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Orient Express
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The Orient Express
Poster advertising the winter 1888–1889 timetable
Operation
Train length
4 to 22 coaches
The Orient Express was a long-distance passenger train service created in 1883 by Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits (CIWL).
The route and rolling stock of the Orient Express changed many times. Several routes in the past concurrently used the Orient Express name, or slight variations. Although the original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway service, the name became synonymous with intrigue and luxury travel. The two city names most prominently associated with the Orient Express are Paris and Constantinople (Istanbul),[1][2] the original endpoints of the timetabled service.[3] The Orient Express was a showcase of luxury and comfort at a time when travelling was still rough and dangerous.
In 1977, the Orient Express stopped serving Istanbul. Its immediate successor, a through overnight service from Paris to Bucharest—since 1991 only to Budapest, and in 2001 again shortened to Vienna—ran for the last time from Paris on Friday, June 8, 2007.[4][5] After this, the route, still called the "Orient Express", was shortened to start from Strasbourg instead,[6] occasioned by the inauguration of the LGV Est which afforded much shorter travel times from Paris to Strasbourg. The new curtailed service left Strasbourg at 22:20 daily, shortly after the arrival of a TGV from Paris, and was attached at Karlsruhe to the overnight sleeper service from Amsterdam to Vienna.
On 14 December 2009, the Orient Express ceased to operate and the route disappeared from European railway timetables, reportedly a "victim of high-speed trains and cut-rate airlines".[7] The Venice-Simplon Orient Express train, a private venture by Orient-Express Hotels Ltd. using original CIWL carriages from the 1920s and 1930s, continues to run from London to Venice and to other destinations in Europe, including the original route from Paris to Istanbul.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Train Eclair de luxe (the "test" train)
2 Routes
3 Original train
4 Route legacy
5 Privately run trains using the name
6 CIWL phototheque and historical archives
7 In popular culture
7.1 Literature
7.2 Film
7.3 Television
7.4 Music
7.5 Games and animation
7.6 Exhibitions
8 See also
9 References
9.1 Notes
9.2 Bibliography
10 Further reading
11 External links
Train Eclair de luxe (the "test" train)[edit]
CIWL logo
In 1882, Georges Nagelmackers, a Belgian banker's son, invited guests to a railway trip of 2,000 km (1,243 mi) on his "Train Eclair de luxe" ("lightning luxury train").[3][9][not in citation given] The train left Paris Gare de l'Est on Tuesday, October 10, 1882, just after 18:30 and arrived in Vienna the next day at 23:20. The return trip left Vienna on Friday, October 13, 1882, at 16:40 and, as planned, re-entered the Gare de Strasbourg at 20:00 on Saturday October 14, 1882.
Georges Nagelmackers was the founder of Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits, which expanded its luxury trains, travel agencies and hotels all over Europe, Asia and North Africa. Its most famous train remains the Orient-Express.
The train was composed of:
Baggage car
Sleeping coach with 16 beds (with bogies)
Sleeping coach with 14 beds (3 axles)
Restaurant coach (nr. 107)
Sleeping coach with 14 beds (3 axles)
Sleeping coach with 14 beds (3 axles)
Baggage car (complete 101 ton)
The first menu on board (October 10, 1882): oysters, soup with Italian pasta, turbot with green sauce, chicken ‘à la chasseur’, fillet of beef with ‘château’ potatoes, ‘chaud-froid’ of game animals, lettuce, chocolate pudding, buffet of desserts.[10]
Orient Express cars, 1930
Routes[edit]
Historic routes of Orient Express — the cross denotes the Simplon tunnel
Original train[edit]
The first Orient Express in 1883
On June 5, 1883, the first Express d'Orient left Paris for Vienna. Vienna remained the terminus until October 4, 1883. The train was officially renamed Orient Express in 1891.[11]
The original route, which first ran on October 4, 1883, was from Paris, Gare de l'Est, to Giurgiu in Romania via Munich and Vienna. At Giurgiu, passengers were ferried across the Danube to Ruse, Bulgaria, to pick up another train to Varna. They then completed their journey to Constantinople by ferry. In 1885, another route began operations, this time reaching Istanbul via rail from Vienna to Belgrade and Niš, carriage to Plovdiv and rail again to Istanbul.[11]
WL Orient Express
In 1889, the train's eastern terminus became Varna in Bulgaria, where passengers could take a ship to Constantinople. On June 1, 1889, the first direct train to Istanbul left Paris (Gare de l'Est). Istanbul remained its easternmost stop until May 19, 1977. The eastern terminus was the Sirkeci Terminal by the Golden Horn. Ferry service from piers next to the terminal would take passengers across the Bosphorus to Haydarpaşa Terminal, the terminus of the Asian lines of the Ottoman Railways.[11]
The onset of World War I in 1914 saw Orient Express services suspended. They resumed at the end of hostilities in 1918, and in 1919 the opening of the Simplon Tunnel allowed the introduction of a more southerly route via Milan, Venice and Trieste. The service on this route was known as the Simplon Orient Express, and it ran in addition to continuing services on the old route. The Treaty of Saint-Germain contained a clause requiring Austria to accept this train: formerly, Austria allowed international services to pass through Austrian territory (which included Trieste at the time) only if they ran via Vienna. The Simplon Orient Express soon became the most important rail route between Paris and Istanbul.[11]
Badge of the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits on a car of the Orient Express
The 1930s saw the Orient Express services at its most popular, with three parallel services running: the Orient Express, the Simplon Orient Express, and also the Arlberg Orient Express, which ran via Zürich and Innsbruck to Budapest, with sleeper cars running onwards from there to Bucharest and Athens. During this time, the Orient Express acquired its reputation for comfort and luxury, carrying sleeping-cars with permanent service and restaurant cars known for the quality of their cuisine. Royalty, nobles, diplomats, business people and the bourgeoisie in general patronized it. Each of the Orient Express services also incorporated sleeping cars which had run from Calais to Paris, thus extending the service right from one edge of continental Europe to the other.[11]
WL Golden Arrow
The start of the Second World War in 1939 again interrupted the service, which did not resume until 1945. During the war, the German Mitropa company had run some services on the route through the Balkans,[12] but Yugoslav Partisans frequently sabotaged the track, forcing a stop to this service.[11]
Following the end of the war, normal services resumed except on the Athens leg, where the closure of the border between Yugoslavia and Greece prevented services from running. That border re-opened in 1951, but the closure of the Bulgarian–Turkish border from 1951 to 1952 prevented services running to Istanbul during that time. As the Iron Curtain fell across Europe, the service continued to run, but the Communist nations increasingly replaced the Wagon-Lits cars with carriages run by their own railway services.
Luggage tag
By 1962, the Orient Express and Arlberg Orient Express had stopped running, leaving only the Simplon Orient Express. This was replaced in 1962 by a slower service called the Direct Orient Express, which ran daily cars from Paris to Belgrade, and twice weekly services from Paris to Istanbul and Athens.
In 1971, the Wagon-Lits company stopped running carriages itself and making revenues from a ticket supplement. Instead, it sold or leased all its carriages to the various national railway companies, but continued to provide staff for the carriages. 1976 saw the withdrawal of the Paris–Athens direct service, and in 1977, the Direct Orient Express was withdrawn completely, with the last Paris–Istanbul service running on May 19 of that year.[4][5]
The withdrawal of the Direct Orient Express was thought by many to signal the end of Orient Express as a whole, but in fact a service under this name continued to run from Paris to Bucharest as before (via Strasbourg, Munich, and Budapest). However, a through sleeping car from Paris to Bucharest — and even eastwards from Vienna — was only operated until 1982, and also a through seating car was only operated seasonally. This meant, that Paris–Budapest and Vienna–Bucharest coaches were running overlapped, so a journey was only possible with changing carriages — despite the unchanged name and numbering of the train. In 1991 the Budapest-Bucharest leg of the train was canceled, the new final station has become Budapest. In the summer season of 1999 and 2000 a sleeping car from Bucharest to Paris reappeared twice a week — now operated by CFR. This continued until 2001, when the service was cut back to just Paris–Vienna, already in EuroNight quality — but in both cases the coaches were in fact rather attached to a Paris–Strasbourg express. This service continued daily, listed in the timetables under the name Orient Express, until June 8, 2007.[4]
With the opening of the LGV Est Paris–Strasbourg high speed rail line on June 10, 2007, the Orient Express service was further cut back to Strasbourg–Vienna, departing nightly at 22:20 from Strasbourg, and still bearing the name,[5][11] but lost the number 262/263 which was owned since decades.
The remains of the train had a convenient connection from/to the Strasbourg-Paris TGV, but due to the less flexible prices the changing has become less attractive. In the last years through coaches between Vienna and Karlsruhe (continuing first to Dortmund, then to Amsterdam and finally — partly from Budapest — to Frankfurt) were attached. The very last train with the name Orient-Express (now with a hyphen) has departed from Vienna at the 10th December 2009, and one day later from Strasbourg.
The Sirkeci Terminal in Istanbul
Route legacy[edit]
Though the final service ran only from Strasbourg to Vienna, it was possible to retrace the entire original Orient Express route with four trains: Paris–Strasbourg, Strasbourg–Vienna, Vienna–Belgrade and Belgrade-Istanbul, each of which were operated daily. Other routes from Paris to Istanbul exist even today, such as Paris–Munich–Budapest–Bucharest–Istanbul, or Paris–Zürich–Belgrade–Istanbul, all of which have comparable travel times of approximately 60 hours without delays. Train services across the border to Turkey were stopped through several years due to construction works, but they were reintroduced in June 2017, however, ending in Istanbul's suburb Halkali, from where a transfer bus is provided to the city centre.
The luxurious dining car, where scenes for Murder on the Orient Express and other movies were filmed, is now in the OSE museum of Thessalonica. The local authorities plan to refit the train to make it available for tourist use around the Balkans in the near future.
Privately run trains using the name[edit]
In 1976 the Swiss travel company "Intraflug AG" has first hired, then also bought several CIWL-carriages, and operated them as Nostalgie Istanbul Orient Express from Zürich to Istanbul. In 1983 the 100. anniversary of the Orient-Express was celebrated by a trip of this train from Paris to Istanbul, and in 1988 it has run to Hong Kong via the Soviet Union and China. From there it was transferred by ferry to Japan, and used there for some excursions after regauging.
After the failure of the American European Express (see below) Intraflug has become bankrupt, and the carriages were taken over by the Reisebüro Mittelthurgau. The sleeping cars and some other coaches (Pullmans, dining cars, luggage vans) were transferred to Russia and used between Moscow and the Mongolian-Chinese border. (The adjacent Chinese train was also branded for a while as China Orient Express, nowadays it's known as Shangri-La Express.) The remaining vehicles were used in Germany and Switzerland as diner trains until the company's 2003 bankruptcy. Since then the trains are standing unused in different countries, as the new owners have got problems with operations due to a lawsuit about the usage rights of the name Orient Express.
In 1982, the Venice-Simplon Orient Express was established as a private venture, running restored 1920s and 1930s carriages from London to Venice. This service runs between March and November, and is firmly aimed at leisure travellers, with tickets costing over $3,120 per person from London to Venice (via Paris, Zürich, Innsbruck and Verona—also despite its name the train is running via the Brenner Pass instead of the Simplon tunnel) including meals. Two or three times a year Prague or Vienna and Budapest is also accessed, starting from Venice, and returning to Paris and London. Every September the train also goes from London and Paris to Istanbul via Budapest, Sinaia and Bucharest—in the last three cities a sightseeing (and in the two capitals an overnight in hotel) also takes place—the return trip on the same route ends up in Venice. While the above-mentioned routes are available in almost every years, some seasons have also included unique destinations, among them Cologne, Rome, Florence, Lucerne, the High Tatras, Cracow, Dresden, Copenhagen and Stockholm. Such a journey is provided currently to Berlin.
Venice-Simplon Orient Express in Poland, in 2007
The company also offers a similarly themed luxury train in Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand called the Eastern and Oriental Express, and operates other luxury overnight trains in Scotland, Ireland and Peru.
The Pullman Orient Express was established by the CIWL in 1994. This train has only Pullman and dining cars, but no sleepers. It's used for gourmet trips in France. After the legal disputes about the name it was taken over by the SNCF and operated since then as Pullman Orient-Express.
In North America, the American Orient Express, formerly the American European Express and later GrandLuxe Express, operated several train sets in charter service between 1989 and 2008.
Orient Express poster
CIWL phototheque and historical archives[edit]
The CIWL archives contain more than 100 years of posters, photos, plans and communication material that represents a tremendous interest for cultural, academic or commercial projects. Creators and artists have been hired by CIWL since 1883 in order to create luxury conditions and comfort in travel, as well as a particular graphic style that is now recognized worldwide by its quality. Great efforts have been made to digitalize images (photos, plans and posters), although vast paper archives remain preserved, waiting to be sorted and classified in the future. As of today, available digital archives consist of more than 250 CIWL posters, 800 PLM posters and more than 6,000 archive photos, representing probably one of the most extensive poster collections in the world with works dating from the end of the 19th century to the late 1950s. These archives are regularly used for all types of publishing and media projects, all over the world, as well as cultural events (see below: Exhibition).[13][14]
Plan of Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits teapot
In popular culture[edit]
The glamour and rich history of the Orient Express has frequently lent itself to the plot of books and films and as the subject of television documentaries.
Literature[edit]
Dracula (1897) by Bram Stoker: whilst Dracula escapes from England to Varna by sea, the cabal sworn to destroy him travels to Paris and takes the Orient Express, arriving in Varna ahead of him.
Stamboul Train (1932) by Graham Greene
The short story "Have You Got Everything You Want?" (1933), by Agatha Christie
Murder on the Orient Express (1934) by Agatha Christie is one of the best known stories related to the Orient Express. It takes place on the Simplon Orient Express.[11]
Oriënt-Express (1934) a novel by A. den Doolaard: it takes place in Macedonia.
From Russia, with Love (1957) by Ian Fleming
Travels with My Aunt (1969) by Graham Greene
Paul Theroux (1975) devotes a chapter of The Great Railway Bazaar to his journey from Paris to Istanbul on the Direct-Orient Express.
The Orient Express (1992) a novel by Gregor von Rezzori follows a European American who, having ridden the original Orient Express in his youth, returns late in life to ride the refurbished version.
Flashman and the Tiger (1999) by George MacDonald Fraser: Sir Harry Paget Flashman travels on the train's first journey as a guest of the journalist Henri Blowitz.
The Orient Express appeared in the 2004 novel Lionboy and its sequel Lionboy: The Case by Zizou Corder. Charlie Ashanti was stowing away on the train on his way to Venice when he met King Boris of Bulgaria.
The short story "On the Orient, North" by Ray Bradbury
The Orient Express appeared as a technologically advanced (for its time) train in the book Behemoth, by Scott Westerfeld.
Thea Stilton And The Mystery On The Orient Express by Elisabetta Dami
Film[edit]
Orient Express (1934): film adaptation of Graham Greene's Stamboul Train.
Orient Express (1944): Germany; released on March 8, 1945, likely the last date a new movie was shown in Nazi Germany.
Sleeping Car to Trieste (1948): Film by the Rank Organization, story by Clifford Grey, a stolen diplomatic document is the quest of some various groups on the Orient Express from Paris to Trieste. Copyright by Two Cities Films LTD.
Orient Express (1954), whose plot revolves around a two-day stop at a village in the Alps by passengers on the Orient Express.
From Russia with Love (1963): James Bond's fight with a rival spy is set aboard the train.
Istanbul Express (1968): thriller, made for television, starring Gene Barry.
Travels with My Aunt (1972): Henry Pulling accompanies his aunt, Augusta Bertram, on a trip from London to Turkey. The two board the Orient Express in Paris; the train takes them to Turkey (though they disembark briefly at the Milan stop).
Minder on the Orient Express (1985) is a comedy/thriller television film made as a spin-off from the successful television series Minder. It was first broadcast on Christmas Day 1985, as the highlight of that year's ITV Christmas schedule.
Murder on the Orient Express (1974), (2001), (2010) and (2017): Film adaptations of the Agatha Christie novel.
Romance on the Orient Express (1985): TV movie with Cheryl Ladd.
102 Dalmatians (2000)
Death, Deceit and Destiny Aboard the Orient Express (2000)
Around the World in 80 Days (2004): Mr. Fogg rides aboard the train to Istanbul.
Orient Express (2004)
WL agences de voyages
Television[edit]
Orient Express was a syndicated TV series in the early-to-mid-1950s. Filmed in Europe, its half-hour dramas featured such stars as Paul Lukas, Jean-Pierre Aumont, Geraldine Brooks, and Erich von Stroheim.
Daylight Robbery on the Orient Express, an episode of the award-winning British comedy television series The Goodies was first broadcast on 5 October 1976 and is partially set aboard the train.
Mystery on the Orient Express: a television special featuring illusionist David Copperfield. During the special, Copperfield rode aboard the train and, at its conclusion, made the dining car seemingly disappear.
"The Istambul Train", "Il treno d'Istanbul" (1980) Hungarian-Italian television series "Stamboul Train" original title by Graham Greene (1932).[15]
"Minder on the Orient Express" (1985): a special episode of the long-running ITV sit-com Minder.
Whicker's World – Aboard The Orient Express: Travel journalist Alan Whicker joined the inaugural service of the Venice-Simplon Orient Express to Venice in 1982, interviewing invited guests and celebrities along the way.
Gavin Stamp's Orient Express: in 2007 UK's Five broadcast an arts/travel series which saw the historian journey from Paris to Istanbul along the old Orient Express route.
The 1987 cartoon Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles had an episode entitled "Turtles on the Orient Express". As the title suggests it is primarily based on the train.[16]
The 1995 cartoon Madeline had an episode entitled Madeline on the Orient Express, where a chef stole a snake.
The episode "Emergence" of the science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation partially takes place on a Holodeck representation of the Orient Express.
On the May 15, 2007 broadcast of Jeopardy!, the think music was played by a person on the train's piano, since the Final Jeopardy clue was about the Orient Express.
In the British soap opera EastEnders, in 1986, characters Den and Angie Watts spent their honeymoon on the train. It was also where it was revealed that Angie was lying about her illness, preceding the ultimate storyline on Christmas Day 1986.[citation needed]
"Aboard the Orient Express" Get Smart series 1, episode 13 is set on the Orient Express, though filmed on set.
In one episode of the British cartoon series Danger Mouse, called "Dangermouse on the Orient Express" (a parody of Murder on the Orient Express), Dangermouse and Penfold travel on the train on their way back to London from Venice. Dangermouse's arch enemy Greenback is also on the train.
In an episode of the television series Chuck, Chuck and Sarah decide to go AWOL and take a trip on the Orient Express.
At the end of the Doctor Who episode "The Big Bang", the Doctor receives a call for help from the "Orient Express — in space". This setting is used in the episode "Mummy on the Orient Express", including a reference to the ending of "The Big Bang", four years later.
In episode 15 of television series Forever (U.S. TV series), Dr. Henry Morgan traveled from Budapest to Istanbul with his wife Abigail Morgan on his honeymoon in 1955. He performed an appendectomy on a member of the fictional Urkesh royalty.
The Backyardigans episode "Le Master of Disguise" features the Orient Express, showing Uniqua, Pablo, Austin, Tasha, and Tyrone going to Istanbul from Paris.
In an episode titled Murder on the Orient Express of Agatha Christie's Poirot, Poirot investigates the murder of a shady American businessman stabbed in his compartment on the Orient Express when it is blocked by a blizzard in Croatia.
Michael Palin's Around The World In Eighty Days (1988). Michael Palin travelled on the Orient Express in episode 1 from London Victoria to Innsbruck using a ferry across the English Channel from Folkestone. The train didn't continue on to Venice because of a strike on the Italian railways.
Music[edit]
Alex Otterlei’s “Horror on the Orient Express” is inspired by the Call of Cthulhu RPG. The integral symphonic version was released on CD in 2002, a 26-minute Suite for Concert Band was published in 2012.
Orient Expressions: Musical group from Turkey who combine traditional Turkish music with elements of electronica.
The Jean Michel Jarre album The Concerts in China has a track entitled "Orient Express" as track 1 of disc 2, though the relation to the train is unknown.
A concert band piece, Orient Express is written by Philip Sparke.
There was a band based in Hawaii called Liz Damon's Orient Express.
Games and animation[edit]
Sources:[13][14]
The role-playing game Call of Cthulhu RPG used the train for one of its more famous campaigns, Horror on the Orient Express.
The TSR role-playing game Top Secret had a 1983 module based on the Orient titled "Operation Orient Express".
Heart of China has a final sequence in the Orient Express. An action scene takes place on the roof.
The Orient Express plays host to an adventure game by Jordan Mechner: The Last Express is a murder mystery game set around the last ride of the Orient Express before it suspended operations at the start of World War I. Robert Cath, an American doctor wanted by French police as he is suspected of the murder of an Irish police officer, becomes involved in a maelstrom of treachery, lies, political conspiracies, personal interests, romance and murder. The game has 30 characters representing a cross-section of European forces at the time.
The Adventure Company developed a point-and-click adventure based on Agatha Christie's novel, Agatha Christie: Murder on the Orient Express.
The 1987 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles cartoon spent the better part of an episode on the train.
In 1994's season 1 episode of Where on Earth is Carmen Sandiego? called, "The Gold Old Bad Days", Carmen Sandiego and her V.I.L.E. gang are given a challenge to do something low tech by The Player robbery. Carmen's goal is the train.
The train is featured in Microsoft Train Simulator, where its route is a 101 kilometres (63 mi) section from Innsbruck to Sankt Anton am Arlberg in Austria.
The Orient Express was featured in two scenarios in the Railroad Tycoon series:
In Railroad Tycoon II, players get to connect Paris to Constantinople in a territory buying challenge.
In Railroad Tycoon 3 players need to connect Vienna to Istanbul.
The Orient Express cars were made available for download to use in Auran's Trainz Railroad Simulator 2004 or later versions by the content creation group: FMA.
In the game Crash Bandicoot 3: Warped for PS1, the third level (which is Asian-themed) is named after Orient Express.
The first scenes of The Raven: Legacy of a Master Thief, a 2013 game for PC, involve a mystery set amongst train carriages inspired by the Orient Express.
The entire Orient Express set was used in the Facebook game, TrainStation.
The Orient Express is a usable engine and caboose in the mobile game Tiny Rails.
Exhibitions[edit]
[Il était une fois l'Orient Express, 30 April – 22 June 2014. Arab World Institute, Paris, France[17][13][14]
See also[edit]
Lists of named passenger trains
Orient-Express Hotels
The Last Express
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Orient-Express
Jump up ^ Orient Express : attention au départ
^ Jump up to: a b Zax, David (1 March 2007). "A Brief History of the Orient Express". Smithsonian. Retrieved 2013-03-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Calder, Simon (22 August 2009). "Murder of the Orient Express – End of the line for celebrated train service". The Independent. London. Retrieved 2013-03-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "A History of the Orient Express". Agatha Christie Limited. 17 May 2011. Retrieved 2013-03-13.
Jump up ^ "'hidden europe' magazine e-news Issue 2007/15". 2007-06-07. Retrieved 2007-06-07.
Jump up ^ "The Orient Express Takes Its Final Trip". NPR. December 12, 2009. Retrieved 2011-02-26.
Jump up ^ Venice Simplon-Orient-Express
Jump up ^ Lambert, Anthony (21 January 2013). "The Orient-Express: Great Train Journeys". The Daily Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited. Retrieved 2013-03-13.
Jump up ^ Piegsa-quischotte, Inke. "Memories of the Orient Express". Travel Through History. Retrieved 2013-03-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Smith, Mark. "A history of the Orient Express". Seat Sixty One. www.seat61.com. Retrieved 2013-03-13.
Jump up ^ "The Orient Express – Across Europe from London to Istanbul". Eng Rail History. engrailhistory.info. Retrieved 2013-03-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Unauthorized use of CIWL property is illegal. For any request, contact www.wagons-lits-diffusion.com
^ Jump up to: a b c Wagons-Lits Diffusion
Jump up ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120972/releaseinfo?ref_=ttrel_ql_2
Jump up ^ Ninjaturtles: Turtles on the Orient Express
Jump up ^ http://www.imarabe.org/exposition-ima-11859
Bibliography[edit]
James B. Sherwood; Ivan Fallon (13 April 2012). Orient-Express: A Personal Journey. Robson Press. ISBN 978-1-84954-187-9. Retrieved 13 March 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Orient Express: The Life and Times of the World's Most Famous Train by E H Cookridge.
Detail from a copy of the first publication of the book with black and white plates by Allen Lane London in 1979 (ISBN 978-0-7139-1271-5)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orient Express.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Orient Express.
Orient-Express
Venice Simplon-Orient-Express Luxury Train
Wagons-Lits Diffusion, management of CIWL brands and historical archives
Brief youtube video about the VSOE
Belmond Website
"Life Rides the Simplon-Orient Express", Life, Sept. 11, 1950, pp. 137-145
"Jack Birns photographs the Simplon Orient Express in 1950: Part 2, France", Retours, February 2013 - more photographs from the Life archives; cutaway drawing of a sleeping car; route map
"Simplon Orient Express, 1956", by Marcel Bluwal, film on YouTube posted by Retours.eu
Collection PPCWL of Wagons-Lits objetcs
Authority control
NDL: 01187105
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History of bread
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Slab stele from mastaba tomb of Itjer at Giza. 4th Dynasty, 2543-2435 BC. Itjer is seated at a table with slices of bread, shown vertical by convention. Egyptian Museum, Turin
Bread was central to the formation of early human societies. From the western half of Asia, where wheat was domesticated, cultivation spread north and west, to Europe and North Africa. This in turn led to the formation of towns, as opposed to the nomadic lifestyle, and gave rise to more and more sophisticated forms of societal organization. Similar developments occurred in eastern Asia, centered on rice, and in the Americas with maize.
Contents
[hide]
1 Antiquity
2 Middle Ages
3 To the 19th century
4 Industrialization
5 See also
6 Notes
Antiquity[edit]
Conical loaves of bread as grave goods exactly as laid out in the Great Tomb, North Necropolis, Gebelein, 5th Dynasty (Old Kingdom), 2435-2305 BC. Excavations by Ernesto Schiaparelli, 1911. Egyptian Museum, Turin, S. 14051-14055
There is extensive evidence of breadmaking in Ancient Egypt in the form of artistic depictions, remains of structures and items used in bread making, and remains of the dough and bread itself.[1][2][3][4][5][6]
The most common source of leavening in antiquity was to retain a piece of dough (with sugar and water in) from the previous day to utilize as a form of sourdough starter.[7] Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce "a lighter kind of bread than other peoples." Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape must and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast.
The idea of a free-standing oven that could be pre-heated, with a door for access, appears to have been Greek.[8]
Even in antiquity there were a wide variety of breads. In ancient times the Greek bread was barley bread: Solon declared that wheaten bread might only be baked for feast days. By the 5th century BC bread could be purchased in Athens from a baker's shop, and in Rome, Greek bakers appeared in the 2nd century BC, as Hellenized Asia Minor was added to Roman dominion as the province of Asia;[9] the foreign bakers of bread were permitted to form a collegium. In the Deipnosophistae, the author Athenaeus (c.A.D.170 – c. 230) describes some of the bread, cakes, and pastries available in the Classical world.[10] Among the breads mentioned are griddle cakes, honey-and-oil bread, mushroom-shaped loaves covered in poppy seeds, and the military specialty of rolls baked on a spit. The type and quality of flours used to produce bread could also vary, as noted by Diphilus when he declared "bread made of wheat, as compared with that made of barley, is more nourishing, more digestible, and in every way superior." In order of merit, the bread made from refined [thoroughly sieved] flour comes first, after that bread from ordinary wheat, and then the unbolted, made of flour that has not been sifted."[11] The essentiality of bread in the diet was reflected in the name for the rest of the meal: ópson, "condiment", i.e. bread's accompaniment, whatever it might be.[12]
Middle Ages[edit]
Peasants sharing bread, from the Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio, France, 14th century. (Bibliothèque nationale)
In medieval Europe, bread served not only as a staple food but also as part of the table service. In the standard table setting of the day the trencher, a piece of stale bread roughly 6 inches by 4 inches (15 cm by 10 cm), was served as an absorbent plate. At the completion of a meal the trencher could then be eaten, given to the poor, or fed to the dogs. It was not until the 15th century that trenchers made of wood started to replace the bread variety.[13]
To the 19th century[edit]
Up to the 19th century, bread in Europe was often adulterated with hazardous materials, including chalk, sawdust, alum, plaster, clay and ammonium carbonate. This gradually came to an end with government action, such as the 1860 and 1899 Food Adulteration Acts in Britain.[14] America had a more difficult time ending these processes of adulteration however, as various states had varying policies regarding bread making. [15]
In the late 19th century, the British empire encouraged a noticeable increase in import of bread from the colonies. This was regarded as British bread despite its origins, and institutes such as the Imperial Economic Committee encouraged the consumption and trade of foods such as bread from across the empire as they viewed it as cementing Britain's position in its colonies further. Advancements in refrigeration technology and techniques also encouraged an increase in the import of bread, as it could be preserved a lot longer than before and could be transported over longer distances. Bread was transported and stored using refrigeration more than most other foods, particularly in North America, as it was a staple food in most diets, more so than other staple foods like meat. [16]
Industrialization[edit]
The industrialization of bread-baking was a formative step in the creation of the modern world.[17] Otto Frederick Rohwedder is considered to be the father of sliced bread. In 1912 Rohwedder started work on inventing a machine that sliced bread, but bakeries were reluctant to use it since they were concerned the sliced bread would go stale. It was not until 1928, when Rohwedder invented a machine that both sliced and wrapped the bread, that sliced bread caught on. A bakery in Chillicothe, Missouri was the first to use this machine to produce sliced bread.
An automated bakery with industrial robots palletizing bread, Germany
For generations, white bread was the preferred bread of the rich while the poor ate dark (whole grain) bread. However, in most western societies, the connotations reversed in the late 20th century, with whole grain bread becoming preferred as having superior nutritional value while white bread became associated with lower-class ignorance of nutrition.[18]
A major change was the development in 1961 of the Chorleywood Bread Process. This used the intense mechanical working of dough, and control of gases touching dough, to dramatically reduce the fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf at the expense of taste and nutrition.[19] The process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of inferior grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories. In total contrast, traditional breadmaking is extremely time-consuming, as the dough is mixed with yeast and requires several cycles of kneading and resting in order to become ready for baking, and to produce the desired flavor and texture.
More recently, and especially in smaller retail bakeries, chemical additives are used that both speed up mixing time and reduce necessary fermentation time, so that a batch of bread may be mixed, made up, risen, and baked in fewer than three hours. Dough that does not require fermentation because of chemical additives is called "quick bread" by commercial bakers. Common additives include reducing agents such as L-cysteine or sodium metabisulfite, and oxidants such as potassium bromate or ascorbic acid.[20][21] Often these chemicals are added to dough in the form of a prepackaged base, which also contains most or all of the dough's non-flour ingredients. Using such bases and sophisticated chemistry, it has been possible for commercial bakers to make imitations of artisan and sourdough breads, traditionally made by semi-skilled laborers working in smaller shops. Since 1986,[22] domestic breadmakers that automate the process of making bread have become popular in the home.
See also[edit]
Food portal
Food history
Cultural significance of bread
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Samuel, Delwen (1989). "Chapter 12: Their staff of life: Initial investigations on ancient Egyptian bread baking". In KEMP, B. J. Amarna Reports (PDF). 5. London: Egypt Exploration Society. pp. 1253–1290. ISBN 978-0-85698-109-8.
Jump up ^ Gonzalez Carretero, Lara (9 February 2017). "3,500-year-old bread and beer from the New Kingdom, Egypt". Retrieved 17 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Samuel, D. (1994). "An archaeological study of baking and bread in New Kingdom Egypt (doctoral thesis)".
Jump up ^ Samuel, Delwen (2000). "Chapter 22: Brewing and baking". In Nicholson, P. T.; Shaw, I. Ancient Egyptian materials and technology (PDF). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 537–576. ISBN 9780521452571.
Jump up ^ Samuel, D. (1996). "Investigation of Ancient Egyptian Baking and Brewing Methods by Correlative Microscopy". Science. 273 (5274): 488–490. doi:10.1126/science.273.5274.488.
Jump up ^ Samuel, Delwen (2002). "Bread in archaeology". Civilisations (49): 27–36. doi:10.4000/civilisations.1353.
Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 68f.
Jump up ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p.202
Jump up ^ Toussaint-Samat 2009, p.204 gives a date of 168 for "a considerable influx of craftsmen bakers (pistores) of Greek origin into Rome".
Jump up ^ Chrysippus of Tyana gives a list of thirty kinds, without commentary (Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 202).
Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 91
Jump up ^ Changes in diet are reflected in the modern significance of opson as fish (Toussaint-Samat 2009, p. 202); in Italy the contorni are now the accompaniment to meat rather than bread.
Jump up ^ Tannahill p. 227
Jump up ^ "The fight against food adulteration". Rsc.org. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
Jump up ^ MS., City Clerk's Office, Record Book, 1814-1820, pp. 3, 5.
Jump up ^ The Trade Marks Journal.
Jump up ^ It occupies a section in Sigfried Giedion, [1948] 1969. Mechanization Takes Command (New York Oxford University Press).
Jump up ^ Christianne L.H. Hupkens, Ronald A. Knibbe and Maris J. Drop, for example analyzed social class variation in the intake of fat and fibre, including white bread consumption, in Maastricht, Liège and Aachen, "Social Class Differences in Women's Fat and Fibre Consumption: A Cross-National Study" 1995; the literature on class perceptions and diet is enormous.
Jump up ^ Criticisms of the Chorleywood bread process Archived 22 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Pyler, Ernst John (1958). Our Daily Bread. Siebel. p. 703.
Jump up ^ Elkassabany, M.; Hoseney, R.C.; Seib, P.A. (1980). "Ascorbic Acid as an Oxidant in Wheat Flour Dough. I. Conversion to Dehydroascorbic Acid" (PDF). Cereal Chem. 57 (2): 85–87.
Jump up ^ Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. (1995), The Knowledge-Creating Company, Oxford University Press.

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