text:
History of the kilt
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Highland chieftain Lord Mungo Murray wearing belted plaid, around 1680.
The history of the kilt stretches back to at least the end of the 16th century. The kilt first appeared as the belted plaid or great kilt, a full length garment whose upper half could be worn as a cloak draped over the shoulder, or brought up over the head as a hood. The small kilt or walking kilt (similar to the 'modern' kilt) did not develop until the late 17th or early 18th century, and is essentially the bottom half of the great kilt.
The word kilt comes from the Scots word kilt meaning to tuck up the clothes around the body, although the 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (vol. 15, p. 798) says the word is Scandinavian in origin. The Scots word derives from the Old Norse kjalta.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 The great kilt
2 The small kilt or walking kilt
3 Proscription and revival of the kilt
4 Military use
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
The great kilt[edit]
Highland soldier in 1744, an early picture of a Government Tartan great kilt, with the plaid being used to protect the musket lock from rain and wind.
The Breacan an Fhéilidh (belted plaid) or Feileadh Mòr (great plaid) is likely to have evolved over the course of the 16th century from the earlier 'brat' or woollen cloak (also known as a plaid) which was worn over a tunic. This earlier cloak or brat may have been plain in colour or in various check or tartan designs, depending on the wealth of the wearer; this earlier fashion of clothing had not changed significantly from that worn by Celtic warriors in Roman times.[2]
Over the course of the 16th century, with the increasing availability of wool, the cloak had grown to such a size that it began to be gathered up and belted. The belted plaid was originally a length of thick woollen cloth made up from two loom widths sewn together to give a total width of 54 to 60 inches, and up to 7 yards (6.4 m) in length. This garment, also known as the great kilt, was gathered up into pleats and secured by a wide belt.
Plaids with beltloops were in use by the 1700s. A surviving men's belted plaid from 1822 has belt loops sewn inside it at each pattern repeat, such that it can be unpleated entirely into a blanket, or rapidly pleated with a drawstring belt (with a second belt worn outside, to flatten the pleats, as in the portrait of Lord Mungo Murray above).[3]
The upper half could be worn as a cloak draped over the left shoulder, hung down over the belt and gathered up at the front, or brought up over the shoulders or head for protection against weather. It was worn over a léine (a full-sleeved garment stopping below the waist) and could also serve as a camping blanket.
A description from 1746 states:
The garb is certainly very loose, and fits men inured to it to go through great fatigues, to make very quick marches, to bear out against the inclemency of the weather, to wade through rivers, and shelter in huts, woods, and rocks upon occasion; which men dressed in the low country garb could not possibly endure.[4]
For battle it was customary to take off the kilt beforehand and set it aside, the Highland charge being made wearing only the léine or war shirt.
The exact age of the great kilt is still under debate. Earlier carvings or illustrations prior to the 16th century appearing to show the kilt may show the léine croich, a knee-length shirt of leather, linen or canvas, heavily pleated and sometimes quilted as protection. The earliest written source that definitely describes the belted plaid or great kilt comes from 1594.[2] The great kilt is mostly associated with the Scottish highlands, but was also used in poor lowland rural areas. Widespread use of this type of kilt continued into the 19th century, and some still wear it today.
The small kilt or walking kilt[edit]
Sometime in the late 17th or early 18th century the fèileadh beag (the small kilt), or filibeg, or philabeg, using a single width of cloth worn hanging down below the belt came into use, becoming popular throughout the Highlands and northern Lowlands by 1746, although the great kilt or belted plaid continued to be worn. The small kilt or philibeg is a development of the great kilt, being essentially the bottom half of the great kilt.
A letter written by Ivan Baillie in 1768 and published in the Edinburgh Magazine in March 1785 states that the garment people would recognize as a kilt today was invented in the 1720s by Thomas Rawlinson, a Quaker from Lancashire. After the Jacobite campaign of 1715 the government opened the Highlands to outside exploitation, and Rawlinson went into partnership with Ian MacDonnell, chief of the MacDonnells of Glengarry to manufacture charcoal from the forests near Inverness and smelt iron ore there. The belted plaid worn by the Highlanders he employed was too "cumbrous and unwieldy" for this work, so, together with the tailor of the regiment stationed at Inverness, Rawlinson produced a kilt which consisted of the lower half of the belted plaid worn as a "distinct garment with pleats already sewn". He wore it himself, as did his business partner, whose clansmen then followed suit.[5]
It has been suggested that there is evidence of Highlanders wearing only the bottom part of the belted plaid before this,[2] possibly as early as the 1690s,[2] but Rawlinson's is the earliest documented example with sewn-in pleats, a distinctive feature of the kilt worn today.
The tailored kilt was adopted by the Highland regiments of the British Army, and the military kilt and its formalised accessories passed into civilian usage during the early 19th century and has remained popular ever since.[2]
The earliest extant example of a tailored kilt is from 1792 (currently in the possession of the Scottish Tartans Authority).[6]
Proscription and revival of the kilt[edit]
Portrait by Henry Raeburn of Alexander Ranaldson MacDonell of Glengarry in 1812.
David Wilkie's 1829 flattering portrait of the kilted King George IV, with lighting chosen to tone down the brightness of his kilt and his knees shown bare, without the pink tights he actually wore at the event in 1822.
A characteristic of the Highland clan system was that clansmen felt loyalty only to God, their monarch, and their Chief. The Jacobite risings demonstrated the dangers to central government of such warrior Highland clans, and as part of a series of measures the government of King George II imposed the "Dress Act" in 1746, outlawing all items of Highland dress including kilts (although an exception was made for the Highland Regiments) with the intent of suppressing highland culture. The penalties were severe; six months' imprisonment for the first offense and seven years' transportation for the second. The ban remained in effect for 35 years.
Satirical caricature of European women curious about kilted Scottish soldiers, c. 1815
Thus, with the exception of the Army, the kilt went out of use in the Scottish Highlands, but during those years it became fashionable for Scottish romantics to wear kilts as a form of protest against the ban. This was an age that romanticized "primitive" peoples, which is how Highlanders were viewed. Most Lowlanders had viewed Highlanders with fear before 1745, but many identified with them after their power was broken. The kilt, along with other features of Gaelic culture, had become identified with Jacobitism, and now that this had ceased to be a real danger it was viewed with romantic nostalgia.
Once the ban was lifted in 1782, Highland landowners set up Highland Societies with aims including "Improvements" (which others would call the Highland clearances) and promoting "the general use of the ancient Highland dress". The Celtic Society of Edinburgh, chaired by Walter Scott, encouraged lowlanders to join this antiquarian enthusiasm.
The kilt became identified with the whole of Scotland with the pageantry of the visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822, even though 9 out of 10 Scots now lived in the Lowlands. Scott and the Highland societies organised a "gathering of the Gael" and established entirely new Scottish traditions, including Lowlanders wearing a stylised version of the traditional garment of the Highlanders. At this time many other traditions such as clan identification by tartan were developed (prior to this, tartans were identified with regions, not specific clans).
After that point the kilt gathered momentum as an emblem of Scottish culture as identified by antiquarians, romantics, and others, who spent much effort praising the "ancient" and natural qualities of the kilt. King George IV had appeared in a spectacular kilt, and his successor Queen Victoria dressed her boys in the kilt, widening its appeal. The kilt became part of the Scottish national identity and the wider Celtic identity.
Military use[edit]
An officer of the Black Watch c. 1743
From 1624 the Independent Companies of Highlanders had worn kilts as government troops, and with their formation into the Highland regiment in 1739 their great kilt uniform was standardised with a new dark tartan.
Many Jacobite rebels adopted kilts as an informal uniform, with even their English supporters wearing tartan items during the Jacobite rising of 1745. In the aftermath of that rebellion the Government decided to form more Highland regiments for the army in order to direct the energies of Gaels, that "hardy and intrepid race of men".[7] In doing so they formed effective new army regiments to send to fight in India, North America, and other locations while lowering the possibility of rebellion at home. Army uniforms were exempt from the ban on wearing kilts in the "Dress Act", and as a means of identification the regiments were given different tartans. These regiments opted for the modern kilts for dress uniforms, and while the great kilt remained as undress uniform this was phased out by the early 19th century.
Men of the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders man a bunker at Aix, France (1939)
Many Scottish units wore the kilt in combat during the First World War. In particular, the ferocious tactics of the Black Watch led to their acquiring the nickname "Ladies from Hell" from the German troops that faced them in the trenches.[citation needed] The Highland regiments of the Commonwealth armies entered the Second World War wearing the kilt, but it was rapidly recognized as impractical for modern warfare, and in the first year of the war was officially banned as combat dress. Nonetheless, individual exceptions continued, and it is believed the kilt was last widely worn in action at the evacuation of Dunkirk in May 1940. However, on D-Day, June 1944, Lord Lovat, commander of 1 Special Service Brigade, was accompanied by his personal piper Bill Millin, who wore a kilt — and played the bagpipes — while German bullets whizzed around him.[8]
The kerns of gaelic Ireland wore the long léine, or "saffron shirt" (often misinterpreted as a kilt in depictions) may have had connections with the predecessor of the modern kilt.[9] This tradition has been continued in the pipe bands of the Republic of Ireland's defence forces.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "kilt". Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2008-08-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Newsome, Matthew Allen, The Early History of the Kilt, The Scottish Tartans Museum .
Jump up ^ Sir John Murray MacGregor's 1822 plaid Archived 5 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Forbes, Lord Culloden, Duncan (1815), Culloden Papers, London: T Cadell & W Davies, p. 289 .
Jump up ^ Hobsbawm & Ranger 1983, pp. 22–23.
Jump up ^ Tartans Authority .
Jump up ^ "Introduction". Lineage of the Scottish Regiments. Scottish Military History Society. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 6 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Bill Millin, piper at the D-Day landings, died on August 17th, aged 88". The Economist. 28 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Reconstructing History .
References[edit]
Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1983), "The Highland Tradition of Scotland", in Hobsbawm, Eric; Ranger, Terence, The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 15–42, ISBN 0-521-24645-8 .
Dunbar, John Telfer (1962), History of Highland Dress: A Definitive Study of the History of Scottish Costume and Tartan, both Civil and Military, Including Weapons: With an Appendix on Early Scottish Dyes, Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, ISBN 0-7134-1894-X .
External links[edit]
Late 17th-century belted plaid
"We will remember", War detectives . Heroic and overlooked involvement in Dunkirk evacuation.
Irish Air Corps Pipe Band, IE: Military .
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_kilt&oldid=821193456"
Categories:
Scottish dress
History of clothing (Europe)
Social history of Scotland
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Use dmy dates from March 2012
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
ไทย
Edit links
This page was last edited on 18 January 2018, at 23:31.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: class style

value: b

values: Edit section: The small kilt or walking kilt

values:
/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends
mw-redirect
Religious Society of Friends

values:
/wiki/Clan_MacDonnell_of_Glengarry
mw-redirect
Clan MacDonnell of Glengarry

values: Edit section: Proscription and revival of the kilt

values:
/wiki/Alexander_Ranaldson_MacDonell
mw-redirect
Alexander Ranaldson MacDonell

values:
/wiki/King_George_IV
mw-redirect
King George IV

values:
/wiki/Highland_clearances
mw-redirect
Highland clearances

values:
/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom
mw-redirect
Victoria of the United Kingdom

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/1_Special_Service_Brigade
mw-redirect
1 Special Service Brigade

values:
nofollow
http://www.tartansauthority.com/
external text

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2016

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/History_of_the_kilt
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: ประวัติของคิลต์ – Thai

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-History_of_the_kilt rootpage-History_of_the_kilt skin-vector action-view


text:
Underground nuclear weapons testing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Preparation for an underground nuclear test at the Nevada Test Site in the 1990s
Nuclear weapons
Background
History
Warfare
Design
Testing
Delivery
Yield
Effects and estimated megadeaths of explosions
Winter
Workers
Ethics
Arsenals
Arms race
Espionage
Proliferation
Disarmament
Terrorism
Opposition
Nuclear-armed states
NPT recognized
United States
Russia
United Kingdom
France
China
Others
India
Israel (undeclared)
Pakistan
North Korea
Former
South Africa
Belarus
Kazakhstan
Ukraine
v
t
e
Underground nuclear testing is the test detonation of nuclear weapons that is performed underground. When the device being tested is buried at sufficient depth, the explosion may be contained, with no release of radioactive materials to the atmosphere.
The extreme heat and pressure of an underground nuclear explosion causes changes in the surrounding rock. The rock closest to the location of the test is vaporised, forming a cavity. Farther away, there are zones of crushed, cracked, and irreversibly strained rock. Following the explosion, the rock above the cavity may collapse, forming a rubble chimney. If this chimney reaches the surface, a bowl-shaped subsidence crater may form.
The first underground test took place in 1951; further tests provided information that eventually led to the signing of the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which banned all nuclear tests except for those performed underground. From then until the signing of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty in 1996, most nuclear tests were performed underground, in order to prevent nuclear fallout from entering into the atmosphere.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Early history of underground testing
3 Effects
4 International treaties
4.1 Monitoring
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 Further reading
8 External links
Background[edit]
Although public concern about fallout from nuclear testing grew in the early 1950s,[1][2] fallout was discovered after the Trinity test in 1945.[2] Photographic film manufacturers would later report 'fogged' films; this was traced to packaging materials sourced from Indiana crops, contaminated by the Trinity and later tests at the Nevada Test Site, over 1,000 miles away.[2] Intense fallout from the 1953 Simon test was documented as far as Albany, New York.[2]
The fallout from the March 1954 Bravo test in the Pacific would have "scientific, political and social implications that have continued for more than 40 years".[3] The multi-megaton test caused fallout to occur on the islands of the Rongerik and Rongelap atolls, and a Japanese fishing boat known as the Daigo Fukuryū Maru (Lucky Dragon).[3] Prior to this test, there was "insufficient" appreciation of the dangers of fallout.[3]
The test became an international incident. In a PBS interview, the historian Martha Smith argued: "In Japan, it becomes a huge issue in terms of not just the government and its protest against the United States, but all different groups and all different peoples in Japan start to protest. It becomes a big issue in the media. There are all kinds of letters and protests that come from, not surprisingly, Japanese fishermen, the fishermen's wives; there are student groups, all different types of people; that protest against the Americans' use of the Pacific for nuclear testing. They're very concerned about, first of all, why the United States even has the right to be carrying out those kinds of tests in the Pacific. They're also concerned about the health and environmental impact."[4] The Prime Minister of India "voiced the heightened international concern" when he called for the elimination of all nuclear testing worldwide.[1]
Knowledge about fallout and its effects grew, and with it concern about the global environment and long-term genetic damage.[5] Talks between the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, and the Soviet Union began in May 1955 on the subject of an international agreement to end nuclear tests.[5] On August 5, 1963, representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, forbidding testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in space, and underwater.[6] Agreement was facilitated by the decision to allow underground testing, eliminating the need for on-site inspections that concerned the Soviets.[6] Underground testing was allowed, provided that it does not cause "radioactive debris to be present outside the territorial limits of the State under whose jurisdiction or control such explosion is conducted".[5]
Early history of underground testing[edit]
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Following analysis of underwater detonations that were part of Operation Crossroads in 1946, inquiries were made regarding the possible military value of an underground explosion.[7] The Joint Chiefs of Staff thus obtained the agreement of the Atomic Energy Commission to perform experiments on both surface and sub-surface detonations.[7] The island of Amchitka was initially selected for these tests in 1950, but the site was later deemed unsuitable and the tests were moved to the Nevada Test Site.[8]
Buster-Jangle Uncle, the first underground nuclear explosion
The first underground nuclear test was conducted on 29 November 1951.[9][10][11] This was the 1.2 kiloton Buster-Jangle Uncle,[12] which detonated 5.2 m (17 ft) beneath ground level.[10] The test was designed as a scaled-down investigation of the effects of a 23 kiloton ground penetrating gun-type device that was then being considered for use as a cratering and bunker-buster weapon.[13] The explosion resulted in a cloud that rose to 3,500 m (11,500 ft), and deposited fallout to the north and north-northeast.[14] The resulting crater was 79 m (260 ft) wide and 16 m (53 ft) deep.[13]
Teapot Ess
The next underground test was Teapot Ess, on 23 March 1955.[10] The 1 kiloton explosion was an operational test of an atomic demolition munition (ADM).[15] It was detonated 20.4 m (67 ft) underground, in a shaft lined with corrugated steel, which was then back-filled with sandbags and dirt.[16] Because the ADM was buried underground, the explosion blew tons of earth upwards,[15] creating a crater 91 m (300 ft) wide and 39 m (128 ft) deep.[16] The resulting mushroom cloud rose to a height of 3,657.6 m (12,000 ft) and subsequent radioactive fallout drifted in an easterly direction, travelling as far as 225 km (140 mi) from ground zero.[15]
On 26 July 1957, Plumbbob Pascal-A was detonated at the bottom of a 148 m (486 ft) shaft.[17][18] According to one description, it "ushered in the era of underground testing with a magnificent pyrotechnic Roman candle!"[19] As compared with an above-ground test, the radioactive debris released to the atmosphere was reduced by a factor of ten.[19] Theoretical work began on possible containment schemes.[19]
Dust raised by Plumbbob Rainier
Layout of the Plumbbob Rainier tunnel
Plumbbob Rainier was detonated at 899 ft underground on 19 September 1957.[17] The 1.7 kt explosion was the first to be entirely contained underground, producing no fallout.[20] The test took place in a 1,600[21] – 2,000 ft[22] horizontal tunnel in the shape of a hook.[22] The hook "was designed so explosive force will seal off the non-curved portion of tunnel nearest the detonation before gases and fission fragments can be vented around the curve of the tunnel's hook".[22] This test would become the prototype for larger, more powerful tests.[20] Rainier was announced in advance, so that seismic stations could attempt to record a signal.[23] Analysis of samples collected after the test enabled scientists to develop an understanding of underground explosions that "persists essentially unaltered today".[23] The information would later provide a basis for subsequent decisions to agree to the Limited Test Ban Treaty.[23]
Cannikin, the last test at the Amchitka facility, was detonated on 6 November 1971. At approximately 5 megatons, it was the largest underground test in US history.[24]
Effects[edit]
Relative crater sizes and shapes resulting from various burst depths
The effects of an underground nuclear test may vary according to factors including the depth and yield of the explosion, as well as the nature of the surrounding rock.[25] If the test is conducted at sufficient depth, the test is said to be contained, with no venting of gases or other contaminants to the environment.[25] In contrast, if the device is buried at insufficient depth ("underburied"), then rock may be expelled by the explosion, forming a crater surrounded by ejecta, and releasing high-pressure gases to the atmosphere (the resulting crater is usually conical in profile, circular, and may range between tens to hundreds of metres in diameter and depth[26]). One figure used in determining how deeply the device should be buried is the scaled depth of burial, or -burst.[25] This figure is calculated as the burial depth in metres divided by the cube root of the yield in kilotons. It is estimated that, in order to ensure containment, this figure should be greater than 100.[25][27]
Zones in surrounding rock
Name
Radius[26]
Melt cavity 4–12 m/kt1/3
Crushed zone 30–40 m/kt1/3
Cracked zone 80–120 m/kt1/3
Zone of irreversible strain 800–1100 m/kt1/3
The energy of the nuclear explosion is released in one microsecond. In the following few microseconds, the test hardware and surrounding rock are vaporised, with temperatures of several million degrees and pressures of several million atmospheres.[25] Within milliseconds, a bubble of high-pressure gas and steam is formed. The heat and expanding shock wave cause the surrounding rock to vaporise, or be melted further away, creating a melt cavity.[26] The shock-induced motion and high internal pressure cause this cavity to expand outwards, which continues over several tenths of a second until the pressure has fallen sufficiently, to a level roughly comparable with the weight of the rock above, and can no longer grow.[26] Although not observed in every explosion, four distinct zones (including the melt cavity) have been described in the surrounding rock. The crushed zone, about two times the radius of the cavity, consists of rock that has lost all of its former integrity. The cracked zone, about three times the cavity radius, consists of rock with radial and concentric fissures. Finally, the zone of irreversible strain consists of rock deformed by the pressure.[26] The following layer undergoes only an elastic deformation; the strain and subsequent release then forms a seismic wave. A few seconds later the molten rock starts collecting on the bottom of the cavity and the cavity content begins cooling. The rebound after the shock wave causes compressive forces to build up around the cavity, called a stress containment cage, sealing the cracks.[28]
Several minutes to days later, once the heat dissipates enough, the steam condenses, and the pressure in the cavity falls below the level needed to support the overburden, the rock above the void falls into the cavity. Depending on various factors, including the yield and characteristics of the burial, this collapse may extend to the surface. If it does, a subsidence crater is created.[26] Such a crater is usually bowl-shaped, and ranges in size from a few tens of metres to over a kilometre in diameter.[26] At the Nevada Test Site, 95 percent of tests conducted at a scaled depth of burial (SDOB) of less than 150 caused surface collapse, compared with about half of tests conducted at a SDOB of less than 180.[26] The radius r (in feet) of the cavity is proportional to the cube root of the yield y (in kilotons), r = 55 * y 3 {\displaystyle {\sqrt[{3}]{y}}} ; an 8 kiloton explosion will create a cavity with radius of 110 feet.[28]
Rubble mound formed by Whetstone Sulky
Other surface features may include disturbed ground, pressure ridges, faults, water movement (including changes to the water table level), rockfalls, and ground slump.[26] Most of the gas in the cavity is composed of steam; its volume decreases dramatically as the temperature falls and the steam condenses. There are however other gases, mostly carbon dioxide and hydrogen, which do not condense and remain gaseous. The carbon dioxide is produced by thermal decomposition of carbonates, hydrogen is created by reaction of iron and other metals from the nuclear device and surrounding equipment. The amount of carbonates and water in the soil and the available iron have to be considered in evaluating the test site containment; water-saturated clay soils may cause structural collapse and venting. Hard basement rock may reflect shock waves of the explosion, also possibly causing structural weakening and venting. The noncondensible gases may stay absorbed in the pores in the soil. Large amount of such gases can however maintain enough pressure to drive the fission products to the ground.[28]
Radioactivity release during Baneberry
Escape of radioactivity from the cavity is known as containment failure. Massive, prompt, uncontrolled releases of fission products, driven by the pressure of steam or gas, are known as venting; an example of such failure is the Baneberry test. Slow, low-pressure uncontrolled releases of radioactivity are known as seeps; these have little to no energy are not visible and have to be detected by instruments. Late-time seeps are releases of noncondensable gases days or weeks after the blast, by diffusion through pores and crack, probably assisted by a decrease of atmospheric pressure (so called atmospheric pumping). When the test tunnel has to be accessed, controlled tunnel purging is performed; the gases are filtered, diluted by air and released to atmosphere when the winds will disperse them over sparsely populated areas. Small activity leaks resulting from operational aspects of tests are called operational releases; they may occur e.g. during drilling into the explosion location during core sampling, or during the sampling of explosion gases. The radionuclide composition differs by the type of releases; large prompt venting releases significant fraction (up to 10%) of fission products, while late-time seeps contain only the most volatile gases. Soil absorbs the reactive chemical compounds, so the only nuclides filtered through soil into the atmosphere are the noble gases, primarily krypton-85 and xenon-133.[28]
The released nuclides can undergo bioaccumulation. Iodine-131, strontium-90 and caesium-137 are concentrated in milk of grazing cows; cow milk is therefore a convenient, sensitive fallout indicator. Soft tissues of animals can be analyzed for gamma emitters, bones and liver for strontium and plutonium, and blood, urine and soft tissues are analyzed for tritium.[28]
Although there were early concerns about earthquakes arising as a result of underground tests, there is no evidence that this has occurred.[25] However, fault movements and ground fractures have been reported, and explosions often precede a series of aftershocks, thought to be a result of cavity collapse and chimney formation. In a few cases, seismic energy released by fault movements has exceeded that of the explosion itself.[25]
International treaties[edit]
Signed in Moscow on August 5, 1963 by representatives of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, the Limited Test Ban Treaty agreed to ban nuclear testing in the atmosphere, in space, and underwater.[6] Due to the Soviet government's concern about the need for the on-site inspections, underground tests were excluded from the ban.[6] 108 countries would eventually sign the treaty, with the significant exception of China.[29]
In 1974, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the Threshold Test Ban Treaty, which banned underground tests with yields greater than 150 kilotons.[30] By the 1990s, technologies to monitor and detect underground tests had matured to the point that tests of one kiloton or over could be detected with high probability, and in 1996 negotiations began under the auspices of the United Nations to develop a comprehensive test ban.[29] The resulting Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty was signed in 1996 by the United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, and China.[29] However, following the United States Senate decision not to ratify the treaty in 1999, it is still yet to be ratified by 8 of the required 44 'Annex 2' states and so has not entered into force as United Nations law.
Monitoring[edit]
In the late 1940s, the United States began to develop the capability to detect atmospheric testing using air sampling; this system was able to detect the first Soviet test in 1949.[30] Over the next decade, this system was improved, and a network of seismic monitoring stations was established to detect underground tests.[30] Development of the Threshold Test Ban Treaty in the mid-1970s led to an improved understanding of the relationship between test yield and resulting seismic magnitude.[30]
When negotiations began in the mid-1990s to develop a comprehensive test ban, the international community was reluctant to rely upon the detection capabilities of individual nuclear weapons states (especially the United States), and instead wanted an international detection system.[30] The resulting International Monitoring System consists of a network of a total of 321 monitoring stations and 16 radionuclide laboratories.[31] Fifty "primary" seismic stations send data continuously to the International Data Center, along with 120 "auxiliary" stations which send data on request. The resulting data is used to locate the epicentre, and distinguish between the seismic signatures of an underground nuclear explosion and an earthquake.[30][32] Additionally, eighty radionuclide stations detect radioactive particles vented by underground explosions. Certain radionuclides constitute clear evidence of nuclear tests; the presence of noble gases can indicate whether an underground explosion has taken place.[33] Finally, eleven hydroacoustic stations[34] and sixty infrasound stations[35] monitor underwater and atmospheric tests.
See also[edit]
Subsidence crater
List of induced seismicity events
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "History of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)". The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ortmeyer, Pat; Makhijani, Arjun (November–December 1997). "Worse Than We Know". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. External link in |journal= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c Eisenbud, Merril (July 1997). "Monitoring distant fallout: The role of the Atomic Energy Commission Health and Safety Laboratory during the Pacific tests, with special attention to the events following Bravo" (PDF). Health Physics. 73 (1): 21–27. doi:10.1097/00004032-199707000-00002. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 14, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Martha Smith on: The Impact of the Bravo Test". Public Broadcasting Service.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water". US Department of State.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "JFK in History: Nuclear Test Ban Treaty". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
^ Jump up to: a b Gladeck, F; Johnson A. (1986). For the Record – A History of the Nuclear Test Personnel Review Program, 1978–1986 (DNA 601F). Defense Nuclear Agency.
Jump up ^ "Amchitka Island, Alaska: Potential U.S. Department of Energy site responsibilities (DOE/NV-526)" (PDF). Department of Energy. December 1998. Retrieved 2006-10-09.
Jump up ^ "Today in Technology History: November 29". The Center for the Study of Technology and Society.
^ Jump up to: a b c Adushkin, Vitaly V.; Leith, William (September 2001). "USGS Open File Report 01-312: Containment of Soviet underground nuclear explosions" (PDF). US Department of the Interior Geological Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-09.
Jump up ^ Some sources identify later tests as the "first". Adushkin (2001) defines such a test as "the near-simultaneous detonation of one or more nuclear charges inside one underground excavation (a tunnel, shaft or borehole)", and identifies Uncle as the first.
Jump up ^ Some sources refer to the test as Jangle Uncle (e.g., Adushkin, 2001) or Project Windstorm (e.g., DOE/NV-526, 1998). Operation Buster and Operation Jangle were initially conceived as separate operations, and Jangle was at first known as Windstorm, but the AEC merged the plans into a single operation on 19 June 1951. See Gladeck, 1986.
^ Jump up to: a b "Operation Buster-Jangle". The Nuclear Weapons Archive.
Jump up ^ Ponton, Jean; et al. (June 1982). Shots Sugar and Uncle: The final tests of the Buster-Jangle series (DNA 6025F) (PDF). Defense Nuclear Agency. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c Ponton, Jean; et al. (November 1981). Shots Ess through Met and Shot Zucchini: The final Teapot tests (DNA 6013F) (PDF). Defense Nuclear Agency.
^ Jump up to: a b "Operation Teapot". The Nuclear Weapons Archive.
^ Jump up to: a b "Operation Plumbbob". The Nuclear Weapons Archive.
Jump up ^ According to the Nuclear Weapons Archive, the yield is described as "slight", but was approximately 55 tons.
^ Jump up to: a b c Campbell, Bob; et al. (1983). "Field Testing: The Physical Proof of Design Principles" (PDF). Los Alamos Science.
^ Jump up to: a b "Operation Plumbbob". Department of Energy.
Jump up ^ Rollins, Gene (2004). ORAU Team: NIOSH Dose Reconstruction Project (PDF). Centers for Disease Control.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Plumbbob Photographs" (PDF). Los Alamos National Laboratory.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Accomplishments in the 1950s". Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
Jump up ^ Miller, Pam. "Nuclear Flashback: Report of a Greenpeace Scientific Expedition to Amchitka Island, Alaska – Site of the Largest Underground Nuclear Test in U.S. History" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 28, 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-09.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g McEwan, A. C. (1988). "Environmental effects of underground nuclear explosions". In Goldblat, Jozef; Cox, David. Nuclear Weapon Tests: Prohibition Or Limitation?. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–79. ISBN 0-19-829120-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Hawkins, Wohletz (1996). "Visual Inspection for CTBT Verification" (PDF). Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Jump up ^ Hawkins and Wohletz specify a figure of 90–125.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2010-02-08.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Making of the Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1958–1963". The George Washington University.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f National Academy of Sciences (2002). Technical Issues Related to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. National Academies. ISBN 0-309-08506-3.
Jump up ^ "An Overview of the Verification Regime". Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization.
Jump up ^ "Verification Technologies: Seismology". Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization.
Jump up ^ "Verification Technologies: Radionuclide". Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization.
Jump up ^ "Verification Technologies: Hydroacoustics". Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization.
Jump up ^ "Verification Technologies: Infrasound". Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization.
Further reading[edit]
"The Containment of Underground Nuclear Explosions", Project Director Gregory E van der Vink, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-ISC-414, (Oct 1989).
IAEA review of the 1968 book: The constructive uses of nuclear explosions by Edward Teller.
External links[edit]
http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/pdf/3_3-4Adushkin.pdf
Nuclear Pursuits, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September/October 2003
http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications.html
http://www.ingv.it/~roma/SITOINGLESE/research_projects/CTBTO/explosions.html
http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/intro/ugt.htm
https://fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/ugt-nts.htm
http://www.atomictraveler.com/UndergroundTestOTA.pdf
http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1215_web.pdf
The Soviet Program for Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Explosions, M. D. Nordyke, UCRL-ID-12441O Rev 2
https://web.archive.org/web/20090227073933/http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/effects/effects.shtml

[show]
v
t
e
Nuclear technology
Science
Chemistry
Engineering
Physics
Atomic nucleus
Fission
Fusion
Radiation
ionizing
braking
Fuel
Tritium
Deuterium
Helium-3
Fertile material
Fissile material
Isotope separation
Nuclear material
Uranium
enriched
depleted
Plutonium
Thorium
Neutron
Activation
Capture
Poison
Cross section
Generator
Radiation
Reflector
Temperature
Thermal
Fast
Fusion
Power
by country
Power plant
Economics
Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
Accidents and incidents
Policy
Fusion
Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)
Propulsion
rocket
Safety and security
Medicine
Imaging
RadBall
Scintigraphy
Single-photon emission (SPECT)
Positron-emission tomography (PET)
Therapy
Fast-neutron
Neutron capture therapy of cancer
Targeted alpha-particle
Proton-beam
Tomotherapy
Brachytherapy
Radiation therapy
Radiosurgery
Radiopharmacology
Weapons
Topics
Arms race
Delivery
Design
Disarmament
Ethics
Explosion
effects
History
Proliferation
Testing
high-altitude
underground
Warfare
Yield
TNTe
Lists
Estimated death tolls from attacks
States with nuclear weapons
Tests
United States
WMD treaties
Weapon-free zones
Weapons
Waste
Products
Actinide
Reprocessed uranium
Reactor-grade plutonium
Minor actinide
Activation
Fission
LLFP
Actinide chemistry
Disposal
Fuel cycle
High-level (HLW)
Low-level (LLW)
Repository
Reprocessing
Spent fuel
pool
cask
Transmutation
Debate
Nuclear power
Nuclear weapons
Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future
Anti-nuclear movement
Uranium mining
Nuclear power phase-out
[hide]
Nuclear reactors
[show]
Fission
Moderator
Light water
Aqueous homogeneous
Boiling
BWR
ABWR
ESBWR
Kerena
Pressurized
ACPR-1000
AP1000
APR-1400
APR+
APWR
ATMEA1
CAP1400
CPR-1000
EPR
HPR-1000
VVER
many others
Supercritical (SCWR)
Natural fission
Heavy water
Pressurized (PHWR)
CANDU
CANDU 6
CANDU 9
EC6
AFCR
ACR-1000
AHWR
Steam-generating (SGHWR)
WR-1
Graphite
by coolant
Water
H2O
RBMK
EGP-6
Gas
CO2
Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz (UNGG)
Magnox
Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
He
Ultra-high-temperature experiment (UHTREX)
Pebble-bed (PBMR) (HTR-PM)
Gas-turbine modular-helium (GTMHR)
Very-high-temperature (VHTR)
Molten-salt
Fluorides
Fuji MSR
Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
None
(fast-neutron)
Breeder (FBR)
Integral (IFR)
Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
Traveling-wave (TWR)
Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
Generation IV
Sodium (SFR)
BN-600
BN-800
BN-1200
PFBR
CEFR
Lead (LFR)
Helium gas (GFR)
PRISM
Others
Organically moderated and cooled reactor
Aircraft Reactor Experiment
[show]
Fusion
by confinement
Magnetic
Field-reversed configuration
Levitated dipole
Reversed field pinch
Spheromak
Stellarator
Tokamak
Inertial
Bubble (acoustic)
Fusor
electrostatic
Laser-driven
Magnetized-target
Z-pinch
Other
Dense plasma focus
Migma
Muon-catalyzed
Polywell
Pyroelectric
Category
Portal
Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing&oldid=822392933"
Categories:
Nuclear weapons testing
Underground nuclear weapons testing
Hidden categories:
CS1 errors: external links
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from January 2018
Articles with permanently dead external links
Articles with limited geographic scope from December 2010
USA-centric
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Français
हिन्दी
Edit links
This page was last edited on 26 January 2018, at 03:10.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

attrs: href title

value: th

value: tr

values: Replica of the "Fat Man" nuclear bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, on August 9, 1945

value: td

values: List of estimated death tolls from nuclear attacks on cities

values: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

values: United States and weapons of mass destruction

values: United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction

values: Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction

values: North Korea and weapons of mass destruction

values: South Africa and weapons of mass destruction

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width:;

values:
/wiki/Nuclear_testing
mw-redirect
Nuclear testing

values:
/wiki/Radioactive_material
mw-redirect
Radioactive material

values:
/wiki/Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty
mw-redirect
Partial Test Ban Treaty

values:
/wiki/Comprehensive_Test_Ban_Treaty
mw-redirect
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty

values:
/wiki/Trinity_Test
mw-redirect
Trinity Test

values: Edit section: Early history of underground testing

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias

values: Talk:Underground nuclear weapons testing

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize

values:
/wiki/Operation_Buster-Jangle
mw-redirect
Operation Buster-Jangle

values:
/wiki/Atomic_Demolition_Munition
mw-redirect
Atomic Demolition Munition

values:
/wiki/Radioactive_fallout
mw-redirect
Radioactive fallout

values:
/wiki/Elastic_deformation
mw-redirect
Elastic deformation

values: vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:3.091ex; height:3.009ex;

values:
/wiki/Core_sampling
mw-redirect
Core sampling

values:
/wiki/List_of_induced_seismicity_events
mw-redirect
List of induced seismicity events

values:
nofollow
external text
http://thebulletin.org

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/4797.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA306360

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Thermal_neutron
mw-redirect
Thermal neutron

values:
/wiki/Fast_neutron
mw-redirect
Fast neutron

values:
/wiki/Fusion_neutron
mw-redirect
Fusion neutron

values: Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents

values: Single-photon emission computed tomography

values: List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States

values: List of weapons of mass destruction treaties

values: Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor

values:
/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor
mw-redirect
Kerena boiling water reactor

values:
/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor
mw-redirect
Heavy-water reactor

values:
/wiki/Advanced_gas-cooled_reactor
mw-redirect
Advanced gas-cooled reactor

values:
/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor
mw-redirect
Fast breeder reactor

values: Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor

values: Organically moderated and cooled reactor

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup

values: nowraplinks collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Underground nuclear weapons testing

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from January 2018

values: Category:Articles with permanently dead external links

values: Category:Articles with limited geographic scope from December 2010

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: भूमिगत परमाणु परीक्षण – Hindi

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing rootpage-Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing skin-vector action-view


text:
French nationality law
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Parliament of France
An Act relating to French citizenship
Enacted by
Government of France
Status: Current legislation
French nationality law is historically based on the principles of jus soli (Latin for "right of soil"), according to Ernest Renan's definition, in opposition to the German definition of nationality, jus sanguinis (Latin for "right of blood"), formalized by Johann Gottlieb Fichte.
The 1993 Méhaignerie Law required children born in France of foreign parents to request French nationality at adulthood, rather than being automatically accorded citizenship. This "manifestation of will" requirement was subsequently abrogated by the Guigou Law of 1998,[1] but children born in France of foreign parents remain foreign until obtaining legal majority.
Children born in France to tourists or other short-term visitors do not acquire French citizenship by virtue of birth in France: residency must be proven. Since immigration became increasingly a political theme in the 1980s, both left-wing and right-wing governments have issued several laws restricting the possibilities of being naturalized.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 19th Century
1.1.1 Third Republic
2 Acquisition of citizenship
2.1 French citizenship by birth in metropolitan France and its overseas territories
2.2 French citizenship by birth abroad to at least one French citizen
2.3 French citizenship by birth in France
2.4 French citizenship by adoption
2.5 French citizenship by naturalization
2.5.1 Eligibility resulting from residency
2.5.2 Eligibility resulting from marriage to a French citizen
2.5.3 Eligibility resulting from service in the French Foreign Legion
3 French citizenship and identity
3.1 Rights and obligations of French citizens
4 Travel freedom of French citizens
5 Dual citizenship
6 Citizenship of the European Union
7 Denaturalization
8 Previous law: Article 21-19(5º)
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
History[edit]
French nationality and citizenship were concepts that existed even before the French Revolution.
19th Century[edit]
There are three key dates in the legal history of naturalization:
Naturalization
Year
Event
1804 Civil Code, which allowed the possibility of naturalization.
1851 third generation immigrants (those with one parent born on French soil) were allowed to naturalize.
1889 second generation immigrants (those born on French soil) were allowed to naturalize once they reached the age of majority.
Third Republic[edit]
Military service and state education were two processes central to the creation of a common national culture. Military conscription (universal from 1872, in theory if not in practice) brought inhabitants of the state's regions together for the first time, creating bonds of friendship and encouraging the use of French rather than regional languages. Universal education (the aim of the Jules Ferry Laws, 1879–1886) brought the whole of the population into contact with state-sanctioned version of French history and identity. State teachers, the "Black hussars of the Republic,"[2] conveyed the national language to the people of the regions.
Acquisition of citizenship[edit]
There are various ways a person can acquire French citizenship, either at birth or later on in life.
The attribution of French nationality can be due to filiation. (Jus sanguinis)
The attribution of French nationality can be given by birth in France (Jus soli) if other requirements (such as residence in France) are also met.
French citizenship by birth in metropolitan France and its overseas territories[edit]
Children born in France (including overseas territories) to at least one parent who is also born in France automatically acquire French citizenship at birth (double jus soli).
A child born in France to foreign parents may acquire French citizenship:[3]
at birth, if stateless.
at 18, if resident in France with at least 5 years' residence since age 11.
between 16 and 18 upon request by the child and if resident in France with at least 5 years' residence since age 11.
between 13 and 16 upon request by the child's parents and if resident in France continuously since age 8.
if born in France of parents born before independence in a colony/territory in the past under French sovereignty.
at birth, if born in France before January 1, 1994.
at age 18, if born in France on or after January 1, 1994.
A child who was born abroad and who has only one French parent can repudiate their French nationality during the six months prior to their reaching the age of majority, or in the year which follows it (article 19-4 of the Civil Code).
French citizenship by birth abroad to at least one French citizen[edit]
The child (legitimate or natural) is French if at least one parent is French.
In the case of an adoption, the child has French nationality only under the "full adoption" regime.
Parentage to the parent from whom the French nationality is claimed, must be established while the child is still a minor (under 18).
When the child is born abroad from a French parent, it is essential for the French parent to record the birth of the child in the French civil register. In the event of litigation or to establish definitive proof of French nationality (or request a French passport) French nationality may be established by petitioning for a French nationality certificate from the Tribunal d'Instance (local court) of the person's place of residence, or if residing abroad, via the French Nationality Office in Paris[4] having jurisdiction over French person's residing abroad.
French citizenship by birth in France[edit]
The child (legitimate or natural) is French if born in France to at least one parent also born in France.
Simply being born in France does not confer French nationality except in the case of a child born to unknown or stateless parents, or to aliens whose nationality is not transmitted to the child.
A child born in France before January 1, 1994, to a parent born in a former French overseas territory prior to its acquisition of independence, is automatically French. The same is true for a child born after 1 January 1963, to a parent born in Algeria before July 3, 1962.
French citizenship by adoption[edit]
Plenary adoption is the only act of filiation which carries direct effects on nationality. Unlike the process of simple adoption, a child adopted according to the procedure of plenary adoption breaks any bond with his family of origin.[5]
Filiation must be established while the child is a minor to take effect. Consequently, the recognition of a child older than the age of majority has no effect on his or her nationality.
French citizenship by naturalization[edit]
Eligibility resulting from residency[edit]
A person aged 18 or above may apply for French citizenship by naturalization after five years' habitual and continuous residence in France (if married and with children, then the applicant must be living in France with his/her family).[6] In addition, it is required that the applicant has his/her primary source of income in France during the five-year period. Those applying who are not European Union, European Economic Area or Swiss nationals are required to be in possession of a "titre de séjour" (a residence permit).
The residence period may be completely waived for those who have served in the French military, for refugees, or in other exceptional cases.[7]
The residence period can be reduced to two years for a person who has completed two years of higher education and successfully obtained a qualification in France or who has rendered exceptional service to France through his/her talents and abilities.[7]
The residence period is counted backwards from the date on which the applicant lodged his/her naturalization application.
The applicant must show that he/she has been residing legally in France during the 5 or 2 year residence period. Any periods of irregular residence in France before the 5 or 2 year residence period will not be taken into account when the application is considered. If the applicant's residence period is completely waived, he/she must have resided legally in France in the 2 years immediately preceding the date on which he/she lodged his/her naturalization application.[8]
Naturalization will only be successful for those who are judged to have integrated into French society (i.e. by virtue of language skills and understanding of rights and responsibilities of a French citizen, to be demonstrated during an interview at the local prefecture, as well as an ability and/or potential to integrate in the labour market), and who respect the values of French society. The applicant must also be of good character (no criminal offences with a sentence of 6 months' imprisonment or more and no tax avoidance). In assessing the applicant's character, the decision reached must be proportionate (for example, a naturalization application should not be rejected solely because the applicant occasionally declared/paid taxes late).[9]
Naturalization through residency is accorded by publication of a decree in the Journal Officiel by decision of the Home Ministry and the prefecture of the region where the applicant has submitted his/her application. There is an obligatory delay of 12 months from the date of submission before the applicant is notified of the result of his/her naturalisation application.
Eligibility resulting from marriage to a French citizen[edit]
The spouse of a French national can apply for nationality, and must be able to prove that they have been married for five years and live together, (four years if the couple can prove continuous residence in France for three years since the wedding, or if when living abroad, the French spouse has been registered as a French citizen living abroad (article 79 of law 2006-911 published in the JO of 25/07/2006).) The applicant must also have a good knowledge of the French language, spoken and written, and the couple must appear in person together to sign documents.[10]
Eligibility resulting from service in the French Foreign Legion[edit]
Foreign nationals may apply for naturalization after three years of service in the French Foreign Legion, a wing of the French Army that is open to men of any nationality. Furthermore, a soldier wounded in battle during Legion service may immediately apply for naturalization under the principle of "Français par le sang versé" ("French by spilled blood").[11]
French citizenship and identity[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
According to the French Republic, the French people are those who are in possession of French nationality. According to the French Constitution, "France shall be an indivisible, secular, democratic and social Republic. It shall ensure the equality of all citizens before the law, without distinction of origin, race or religion. It shall respect all beliefs. It shall be organised on a decentralised basis." Article 1
Since the middle of the 19th century, France has exhibited a very high rate of immigration, mainly from Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Maghreb, Africa and Asia. According to a 2004 report by INED researcher Michèle Tribalat France has approximately 14 million persons (out of nearly 63 million) (see demographics of France) of foreign ascendancy (immigrants or with at least one parent or grandparent immigrant).
The absence of official statistics on French citizens of foreign origin is deliberate. Under French law passed after the Vichy regime, it is forbidden to categorize people according to their ethnic origins. In France, like in many other European countries, censuses do not collect information on supposed ancestry. Moreover, all French statistics are forbidden to have any references concerning ethnic membership. Thus, the French government's assimilationist stance towards immigration as well as towards regional identities and cultures, together with the political heritage of the French Revolution has led to the development of a French identity which is based more on the notion of citizenship than on cultural, historical or ethnic ties.
For that reason, French identity must not necessarily be associated with the "ethnic French people" but can be associated with either a nationality and citizenship, or a culture and language-based group. The latter forms the basis for La Francophonie, a group of French-speaking countries, or countries with historical and cultural association to France. The concept of "French ethnicity" exists outside France's borders, in particular in Quebec where some people claim membership to a "French ethnic group", but again many view it as not so much ethnicity-based as language-based and would also include immigrants from, for example, Lebanon and Haiti. France's particular self-perception means that French identity may include a naturalized, French-speaking ethnic Portuguese, Italian, Spaniard, Poles, Romanian, Lebanese, Vietnamese, Tunisian, Algerian or Moroccan. Nonetheless, like in other European countries, some level of discrimination occurs, and there are higher unemployment rates among job-seekers with foreign-sounding names.
Rights and obligations of French citizens[edit]
In modern France, in general, the rights are fundamentally the same as those in other EU countries.
Despite the official discourse of universality, French nationality has not meant automatic citizenship. Some categories of French people have been excluded, throughout the years, from full citizenship:
Women: Until the Liberation, they were deprived of the right to vote. The provisional government of General de Gaulle accorded them this right by the April 21, 1944 prescription.[12]
Military: For a long time, the military was called the Grande muette ("The Big Mute") in reference to its prohibition against interfering in political life. During a large part of the Third Republic (1871–1940), the Army was in the main anti-republican (and thus counterrevolutionary), the Dreyfus Affair and the May 16, 1877 crisis that led to a monarchist coup d'état by MacMahon being examples of this anti-republican spirit. That character of the military would make them gain the right to vote only after the August 17, 1945 prescription, the contribution of De Gaulle to the interior French Resistance, which reconciled the Army with the Republic. Nevertheless, the members of the military do not benefit from all public liberties, as the July 13, 1972 law on the general statute of militaries specifies.
Young people: The July 1974 law instituted at the instigation of president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing reduced the coming of age to 18, which thus made some teenagers full citizens.
Naturalized foreigners: Since January 9, 1973, foreigners who have acquired French nationality do not have to wait five years after their naturalization to be able to vote.
Inhabitants of the colonies: The May 7, 1946 law stated that soldiers from the "Empire" (such as the tirailleurs) killed during World War I and World War II were not citizens.[13]
Modern citizenship is linked to civic participation (also called positive freedom), which includes voting, demonstrations, petitions, activism, etc.
Travel freedom of French citizens[edit]
Main article: Visa requirements for French citizens
Visa requirements for French citizens
Visa requirements for French citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of France. As of May 2018, French citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 187 countries and territories, ranking the French passport 3rd in terms of travel freedom (tied with the Finnish, Italian, South Korean, Spanish, and Swedish passports) according to the Henley Passport Index.[14]
Dual citizenship[edit]
Dual citizenship was officially recognized for both men and women on 9 January 1973; since then, possession of more than one nationality does not affect French nationality.[15][16] In the period of 9 April 1954 until 8 January 1973, only French men younger than the age of 50 were permitted to have dual citizenship, while a woman lost her French citizenship upon the acquisition of a foreign citizenship.[17][18] France later denounced Chapter I of the Council of Europe Convention on the Reduction of Cases of Multiple Nationality and on Military Obligations in Cases of Multiple Nationality of May 6, 1963. The denunciation took effect March 5, 2009. [19]
Citizenship of the European Union[edit]
Because France forms part of the European Union, French citizens are also citizens of the European Union under European Union law and thus enjoy rights of free movement and have the right to vote in elections for the European Parliament.[20] When in a non-EU country where there is no French embassy, French citizens have the right to get consular protection from the embassy of any other EU country present in that country.[21][22] French citizens can live and work in any country within the EU as a result of the right of free movement and residence granted in Article 21 of the EU Treaty.[23]
Denaturalization[edit]
According to Giorgio Agamben, France was one of the first European countries to pass denaturalization laws, in 1915, with regard to naturalized citizens of "enemy" origins. Its example was followed by most European countries.
As early as July 1940, Vichy France set up a special Commission charged with reviewing the naturalizations granted since the 1927 reform of the nationality law. Between June 1940 and August 1944, 15,000 persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalized.[24] This bureaucratic designation was instrumental in their subsequent internment and murder.
Previous law: Article 21-19(5º)[edit]
In 2001, as Bill Clinton finished his second term as President of the U.S. (the legal limit of terms under the U.S. Constitution), a theory was published by CNN that he could claim citizenship of France and run for leadership there.[25] The open-letter by historian Patrick Weil held that a little known "law, passed in 1961 [article 21-19(5º)], enables people from former French territories to apply for immediate naturalisation, bypassing the normal five-year residency requirement for would-be French citizens."[26] As Clinton was born in Arkansas which had been part of French Louisiana before it was sold to the US, it was held that he would qualify under this law. And as a naturalised French citizen, he could run in the French presidential election.
Clinton himself later repeated this claim in 2012 as an amusing thought when speaking to an interviewer.[27] Clinton had always dismissed the idea, and at the time of his retelling of the story in 2012, unknown to him, the possibility had already ended. This was because article 21-19(5º) of the Code civil was repealed (by article 82 of law 2006-911) on July 25, 2006 under the direction of Nicolas Sarkozy, who was then Minister of the Interior. Since "Weil's article made this provision of the French nationality law notorious, the French parliament abolished it".[28][29]
See also[edit]
French Foreign Legion
Immigration to France
Illegal immigration
History of French nationality
References[edit]
Jump up ^ French Embassy (in French)
Jump up ^ from Charles Péguy's L'Argent
Jump up ^ Vink, Maarten P.; de Groot, Gerard René (November 2010). "Birthright Citizenship: Trends and Regulation in Europe" (PDF). EUDO Citizenship Obvservatory.
Jump up ^ "Bureau de la nationalité - Annuaire | service-public.fr". lannuaire.service-public.fr (in French). Retrieved 2018-05-29.
Jump up ^ Civil Code of France, Article 343
Jump up ^ Le code civil des Français, Article 21-17
^ Jump up to: a b "Naturalisation". service-public.fr.
Jump up ^ "Circulaire INTK1207286C du 16 octobre 2012 relative aux procédures d'accès à la nationalité française" (PDF). interieur.gouv.fr.
Jump up ^ "Circulaire du 21 juin 2013 relative à l'accès à la nationalité française" (PDF). legifrance.gouv.fr.
Jump up ^ "Déclaration de nationalité française par mariage". service-public.fr.
Jump up ^ "The French Foreign Legion – the last option for those desperate to escape the UK." The Daily Telegraph. 3 December 2008. Retrieved on 28 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Loi no 2000-493 du 6 juin 2000 tendant à favoriser l'égal accès des femmes et des hommes aux mandats électoraux et fonctions électives (in French)
Jump up ^ B. Villalba. "Chapitre 2 - Les incertitudes de la citoyenneté" (in French). Catholic University of Lille, Law Department. Retrieved 2006-05-03.
Jump up ^ "Global Ranking - Passport Index 2018" (PDF). Henley & Partners. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Loi n°93-933 of 23 July 1993". legifrance.gouv.fr.
Jump up ^ "Loi n° 73-42 of 9 January 1973". legifrance.gouv.fr.
Jump up ^ "Fac-similé JO du 10/04/1954, page 03451 - Legifrance". www.legifrance.gouv.fr.
Jump up ^ http://eudo-citizenship.eu/docs/CountryReports/France.pdf
Jump up ^ "Services aux citoyens". France Diplomatie : : Ministère de l'Europe et des Affaires étrangères.
Jump up ^ "France". European Union. Retrieved 4 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Article 20(2)(c) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.
Jump up ^ Rights abroad: Right to consular protection: a right to protection by the diplomatic or consular authorities of other Member States when in a non-EU Member State, if there are no diplomatic or consular authorities from the citizen's own state (Article 23): this is due to the fact that not all member states maintain embassies in every country in the world (14 countries have only one embassy from an EU state). Antigua and Barbuda (UK), Barbados (UK), Belize (UK), Central African Republic (France), Comoros (France), Gambia (UK), Guyana (UK), Liberia (Germany), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (UK), San Marino (Italy), São Tomé and Príncipe (Portugal), Solomon Islands (UK), Timor-Leste (Portugal), Vanuatu (France)
Jump up ^ "Treaty on the Function of the European Union (consolidated version)" (PDF). Eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 2015-07-10.
Jump up ^ François Masure, "Etat et identité nationale. Un rapport ambigu à propos des naturalisés, in Journal des anthropologues, hors-série 2007, pp.39-49 (see p.48) (in French)
Jump up ^ Weil, Patrick (22 May 2018). "Bill Clinton: The French Years" – via NYTimes.com.
Jump up ^ "Goodbye White House...bonjour Paris?". CNN. January 17, 2001.
Jump up ^ Grace Wyler (September 26, 2012). "Bill Clinton Has Figured Out How He Could Be President Again".
Jump up ^ Joshua Keating Wednesday (September 26, 2012). "Sorry, Bill Clinton. You can't be president of France or Ireland".
Jump up ^ "No, Bill Clinton Can't Run for the French Presidency". March 11, 2013.
Bibliography[edit]
Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, by Rogers Brubaker, Harvard University Press (1992) ISBN 0-674-13177-0
Peasants Into Frenchmen : The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914, by Eugen Weber, Chatto and Windus (1977) ISBN 0-7011-2210-2
External links[edit]
Acquisition de la nationalité française (in French)
Acquiring another Citizenship (France) (archived from the original on 2007-08-07)
official website of the CIMADE, an ecumenist NGO helping immigrants (including illegal immigrants) in their juridical demands.
GISTI ("Groupe d'Information et de Soutien aux Travailleurs Immigrés" (same: "Group of Information and Support of Immigrants Workers", although they also carry more directly activist actions, such as blocking controversial expelling by charter, mainly by informing all passengers of the plane: as the pilot is the only authority on board, he may refuse to embark an illegal alien, thus blocking police's attempts)
CITIZENSHIP IN FRANCE.; A NEW LAW WHICH CLASHES WITH AMERICAN IDEAS." The New York Times - August 6, 1889
Geneanum : French naturalization records for genealogical purposes
Further information: fr:Nationalité française
show
v
t
e
Nationality laws
By continent
Africa
Angola
Algeria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Egypt8
Ghana
Liberia
Morocco
Namibia
Nigeria
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Tanzania
Western Sahara6
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia7
Azerbaijan5
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Burma (Myanmar)
China
Cyprus7
Georgian7
Egypt8
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan6
Kuwait
Lebanon
Malaysia
Mongolia
Nepal
North Korea
Northern Cyprus79
Oman
Pakistan
Palestine
Philippines
Qatar
Russia3
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
South Korea
Syria
Taiwan9
Thailand
Turkey4
United Arab Emirates
Europe
European Union
& Schengen Area
Andorra
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus7
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Rest of Europe
Albania
Andorra2
Armenia7
Azerbaijan5
Belarus
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Georgia7
Kazakhstan6
Kosovo9
Macedonia
Moldova
Monaco2
Montenegro
Northern Cyprus79
Russia3
San Marino2
Serbia
Turkey4
Ukraine
North America
Barbados
Canada
Greenland (Kingdom of Denmark)
Grenada
Jamaica
Mexico
Panama
Honduras
Guatemala
Costa Rica
Belize
United States
Oceania
Australia
Federated States of Micronesia
Nauru
New Zealand
Samoa
Tonga
South America
Mercosur
Argentina
Brazil
Paraguay
Uruguay
Venezuela
Rest of South America
Chile
Colombia
Peru
International
organizations
Commonwealth of Nations
European Union
By type
Jus matrimonii
Jus sanguinis
Jus soli
Naturalization
Other
Citizenship Act
Birth aboard aircraft and ships
Multiple citizenship
Passport
Internal
Repatriation
Right of return
Second-class citizen
Statelessness
Travel visa
Defunct
Nazi Germany
Ancient Rome
1 British Overseas Territories.
2 Open border with Schengen Area.
3 Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80%) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
4 Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
5 Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
6 Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
7 Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe.
8 Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula.
9 Partially recognized.
Category
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_nationality_law&oldid=844940592"
Categories:
History of nationality
Legal history of France
Nationality law
Politics of France
French law
Hidden categories:
Articles with French-language external links
CS1 French-language sources (fr)
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from October 2012
Articles needing additional references from September 2009
All articles needing additional references
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Deutsch
Français
Bahasa Indonesia
Русский
Edit links
This page was last edited on 8 June 2018, at 07:01 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

values: Armoiries de la République Française.svg

attrs: colspan style

values:
/wiki/Parliament_of_France
mw-redirect
Parliament of France

values:
/wiki/Legal_majority
mw-redirect
Legal majority

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2012)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Jules_Ferry_Laws
mw-redirect
Jules Ferry Laws

values: Edit section: Acquisition of citizenship

values:
/wiki/Paternity_(law)
mw-redirect
Paternity (law)

values: Edit section: French citizenship by birth in metropolitan France and its overseas territories

values: Edit section: French citizenship by birth abroad to at least one French citizen

values: Edit section: French citizenship by birth in France

values: Edit section: French citizenship by adoption

values:
/wiki/Simple_adoption
mw-redirect
Simple adoption

values: Edit section: French citizenship by naturalization

values: Edit section: Eligibility resulting from residency

values: Edit section: Eligibility resulting from marriage to a French citizen

values: Edit section: Eligibility resulting from service in the French Foreign Legion

values: Edit section: French citizenship and identity

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values:
/wiki/French_Constitution
mw-redirect
French Constitution

values: Institut national d'études démographiques

values:
/wiki/La_Francophonie
mw-redirect
La Francophonie

values: Edit section: Rights and obligations of French citizens

values:
/wiki/Woman%27s_suffrage
mw-redirect
Woman's suffrage

values:
/wiki/Right_to_vote
mw-redirect
Right to vote

values: Provisional government of the French Republic

values:
/wiki/Dreyfus_Affair
mw-redirect
Dreyfus Affair

values:
/wiki/Patrice_Mac-Mahon,_duc_de_Magenta
mw-redirect
Patrice Mac-Mahon, duc de Magenta

values:
/wiki/French_colonial_empires
mw-redirect
French colonial empires

values:
/wiki/Civic_participation
mw-redirect
Civic participation

values:
/wiki/Positive_freedom
mw-redirect
Positive freedom

values:
/wiki/Demonstration_(people)
mw-redirect
Demonstration (people)

values: Edit section: Travel freedom of French citizens

values:
/wiki/Visa_(document)#Visa_restrictions
mw-redirect
Visa (document)

values:
/wiki/Dual_citizenship
mw-redirect
Dual citizenship

values: Convention on the Reduction of Cases of Multiple Nationality and on Military Obligations in Cases of Multiple Nationality (page does not exist)

values: Edit section: Citizenship of the European Union

values: France (European Parliament constituency)

values:
/wiki/Elections_in_the_European_Union
mw-redirect
Elections in the European Union

values: Edit section: Previous law: Article 21-19(5º)

values:
/wiki/History_of_French_nationality
mw-redirect
History of French nationality

values:
/wiki/Civil_Code_of_France
mw-redirect
Civil Code of France

values: s:Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union/Part Two: Non-Discrimination and Citizenship of the Union

values:
nofollow
http://www.cimade.org/
external text

values:
/wiki/Illegal_immigrants
mw-redirect
Illegal immigrants

values:
nofollow
http://www.gisti.org/
external text

values:
/wiki/Charter_airline
mw-redirect
Charter airline

values: Nationality law of the People's Republic of China

values: Nationality Law of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea

values: Liechtenstein nationality law (page does not exist)

values: Bosnia and Herzegovina citizenship (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Kosovan_nationality_law
mw-redirect
Kosovan nationality law

values: Sammarinese nationality law (page does not exist)

values: Panamanian nationality law (page does not exist)

values: Honduran nationality law (page does not exist)

values: Guatemalan nationality law (page does not exist)

values: Costa Rican nationality law (page does not exist)

values: Belizean nationality law (page does not exist)

values: Nationality law of the Federated States of Micronesia

values:
/wiki/Jus_matrimonii
mw-redirect
Jus matrimonii

values:
/wiki/Turkish_Thrace
mw-redirect
Turkish Thrace

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-collapsed mw-made-collapsible

values: Category:Articles with French-language external links

values: Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2012

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from September 2009

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values:
/wiki/French_nationality_law
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: Französische Staatsbürgerschaft – German

values: Hukum kewarganegaraan Perancis – Indonesian

values: Гражданство Франции – Russian

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-French_nationality_law rootpage-French_nationality_law skin-vector action-view