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Nicholas Roerich
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Nicholas Roerich
Born
(1874-10-09)October 9, 1874
Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
Died
December 13, 1947(1947-12-13) (aged 73)
Naggar, Himachal Pradesh, India
Nationality
Russia
Occupation
painter, archaeologist, costume and set designer for ballets, operas, and dramas
Spouse(s)
Helena Roerich
Children
George de Roerich,
Svetoslav Roerich
Nicholas Roerich (/ˈrɜːrɪx/; October 9, 1874 – December 13, 1947) – known also as Nikolai Konstantinovich Rerikh (Russian: Никола́й Константи́нович Ре́рих) – was a Russian painter, writer, archaeologist, theosophist, perceived by some in Russia as an enlightener,[1] philosopher, and public figure, who in his youth was influenced by a movement in Russian society around the spiritual. He was interested in hypnosis and other spiritual practices and his paintings are said to have hypnotic expression.[2][3]
Born in Saint Petersburg, Russia, to a well-to-do notary public father of Baltic German ancestry and a Russian mother,[4] he lived in various places around the world until his death in Naggar,[5] Himachal Pradesh, India. Trained as an artist and a lawyer, his main interests were literature, philosophy, archaeology, and especially art. Roerich was a dedicated activist for the cause of preserving art and architecture during times of war. He earned several nominations for the Nobel Peace Prize long list.[6] The so-called Roerich Pact was signed into law by the United States and most nations of the Pan-American Union in April 1935.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Early life
1.2 Revolution, emigration, and the United States
1.3 Asian Expedition (1925–1929)
1.4 Manchurian expedition
1.5 Later life and World War II
2 Cultural legacy
3 Gallery
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Biography[edit]
Early life[edit]
Guests from Overseas, 1901 (Varangians in Rus')
Raised in late-19th-century St. Petersburg, Roerich matriculated simultaneously at St. Petersburg University and the Imperial Academy of Arts during 1893. He received the title of "artist" in 1897 and a degree in law the next year. He found early employment with the Imperial Society for the Encouragement of the Arts, whose school he directed from 1906 to 1917. Despite early tensions with the group, he became a member of Sergei Diaghilev's "World of Art" society; he was president of the society from 1910 to 1916.
Artistically, he became known as his generation's most talented painter of Russia's ancient past, a topic that was compatible with his lifelong interest in archaeology. He also succeeded as a stage designer, achieving his greatest fame as one of the designers for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. His best-known designs were for Borodin's Prince Igor (1909 and later productions), and costumes and set for The Rite of Spring (1913),[7] composed by Igor Stravinsky.
Another of Roerich's passions was architecture. His acclaimed publication "Architectural Studies" (1904–1905) – the dozens of paintings he completed of fortresses, monasteries, churches, and other monuments during two long trips through Russia – inspired his decades-long career as an activist on behalf of artistic and architectural preservation. He also designed religious art for places of worship throughout Russia and Ukraine: most notably the Queen of Heaven fresco for the Church of the Holy Spirit which the patroness Maria Tenisheva built near her Talashkino estate; and the stained glass windows for the Datsan Gunzechoinei during 1913–1915.
During the first decade of the 1900s and in the early 1910s, Roerich, largely due to the influence of his wife Helena, developed an interest in eastern religions, as well as alternative (to Christianity) belief systems such as Theosophy. Both Roerichs became avid readers of the Vedantist essays of Ramakrishna and Vivekananda, the poetry of Rabindranath Tagore, and the Bhagavad Gita. The Roerichs' commitment to occult mysticism increased steadily. It was especially intense during World War I and the Russian revolutions of 1917, to which the couple, like many Russian intellectuals, accorded apocalyptic significance. The influence of Theosophy, Vedanta, Buddhism, and other mystical topics can be detected not only in many of his paintings, but in the many short stories and poems Roerich wrote before and after the 1917 revolutions, including the Flowers of Morya cycle, begun in 1907 and completed in 1921.
Revolution, emigration, and the United States[edit]
Nicholas Roerich. 1916
After the February Revolution of 1917 and the end of the czarist regime, Roerich, a political moderate who valued Russia's cultural heritage more than ideology and party politics, had an active part in artistic politics. With Maxim Gorky and Aleksandr Benois, he participated with the so-called "Gorky Commission" and its successor organization, the Arts Union (SDI). Both attempted to gain the attention of the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet on the need to form a coherent cultural policy and, most urgently, protect art and architecture from destruction and vandalism. At the same time, however, illness forced Roerich to leave the capital and reside in Karelia, the district bordering Finland. He had already quit the presidency of the World of Art society, and he now quit the directorship of the School of the Imperial Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. After the October Revolution and the acquisition of power of Lenin's Bolshevik Party, Roerich became increasingly discouraged about Russia's political future. During early 1918, he, Helena, and their two sons George and Sviatoslav emigrated to Finland.
Two unresolved historical debates are associated with Roerich's departure. First, it is often claimed that Roerich was a major candidate to direct a people's commissariat of culture (the Soviet equivalent of a ministry of culture) which the Bolsheviks considered establishing during 1917–1918, but that he refused to accept the job. In fact, Benois was the most likely choice to direct any such commissariat. It seems that Roerich was a preferred choice to manage its department of artistic education; the topic is rendered moot by the fact that the Soviets elected not to establish such a commissariat. Second, when he wished to reconcile with the USSR, Roerich maintained later that he had not left Soviet Russia deliberately, but that he and his family, living in Karelia (there he painted a series of pictures under the name "Karelian Suite"), had been isolated from their homeland when civil war began in Finland. However, Roerich's extreme hostility to the Bolshevik regime – prompted not so much by a dislike of communism as by his revulsion at Lenin's ruthlessness and his fear that Bolshevism would result in the destruction of Russia's artistic and architectural heritage – was amply documented. He illustrated Leonid Andreyev's anti-communist polemic "S.O.S." and had a widely published pamphlet, "Violators of Art" (1918–1919). Roerich believed that "the triumph of Russian culture would come about through a new appreciation of ancient myth and legend".[8]
After some months in Finland and Scandinavia, the Roerichs relocated to London, arriving in mid-1919. Engrossed with Theosophical mysticism, the Roerichs now had millenarian expectations that a new age was imminent, and they wished to travel to India as soon as possible. They joined the English-Welsh chapter of the Theosophical Society. It was in London, in March 1920, that the Roerichs founded their own school of mysticism, Agni Yoga, which they referred to also as "the system of living ethics." To earn passage to India, Roerich worked as a stage designer for Thomas Beecham's Covent Garden Theatre, but the enterprise ended unsuccessfully in 1920, and the artist never received full payment for his work. Among the notable people Roerich befriended while in England were the famed British Buddhist Christmas Humphreys, philosopher-author H. G. Wells, and the poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (whose grand-niece Devika Rani would later marry Roerich's son Sviatoslav).
Later, a successful exhibition resulted in an invitation from a director at the Art Institute of Chicago, offering to arrange for Roerich's art to tour the United States. During the autumn of 1920, the Roerichs traveled to America by sea.
Car of Nicolas Roerich in his museum at Naggar
The Roerichs remained in the United States from October 1920 until May 1923. A large exhibition of Roerich's art, organized partly by U.S. impresario Christian Brinton and partly by the Chicago Art Institute, began in New York in December 1920 and toured the country, to San Francisco and back, during 1921 and early 1922. Roerich befriended acclaimed soprano Mary Garden of the Chicago Opera and received a commission to design a 1922 production of Rimsky-Korsakov's The Snow Maiden for her. During the exhibition, the Roerichs spent significant amounts of time in Chicago, New Mexico, and California.
They settled in New York City, which became the base of their many American operations. The Roerichs initiated several institutions during these years: Cor Ardens and Corona Mundi, both of which were meant to unite artists around the globe in the cause of civic activism; the Master Institute of United Arts, an art school with an exceptionally versatile curriculum, and the eventual home of the first Nicholas Roerich Museum; and an American Agni Yoga Society. They also joined various theosophical societies, and their activities with these groups dominated their lives.
Asian Expedition (1925–1929)[edit]
Roerich's family (Kullu valley, India)
After leaving New York, the Roerichs – together with their son George and six friends – began the five-year-long 'Roerich Asian Expedition' that, in Roerich's own words: "started from Sikkim through Punjab, Kashmir, Ladakh, the Karakoram Mountains, Khotan, Kashgar, Qara Shar, Urumchi, Irtysh, the Altai Mountains, the Oyrot region of Mongolia, the Central Gobi, Kansu, Tsaidam, and Tibet" with a detour through Siberia to Moscow in 1926. Roerichs' Asian expedition attracted attention from the foreign services and intelligence agencies of the USSR, the United States, Great Britain, and Japan. In fact, prior to this expedition, Roerich himself solicited help of Soviet government and Bolshevik secret police to assist him in his expedition, promising in return to monitor British activities in the area, but received only a lukewarm response from Michail Abramowitsch Trilisser, chief of the Soviet foreign intelligence at that time. On the one hand, the Bolsheviks assisted him with logistics when Roerich was traveling through Siberia and Mongolia. Yet, on the other hand, they refused to totally commit themselves to his reckless utopian project of the Sacred Union of the East – a spiritual utopia that boiled down to Roerich's ambitious attempts to stir the Buddhist masses of inner Asia to create a highly spiritual cooperative commonwealth under the patronage of Bolshevik Russia. The official mission of this expedition, as Roerich put it, was to act as the embassy of Western Buddhism to Tibet. However, for Western media his expedition was presented as an artistic and scientific enterprise;[9] Between the summer of 1927 and June 1928 the expedition was thought to be lost, since communication with them ceased for a year. They had been attacked in Tibet and only the "superiority of our firearms prevented bloodshed... In spite of our having Tibet passports, the expedition was forcibly stopped by Tibetan authorities." The expedition was detained by the government for five months, and forced to live in tents in sub-zero conditions and to subsist on meagre rations. Five men of the expedition died during this time. In March 1928 they were allowed to leave Tibet, and trekked south to settle in India, where they founded a research center, the Himalayan Research Institute.
In 1929 Nicholas Roerich was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by the University of Paris.[10] He received two more nominations in 1932 and 1935.[11] His concern for peace resulted in his creation of the Pax Cultura, the "Red Cross" of art and culture. His work for this cause also resulted in the United States and the twenty other nations of the Pan-American Union signing the Roerich Pact on April 15, 1935 at the White House. The Roerich Pact is an early international instrument protecting cultural property.
Manchurian expedition[edit]
In 1934–1935, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (then headed by Roerich admirer Henry A. Wallace) sponsored an expedition by Roerich and USDA scientists H. G. MacMillan and James F. Stephens to Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, and China. The expedition's purpose was to collect seeds of plants which prevent the destruction of benign layers of soil.
The expedition consisted of two parts. In 1934, they explored the Greater Khingan mountains and Bargan plateau in western Manchuria. In 1935, they explored parts of Inner Mongolia: the Gobi Desert, Ordos Desert, and Helan Mountains. The expedition found almost 300 species of xerophytes, collected herbs, conducted archeological studies, and found antique manuscripts of great scientific importance.
Later life and World War II[edit]
Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Nicholas Roerich, and Mohammad Yunus. (Roerich's estate, Kullu).
Roerich was in India during the Second World War, where he painted Russian epic heroic and saintly themes, including: Alexander Nevsky, The Fight of Mstislav and Rededia and Boris and Gleb.[12]
In 1942, Roerich received Jawaharlal Nehru at his house in Kullu and Nehru's daughter, Indira Gandhi.[citation needed] Together they discussed the fate of the new world: "We spoke about Indian-Russian cultural association, – Roerich wrote, – it is time to think about useful and creative cooperation ...”.[13]
Gandhi would later recall about several days spent together with Roerich's family: "That was a memorable visit to a surprising and gifted family where each member was a remarkable figure in himself, with a well-defined range of interests." ..."Roerich himself stays in my memory. He was a man with extensive knowledge and enormous experience, a man with a big heart, deeply influenced by all that he observed".
During the visit, "ideas and thoughts about closer cooperation between India and USSR were expressed. Now, after India wins independence, they have got its own real implementation[clarification needed]. And as you know, there are friendly and mutually-understanding relationships today between both our countries".[14]
In 1942, the American-Russian cultural Association (ARCA) was created in New York. Its active participants were Ernest Hemingway, Rockwell Kent, Charlie Chaplin, Emil Cooper, Serge Koussevitzky, and Valeriy Ivanovich Tereshchenko. The Association's activity was welcomed by scientists like Robert Millikan and Arthur Compton.[15]
Roerich died on December 13, 1947.
Cultural legacy[edit]
Altai. Peaks and passes named in honor of the Roerich family.
Vice President of the United States Henry A. Wallace was a frequent correspondent and sometime advocate of Nicholas Roerich's teachings. Wallace became attracted to the idea of Sacred Union of the East, a spiritual and geopolitical utopia Nicholas and Helena Roerich contemplated to establish in the heart of Asia. Based on spiritual ideas, which the Roerichs claimed they received from otherworld masters, this utopia was to show the humankind a blueprint of ideal society. As the US Secretary of Agriculture, Wallace became so much interested in the whole project that he decided to sponsor the second Roerich expedition to Asia in 1933–1934. In the meantime, Helena Roerich was corresponding with US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was intrigued by her "fiery letters." The whole project ended in a disaster and resulted in energetic efforts by Wallace and FDR to cut their ties with the Roerichs. The whole incident later partially resurfaced and became controversial when Wallace campaigned for President in 1948 and portions of the correspondence were printed by columnist Westbrook Pegler, becoming known as the Guru Letters,[16]
The minor planet 4426 Roerich in Solar System
Presently, the Nicholas Roerich Museum in New York City is a major institution for Roerich's artistic work. Numerous Roerich societies continue to promote his theosophical teachings worldwide. His paintings can be seen in several museums including the Roerich Department of the State Museum of Oriental Arts in Moscow; the Roerich Museum at the International Centre of the Roerichs in Moscow; the Russian State Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia; a collection in the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow; a collection in the Art Museum in Novosibirsk, Russia; an important collection in the National Gallery for Foreign Art in Sofia, Bulgaria; a collection in the Art Museum in Nizhny Novgorod Russia; National Museum of Serbia; the Roerich Hall Estate in Naggar, India; the Sree Chitra Art Gallery, Thiruvananthapuram, India;[17] in various art museums in India; and a selection featuring several of his larger works in The Latvian National Museum of Art.
Roerich's biography and his controversial expeditions to Tibet and Manchuria have been examined recently by a number of authors, including two Russians, Vladimir Rosov and Alexandre Andreyev, American (Andrei Znamenski), and the German Ernst von Waldenfels.[18]
H.P. Lovecraft refers numerous times to the "strange and disturbing paintings of Nicholas Roerich" in his Antarctic horror story At the Mountains of Madness.
The minor planet 4426 Roerich in the Solar System was named in honor of Roerich.
In June 2013 during Russian Art Week in London, Roerich's Madonna Laboris sold at auction at Bonhams shop for £7,881,250 inc. buyer's premium, making it the most valuable painting ever sold at a Russian art auction.[19]
Gallery[edit]
And We are Opening the Gates, from the "Sancta" Series
And We are Trying, from the "Sancta" Series
Treasure of angels
And We See, from the "Sancta" Series
Monhegan, Maine
The Messenger
Play media
Nicolas Roerich. India, Kullu, 1947
N. K. Roerich. About Shambala
Phonogram of 1929.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
See also[edit]
Agni Yoga
Banner of Peace
Helena Roerich
George de Roerich
Morya (Theosophy)
Roerich Pact
Russian cosmism
Svetoslav Roerich
4426 Roerich — minor planet
Rerikhism
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "ПЛАНЕТА "РЕРИХ" - Электронная библиотека". Retrieved June 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Nicholas Roerich: In Search of Shambala by Victoria Klimentieva, стр. 31
Jump up ^ Nicholas Roerich Museum
Jump up ^ Andrei Znamenski, Red Shambhala: Magic, Prophecy, and Geopolitics in the Heart of Asia, Quest Books (2011), p. 157
Jump up ^ "Nicholas Roerich - Russian set designer". Retrieved June 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Nobel Prize Nomination Database
Jump up ^ Julie Besonen, "Visions of a Forgotten Utopian", New York Times, April 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bowlt, John E. (2008). Moscow and St. Petersburg 1900–1920: Art, Life and Culture. New York: The Vendome Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-86565-191-3.
Jump up ^ "Andrei Znamenski, "Nicholas Roerich Shambhala Warrior"". .
Jump up ^ "Roerich Nominated for Peace Award". New York Times. March 3, 1929. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
Jump up ^ "Nomination Database - Peace". Retrieved June 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Peter Leek (2005). Russian Painting. Parkstone International. pp. 256–. ISBN 978-1-78042-975-5. Retrieved June 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ N. Roerich. Diary Leaves. V. 3. – Moscow, International Centre of the Roerichs. – 1996. – p.39. ISBN 5-86988-056-4
Jump up ^ Interview with Indira Gandhi / Roerich's Empire. (Derzhava Rerikhov) (in Russian). / Collected Articles. – Moscow, International Centre of the Roerichs, Master-Bank. – 2004. – p.65. ISBN 5-86988-148-X
Jump up ^ Ruth Abrams Drayer (2005). Nicholas And Helena Roerich: The Spiritual Journey of Two Great Artists And Peacemakers. Quest Books. pp. 330–. ISBN 978-0-8356-0843-5. Retrieved June 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Andrei Znamenski, "Utopian in Power: Henry Wallace, Roerich, and the Sacred Union of the East". .
Jump up ^ "Dust throws a blanket over prized paintings". .
Jump up ^ Nicholas Roerich: the Messenger of Zvenigorod (vol. 1: The Great Plan, vol. 2: The New Country) (2002–2004) [summary of the books in English at http://lebendige-ethik.net/engl/4-Rosovs_books.html]; Alexandre Andreyev, Gimalaiski mif i ego tvotry [Himalayan Myth and its Makers] (St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg University Press, 2004) [in Russian]; Andrei Znamenski, Red Shambhala: Magic, Prophesy, and Geopolitics in the Heart of Asia (Quest Books, 2011) [see an excerpt from the book at http://www.trimondi.de/EN/Red_Shambhala.htm]; Ernst von Waldenfels, Nicholas Roerich: Kunst, Macht und Okkultismus (Osburg, 2011)
Jump up ^ "Bonhams : Nikolai Konstantinovich Roerich (Russian, 1874-1947) Madonna Laboris". Retrieved June 14, 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Nicholas Roerich
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nicholas Roerich.
International Centre of the Roerichs
International Roerich Memorial Trust (India)
Nicholas Roerich Museum (New York)
Estonian Roerich Society
Roerich-movement on the Internet (in Russian)
Paintings Gallery
Nicholas Roerich Estate Museum in Izvara
Roerich Family
Find A Grave
Catalogue of Nicholas Roerich`s works from the collection of Gorlovka Art Museum
Nicholas Roerich Papers, J Murrey Atkins Library, UNC Charlotte
Nicholas Roerich Lexicon
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Nicholas Roerich
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WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 14852765
LCCN: n50049053
ISNI: 0000 0001 2276 8377
GND: 118916165
SELIBR: 85912
SUDOC: 03285692X
BNF: cb12380556m (data)
ULAN: 500116907
NLA: 35911497
NDL: 00454496
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RKD: 67643
IATH: w6737h9x
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Sidereal time
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the novel, see Sidereal Time.
An astronomical clock with dials for showing both sidereal and solar time.
Sidereal time /saɪˈdɪəriəl/ is a time-keeping system that astronomers use to locate celestial objects. Using sidereal time it is possible to easily point a telescope to the proper coordinates in the night sky. Briefly, sidereal time is a "time scale that is based on Earth's rate of rotation measured relative to the fixed stars"[1] rather than the Sun.
From a given observation point, a star found at one location in the sky will be found at the same location on another night at the same sidereal time. This is similar to how the time kept by a sundial can be used to find the location of the Sun. Just as the Sun and Moon appear to rise in the east and set in the west due to the rotation of Earth, so do the stars. Both solar time and sidereal time make use of the regularity of Earth's rotation about its polar axis, solar time following the Sun while sidereal time roughly follows the stars. More exactly, sidereal time is the angle, measured from the observer's meridian, along the celestial equator, to the great circle that passes through the March equinox and both poles, and is usually expressed in hours, minutes, and seconds.[2] Common time on a typical clock measures a slightly longer cycle, accounting not only for Earth's axial rotation but also for Earth's annual revolution around the Sun of slightly less than 1 degree per day (in fact to the nearest arcsecond, it takes 365.2422 days to revolve, therefore 360 degrees/365.2422 days = 0.9856° or 59′ 8″ per day, i.e., slightly less than 1 degree per day).
A mean sidereal day is 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.0916 seconds (7001239344699000000♠23.9344699 hours or 6999997269580000000♠0.99726958 mean solar days), the time it takes Earth to make one rotation relative to the vernal equinox. (Due to nutation, an actual sidereal day is not quite so constant.) The vernal equinox itself precesses slowly westward relative to the fixed stars, completing one revolution in about 26,000 years, so the misnamed sidereal day ("sidereal" is derived from the Latin sidus meaning "star") is 0.0084 seconds shorter than Earth's period of rotation relative to the fixed stars.
The slightly longer "true" sidereal period is called a stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS). It is also referred to as the sidereal period of rotation, or simply as the period of rotation or the rotational period.
Maps of the stars in the night sky use declination and right ascension as coordinates. These correspond to latitude and longitude respectively. While declination is measured in degrees, right ascension is measured in units of time, because it was most natural to name locations in the sky in connection with the time when they crossed the meridian.
In the sky, the meridian is the imaginary north to south line that goes through the point directly overhead (the zenith). The right ascension of any object crossing the meridian is equal to the current local (apparent) sidereal time, ignoring for present purposes that part of the circumpolar region north of the north celestial pole (for an observer in the northern hemisphere) or south of the south celestial pole (for an observer in the southern hemisphere) that is crossing the meridian the other way.
Because Earth orbits the Sun once a year, the sidereal time at any given place and time will gain about four minutes against local civil time, every 24 hours, until, after a year has passed, one additional sidereal "day" has elapsed compared to the number of solar days that have gone by.
Contents
[hide]
1 Sidereal time and solar time
2 Precession effects
3 Definition
4 Exact duration and its variation
5 Sidereal days compared to solar days on other planets
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Sidereal time and solar time[edit]
Sidereal time vs solar time. Above left: a distant star (the small orange star) and the Sun are at culmination, on the local meridian m. Centre: only the distant star is at culmination (a mean sidereal day). Right: a few minutes later the Sun is on the local meridian again. A solar day is complete.
Solar time is measured by the apparent diurnal motion of the Sun, and local noon in apparent solar time is the moment when the Sun is exactly due south or north (depending on the observer's latitude and the season). A mean solar day (what we normally measure as a "day") is the average time between local solar noons ("average" since this varies slightly over the year).
Earth makes one rotation around its axis in a sidereal day; during that time it moves a short distance (about 1°) along its orbit around the Sun. So after a sidereal day has passed, Earth still needs to rotate slightly more before the Sun reaches local noon according to solar time. A mean solar day is, therefore, nearly 4 minutes longer than a sidereal day.
The stars are so far away that Earth's movement along its orbit makes nearly no difference to their apparent direction (see, however, parallax), and so they return to their highest point in a sidereal day.
Another way to see this difference is to notice that, relative to the stars, the Sun appears to move around Earth once per year. Therefore, there is one fewer solar day per year than there are sidereal days. This makes a sidereal day approximately 365.24/366.24 times the length of the 24-hour solar day, giving approximately 23 h 56 min 4.1 s (86,164.1 s).
Precession effects[edit]
Earth's rotation is not a simple rotation around an axis that would always remain parallel to itself. Earth's rotational axis itself rotates about a second axis, orthogonal to Earth's orbit, taking about 25,800 years to perform a complete rotation. This phenomenon is called the precession of the equinoxes. Because of this precession, the stars appear to move around Earth in a manner more complicated than a simple constant rotation.
For this reason, to simplify the description of Earth's orientation in astronomy and geodesy, it is conventional to chart the positions of the stars in the sky according to right ascension and declination, which are based on a frame that follows Earth's precession, and to keep track of Earth's rotation, through sidereal time, relative to this frame as well. In this reference frame, Earth's rotation is close to constant, but the stars appear to rotate slowly with a period of about 25,800 years. It is also in this reference frame that the tropical year, the year related to Earth's seasons, represents one orbit of Earth around the Sun. The precise definition of a sidereal day is the time taken for one rotation of Earth in this precessing reference frame.
Definition[edit]
Sidereal time, at any moment (and at a given locality defined by its geographical longitude), more precisely local apparent sidereal time (LAST), is defined as the hour angle of the vernal equinox at that locality: it has the same value as the right ascension of any celestial body that is crossing the local meridian at that same moment.
At the moment when the vernal equinox crosses the local meridian, local apparent sidereal time is 00:00. Greenwich apparent sidereal time (GAST) is the hour angle of the vernal equinox at the prime meridian at Greenwich, London.
Local sidereal time at any locality differs from the Greenwich sidereal time value of the same moment, by an amount that is proportional to the longitude of the locality. When one moves eastward 15° in longitude, sidereal time is larger by one sidereal hour (note that it wraps around at 24 hours). Unlike the reckoning of local solar time in time zones, incrementing by (usually) one hour, differences in local sidereal time are reckoned based on actual measured longitude, to the accuracy of the measurement of the longitude, not just in whole hours.
Apparent sidereal time (local or at Greenwich) differs from mean sidereal time (for the same locality and moment) by the equation of the equinoxes: this is a small difference in right ascension (dRA) parallel to the equator, not exceeding about ±1.2 s, due to nutation, the complex 'nodding' motion of Earth's polar axis of rotation. It corresponds to the current amount of the nutation in (ecliptic) longitude (dψ) and to the current obliquity (ε) of the ecliptic, so that dRA = dψ cos ε.
Greenwich mean sidereal time (GMST) and UT1 differ from each other in rate, with the second of sidereal time a little shorter than that of UT1, so that (as at 12:00 noon on 2000 January 1) 7000100273790935079♠1.002737909350795 s of mean sidereal time was equal to 1 s of UT1. The ratio varies slightly with time, reaching 7000100273790940979♠1.002737909409795 after a century.[3]
To an accuracy within 0.1 s per century, Greenwich (Mean) Sidereal Time (in hours and decimal parts of an hour) can be calculated as
GMST = 7001186973745580000♠18.697374558 + 7001240657098244190♠24.06570982441908 × D,
where D is the interval, in UT1 days including any fraction of a day, since 2000 January 1, at 12:00 UT (interval counted positive if forwards to a later time than the 2000 reference instant), and the result is freed from any integer multiples of 24 hours to reduce it to a value in the range 0–24.[4]
In other words, Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time exceeds mean solar time at Greenwich by a difference equal to the longitude of the fictitious mean Sun used for defining mean solar time (with longitude converted to time as usual at the rate of 1 hour for 15 degrees), plus or minus an offset of 12 hours (because mean solar time is reckoned from 00:00 midnight, instead of the pre-1925 astronomical tradition where 00:00 meant noon).
Sidereal time is used at astronomical observatories because sidereal time makes it very easy to work out which astronomical objects will be observable at a given time. Objects are located in the night sky using right ascension and declination relative to the celestial equator (analogous to longitude and latitude on Earth), and when sidereal time is equal to an object's right ascension the object will be at its highest point in the sky, or culmination, at which time it is usually best placed for observation, as atmospheric extinction is minimised.
Sidereal time is a measure of the position of the Earth in its rotation around its axis, or time measured by the apparent diurnal motion of the vernal equinox, which is very close to, but not identical to, the motion of stars. They differ by the precession of the vernal equinox in right ascension relative to the stars.
Earth's sidereal day also differs from its rotation period relative to the background stars by the amount of precession in right ascension during one day (8.4 ms).[5] Its J2000 mean value is 23 h 56 min 7000409053083300000♠4.090530833 s.[6]
Exact duration and its variation[edit]
A mean sidereal day is about 23 h 56 min 4.1 s in length. However, due to variations in the rotation rate of Earth, the rate of an ideal sidereal clock deviates from any simple multiple of a civil clock. In practice, the difference is kept track of by the difference UTC−UT1, which is measured by radio telescopes and kept on file and available to the public at the IERS and at the United States Naval Observatory.
Given a tropical year of 7002365242190402000♠365.242190402 days from Simon et al.[7] this gives a sidereal day of 7004864000000000000♠86400 × 7002365242190402000♠365.242190402/7002366242190402000♠366.242190402, or 7004861640905300000♠86164.09053 s.
Aoki et al.,[8] defined UT1 such that the observed sidereal day at the beginning of 2000 would be 1/7000100273790935079♠1.002737909350795 times a UT1 day of 7004864000000000000♠86400 s, which gives 7004861640905308330♠86164.090530833 s of UT1. For times within a century of 1984, the ratio only alters in its 11th decimal place. This web-based sidereal time calculator uses a truncated ratio of 1/7000100273790935000♠1.00273790935.
Because this is the period of rotation in a precessing reference frame, it is not directly related to the mean rotation rate of Earth in an inertial frame, which is given by ω = 2π/T where T is the slightly longer stellar day given by Aoki et al. as 86 7002164098903697320♠164.09890369732 s.[8] This can be calculated by noting that ω is the magnitude of the vector sum of the rotations leading to the sidereal day and the precession of that rotation vector. In fact, the period of Earth's rotation varies on hourly to interannual timescales by around 1 millisecond,[9] together with a secular increase in length of day of about 2.3 ms per century, mostly from tidal friction slowing Earth's rotation.[10]
Sidereal days compared to solar days on other planets[edit]
Of the eight solar planets,[11] all but Venus and Uranus have prograde rotation—that is, they rotate more than once per year in the same direction as they orbit the Sun, so the Sun rises in the east. Venus and Uranus, however, have retrograde rotation. For prograde rotation, the formula relating the lengths of the sidereal and solar days is
number of sidereal days per orbital period = 1 + number of solar days per orbital period
or equivalently
length of solar day = length of sidereal day/1 − length of sidereal day/orbital period.
On the other hand, the formula in the case of retrograde rotation is
number of sidereal days per orbital period = −1 + number of solar days per orbital period
or equivalently
length of solar day = length of sidereal day/1 + length of sidereal day/orbital period.
All the solar planets more distant from the Sun than Earth are similar to Earth in that, since they experience many rotations per revolution around the Sun, there is only a small difference between the length of the sidereal day and that of the solar day—the ratio of the former to the latter never being less than Earth's ratio of 0.997. But the situation is quite different for Mercury and Venus. Mercury's sidereal day is about two-thirds of its orbital period, so by the prograde formula its solar day lasts for two revolutions around the Sun— three times as long as its sidereal day. Venus rotates retrograde with a sidereal day lasting about 243.0 Earth days, or about 1.08 times its orbital period of 224.7 Earth days; hence by the retrograde formula its solar day is about 116.8 Earth days, and it has about 1.9 solar days per orbital period.
By convention, rotation periods of planets are given in sidereal terms unless otherwise specified.
See also[edit]
Anti-sidereal time
Earth's rotation
International Celestial Reference Frame
Nocturnal (instrument)
Sidereal month
Sidereal year
Synodic day
Transit instrument
References[edit]
Jump up ^ National Institute of Standards and Technology [NIST], Time and Frequency Division. "Time and Frequency from A to Z." https://www.nist.gov/pml/div688/grp40/enc-s.cfm
Jump up ^ Urban, S. E. & Seidelmann, P. K. (ed.) (2013). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books. Glossary, s.v. hour angle, hour circle, sidereal time.
Jump up ^ P K Seidelmann (ed.) (1992), Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, at page 52 (and at page 698).
Jump up ^ Approximate sidereal time (US Naval Observatory).
Jump up ^ Seidelmann, p. 48.
Jump up ^ Aoki, S.; Guinot, B.; Kaplan, G. H.; Kinoshita, H.; McCarthy, D. D.; Seidelmann, P. K. (1982). "The new definition of Universal Time". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 105 (2): 359–361. Bibcode:1982A&A...105..359A.
Jump up ^ Simon, J. L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G; Laskar, J. (1994). "Numerical expressions for precession formulas and mean elements for the Moon and the planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 282. pp. 663–683. Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
^ Jump up to: a b Aoki, S.; Guinot, B.; Kaplan, G. H.; Kinoshita, H.; McCarthy, D. D.; Seidelmann, P. K. (1982). "The new definition of Universal Time". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 105 (2). p. 361. Bibcode:1982A&A...105..359A. , see equation 19.
Jump up ^ Hide, R., and J. O. Dickey: "Earth's variable rotation". Science 253 (1991) 629–637.
Jump up ^ Stephenson, F.R. Historical eclipses and Earth's rotation. Cambridge University Press, 1997, 557pp.
Jump up ^ Bakich, Michael E., The Cambridge Planetary Handbook, Cambridge University Press, 2000; ISBN 0-521-63280-3.
P. Kenneth Seidelmann, ed., Explanatory supplement to the Astronomical Almanac, (Mill Valley, Cal.: University Science Books, 1992)
External links[edit]
Look up sidereal time in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Web based Sidereal time calculator
App version for iOS devices
Build an internet synchronized sidereal clock
For more details, see the article on sidereal time from Jason Harris' Astroinfo.
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Pinarayi Vijayan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Pinarayi Vijayan
12th Chief Minister of Kerala
Incumbent
Assumed office
25 May 2016
Governor
P. Sathasivam
Preceded by
Oommen Chandy
Constituency
Dharmadom
Minister of Home Affairs, Kerala state
Incumbent
Assumed office
25 May 2016
Preceded by
Ramesh Chennithala
Member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of India (Marxist)
Incumbent
Assumed office
24 March 2002
Secretary of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) Kerala State Committee
In office
25 September 1998 – 23 February 2015
Preceded by
Chadayan Govindan
Succeeded by
Kodiyeri Balakrishnan
Minister of Electricity, Kerala state
In office
20 May 1996 – 19 October 1998
Preceded by
G. Karthikeyan
Succeeded by
S. Sharma
Minister of Co-operatives, Kerala state
In office
20 May 1996 – 19 October 1998
Preceded by
M. V. Raghavan
Succeeded by
S. Sharma
Personal details
Born
(1945-05-24) 24 May 1945 (age 73)
Pinarayi,Kannur Madras Presidency, British India
Political party
Communist Party of India (Marxist)
Spouse(s)
Kamala
Children
Vivek Kiran
Veena
Residence
Pinarayi, Kerala, India
Alma mater
Government Brennen College, Thalassery[1]
Pinarayi Vijayan (born 24 May 1945[2]) is an Indian politician who is the current Chief Minister of Kerala, in office since 25 May 2016.[3]
A member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of India (Marxist), he was the longest-serving secretary of the Kerala State Committee of the CPI(M) from 1998 to 2015. He also served in the government of Kerala as Minister of Electric Power and Co-operatives from 1996 to 1998. Vijayan won a seat in the May 2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election as the CPI(M) candidate for Dharmadom constituency[4] and was selected as the leader of the Left Democratic Front (LDF) and became the 12th Chief Minister of Kerala.[5][6]
Contents
1 Early life and education
2 Political career
2.1 Chief Minister
2.2 Positions held
3 Personal life
4 Controversies
5 Picture Gallery
6 References
7 External links
Early life and education
Vijayan was born on 24 May 1945[2] in a poor family[7] in Pinarayi in Malabar district (present-day Kannur District), as the youngest son of Koran and Kalyani. He had 14 siblings of which only three survived. After graduating school, he worked as a handloom weaver for a year before joining for Pre–university course in the Government Brennen College, Thalassery. Subsequently, he completed his degree course from the same college.[8][9]
Political career
Pinarayi Vijayan entered politics through student union activities at Government Brennen College, Thalassery. He eventually joined the Communist Party of India (Marxist) in 1964. Vijayan became Kannur district secretary of the Kerala Students Federation (KSF), which later became the Students Federation of India (SFI). He went on to become the state secretary and subsequently the state president of KSF. He then moved on to Kerala State Youth Federation (KSYF), which later became the Democratic Youth Federation of India (DYFI). He became the president of the state committee. During that period, when communists in Kerala were organising the political activities from different hide-outs, Pinarayi Vijayan was imprisoned for one and a half years.
Later he was elected as the president of the Kerala state co-operative bank. During the emergency, he was arrested and tortured by police. He became the Kannur district secretary of the CPI(M) when M.V. Raghavan left the party over the ‘alternative document' row. Within three years, he became a member of the State Secretariat. He was elected to the Assembly in 1970, 1977 and 1991 from Koothuparamba, in 1996 from Payyannur and in 2016 from Dharmadom. He was the Minister for Electric power and Co-operatives in the E.K. Nayanar ministry from 1996 to 1998. In 1998, he became the state secretary of the CPI(M), following the death of the incumbent Chadayan Govindan. He was elected to the Politburo of the CPI(M) in 2002.[8]
On 26 May 2007 the CPI(M) suspended Pinarayi Vijayan and V. S. Achuthanandan from the Politburo for their public remarks on each other. Pinarayi was reinstated into the Politburo later.[10]
Chief Minister
Pinarayi Vijayan was selected by the CPI(M) as Chief Minister of Kerala in May 2016, following the 2016 Legislative Assembly election. Vijayan was selected as the leader of Left Democratic Front government.[5][6] He was sworn in on 25 May 2016 in front of a large number of party workers, along with his 19-member cabinet. Vijayan also holds the charge of Home Affairs & Vigilance Departments along with the other portfolios normally held by the Chief Ministers, and not mentioned elsewhere. He is elected from Dharmadom constituency. During his reign he introduced various schemes like Haritha Keralam Mission, Project LIFE, Ardram Mission and Comprehensive Education Reforms. For the first time in India, an all-woman police squad called Pink Patrol was introduced in Kerala to ascertain the security of women and children in public places.
Positions held
State president and secretary of Kerala Student's Federation and president of Kerala State Youth Federation.
President of Kerala State Co-operative Bank
Elected to Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1970, 1977, 1991, 1996 and 2016.
Minister in Kerala government between 1996 and 1998.
Secretary of the Kerala state committee of the CPI(M) between 1998 and 2015.
Member of the CPI(M) politburo from 2002.
Chief Minister of Kerala from 25 May 2016
Election victories
Year Constituency Closest rival Majority (votes)
1970 Koothuparamba Thayath Raghavan (PSP) 743
1977 Koothuparamba Abdulkadar (RSP) 4,401
1991 Koothuparamba P. Ramakrishnan (INC) 12,960
1996 Payyannur K. N. Kannoth (INC) 28,078
2016 Dharmadom Mambaram Divakaran (INC) 36,905
Personal life
He is married to Kamala Vijayan and has two children, Veena and Vivek. His wife is a retired teacher. Their son works in HSBC bank, in Abu Dhabi and daughter is in Bangalore, India where she manages a web startup. The family resides in the official residence of the Chief Minister at Trivandrum.
Controversies
The SNC Lavalin controversy in Kerala was a major allegation that rocked Kerala politics. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India report had stated that the deal Vijayan had struck[citation needed] as electricity minister in 1998 with Lavalin, a Canadian firm, for the repair of three generators, had cost the state exchequer a staggering Rs 375 crores. On 16 January 2007, Kerala High Court ordered a CBI enquiry into the SNC Lavalin case.[11] There are also reports that the CAG did not report any losses to state exchequer, but that the project did not yield commensurate gains.[12] On 21 January 2009, CBI filed a progress report on the investigation in the Kerala high court. Pinarayi Vijayan had been named as the 9th accused in the case.[13][14] CPI(M) backed Pinarayi saying that the CBI move was "politically motivated". Party viewed the implication of Pinarayi in the case is to settle scores with the CPM after the party withdrew its support to the UPA government.[14] The CPM led Kerala Government decided not to let Vijayan to be prosecuted in the case.[15] Over-ruling the cabinet recommendation, the Governor allowed CBI to prosecute Vijayan based on prima facie evidence.[16][17] Though CPI(M) called Governor's move un-constitutional, then Kerala Chief Minister V.S. Achuthanandan said there is nothing surprising or wrong in Governor's decision.[18][19][20][21] On 5 November 2013, the CBI special court discharged Pinarayi Vijayan and the others accused from the list of accused in the SNC-Lavalin Case. The court has allowed a plea made by Pinarayi Vijayan asking his name to be removed from the list of accused in the case. The court held that there isn't any proof of dishonest and fraudulent intentions, abuse of official position and cheating.
On 16 February 2007 the airport security in Chennai Airport recovered five bullets from Vijayan's baggage. The Chennai airport security let him off after receiving a faxed copy of his license.[22]
As CPI(M) state secretary, Pinarayi Vijayan demanded that the Catholic Church in Kerala withdraw a controversial pastoral letter. The letter recommended a "liberation struggle" on the lines of the one in the 1950s to liberate the education sector in Kerala from state control, so that the management could charge fees and capitation without government intervention.[23]
On 16 October 2007, Pinarayi called Paul Chitilapally, the bishop of Thamarassery in Kerala, a "wretched creature". He was speaking at a memorial remembrance of Mathai Chacko, MLA from Thamarassery and a CPI(M) member. He said "A lie is a lie, and just because it is uttered by a bishop it does not become a holy lie." Later, the Roman Catholic Church in Kerala was up in arms against the CPI(M) leadership for his comments against the bishop. However, he repeated the same and stuck to his comments. This led to heated discussion among the Catholic community across the state to protest against his speech by closing all educational institutions run by the church.[24][25]

Picture Gallery
Close up image of Pinarayi Vijayan
Pinarayi Vijayan inaugurating ESAF Small Finance Bank at Thrissur
Pinarayi Vijayan with the recipient of Vanita Ratnam Award 2018
Pinarayi Vijayan with police officers
References
Jump up ^ "A college that moulded the CM Pinarayi Vijayan, and many more". Deccan Chronicle. 21 May 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Vijayan celebrates birthday with media". Press Trust of India. 24 May 2016. Retrieved 24 May 2016. As per official records, the senior marxist leader said his birthday was on March 21, 1944. But his correct birth date was May 24, 1945, he said, adding, he was not going to change the official records.
Jump up ^ "Pinarayi Vijayan to be sworn-in as Kerala chief minister on May 25".
Jump up ^ "Pinarayi Vijayan, 72, Will Be Kerala Chief Minister, Not Achuthanandan, 92". NDTV.com. 20 May 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Pinarayi Vijayan, 72, Will Be Kerala Chief Minister, Not Achuthanandan, 92
^ Jump up to: a b Pinarayi Vijayan to be next chief minister of Kerala
Jump up ^ "'Profile of Pinarayi Vijayan'". Gulf News. 2016-05-20. Retrieved 2016-06-06.
^ Jump up to: a b "Pinarayi Vijayan". www.cpimkerala.org. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "A college that moulded the CM Pinarayi Vijayan, and many more". Deccan Chronicle. 21 May 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Achuthanandan, Pinarayi Vijayan suspended". Chennai, India: The Hindu. 27 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Kearala to go by HC order in Lavalin case". The Hindu Business Line. Archived from the original on 9 February 2009.
Jump up ^ "CAG finds lapses in deal with SNC Lavalin". The Hindu. 14 February 2006. Archived from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "CBI finds Pinarayi guilty in Lavalin scam, moralistic CPM yet to act". The Economic Times. 22 January 2009. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "CBI seeks nod to prosecute CPM's Kerala unit chief". The Indian Express. 22 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Kerala govt not to prosecute Vijayan in Lavlain case". The Times of India. 6 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Governor allows CBI to prosecute Vijayan". The Times of India. 8 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "CBI gets Governor nod to book Pinarayi". The Indian Express. 8 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "Kerala CM says governor not wrong, riles CPM". Times of India. 11 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "Rift in Kerala unit of CPIM widens". Business Standard. 19 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "Time for party to come to aid of Lavalin accused". Indian Express. 8 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Vijayan fund". Telegraphindia. 25 June 2009.
Jump up ^ "Act against Pinarayi: Chandy". The Hindu. 20 February 2007.
Jump up ^ "Pinarayi wants pastoral letter retracted". Gulf News.
Jump up ^ "Unfazed Pinarayi continues to attack bishop". The Economic Times. 17 October 2007.
Jump up ^ "Do not vitiate social climate, says Pinarayi". The Hindu. 17 October 2007.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pinarayi Vijayan.
Pinarayi Vijayan discusses the future of the left in India. Tehelka, Volume 12 Issue 17, Dated 25 April 2015.
Kerala Travel Mart
Political offices
Preceded by
Oommen Chandy Chief Minister of Kerala
25 May 2016 – Present Succeeded by
Incumbent
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values: بينارآيي فيجين – Arabic

values: पिनाराई विजयन – Hindi

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