical electromagnetism. An orbiting charge should steadily lose energy and spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a small fraction of a second. The second problem was that the planetary model could not explain the highly peaked emission and absorption spectra of atoms that were observed.
The Bohr model of the atom
Quantum theory revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20th century, when Max Planck and Albert Einstein postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amounts known as quanta (singular, quantum). In 1913, Niels Bohr incorporated this idea into his Bohr model of the atom, in which an electron could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., their radii) being proportional to its energy.[17] Under this model an electron could not spiral into the nucleus because it could not lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could only make instantaneous "quantum leaps" between the fixed energy levels.[17] When this occurred, light was emitted or absorbed at a frequency proportional to the change in energy (hence the absorption and emission of light in discrete spectra).[17]
Bohr's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen; it couldn't predict those of multielectron atoms. Worse still, as spectrographic technology improved, additional spectral lines in hydrogen were observed which Bohr's model couldn't explain. In 1916, Arnold Sommerfeld added elliptical orbits to the Bohr model to explain the extra emission lines, but this made the model very difficult to use, and it still couldn't explain more complex atoms.
Discovery of isotopes
Main article: Isotope
While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one element at each position on the periodic table.[18] The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for these elements.
That same year, J.J. Thomson conducted an experiment in which he channeled a stream of neon ions through magnetic and electric fields, striking a photographic plate at the other end. He observed two glowing patches on the plate, which suggested two different deflection trajectories. Thomson concluded this was because some of the neon ions had a different mass.[19] The nature of this differing mass would later be explained by the discovery of neutrons in 1932.
Discovery of nuclear particles
Main articles: Atomic nucleus and Discovery of the neutron
In 1917 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and observed hydrogen nuclei being emitted from the gas (Rutherford recognized these, because he had previously obtained them bombarding hydrogen with alpha particles, and observing hydrogen nuclei in the products). Rutherford concluded that the hydrogen nuclei emerged from the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms themselves (in effect, he had split a nitrogen).[20]
From his own work and the work of his students Bohr and Henry Moseley, Rutherford knew that the positive charge of any atom could always be equated to that of an integer number of hydrogen nuclei. This, coupled with the atomic mass of many elements being roughly equivalent to an integer number of hydrogen atoms - then assumed to be the lightest particles - led him to conclude that hydrogen nuclei were singular particles and a basic constituent of all atomic nuclei. He named such particles protons. Further experimentation by Rutherford found that the nuclear mass of most atoms exceeded that of the protons it possessed; he speculated that this surplus mass was composed of previously-unknown neutrally charged particles, which were tentatively dubbed "neutrons".
In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation when bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered that this radiation could knock hydrogen atoms out of paraffin wax. Initially it was thought to be high-energy gamma radiation, since gamma radiation had a similar effect on electrons in metals, but James Chadwick found that the ionization effect was too strong for it to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momentum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation", and by measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles, he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick now claimed these particles as Rutherford's neutrons.[21] For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick received the Nobel Prize in 1935.
Quantum physical models of the atom
Main article: Atomic orbital
The five filled atomic orbitals of a neon atom separated and arranged in order of increasing energy from left to right, with the last three orbitals being equal in energy. Each orbital holds up to two electrons, which most probably exist in the zones represented by the colored bubbles. Each electron is equally present in both orbital zones, shown here by color only to highlight the different wave phase.
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all moving particles—particularly subatomic particles such as electrons—exhibit a degree of wave-like behavior. Erwin Schrödinger, fascinated by this idea, explored whether or not the movement of an electron in an atom could be better explained as a wave rather than as a particle. Schrödinger's equation, published in 1926,[22] describes an electron as a wavefunction instead of as a point particle. This approach elegantly predicted many of the spectral phenomena that Bohr's model failed to explain. Although this concept was mathematically convenient, it was difficult to visualize, and faced opposition.[23] One of its critics, Max Born, proposed instead that Schrödinger's wavefunction described not the electron but rather all its possible states, and thus could be used to calculate the probability of finding an electron at any given location around the nucleus.[24] This reconciled the two opposing theories of particle versus wave electrons and the idea of wave–particle duality was introduced. This theory stated that the electron may exhibit the properties of both a wave and a particle. For example, it can be refracted like a wave, and has mass like a particle.[25]
A consequence of describing electrons as waveforms is that it is mathematically impossible to simultaneously derive the position and momentum of an electron. This became known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle after the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, who first described it and published it in 1927.[26] This invalidated Bohr's model, with its neat, clearly defined circular orbits. The modern model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially be found at any distance from the nucleus, but, depending on its energy level, exists more frequently in certain regions around the nucleus than others; this pattern is referred to as its atomic orbital. The orbitals come in a variety of shapes-sphere, dumbbell, torus, etc.-with the nucleus in the middle.[27]
See also
Physics portal
Spectroscopy
History of the molecule
Discoveries of the chemical elements
Introduction to quantum mechanics
Kinetic theory of gases
Atomism
The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory
Notes
Jump up ^ Berryman, Sylvia, "Ancient Atomism", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) [1]
Jump up ^ Pullman, Bernard (1998). The Atom in the History of Human Thought. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN 0-19-515040-6.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Henri; Lefebvre, Claire, eds. (2017). Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science (Second ed.). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. p. 427. ISBN 978-0-08-101107-2.
Jump up ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Lavoisier, Antoine (1743-1794)". scienceworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
Jump up ^ Proust, Joseph Louis. "Researches on Copper", excerpted from Ann. chim. 32, 26-54 (1799) [as translated and reproduced in Henry M. Leicester and Herbert S. Klickstein, A Source Book in Chemistry, 1400–1900 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard, 1952)]. Retrieved on August 29, 2007.
Jump up ^ Andrew G. van Melsen (1952). From Atomos to Atom. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-49584-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Dalton, John. "On the Absorption of Gases by Water and Other Liquids", in Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. 1803. Retrieved on August 29, 2007.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Chris. "Avogadro - his contribution to chemistry". Archived from the original on 2002-07-10. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
Jump up ^ Alan J. Rocke (1984). Chemical Atomism in the Nineteenth Century. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
Jump up ^ Avogadro, Amedeo (1811). "Essay on a Manner of Determining the Relative Masses of the Elementary Molecules of Bodies, and the Proportions in Which They Enter into These Compounds". Journal de Physique. 73: 58–76.
Jump up ^ Einstein, A. (1905). "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen". Annalen der Physik. 322 (8): 549. Bibcode:1905AnP...322..549E. doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806. hdl:10915/2785.
Jump up ^ Thomson, J.J. (1897). "Cathode rays" ([facsimile from Stephen Wright, Classical Scientific Papers, Physics (Mills and Boon, 1964)]). Philosophical Magazine. 44 (269): 293. doi:10.1080/14786449708621070.
Jump up ^ Whittaker, E. T. (1951), A history of the theories of aether and electricity. Vol 1, Nelson, London
Jump up ^ Thomson, J.J. (1904). "On the Structure of the Atom: an Investigation of the Stability and Periods of Oscillation of a number of Corpuscles arranged at equal intervals around the Circumference of a Circle; with Application of the Results to the Theory of Atomic Structure". Philosophical Magazine. 7 (39): 237. doi:10.1080/14786440409463107.
Jump up ^ Geiger, H (1910). "The Scattering of the α-Particles by Matter". Proceedings of the Royal Society. A 83: 492–504.
Jump up ^ Rutherford, Ernest (1911). "The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom" (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. 21 (4): 669. Bibcode:2012PMag...92..379R. doi:10.1080/14786435.2011.617037.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bohr, Niels (1913). "On the constitution of atoms and molecules" (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. 26 (153): 476–502. doi:10.1080/14786441308634993.
Jump up ^ "Frederick Soddy, The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1921". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2008-01-18.
Jump up ^ Thomson, J.J. (1913). "Rays of positive electricity". Proceedings of the Royal Society. A 89 (607): 1–20. Bibcode:1913RSPSA..89....1T. doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0057. [as excerpted in Henry A. Boorse & Lloyd Motz, The World of the Atom, Vol. 1 (New York: Basic Books, 1966)]. Retrieved on August 29, 2007.
Jump up ^ Rutherford, Ernest (1919). "Collisions of alpha Particles with Light Atoms. IV. An Anomalous Effect in Nitrogen". Philosophical Magazine. 37 (222): 581. doi:10.1080/14786440608635919.
Jump up ^ Chadwick, James (1932). "Possible Existence of a Neutron" (PDF). Nature. 129 (3252): 312. Bibcode:1932Natur.129Q.312C. doi:10.1038/129312a0.
Jump up ^ Schrödinger, Erwin (1926). "Quantisation as an Eigenvalue Problem". Annalen der Physik. 81 (18): 109–139. Bibcode:1926AnP...386..109S. doi:10.1002/andp.19263861802.
Jump up ^ Mahanti, Subodh. "Erwin Schrödinger: The Founder of Quantum Wave Mechanics". Archived from the original on 2009-04-17. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
Jump up ^ Mahanti, Subodh. "Max Born: Founder of Lattice Dynamics". Archived from the original on 2009-01-22. Retrieved 2009-08-01.
Jump up ^ Greiner, Walter. "Quantum Mechanics: An Introduction". Retrieved 2010-06-14.
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1927). "Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik". Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 43 (3–4): 172–198. Bibcode:1927ZPhy...43..172H. doi:10.1007/BF01397280.
Jump up ^ Milton Orchin; Roger Macomber; Allan Pinhas; R. Wilson. "The Vocabulary and Concepts of Organic Chemistry, Second Edition," (PDF). Retrieved 2010-06-14.
Further reading
Bernard Pullman (1998) The Atom in the History of Human Thought, trans. by Axel Reisinger. Oxford Univ. Press.
Eric Scerri (2007) The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance, Oxford University Press, New York.
Charles Adolphe Wurtz (1881) The Atomic Theory, D. Appleton and Company, New York.
External links
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Atomism by S. Mark Cohen.
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Gertrude Bell
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Gertrude Bell
Gertrude Bell in 1909, visiting archaeological excavations in Babylon
Born
Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell
(1868-07-14)14 July 1868
Washington Hall, County Durham, England
Died
12 July 1926(1926-07-12) (aged 57)
Baghdad, Mandatory Iraq
Nationality
British
Education
Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford
Occupation
Traveller, political officer
Era
Victorian, Edwardian – 1900s
Known for
Writer, traveller, political officer, archaeologist, explorer, cartographer in Greater Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Arabia
Parent(s)
Sir Hugh Bell
Mary Bell (née Shield)[a][1]
Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell, CBE (14 July 1868 – 12 July 1926) was an English writer, traveller, political officer, administrator, and archaeologist[2] who explored, mapped, and became highly influential to British imperial policy-making due to her knowledge and contacts, built up through extensive travels in Greater Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Arabia.[3] Along with T. E. Lawrence, Bell helped support the Hashemite dynasties in what is today Jordan as well as in Iraq.
She played a major role in establishing and helping administer the modern state of Iraq, utilizing her unique perspective from her travels and relations with tribal leaders throughout the Middle East. During her lifetime she was highly esteemed and trusted by British officials and exerted an immense amount of power. She has been described as "one of the few representatives of His Majesty's Government remembered by the Arabs with anything resembling affection".[4]
Contents
1 Early life
2 Travels and writings
3 War and political career
3.1 Cairo and Basra
3.2 Armenian genocide
3.3 Creation of Iraq
3.4 1921 conference
3.5 National Library of Iraq
3.6 Baghdad Archaeological Museum
4 Final years
5 Legacy and tributes
5.1 Contemporary
5.2 Modern
5.3 Film
5.4 Posthumous tributes
5.5 Museum
6 Notes
7 References
8 Bibliography
8.1 Writings by Bell
8.2 Biographies of Bell
8.3 Other sources
9 External links
Early life[edit]
Bell was born on 14 July 1868 in Washington New Hall, County Durham, England – now known as Dame Margaret Hall – to a family whose wealth ensured her education and enabled her travels.[5] Her personality was characterised by energy, intellect, and a thirst for adventure which shaped her path in life. Her grandfather was the ironmaster Sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, an industrialist and a Liberal Member of Parliament, in Benjamin Disraeli's second term. His role in British policy-making exposed Gertrude at a young age to international matters and most likely encouraged her curiosity for the world, and her later involvement in international politics.[6]
Bell's mother, Mary Shield Bell, died in 1871[7] while giving birth to a son, Maurice (later the 3rd Baronet). Gertrude Bell was just three at the time, and the death led to a lifelong close relationship with her father, Sir Hugh Bell, 2nd Baronet, a progressive capitalist and mill owner who made sure his workers were well paid and cared for.[8]:33–34 Throughout her life, Gertrude consulted on political matters with her father, who had also served for many years in various governmental positions.
Some biographies suggest that the loss of her mother caused underlying childhood trauma, revealed through periods of depression and risky behaviour. But when Gertrude was seven years old her father remarried, providing her a stepmother, Florence Bell (née Olliffe), and eventually, three half-siblings. Florence Bell was a playwright and author of children's stories, as well as the author of a study of Bell factory workers. She instilled concepts of duty and decorum in Gertrude and contributed to her intellectual development. Florence Bell's activities with the wives of Bolckow Vaughan ironworkers in Eston, near Middlesbrough, may have helped influence her step-daughter's later stance promoting education of Iraqi women.[9]
Gertrude Bell received her early education from Queen's College in London and then later at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford University,[10] at the age of 17. History was one of the few subjects women were allowed to study, due to the many restrictions imposed on them at the time. She specialised in modern history, and it was said that she was first woman to graduate from Modern History at Oxford with a first class honours degree, a feat she achieved in only two years.[11]:41 Actually eleven people graduated that year. Nine were recorded because they were men but the other two were Bell and Alice Greenwood.[12]
"The history lecturer at Queens Collage at that time was Mr.Gramb, a distinguished and inspiring teacher. Gertrude's intelligence and aptitude for history impressed him keenly, and he strongly urged us to let her go to Oxford and go on for the History School.The time had not yet come when it was a usual part of a girl's education to go to a University, and it was with some qualms that we consented. But the result justified our decision. Gertrude went to Lady Margaret Hall, in 1886 just before she was eighteen, she left it in June 1888 just before she was twenty, and wound up, after those two years, by taking a brilliant First Class in Modern History".[13]
Bell never married or had children. She befriended British colonial administrator Sir Frank Swettenham on a visit to Singapore with her brother Hugo in 1903 and maintained a correspondence with him until 1909.[14] She had a "brief but passionate affair" with Swettenham following his retirement to England in 1904.[15] She also had an unconsummated affair with Maj. Charles Doughty-Wylie, a married man, with whom she exchanged love letters from 1913 to 1915.[16]:14–17 After his death in 1915 during the Gallipoli Campaign, Bell launched herself into her work.
Travels and writings[edit]
Bell's uncle, Sir Frank Lascelles, was British minister (similar to ambassador) at Tehran, Persia. In May 1892, after leaving Oxford, Bell travelled to Persia to visit him. She described this journey in her book, Persian Pictures, which was published in 1894. She spent much of the next decade travelling around the world, mountaineering in Switzerland, and developing a passion for archaeology and languages. She had become fluent in Arabic, Persian, French and German as well as also speaking Italian and Turkish. In 1899, Bell again went to the Middle East. She visited Palestine and Syria that year and in 1900, on a trip from Jerusalem to Damascus, she became acquainted with the Druze living in Jabal al-Druze.[17] She travelled across Arabia six times during the next 12 years.[17]
Between 1899 and 1904, she conquered a number of mountains including the La Meije and Mont Blanc as she recorded 10 new paths or first ascents in the Bernese Alps. One Alpine peak in the Bernese Oberland, the 2,632 m (8,635 ft) Gertrudspitze, was named after her after it was first traversed by her and her guides Ulrich and Heinrich Fuhrer in 1901. However, she did fail in an attempt of the Finsteraarhorn in August 1902 when inclement weather including snow, hail and lightning forced her to spend "forty eight hours on the rope" with her guides, clinging to the rock face in terrifying conditions which nearly cost her her life.[18]
Bell's workers at the Binbirkilise excavations in 1907
She published her observations of the Middle East in the book Syria: The Desert and the Sown published in 1907 (William Heinemann Ltd, London). In this book she described, photographed and detailed her trip to Greater Syria's towns and cities like Damascus, Jerusalem, Beirut, Antioch and Alexandretta. Bell's vivid descriptions opened up the Arabian deserts to the western world. In March 1907, Bell journeyed to the Ottoman Empire and began to work with the archaeologist and New Testament scholar Sir William M. Ramsay. Their excavations in Binbirkilise were chronicled in A Thousand and One Churches.[19] In 1907, they discovered a field of ruins in northern Syria on the east bank of the upper course of the Euphrates to the steep slope of the former river valley. From the ruins, they created a plan and described the ramparts: "Munbayah, where my tents were pitched – the Arabic name means only a high-altitude course – was probably the Bersiba in Ptolemy's list of city names. It consists of a double rampart, situated on the river bank."[20]
In January 1909, she left for Mesopotamia. She visited the Hittite city of Carchemish, mapped and described the ruin of Ukhaidir and finally went to Babylon and Najaf. Back in Carchemish, she consulted with the two archaeologists on site. One of them was T. E. Lawrence, assistant to Reginald Campbell-Thompson. In 1913, she completed her last and most arduous Arabian journey, travelling around 1800 miles from Damascus to the politically volatile Ha'il, back up across the Arabian peninsula to Baghdad and from there back to Damascus. She was only the second foreign woman after Lady Anne Blunt to visit Ha'il, and arriving during a period of particular instability was held in the city for eleven days.[11]:218–219
In 1927, a year after her death, her stepmother Dame Florence Bell published two volumes of Bell's collected correspondence written during the 20 years preceding World War I.[1]
War and political career[edit]
At the outbreak of World War I, Bell's request for a Middle East posting was initially denied. She instead volunteered with the Red Cross in France.
Later, she was asked by British Intelligence to get soldiers through the deserts, and from the World War I period until her death she was the only woman holding political power and influence in shaping British imperial policy in the Middle East. She often acquired a team of locals which she directed and led on her expeditions. Throughout her travels Bell established close relations with tribe members across the Middle East. Additionally, being a woman gave her exclusive access to the chambers of wives of tribe leaders, giving her access to other perspectives and functions.
Cairo and Basra[edit]
St John Philby
In November 1915 she was summoned to Cairo to the nascent Arab Bureau, headed by General Gilbert Clayton. She also again met T. E. Lawrence.[8]:160–161
Both Bell and Lawrence had attended Oxford and earned a First Class Honours in Modern History, both spoke fluent Arabic and both had travelled extensively in the Arabian desert and established ties with the local tribes before World War I. Renowned archaeologist and historian Lt. Cmdr. David Hogarth recognised the value of Lawrence and Bell's expertise and upon his recommendation first Lawrence, then Bell, were assigned to Army Intelligence Headquarters in Cairo in 1915 for war service.
Arriving in February 1916, she did not, at first, receive an official position, but instead helped Hogarth set about organising and processing her own, Lawrence's and Capt. W. H. I. Shakespear's data about the location and disposition of Arab tribes that could be encouraged to join the British against the Ottoman Empire. Lawrence and the British used the information in forming alliances with the Arabs.
On 3 March 1916, Gen. Clayton abruptly sent Bell to Basra, which British forces had captured in November 1914, to advise Chief Political Officer Percy Cox regarding an area she knew better than any other Westerner. Cox found her an office in his headquarters, where she was employed for the two days per week she was not at Military GHQ Basra.[21] She drew maps to help the British army reach Baghdad safely. She became the only female political officer in the British forces and received the title of "Liaison Officer, Correspondent to Cairo" (i.e. to the Arab Bureau where she had been assigned). She was St. John Philby's field controller, and taught him the finer arts of behind-the-scenes political manoeuvering.
I went out last week along the light railway 25 miles into the desert it's the Nasariyeh Railway - ...it was so curious to travel 50 minutes by rail and find...General Maude, our new army commander, has just arrived. I've made his acquaintance..."[22]
Armenian genocide[edit]
While in the Middle East, Gertrude Bell was a witness to the Armenian Genocide. Contrasting them with previous massacres, she wrote that the massacres of preceding years "were not comparable to the massacres carried out in 1915 and the succeeding years."[23] Bell also reported that in Damascus, "Turks sold Armenian women openly in the public market."[24] In an intelligence report, Bell wrote:
The battalion left Aleppo on 3 February and reached Ras al-Ain in twelve hours....some 12,000 Armenians were concentrated under the guardianship of some hundred Kurds...These Kurds were called gendarmes, but in reality mere butchers; bands of them were publicly ordered to take parties of Armenians, of both sexes, to various destinations, but had secret instructions to destroy the males, children and old women...One of these gendarmes confessed to killing 100 Armenian men himself...the empty desert cisterns and caves were also filled with corpses...No man can ever think of a woman's body except as a matter of horror, instead of attraction, after Ras al-Ain."[25]
Creation of Iraq[edit]
After British troops took Baghdad on 10 March 1917, Bell was summoned by Cox to Baghdad[8]:274–276 and given the title of "Oriental Secretary." As the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire was finalised by the end of the war in late January 1919, Bell was assigned to conduct an analysis of the situation in Mesopotamia. Due to her familiarity and relations with the tribes in the area she had strong ideas about the leadership needed in Iraq. She spent the next ten months writing what was later considered a masterly official report, "Self Determination in Mesopotamia".[26] The British Commissioner in Mesopotamia, Arnold Wilson, had different ideas of how Iraq should be run, preferring an Arab government to be under the influence of British officials who would retain real control, as he felt, from experience, that Mesopotamian populations were not yet ready to govern and administer the country efficiently and peacefully.
On 11 October 1920, Percy Cox returned to Baghdad and asked her to continue as Oriental Secretary, acting as liaison with the forthcoming Arab government. Gertrude Bell essentially played the role of mediator between the Arab government and British officials. Bell often had to mediate between the various groups of Iraq including a majority population of Shias in the southern region, Sunnis in central Iraq, and the Kurds, mostly in the northern region, who wished to be autonomous. Keeping these groups united was essential for political balance in Iraq and for British imperial interests. Iraq not only contained valuable resources in oil but would act as a buffer zone, with the help of Kurds in the north as a standing army in the region to protect against Turkey, Persia (Iran), and Syria. British officials in London, especially Churchill, were highly concerned about cutting heavy costs in the colonies, including the cost of quashing tribal infighting. Another important project for both the British and new Iraqi rulers was creating a new identity for these people so that they would identify themselves as one nation.[27]
British officials quickly realised that their strategies in governing were adding to costs. Iraq would be cheaper as a self-governing state. The Cairo Conference of 1921 was held to determine the political and geographic structure of what later became Iraq and the modern Middle East.[8]:365–369 Significant input was given by Gertrude Bell in these discussions thus she was an essential part of its creation. At the Cairo Conference Bell and Lawrence highly recommended Faisal bin Hussein, (the son of Hussein, Sherif of Mecca), former commander of the Arab forces that helped the British during the war and entered Damascus at the culmination of the Arab Revolt. He had been recently deposed by France as King of Syria, and British officials at the Cairo Conference decided to make him the first King of Iraq. They believed that due to his lineage as a Hashemite and his diplomatic skills he would be respected and have the ability to unite the various groups in the country. Shias would respect him because of his lineage from Muhammad. Sunnis, including Kurds, would follow him because he was Sunni from a respected family. Keeping all the groups under control in Iraq was essential to balance the political and economic interests of the British Empire.
Upon Faisal's arrival in 1921, Bell advised him on local questions, including matters involving tribal geography and local business. She also supervised the selection of appointees for cabinet and other leadership posts in the new government. Referred to by Arabs as "al-Khatun" (a Lady of the Court who keeps an open eye and ear for the benefit of the State), she was a confidante of King Faisal of Iraq and helped ease his passage into the role, amongst Iraq's other tribal leaders at the start of his reign. He helped her to found Baghdad's Iraqi Archaeological Museum from her own modest artefact collection and to establish The British School of Archaeology, Iraq, for the endowment of excavation projects from proceeds in her will. The stress of authoring a prodigious output of books, correspondence, intelligence reports, reference works, and white papers; of recurring bronchitis attacks brought on by years of heavy smoking in the company of English and Arab cohorts; of bouts with malaria; and finally, of coping with Baghdad's summer heat all took a toll on her health. Somewhat frail to start with, she became emaciated.
Some consider the present troubles in Iraq to be derived from the political boundaries Bell conceived to create its borders. Her reports, however, indicate that problems were foreseen, and that it was clearly understood that there were just not many (if any) permanent solutions for calming the divisive forces at work in that part of the world.[8]:413–419
Throughout the early 1920s Bell was an integral part of the administration of Iraq. The new Hashemite monarchy used the Sharifian flag, which consisted of a black stripe representing the Abbasid caliphate, white stripe representing the Umayyad caliphate, and a green stripe for Fatimid Dynasty, and lastly a red triangle to set across the three bands symbolising Islam. Bell felt it essential to customise it for Iraq by adding a gold star to the design.[16]:149 Faisal was crowned king of Iraq on 23 August 1921, but he was not completely welcomed. Utilizing Shi'ite history to gain support for Faisal, during the holy month of Muharram, Bell compared Faisal's arrival in Baghdad to Husayn, grandson of Muhammad.
However, she did not find working with the new king to be easy: "You may rely upon one thing — I'll never engage in creating kings again; it's too great a strain."[28]
1921 conference[edit]
Bell, Cox and Lawrence were among a select group of "Orientalists" convened by Winston Churchill to attend a 1921 Conference in Cairo to determine the boundaries of the British mandate (e.g., "the British Partitions") and nascent states such as Iraq.[8]:365–369 Gertrude is supposed to have described Lawrence as being able "to ignite fires in cold rooms".[29]
Throughout the conference, she, Cox and Lawrence worked tirelessly to promote the establishment of the countries of Transjordan and Iraq to be presided over by the Kings Abdullah and Faisal, sons of the instigator of the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire (ca. 1915–1916), Hussein bin Ali, Sharif and Emir of Mecca.[8]:365–369 Until her death in Baghdad, she served in the Iraq British High Commission advisory group there.
Bell opposed the Zionist movement, on the grounds that it would be unfair to impose Jewish rule on Arab inhabitants of Palestine. She wrote that she regarded the Balfour Declaration with "the deepest mistrust" and that "It's like a nightmare in which you foresee all the horrible things which are going to happen and can`t stretch out your hand to prevent them".[30][31]
Mark Sykes, the British diplomat responsible for the Sykes–Picot Agreement, was not fond of her.[32]
National Library of Iraq[edit]
In November 1919, Bell was an invited speaker at a meeting for the promotion of a public library in Baghdad, and subsequently served on its Library Committee, as President from 1921 to 1924. The Baghdad Peace Library (Maktabat al-Salam) was a private, subscription library, but in c.1924 was taken over by the Ministry of Education and became known as the Baghdad Public Library (or sometimes as the General Library). In 1961, this became the National Library of Iraq.
Baghdad Archaeological Museum[edit]
Further information: National Museum of Iraq
Gertrude Bell's first love had always been archaeology, thus she began forming what became the Baghdad Archaeological Museum, later renamed the Iraqi Museum. Her goal was to preserve Iraqi culture and history which included the important relics of Mesopotamian civilizations, and keep them in their country of origin. She also supervised excavations and examined finds and artifacts. She brought in extensive collections, such as from the Babylonian Empire.[27] The museum was officially opened in June 1926, shortly before Bell's death. After her death, at the Emir's suggestion, the right wing of the Museum was named as a memorial to her.
Final years[edit]
When Bell briefly returned to Britain in 1925, she faced family problems and ill health. Her family's fortune had begun to decline due to the onset of post-World War I strikes by workers in Britain and economic depression in Europe. She returned to Baghdad and soon developed pleurisy. When she recovered, she heard that her younger half brother Hugh had died of typhoid.
On 12 July 1926, Bell was discovered dead, of an apparent overdose of sleeping pills. There is much debate on her death, but it is unknown whether the overdose was an intentional suicide or accidental since she had asked her maid to wake her.[27] In her final years she became acquainted with Kinahan Cornwallis who later wrote an introduction to the posthumously published book The Arab War, Confidential Information for General Headquarters from Gertrude Bell, Being Despatches Reprinted from the Secret "Arab Bulletin".
She was buried at the British cemetery in Baghdad's Bab al-Sharji district.[33] Her funeral was a major event, attended by large numbers of people including her colleagues, British officials and the King of Iraq. It was said King Faisal watched the procession from his private balcony as they carried her coffin to the cemetery.[16]:235
Legacy and tributes[edit]
Contemporary[edit]
An obituary written by her peer D. G. Hogarth expressed the respect British officials held for her. Hogarth honoured her by saying,
No woman in recent time has combined her qualities – her taste for arduous and dangerous adventure with her scientific interest and knowledge, her competence in archaeology and art, her distinguished literary gift, her sympathy for all sorts and condition of men, her political insight and appreciation of human values, her masculine vigour, hard common sense and practical efficiency – all tempered by feminine charm and a most romantic spirit.[34]
Modern[edit]
Gertrude Bell is remembered in Iraq in the 21st century. The British diplomat, travel writer and Member of Parliament Rory Stewart wrote:
When I served as a British official in southern Iraq in 2003, I often heard Iraqis compare my female colleagues to "Gertrude Bell." It was generally casual flattery, and yet the example of Bell and her colleagues was unsettling. More than ten biographies have portrayed her as the ideal Arabist, political analyst, and administrator.
—  Rory Stewart[35]
Stewart notes that Bell was "both more lively and more honest" than political statements in his time.[35] He quotes six examples of her writing, the shortest of which is "No one knows exactly what they do want, least of all themselves, except that they don’t want us."[35] He quotes Bell's colleague, T. E. Lawrence (of Arabia), as saying that she was "not a good judge of men or situations",[36] and observes that "If there was no ideal solution, however, there were still clear mistakes. Bell should never have acquiesced in the inclusion of the Kurdish-dominated province of Mosul in Iraq."[36] However, Stewart praises her 1920 White Paper, comparing it to General Petraeus's report to the US Congress.[36]
Film[edit]
In 1992, Bell was portrayed by Gillian Barge in the ITV television film A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia.
In 2015, Werner Herzog released Queen of the Desert. The film chronicles much of Bell's life and in it she is portrayed by Nicole Kidman.[37]
In 2016, the documentary Letters from Baghdad based on Gertrude Bell's and her contemporaries' own writings was released. The film was directed and produced by Zeva Oelbaum and Sabine Krayenbühl. The quotations from Bell's letters were read by Tilda Swinton.[38][39]
Posthumous tributes[edit]
Gertrude Bell's work was specially mentioned in the British Parliament, and she was awarded the Order of the British Empire.
A stained-glass window dedicated to her memory, made by Douglas Strachan, was erected in St Lawrence's Church, East Rounton, North Yorkshire. It depicts Magdalen College, Oxford, and Khadimain, Baghdad.[40] The inscription reads:
This window is in remembrance of Gertrude Versed in the learning of the east and of the west Servant of the state Scholar Poet Historian Antiquary Gardener Mountaineer Explorer Lover of nature of flowers and of animals Incomparable friend sister daughter.[41]
Museum[edit]
In 2016, a campaign was launched to transform Bell's family estate, Red Barns, into a memorial and museum. The family were patrons to the Arts and Crafts movement in England, and the home, located in Redcar, features wallpaper by movement leader William Morris. The building is Grade II* listed among historical buildings, however it has lacked upkeep in recent years. Turning the building into a memorial to Gertrude is partially the result of a popular 2015 exhibition about her at the Great North Museum in Newcastle. The exhibition moved to the Kirkleatham Museum in Redcar after its run in Newcastle.[42]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Daughter of John Shield of Newcastle-on-Tyne.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Bell, Gertrude (1927). Bell, Florence, ed. The Letters of Gertrude Bell. London.
Jump up ^ Bell, Gertrude Lowthian. O'Brien, Rosemary, ed. Gertrude Bell: The Arabian Diaries, 1913-1914.
Jump up ^ "Getrude Bell". The Dictionary of National Biography. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Meyer, Karl E.; Brysac, Shareen B. (2008), Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., p. 162
Jump up ^ Del Testa, David W., ed. (2001). "Bell, Gertrude". Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political Activists. Westport, Connecticut: Oryx Press. p. 20. – via Questia (subscription required)
Jump up ^ O'Brien, Rosemary, ed. (2000), Gertrude Bell: The Arabian Diaries, 1913–1914, Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press
Jump up ^ https://archiveshub.jisc.ac.uk/search/archives/74e845fa-b746-3598-8c8e-cebd02f786b7
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Howell, Georgina (2008). Gertrude Bell: Queen of the Desert, Shaper of Nations (Paperback ed.). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-53135-8.
Jump up ^ O'Brien, pp. 5–6
Jump up ^ "LMH, Oxford - Prominent Alumni". Retrieved 20 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Howell, Georgina (2007). Queen of the Desert: The Extraordinary Life of Gertrude Bell (Paperback ed.). Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4472-8626-4.
Jump up ^ "Greenwood, Alice Drayton (1862–1935), historian | Oxford Dictionary of National Biography". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-59037.
Jump up ^ Lady Bell (1927). The Letters Of Gertrude Bell (vol - I ).
Jump up ^ Barlow, Henry S. (1995). Swettenham. Kuala Lumpur: Southdene. pp. 654–5.
Jump up ^ Barlow, Henry S. (1997). "Malaysia: Swettenham's Legacy". Asian Affairs. 28 (3): 333.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lukitz, Liora (3 March 2006). A Quest in the Middle East: Gertrude Bell and the Making of Modern Iraq. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-415-3. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gertrude Bell and the Birth of Iraq". theava.com. 15 November 2011. Archived from the original on 23 October 2004. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Berry, Helen (September 2013). "Gertrude Bell: adventurer, diplomat, mountaineer and anti-suffragette". BBC History Magazine. BBC. Retrieved 16 May 2017 – via cloudfront.net.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Getzel M.; Sharp Joukowsky, Martha (2006). Breaking Ground: Pioneering Women Archaeologists. University of Michigan Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-472-03174-0.
Jump up ^ Alfred Werner Maurer. Mumbaqat 1977 report on the resources of the University of Saarbrücken, undertaken by the German Oriental Society excavation. Philologus Verlag, Basel, 2007.
Jump up ^ Bell, Gertrude (1927). Bell, Florence, ed. "To Herbert Baker, Basrah, June 25, 1916". The Letters of Gertrude Bell, Volume 1. London. p. 379. He is going to give me a room in his office where I shall go two or three mornings a week... the other days I shall go on working at GHQ....Sir Percy's office is a quarter of an hour away.
Jump up ^ Bell, Gertrude (1927). Bell, Florence, ed. "To Florence Bell, August 27, 1916". The Letters of Gertrude Bell, Volume 1. London: 386. He is going to give me a room in his office where I shall go two or three mornings a week... the other days I shall go on working at GHQ....Sir Percy's office is a quarter of an hour away.
Jump up ^ Townshend, Charles (2011). Desert Hell: The British Invasion of Mesopotamia. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press. p. 494. ISBN 0674061349.
Jump up ^ Rich, Paul J., ed. (2008). Iraq and Gertrude Bell's The Arab of Mesopotamia. Lanham: Lexington Books. p. 144. ISBN 1461633664.
Jump up ^ Fisk, Robert (2005). The Great War for Civilisation: the Conquest of the Middle East. London: Alfred Knopf. p. 327. ISBN 1-84115-007-X.
Jump up ^ Sobel, Andrew; Sheth, Jagdish (2001). Clients for Life Clients for Life: How Great Professionals Develop Breakthrough Relationships (Reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 64. ISBN 9780743215091.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wallach, Janet (1996). Desert Queen. Bantam Doubleday Dell. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-307-74436-4.
Jump up ^ Bell, Gertrude (20 May 2009). "Friday July 8. [8 July 1921]". The Letters. Gertrude Bell Archive, Newcastle University. Archived from the original on 20 May 2009. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Mowla, Khondakar Golam (2008). "The Judgment Against Imperialism, Fascism and Racism Against Caliphate and Islam". AuthorHouse. p. 255. ISBN 978-1438910956.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Daniel (3 September 2006). "Putting the dons on their mettle". The Telegraph.
Jump up ^ Howell, Georgina (2006). Gertrude Bell: Queen of the Desert, Shaper of Nations. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 353. ISBN 978-1-4299-3401-5.
Jump up ^ "How Gertrude Bell caused a desert storm". The Telegraph. 21 February 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Buchan, James (12 March 2003). "Miss Bell's lines in the sand". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
Jump up ^ H.D.G. (1926). "Obituary: Gertrude Lowthian Bell". The Geographical Journal. 68 (4): 363–368. JSTOR 1783440.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stewart, Rory (25 October 2007). "The Queen of the Quagmire". New York Review of Books. p. 1. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stewart, Rory (25 October 2007). "The Queen of the Quagmire". New York Review of Books. p. 2. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Queen of the Desert". Metacritic. 10 February 2015. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Letters from Baghdad". Between the Rivers Productions. 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Letters from Baghdad". IMDb.com. International Movie Database. Retrieved 2 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Pevsner, Nikolaus (1966). The Buildings of England: Yorkshire: The North Riding. Vol. 30. Penguin.
Jump up ^ "pictures of the memorial in East Rounton Church". Flickr.com. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Yale, Pat (9 August 2016). "Gertrude of Arabia: the great adventurer may finally get her museum". The Guardian.
Bibliography[edit]
Writings by Bell[edit]
Bell, Gertrude (1892). Poems from the Divan of Hafiz. London.
Bell, Gertrude (1907). The Desert and the Sown.
Bell, Gertrude (1910). Mountains of the Servants of God.
Bell, Gertrude (1911). Amurath to Amurath.
Bell, Gertrude (1914). The Palace and Mosque of Ukhaidir: a Study in Early Mohammadan Architecture.
Bell, Gertrude (1961). Gertrude Bell: From Her Personal Papers 1914–1926. London: Ernest Benn Ltd.
Bell, Gertrude (2015). A Woman in Arabia: The Writings of the Queen of the Desert. London: Penguin.
Gertrude Lowthian Bell; Gertrude Bell (1919) [1907]. The Desert and the Sown: Travels in Palestine and Syria. W. Heinemann. p. 340.
Gertrude Bell (1911, rep.1924) From Amurath to Amurath, complete text with illustrations.
Works by Gertrude Bell at Project Gutenberg Australia The letters of Gertrude Bell, selected and edited by Lady Bell, 1927 (plain text and HTML)
The Arabian Report
Arab Bulletin
Biographies of Bell[edit]
Adams, Amanda (2010). Ladies of the Field: Early Women Archaeologists and Their Search for Adventure. Greystone Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-55365-641-8.
Bodley, R. V. C.; Hearst, L. (1940). Gertrude Bell. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-258-44101-2.
Howell, Georgina (2006). Gertrude Bell: Queen of the Desert, Shaper of Nations. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-1-4299-3401-5. ; also issued as Daughter of the Desert: the remarkable life of Gertrude Bell. Macmillan, 2006. ISBN 1-4050-4587-6
--- (paperback edition, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008) ISBN 0-374-53135-8
Lukitz, Liora (2004). "Gertrude Bell". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. 4.
Lukitz, Liora (3 March 2006). A Quest in the Middle East: Gertrude Bell and the Making of Modern Iraq. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-415-3. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
Wallach, Janet (1996). Desert Queen. Bantam Doubleday Dell. ISBN 978-0-307-74436-4.
Winstone, H. V. F. (2004). Gertrude Bell. Barzan Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-9547728-0-2.
Other sources[edit]
Bell (ed.), Lady Florence (1927). The Letters of Gertrude Bell. 2 vols. London: Ernest Benn Ltd. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Hogarth, David G. "Obituary: Gertrude Lowthian Bell". The Geographical Journal 68.4 (1926): pp. 363–368. JSTOR. 28 October 2009.
Meyer, Karl E.; Brysac, S. B. (2008). Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-33770-9.
O'Brien, R., ed. (2000). Gertrude Bell: The Arabian Diaries, 1913–1914. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-0672-7.
Satia, Priya (2008). Spies in Arabia: The Great War and the Cultural Foundations of Britain's Covert Empire in the Middle East. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199715985.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gertrude Bell.
Wikisource has original works written by or about:
Gertrude Bell
The Gertrude Bell Project based at Newcastle University Library
Gertrude Bell Biography also Gertrude Bell on her translations of Hafiz
"Archival material relating to Gertrude Bell". UK National Archives.
British "Queen of Iraq" rests in Baghdad cemetery
Gertrude Bell, a Masterful Spy and Diplomat
"Gertrude of Arabia". The Economist. 7 September 2006. Review of Daughter of the Desert: The Remarkable Life of Gertrude Bell by Georgina Howell
Review of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia, London: H.M. Stationery Office. 1920
Works by Gertrude Bell at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Gertrude Bell at Internet Archive
Works by Gertrude Bell at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Poems from the Divan of Hafiz. Translated by Gertrude Lowthian Bell. 1897.
The Arab war; confidential information for General headquarters from Gertrude Bell, being despatches from the secret "Arab bulletin". Golden Cockerel Press. 1940.
The Rountons: The Bell Family (photographs)
Lifestory of Gertrude Bell, from "Lives of the First World War"
Newspaper clippings about Gertrude Bell in the 20th Century Press Archives of the German National Library of Economics (ZBW)
Authority control
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BNE: XX957112
BNF: cb12286528n (data)
CiNii: DA00875505
GND: 118658026
ISNI: 0000 0000 8096 8759
LCCN: n50082912
NDL: 00511964
NKC: xx0023632
NLA: 35016937
PIC: 268199
SELIBR: 177195
SNAC: w6vx3zz5
SUDOC: 031699367
ULAN: 500080338
VIAF: 17391032
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gertrude_Bell&oldid=866254123"
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values: Գերտրուդ Բելլ – Armenian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: גרטרוד בל – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: ಗೆಟ್ರೂಡ್ ಬೆಲ್ – Kannada

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kn
display: none;

values: Гертруда Бел – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values: ガートルード・ベル – Japanese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Белл, Гертруда – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb
display: none;

values: Гертруда Бел – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tk
display: none;

values: Гертруда Белл – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: گرٹروڈ بیل – Urdu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: 格特魯德·貝爾 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Gertrude_Bell rootpage-Gertrude_Bell skin-vector action-view