text:
Hey Boy Hey Girl
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For the 1959 film, see Hey Boy! Hey Girl!
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"Hey Boy Hey Girl"
Single by The Chemical Brothers
from the album Surrender
B-side
"Flashback"
"Scale"
Released
31 May 1999 (1999-05-31)
Format
CD
12" vinyl
cassette
Genre
Big Beat
Length
4:50
Label
Freestyle Dust
Astralwerks (US)
Songwriter(s)
Tom Rowlands
Ed Simons
Jerry Bloodrock
Celite Evans
Richard Lee Fowler
Charles Pettiford
Gregory Carlton Wigfall
Producer(s)
The Chemical Brothers
The Chemical Brothers singles chronology
"Only 4 the K People"
(1999) "Hey Boy Hey Girl"
(1999) "Let Forever Be"
(1999)
"Only 4 the K People"
(1999) "Hey Boy Hey Girl"
(1999) "Let Forever Be"
(1999)
"Hey Boy Hey Girl" is a song by British big beat duo The Chemical Brothers. It was released as a single from their 1999 album Surrender. It peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart in June 1999 and remained on the chart for ten weeks. It also reached the top 10 in Finland, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, and Spain, as well on Canada's RPM Dance Chart. In the latter country, it did not make it onto the RPM Top Singles Chart, but it did debut and peak at number 3 on the Canadian Singles Chart.
The song dates back to 1997, when it was in the Radio 1 Anti-Nazi Mix. The song is a track in the 2011 video game Just Dance 3, and it is also featured in the 2012 video game Lumines Electronic Symphony by Ubisoft. It was also used during the introduction of Forza Horizon.
Contents
[hide]
1 Samples
2 Reception
2.1 Plagiarism allegations
3 Music video
4 Track listing
5 Charts
6 Release history
7 References
8 External links
Samples[edit]
The vocal sample "Hey girls. B-boys. Superstar DJs, here we go!" was taken from "The Roof Is on Fire" by Rock Master Scott & the Dynamic Three.
Reception[edit]
In October 2011, NME placed it at number 50 on its list "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years", writing that the song "[starts] with a menacing, trance laden groove" and "[builds] to an absolute dance stomper".[1]
Plagiarism allegations[edit]
In an interview with BELPOP, Lords of Acid founder Praga Khan confronted the Chemical Brothers backstage over the drum programming used in "Hey Boy Hey Girl" that is identical to "I Sit On Acid 2000" released by Lords of Acid. Their response to the allegations was "Everyone steals from everyone."[2]
Music video[edit]
The music video (directed by Dom & Nic) opens with a group of schoolchildren on board a coach. The camera focuses on a young girl who opens a medical book of pictures of the human skeleton. A blond boy spits on the page, then smiles at her as he walks away. The children go to the Natural History Museum, where the same boy tries to scare the girl with a skull in his hood. She chases the boy in the museum, but falls near the bottom of a flight of stairs and breaks her wrist. At the hospital, she gets an X-ray of her hand. It then shows her brushing her teeth whilst picturing herself as only bones. The background behind her morphs into a toilet area at the Ministry of Sound nightclub, South London. When she reverts into a person, she is older. She passes a couple having sexual intercourse in a stall, but she only sees them as skeletons (this shot is omitted from some pre-watershed television edits of the video). She exits the bathroom and heads to the nightclub's bar, where a man (uncredited appearance of Rick Warden) tries to chat her up. (You can barely hear his lines under the music). She then pictures him as a skeleton and feels his jawbone before leaving. She then goes to the dance floor, and sees more people as skeletons, almost as if she has X-ray vision. She exits the nightclub, and the Chemical Brothers themselves make a brief cameo appearance, stepping out of a taxi with DJ equipment. She then steps into that same taxi, where she sees the driver as a skeleton. He then asks her 'Where you going, baby?' in a camp, droll voice.
Track listing[edit]
CD single
No.
Title
Length
1. "Hey Boy Hey Girl" 4:49
2. "Flashback" 5:20
3. "Scale" 3:43
12-inch single
No.
Title
Length
1. "Hey Boy Hey Girl (Extended Version)" 6:02
2. "Flashback" 5:20
3. "Scale" 3:43
Charts[edit]
Chart (1999)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[3]
25
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[4]
23
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[5]
18
Canadian Singles Chart (Nielsen SoundScan)[6]
3
Canada Dance/Urban (RPM)[7]
6
Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)[8]
8
France (SNEP)[9]
77
Germany (Official German Charts)[10]
41
Ireland (IRMA)[11]
4
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[12]
25
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[13]
29
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[14]
10
Norway (VG-lista)[15]
9
Scotland (Official Charts Company)[16]
2
Spain (PROMUSICAE)[17]
5
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[18]
14
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[19]
3
Release history[edit]
Region
Release date
Label
Format
Catalogue
Japan 000000001999-05-26-000026 May 1999 Virgin Japan CD VJCP-12125
UK 000000001999-05-31-000031 May 1999 Freestyle Dust CD CHEMSD8
12" vinyl CHEMST8
Cassette CHEMSC8
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years". NME.COM. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Praga Khan: BELPOP 4/6. YouTube. 22 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl". ARIA Top 50 Singles. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl" (in French). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "CANADIAN BILLBOARD WEEKLY DIGITAL SONG SALES CHARTS FROM 1999". Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Dance/Urban: Issue 8393." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "The Chemical Brothers: Hey Boy Hey Girl" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Lescharts.com – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl" (in French). Les classement single. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl". GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts – Search Results – Hey Boy Hey Girl". Irish Singles Chart. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – week 27, 1999" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40 Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl". VG-lista. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official Scottish Singles Sales Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Spanishcharts.com – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl" Canciones Top 50. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – The Chemical Brothers – Hey Boy Hey Girl". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[show]
v
t
e
The Chemical Brothers
Tom Rowlands
Ed Simons
Studio albums
Exit Planet Dust
Dig Your Own Hole
Surrender
Come with Us
Push the Button
We Are the Night
Further
Born in the Echoes
Extended plays
Fourteenth Century Sky
My Mercury Mouth E.P
Loops of Fury
Music:Response
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Compilation albums
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Category
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Discography
Exit Planet Dust
"Leave Home"
"Life Is Sweet"
"Song to the Siren"
Dig Your Own Hole
"Block Rockin' Beats"
"Elektrobank"
"Setting Sun"
"The Private Psychedelic Reel"
"Where Do I Begin"
Surrender
"Hey Boy Hey Girl"
"Let Forever Be"
"Music:Response"
"Out of Control"
Come with Us
"Come with Us"
"It Began in Afrika"
"Star Guitar"
"The Test"
Singles 93–03
"Get Yourself High"
"The Golden Path"
Push the Button
"Believe"
"Galvanize"
"The Boxer"
We Are the Night
"Do It Again"
"The Salmon Dance"
Brotherhood
"Midnight Madness"
Further
"Escape Velocity"
"Swoon"
"Another World"
"Horse Power"
Born in the Echoes
"Go"
"Under Neon Lights"
Other songs
"Electronic Battle Weapon" series
"Only 4 the K People"
Category
Template
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hey_Boy_Hey_Girl&oldid=837556916"
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Vehicle identification number
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"VIN" redirects here. For other uses, see Vin (disambiguation).
"VINs" redirects here. For the non-profit organization, see Vermont Institute of Natural Science. For the Russian Baptist pastor, see Vins.
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: Do we need examples of a checksum validator in four different languages? Please help improve this article if you can. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
VIN on a Chinese moped
VIN on a 1996 Porsche 993 GT2
VIN visible in the windshield
VIN is recorded in Vehicle License of China.
A vehicle identification number (VIN), also called a chassis number, is a unique code, including a serial number, used by the automotive industry to identify individual motor vehicles, towed vehicles, motorcycles, scooters and mopeds, as defined in ISO 3833.
VINs were first used in 1954.[1] From 1954 to 1981, there was no accepted standard for these numbers, so different manufacturers used different formats.
In 1981, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration of the United States standardized the format.[1] It required all on-road vehicles sold to contain a 17-character VIN, which does not include the letters I (i), O (o), and Q (q) (to avoid confusion with numerals 1 and 0).
There are vehicle history services in several countries that help potential car owners use VINs to find vehicles that are defective or have been written off. See the Used car article for a list of countries where this service is available.
Contents
[hide]
1 Classification
2 Components
2.1 World manufacturer identifier
2.1.1 Country codes
2.2 Vehicle descriptor section
2.2.1 North American check digits
2.3 Vehicle identifier section
2.3.1 Model year encoding
2.3.2 Plant code
2.3.3 Production number
3 Check-digit calculation
3.1 Transliterating the numbers
3.2 Weights used in calculation
3.3 Worked example
3.4 Example code
4 VIN scanning
5 List of common WMI
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Classification[edit]
There are at least four competing standards used to calculate the VIN.
FMVSS 115, Part 565: Used in United States and Canada[2]
ISO Standard 3779: Used in Europe and many other parts of the world
SAE J853: Very similar to the ISO standard
ADR 61/2 used in Australia, referring to ISO 3779 and 3780[3]
Components[edit]
Modern VINs are based on two related standards, originally issued by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1979 and 1980: ISO 3779[4] and ISO 3780,[5] respectively. Compatible but different implementations of these ISO standards have been adopted by the European Union and the United States, respectively.[6]
The VIN comprises the following sections:
Standard
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
ISO 3779
World manufacturer identifier VDS VIS
European Union[7]
more than 500 vehicles/year
World manufacturer identifier Indication of "the general characteristics of the vehicle" Indication that provides "clear identification of a particular vehicle"
European Union[7]
500 or fewer vehicles/year
World manufacturer identifier 9 Indication of "the general characteristics of the vehicle" Indication that provides "clear identification of a particular vehicle"
North America
more than 2000 vehicles/year
World manufacturer identifier Vehicle attributes Check digit Model year Plant code Sequential number
North America
2000 or fewer vehicles/year
World manufacturer identifier 9 Vehicle attributes Check digit Model year Plant code Manufacturer identifier Sequential number
VIN in a GM-T-Platform body next to a passenger seat
World manufacturer identifier[edit]
The first three characters uniquely identify the manufacturer of the vehicle using the world manufacturer identifier or WMI code. A manufacturer who builds fewer than 1000 vehicles per year uses a 9 as the third digit, and the 12th, 13th and 14th position of the VIN for a second part of the identification. Some manufacturers use the third character as a code for a vehicle category (e.g., bus or truck), a division within a manufacturer, or both. For example, within 1G (assigned to General Motors in the United States), 1G1 represents Chevrolet passenger cars; 1G2, Pontiac passenger cars; and 1GC, Chevrolet trucks.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) in the U.S. assigns WMIs to countries and manufacturers.[8]
The first character of the WMI is the region in which the manufacturer is located. In practice, each is assigned to a country of manufacture, although in Europe the country where the continental headquarters is located can assign the WMI to all vehicles produced in that region (Example: Opel/Vauxhall cars whether produced in Germany, Spain, the United Kingdom or Poland carry a WMI of W0L because Adam Opel AG is based in Rüsselsheim, Germany).
In the notation below, assume that letters precede numbers and that zero is the last number. For example, 8X–82 denotes the range 8X, 8Y, 8Z, 81, 82, excluding 80. [8]
Country codes[edit]
A–H = Africa
J–R = Asia
S–Z = Europe
1–5 = North America
6–7 = Oceania
8–9 = South America
AA-AH South Africa
AJ-AN Ivory Coast
AP-A0 not assigned
BA-BE Angola
BF-BK Kenya
BL-BR Tanzania
BS-B0 not assigned
CA-CE Benin
CF-CK Madagascar
CL-CR Tunisia
CS-C0 not assigned
DA-DE Egypt
DF-DK Morocco
DL-DR Zambia
DS-D0 not assigned
EA-EE Ethiopia
EF-EK Mozambique
EL-E0 not assigned
FA-FE Ghana
FF-FK Nigeria
FL-F0 not assigned
GA-G0 not assigned
HA-H0 not assigned
JA-J0 Japan
KA-KE Sri Lanka
KF-KK Israel
KL-KR Korea (South)
KS-K0 Kazakhstan
LA-L0 China
MA-ME India
MF-MK Indonesia
ML-MR Thailand
MS-M0 not assigned
NA-NE Iran
NF-NK Pakistan
NL-NR Turkey
NS-N0 not assigned
PA-PE Philippines
PF-PK Singapore
PL-PR Malaysia
PS-P0 not assigned
RA-RE United Arab Emirates
RF-RK Taiwan
RL-RR Vietnam
RS-R0 Saudi Arabia
SA-SM United Kingdom
SN-ST East Germany
SU-SZ Poland
S1-S4 Latvia
S5-S0 not assigned
TA-TH Switzerland
TJ-TP Czech Republic
TR-TV Hungary
TW-T1 Portugal
T2-T0 not assigned
UA-UG not assigned
UH-UM Denmark
UN-UT Ireland
UU-UZ Romania
U1-U4 not assigned
U5-U7 Slovakia
U8-U0 not assigned
VA-VE Austria
VF-VR France
VS-VW Spain
VX-V2 Serbia
V3-V5 Croatia
V6-V0 Estonia
WA-W0 West Germany
XA-XE Bulgaria
XF-XK Greece
XL-XR Netherlands
XS-XW USSR
XX-X2 Luxembourg
X3-X0 Russia
YA-YE Belgium
YF-YK Finland
YL-YR Malta
YS-YW Sweden
YX-Y2 Norway
Y3-Y5 Belarus
Y6-Y0 Ukraine
ZA-ZR Italy
ZS-ZW not assigned
ZX-Z2 Slovenia
Z3-Z5 Lithuania
Z6-Z0 not assigned
1A-10 United States
2A-20 Canada
3A-37 Mexico
38-39 Cayman Islands
4A-40 United States
5A-50 United States
6A-6W Australia
6X-60 not assigned
7A-7E New Zealand
7F-70 not assigned
8A-8E Argentina
8F-8K Chile
8L-8R Ecuador
8S-8W Peru
8X-82 Venezuela
83-80 not assigned
9A-9E Brazil
9F-9K Colombia
9L-9R Paraguay
9S-9W Uruguay
9X-92 Trinidad & Tobago
93–99 Brazil
90 not assigned
Vehicle descriptor section[edit]
The fourth to eighth positions in the VIN are the vehicle descriptor section or VDS. This is used, according to local regulations, to identify the vehicle type, and may include information on the automobile platform used, the model, and the body style. Each manufacturer has a unique system for using this field. Most manufacturers since the 1980s have used the eighth digit to identify the engine type whenever there is more than one engine choice for the vehicle. Example: for the 2007 Chevrolet Corvette, U is for a 6.0-liter V8 engine, and E is for a 7.0 L V8.
North American check digits[edit]
One element that is fairly consistent is the use of position nine as a check digit, compulsory for vehicles in North America, and used fairly consistently elsewhere.
Vehicle identifier section[edit]
The 10th to 17th positions are used as the 'vehicle identifier section' (VIS). This is used by the manufacturer to identify the individual vehicle in question. This may include information on options installed or engine and transmission choices, but often is a simple sequential number. In North America, the last five digits must be numeric.
Model year encoding[edit]
One consistent element of the VIS is the 10th digit, which is required worldwide to encode the model year of the vehicle. Besides the three letters that are not allowed in the VIN itself (I, O and Q), the letters U and Z and the digit 0 are not used for the model year code. The year code is the model year for the vehicle.
The year 1980 was encoded by some manufacturers, especially General Motors and Chrysler, as "A" (since the 17-digit VIN was not mandatory until 1981, and the "A" or zero was in the manufacturer's pre-1981 placement in the VIN), yet Ford and AMC still used a zero for 1980. Subsequent years increment through the allowed letters, so that "Y" represents the year 2000. 2001 to 2009 are encoded as the digits 1 to 9, and subsequent years are encoded as "A", "B", "C", etc.
Code
Year
Code
Year
Code
Year
Code
Year
Code
Year
Code
Year
A = 1980 L = 1990 Y = 2000 A = 2010 L = 2020 Y = 2030
B = 1981 M = 1991 1 = 2001 B = 2011 M = 2021 1 = 2031
C = 1982 N = 1992 2 = 2002 C = 2012 N = 2022 2 = 2032
D = 1983 P = 1993 3 = 2003 D = 2013 P = 2023 3 = 2033
E = 1984 R = 1994 4 = 2004 E = 2014 R = 2024 4 = 2034
F = 1985 S = 1995 5 = 2005 F = 2015 S = 2025 5 = 2035
G = 1986 T = 1996 6 = 2006 G = 2016 T = 2026 6 = 2036
H = 1987 V = 1997 7 = 2007 H = 2017 V = 2027 7 = 2037
J = 1988 W = 1998 8 = 2008 J = 2018 W = 2028 8 = 2038
K = 1989 X = 1999 9 = 2009 K = 2019 X = 2029 9 = 2039
On April 30, 2008, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration adopted a final rule amending 49 CFR Part 565, "so that the current 17 character vehicle identification number (VIN) system, which has been in place for almost 30 years, can continue in use for at least another 30 years", in the process making several changes to the VIN requirements applicable to all motor vehicles manufactured for sale in the United States. There are three notable changes to the VIN structure that affect VIN deciphering systems:
The make may only be identified after looking at positions one through three and another position, as determined by the manufacturer in the second section or fourth to eighth segment of the VIN.
In order to identify the exact year in passenger cars and multipurpose passenger vehicles with a GVWR of 10,000 or less, one must read position 7 as well as position 10. For passenger cars, and for multipurpose passenger vehicles and trucks with a gross vehicle weight rating of 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) or less, if position seven is numeric, the model year in position 10 of the VIN refers to a year in the range 1980–2009.[citation needed] If position seven is alphabetic, the model year in position 10 of VIN refers to a year in the range 2010–2039.
The model year for vehicles with a GVWR greater than 10,000 lb (4,500 kg), as well as buses, motorcycles, trailers and low-speed vehicles, may no longer be identified within a 30-year range. VIN characters 1–8 and 10 that were assigned from 1980–2009 can be repeated beginning with the 2010 model year.
Plant code[edit]
Compulsory in North America is the use of the 11th character to identify the factory at which the vehicle was built. Each manufacturer has its own set of plant codes.
Production number[edit]
In the United States, the 12th to 17th digits are the vehicle's serial or production number. This is unique to each vehicle, and every manufacturer uses its own sequence.
Check-digit calculation[edit]
Check-digit validation is compulsory for all road vehicles sold in North America.
When trying to validate a VIN with a check digit, first either (a) remove the check digit for the purpose of calculation or (b) use a weight of zero (see below) to cancel it out. The original value of the check digit is then compared with the calculated value. If the calculated value is 0–9, the check digit must match the calculated value. If the calculated value is 10, the check digit must be X. If the two values do not match (and there was no error in the calculation), then there is a mistake in the VIN. However, a match does not prove the VIN is correct, because there is still a 1/11 chance that any two distinct VINs have a matching check digit: for example, the valid VINs 5GZCZ43D13S812715 (correct with leading five) and SGZCZ43D13S812715 (incorrect with leading character "S"). The VINs in the Porsche image, WP0ZZZ99ZTS392124, and the GM-T body image, KLATF08Y1VB363636, do not pass the North American check-digit verification.
Transliterating the numbers[edit]
Transliteration consists of removing all of the letters, and substituting them with their appropriate numerical counterparts. These numerical alternatives (based on IBM's EBCDIC) are in the following chart. I, O, and Q are not allowed in a valid VIN; for this chart, they have been filled in with N/A (not applicable). Numerical digits use their own values.
Transliteration key: values for VIN decoding
A: 1 B: 2 C: 3 D: 4 E: 5 F: 6 G: 7 H: 8 N/A
J: 1 K: 2 L: 3 M: 4 N: 5 N/A P: 7 N/A R: 9
S: 2 T: 3 U: 4 V: 5 W: 6 X: 7 Y: 8 Z: 9
S is 2, and not 1. There is no left-alignment linearity.
Weights used in calculation[edit]
The following is the weight factor for each position in the VIN. The 9th position is that of the check digit. It has been substituted with a 0, which will cancel it out in the multiplication step.
Weight factor table
Position
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Weight
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 10 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Worked example[edit]
Consider the hypothetical VIN 1M8GDM9A_KP042788, where the underscore will be the check digit.
VIN
1 M 8 G D M 9 A K P 0 4 2 7 8 8
Value
1 4 8 7 4 4 9 1 0 2 7 0 4 2 7 8 8
Weight
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 10 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Products
8 28 48 35 16 12 18 10 0 18 56 0 24 10 28 24 16
The VIN's value is calculated from the above transliteration table. This number is used in the rest of the calculation.
Copy the weights from the above weight factor table.
The products row is the result of the multiplication of the vertical columns: Value and Weight.
The products (8, 28, 48, 35 ... 24, 16) are all added together to yield a sum, 351.
Find the remainder after dividing by 11
351 MOD 11 = 10
351 ÷ 11 = 31 10/11
The remainder is the check digit. If the remainder is 10, the check digit is X. In this example, the remainder is 10, so the check digit is transliterated as X.
With a check digit of X, the VIN 1M8GDM9A_KP042788 is written 1M8GDM9AXKP042788.
A VIN with straight-ones (seventeen consecutive 1s) has the nice feature that its check digit 1 matches the calculated value 1. This is because a value of one multiplied by 89 (sum of weights) is 89, and 89 divided by 11 is 8 with remainder 1⁄11; thus 1 is the check digit. This is a way to test a VIN-check algorithm.
Example code[edit]
Java
private static int transliterate(char c) { return "0123456789.ABCDEFGH..JKLMN.P.R..STUVWXYZ".indexOf(c) % 10; } private static char getCheckDigit(String vin) { String map = "0123456789X"; String weights = "8765432X098765432"; int sum = 0; for (int i = 0; i < 17; ++i) { sum += transliterate(vin.charAt(i)) * map.indexOf(weights.charAt(i)); } return map.charAt(sum % 11); } private static boolean validate(String vin) { if(vin.length()!=17) return false; return getCheckDigit(vin) == vin.charAt(8); }

VIN scanning[edit]
VINs may be optically read with barcode scanners or digital cameras, or digitally read via OBD-II in newer vehicles. There are smartphone applications that can pass the VIN to websites to decode the VIN.
List of common WMI[edit]
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) assigns the WMI (world manufacturer identifier) to countries and manufacturers. The following list shows a small selection of world manufacturer codes.
WMI
Manufacturer
AAV (South Africa) Volkswagen
AHT (South Africa) Toyota
AFA (South Africa) Ford
CL9 (Tunisia) Wallyscar
JA (Japan) Isuzu
JC1 (Japan) Fiat Automobiles/Mazda
JF (Japan) Fuji Heavy Industries
JHL (Japan) Honda
JHM (Japan) Honda
JMB (Japan) Mitsubishi
JM6 (Japan) Mazda
JN (Japan) Nissan
JS (Japan) Suzuki
JT (Japan) Toyota
JY (Japan) Yamaha
KL (South Korea) Daewoo/GM Korea
KMH (South Korea) Hyundai
KN (South Korea) Kia
KPT (South Korea) SsangYong
L6T (China) Geely
LBE (China) Beijing Hyundai
LBV (China) BMW Brilliance
LDC (China) Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën
LE4 (China) Beijing Benz
LFM (China) FAW Toyota (Sichuan)
LFP (China) FAW Car
LFV (China) FAW-Volkswagen
LGB (China) Dongfeng Nissan
LGJ (China) Dongfeng Fengshen
LGW (China) Great Wall (Havel)
LGX (China) BYD Auto
LH1 (China) FAW Haima
LHG (China) Guangzhou Honda
LJ1 (China) JAC
LJD (China) Dongfeng Yueda Kia
LLV (China) Lifan
LMG (China) GAC Trumpchi
LPA (China) Changan PSA (DS Automobiles)
LS5 (China) Changan Suzuki
LSG (China) SAIC General Motors
LSJ (China) SAIC MG
LSV (China) SAIC Volkswagen
LTV (China) FAW Toyota (Tianjin)
LVG (China) GAC Toyota
LVH (China) Dongfeng Honda
LVR (China) Changan Mazda
LVS (China) Changan Ford
LVV (China) Chery
LWV (China) GAC Fiat
LZW (China) SAIC GM Wuling
NMT (Turkey) Toyota
NM0 (Turkey) Ford Otosan
PL1 (Malaysia) Proton
SAJ (United Kingdom) Jaguar
SAL (United Kingdom) Land Rover
SAR (United Kingdom) Rover
SAT (United Kingdom) Triumph
SB1 (United Kingdom) Toyota
SCC (United Kingdom) Lotus Cars
SCE (United Kingdom) DeLorean
SFD (United Kingdom) Alexander Dennis
SHH (United Kingdom) Honda
SHS (United Kingdom) Honda
SJN (United Kingdom) Nissan
TCC (Switzerland) Micro Compact Car AG (SMART 1998-1999)
TMA (Czech Republic) Hyundai
TMB (Czech Republic) Škoda
TRU (Hungary) Audi
TSM (Hungary) Suzuki
U5Y (Slovakia) Kia
UU (Romania) Dacia
VA0 (Austria) ÖAF
VF1 (France) Renault
VF2 (France) Renault
VF3 (France) Peugeot
VF4 (France) Talbot
VF5 (France) Iveco Unic SA
VF6 (France) Renault Trucks/Volvo
VF7 (France) Citroën
VF8 (France) Matra/Talbot/Simca
VF9 (France) Bugatti
VFE (France) IvecoBus
VNK (France) Toyota
VSS (Spain) SEAT
VV9 (Spain) Tauro Sport Auto
WAG (Germany) Neoplan
WAU (Germany) Audi
WAP (Germany) Alpina
WBA (Germany) BMW
WBS (Germany) BMW M
WBX (Germany) BMW
WDB (Germany) Mercedes-Benz
WDC, WDD, WMX (Germany) DaimlerChrysler AG/Daimler AG
WEB (Germany) EvoBus
WF0 (Germany) Ford of Europe
WJM (Germany) Iveco
WJR (Germany) Irmscher
WKK (Germany) Karl Kässbohrer Fahrzeugwerke
WMA (Germany) MAN
WME (Germany) Smart
WMW (Germany) Mini
WP0 (Germany) Porsche car
WP1 (Germany) Porsche SUV
WUA (Germany) Quattro
WVG (Germany) Volkswagen
WVW (Germany) Volkswagen
WV1 (Germany) Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles
WV2 (Germany) Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles
W0L (Germany) Opel/Vauxhall
W0SV (Germany) Opel Special Vehicles
XLR (Netherlands) DAF Trucks
YK1 (Finland) Saab
YS2 (Sweden) Scania, Södertälje
YS3 (Sweden) Saab
YS4 (Sweden) Scania, Katrineholm
YTN (Sweden) Saab NEVS
YV1 (Sweden) Volvo Cars
YV2 (Sweden) Volvo Trucks
YV3 (Sweden) Volvo Buses
ZA9 (Italy) Bugatti
ZAM (Italy) Maserati
ZAR (Italy) Alfa Romeo
ZCF (Italy) Iveco
ZFA (Italy) Fiat Automobiles
ZFF (Italy) Ferrari
ZGA (Italy) IvecoBus
ZHW (Italy) Lamborghini
ZLA (Italy) Lancia
1B (United States) Dodge
1C (United States) Chrysler
1F (United States) Ford
1G (United States) General Motors
1G1 (United States) Chevrolet
1G3 (United States) Oldsmobile
1G9 (United States) Google
1GC (United States) Chevrolet
1GM (United States) Pontiac
1HG (United States) Honda
1J (United States) Jeep
1L (United States) Lincoln
1M (United States) Mercury
1N (United States) Nissan
1VW (United States) Volkswagen
1YV (United States) Mazda
2DG (Canada) Ontario Drive & Gear
2F (Canada) Ford
2G (Canada) General Motors
2G1 (Canada) Chevrolet
2G2 (Canada) Pontiac
2HG (Canada) Honda
2HH (Canada) Acura
2HJ (Canada) Honda
2HK (Canada) Honda
2HM (Canada) Hyundai
2M (Canada) Mercury
2T (Canada) Toyota
3F (Mexico) Ford
3G (Mexico) General Motors
3HG (Mexico) Honda
3HM (Mexico) Honda
3KP (Mexico) Kia
3N (Mexico) Nissan
3VW (Mexico) Volkswagen
4F (United States) Mazda
4J (United States) Mercedes-Benz
4M (United States) Mercury
4S3 (United States) Subaru
4S4 (United States) Subaru
4S6 (United States) Honda
4T (United States) Toyota
4US (United States) BMW
5FN (United States) Honda
5J6 (United States) Honda
5L (United States) Lincoln
5N (United States) Hyundai
5T (United States) Toyota
5X (United States) Hyundai/Kia
5YJ (United States) Tesla
55 (United States) Mercedes-Benz
6F (Australia) Ford
6G (Australia) General Motors
6G1 (Australia) Chevrolet
6G2 (Australia) Pontiac
6H (Australia) Holden
6MM (Australia) Mitsubishi
6T1 (Australia) Toyota
7A3 (New Zealand) Honda
8AP (Argentina) Fiat
8AF (Argentina) Ford
8AG (Argentina) General Motors
8AW (Argentina) Volkswagen
8AJ (Argentina) Toyota
8A1 (Argentina) Renault
8AC (Argentina) Mercedes Benz
8BC (Argentina) Citroën
8AD (Argentina) Peugeot
8C3 (Argentina) Honda
8AT (Argentina) Iveco
9BD (Brazil) Fiat Automóveis
9BG (Brazil) General Motors
9BW (Brazil) Volkswagen
9BF (Brazil) Ford
93H (Brazil) Honda
9BR (Brazil) Toyota
936 (Brazil) Peugeot
935 (Brazil) Citroën
93Y (Brazil) Renault
93X (Brazil) Souza Ramos - Mitsubishi / Suzuki
9BH (Brazil) Hyundai Motor Company / Hyundai
95P (Brazil) CAOA / Hyundai
94D (Brazil) Nissan
98R (Brazil) Chery
988 (Brazil) Jeep
98M (Brazil) BMW
9BM (Brazil) Mercedes Benz
99A (Brazil) Audi
99J (Brazil) JLR Jaguar Land Rover
9C2 (Brazil) Honda Motorcycles
9C6 (Brazil) Yamaha
9CD (Brazil) Suzuki Motorcycles
93W (Brazil) Fiat Professional
93Z (Brazil) Iveco
953 (Brazil) VW Trucks / MAN
9BS (Brazil) Scania
9BV (Brazil) Volvo Trucks
9UJ (Uruguay) Chery
9UK (Uruguay) Lifan
9UW (Uruguay) Kia
See also[edit]
Builder's plate
CarProof – a Canadian vehicle history report that uses the VIN to provide details about a used vehicle's documented history and lien information
CARFAX - Created the first vehicle history report in 1986 using the newly standardized VIN
Danish bicycle VIN-system
Engine number
Name plate
Serial number
VIN etching
RPO Code
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Vehicle Identification Numbers (VINs)". National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Retrieved 2011-07-24.
Jump up ^ "eCFR – Code of Federal Regulations – Title 49: Transportation – PART 565—VEHICLE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER (VIN) REQUIREMENTS". www.ecfr.gov. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
Jump up ^ "ComLaw Legislative Instruments – Vehicle Standard (Australian Design Rule 61/02 – Vehicle Marking) 2005 (ADR 61/02)". Comlaw.gov.au. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
Jump up ^ ISO 3779:2009 Road vehicles—Vehicle identification number (VIN)—Content and structure
Jump up ^ ISO 3780:2009 Road vehicles—World manufacturer identifier (WMI) code
Jump up ^ "United States Federal VIN Requirements (Title 49, Chapter V, Part 565)". Access.gpo.gov. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
^ Jump up to: a b "Directive 76/114/EEC - Automotive - Enterprise and Industry". European Commission. Retrieved 2013-07-08.
^ Jump up to: a b "ISO 3780:2009 Road vehicles – World manufacturer identifier (WMI) code". ISO. 2009-10-05. Retrieved 2010-09-27.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vehicle Identification Number.
ISO 3779:2009
FMVSS 115, Part 565
VIN entry in the National Transportation Library FAQ
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text:
Informed consent
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about consent to medical procedures. For consent in non-medical legal contexts, see Consent. For the House episode, see Informed Consent (House).
Example of informed consent document from the PARAMOUNT trial
Informed consent is a process for getting permission before conducting a healthcare intervention on a person, or for disclosing personal information. A health care provider may ask a patient to consent to receive therapy before providing it, or a clinical researcher may ask a research participant before enrolling that person into a clinical trial. Informed consent is collected according to guidelines from the fields of medical ethics and research ethics.
An informed consent can be said to have been given based upon a clear appreciation and understanding of the facts, implications, and consequences of an action. Adequate informed consent is rooted in respecting a person’s dignity.[1] To give informed consent, the individual concerned must have adequate reasoning faculties and be in possession of all relevant facts. Impairments to reasoning and judgment that may prevent informed consent include basic intellectual or emotional immaturity, high levels of stress such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or a severe intellectual disability, severe mental disorder, intoxication, severe sleep deprivation, Alzheimer's disease, or being in a coma.
Obtaining informed consent is not always required. If an individual is considered unable to give informed consent, another person is generally authorized to give consent on his behalf, e.g., parents or legal guardians of a child (though in this circumstance the child may be required to provide informed assent) and conservators for the mentally disordered, or consent can be assumed through the doctrine of implied consent, e.g., when an unconscious person will die without immediate medical treatment.
In cases where an individual is provided insufficient information to form a reasoned decision, serious ethical issues arise. Such cases in a clinical trial in medical research are anticipated and prevented by an ethics committee or Institutional Review Board.
Informed Consent Form Templates can be found on the World Health Organization Website for practical use.[2]
Contents
1 Assessment
2 Valid elements
3 Waiver of requirement
4 History
4.1 Medical history
4.2 Research history
5 Medical procedures
5.1 Requirements of the professional
5.2 Obtaining informed consents
5.3 Competency of the patient
5.4 Deception
5.5 Abortion
6 Children
7 Research
8 Conflicts of interest
9 See also
10 References
Assessment[edit]
Informed consent can be complex to evaluate, because neither expressions of consent, nor expressions of understanding of implications, necessarily mean that full adult consent was in fact given, nor that full comprehension of relevant issues is internally digested. Consent may be implied within the usual subtleties of human communication, rather than explicitly negotiated verbally or in writing. In some cases consent cannot legally be possible, even if the person protests he does indeed understand and wish. There are also structured instruments for evaluating capacity to give informed consent, although no ideal instrument presently exists.[citation needed]
Thus, there is always a degree to which informed consent must be assumed or inferred based upon observation, or knowledge, or legal reliance. This especially is the case in sexual or relational issues. In medical or formal circumstances, explicit agreement by means of signature—normally relied on legally—regardless of actual consent, is the norm. This is the case with certain procedures, such as a "do not resuscitate" directive that a patient signed before onset of their illness.[citation needed]
Brief examples of each of the above:
A person may verbally agree to something from fear, perceived social pressure, or psychological difficulty in asserting true feelings. The person requesting the action may honestly be unaware of this and believe the consent is genuine, and rely on it. Consent is expressed, but not internally given.
A person may claim to understand the implications of some action, as part of consent, but in fact has failed to appreciate the possible consequences fully and may later deny the validity of the consent for this reason. Understanding needed for informed consent is present but is, in fact (through ignorance), not present.
A person signs a legal release form for a medical procedure, and later feels he did not really consent. Unless he can show actual misinformation, the release is usually persuasive or conclusive in law, in that the clinician may rely legally upon it for consent. In formal circumstances, a written consent usually legally overrides later denial of informed consent (unless obtained by misrepresentation).
Informed consent in the U.S. can be overridden in emergency medical situations pursuant to 21CFR50.24, which was first brought to the general public's attention via the controversy surrounding the study of Polyheme.
Valid elements[edit]
For an individual to give valid informed consent, three components must be present: disclosure, capacity and voluntariness.[3][4]
Disclosure requires the researcher to supply each prospective subject with the information necessary to make an autonomous decision and also to ensure that the subject adequate understands the information provided. This latter requirement implies that a written consent form be written in lay language suited for the comprehension skills of subject population, as well as assessing the level of understanding through conversation.
Capacity pertains to the ability of the subject to both understand the information provided and form a reasonable judgment based on the potential consequences of his/her decision.
Voluntariness refers to the subject’s right to freely exercise his/her decision making without being subjected to external pressure such as coercion, manipulation, or undue influence.
Waiver of requirement[edit]
Waiver of the consent requirement may be applied in certain circumstances where no foreseeable harm is expected to result from the study or when permitted by law, federal regulations, or if an ethical review committee has approved the non-disclosure of certain information.[5]
Besides studies with minimal risk, waivers of consent may be obtained in a military setting. According to 10 USC 980, the United States Code for the Armed Forces, Limitations on the Use of Humans as Experimental Subjects, a waiver of advanced informed consent may be granted by the Secretary of Defense if a research project would:[6]
Directly benefit subjects.
Advance the development of a medical product necessary to the military.
Be carried out under all laws and regulations (i.e., Emergency Research Consent Waiver) including those pertinent to the FDA.
While informed consent is a basic right and should be carried out effectively, if a patient is incapacitated due to injury or illness, it is still important that patients benefit from emergency experimentation.[7] The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) joined together to create federal guidelines to permit emergency research, without informed consent.[7] However, they can only proceed with the research if they obtain a waiver of informed consent (WIC) or an emergency exception from informed consent (EFIC).[7]
History[edit]
Spanish
English
Walter Reed authored these informed consent documents in 1900 for his research on yellow fever
Informed consent is a technical term first used by attorney, Paul G. Gebhard, in a medical malpractice United States court case in 1957.[8] In tracing its history, some scholars have suggested tracing the history of checking for any of these practices:[9]:54
A patient agrees to a health intervention based on an understanding of it.
The patient has multiple choices and is not compelled to choose a particular one.
The consent includes giving permission.
These practices are part of what constitutes informed consent, and their history is the history of informed consent.[9]:60 They combine to form the modern concept of informed consent—which rose in response to particular incidents in modern research.[9]:60 Whereas various cultures in various places practiced informed consent, the modern concept of informed consent was developed by people who drew influence from Western tradition.[9]:60
Medical history[edit]
Historians cite a series of medical guidelines to trace the history of informed consent in medical practice.
The Hippocratic Oath, a 500 BC Greek text, was the first set of Western writings giving guidelines for the conduct of medical professionals. It advises that physicians conceal most information from patients to give the patients the best care.[9]:61 The rationale is a beneficence model for care—the doctor knows better than the patient, and therefore should direct the patient's care, because the patient is not likely to have better ideas than the doctor.[9]:61
Henri de Mondeville, a French surgeon who in the 14th century, wrote about medical practice. He traced his ideas to the Hippocratic Oath.[9]:63[10][11] Among his recommendations were that doctors "promise a cure to every patient" in hopes that the good prognosis would inspire a good outcome to treatment.[9]:63 Mondeville never mentioned getting consent, but did emphasize the need for the patient to have confidence in the doctor.[9]:63 He also advised that when deciding therapeutically unimportant details the doctor should meet the patients' requests "so far as they do not interfere with treatment".[12]
Benjamin Rush was an 18th-century United States physician who was influenced by the Age of Enlightenment cultural movement.[9]:65 Because of this, he advised that doctors ought to share as much information as possible with patients. He recommended that doctors educate the public and respect a patient's informed decision to accept therapy.[9]:65 There is no evidence that he supported seeking a consent from patients.[9]:65 In a lecture titled "On the duties of patients to their physicians", he stated that patients should be strictly obedient to the physician's orders; this was representative of much of his writings.[9]:65 John Gregory, Rush's teacher, wrote similar views that a doctor could best practice beneficence by making decisions for the patients without their consent.[9]:66[13]
Thomas Percival was a British physician who published a book called Medical Ethics in 1803.[9]:68 Percival was a student of the works of Gregory and various earlier Hippocratic physicians.[9]:68 Like all previous works, Percival's Medical Ethics makes no mention of soliciting for the consent of patients or respecting their decisions.[9]:68 Percival said that patients have a right to truth, but when the physician could provide better treatment by lying or withholding information, he advised that the physician do as he thought best.[9]:68
When the American Medical Association was founded they in 1847 produced a work called the first edition of the American Medical Association Code of Medical Ethics.[9]:69 Many sections of this book are verbatim copies of passages from Percival's Medical Ethics.[9]:69 A new concept in this book was the idea that physicians should fully disclose all patient details truthfully when talking to other physicians, but the text does not also apply this idea to disclosing information to patients.[9]:70 Through this text, Percival's ideas became pervasive guidelines throughout the United States as other texts were derived from them.[9]:70
Worthington Hooker was an American physician who in 1849 published Physician and Patient.[9]:70 This medical ethics book was radical demonstrating understanding of the AMA's guidelines and Percival's philosophy and soundly rejecting all directives that a doctor should lie to patients.[9]:70 In Hooker's view, benevolent deception is not fair to the patient, and he lectured widely on this topic.[9]:70 Hooker's ideas were not broadly influential.[9]:70
Research history[edit]
Historians cite a series of human subject research experiments to trace the history of informed consent in research.
The U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission “is considered the first research group in history to use consent forms.”[14] In 1900, Major Walter Reed was appointed head of the four man U.S. Army Yellow Fever Commission in Cuba that determined mosquitoes were the vector for yellow fever transmission. His earliest experiments were probably done without formal documentation of informed consent. In later experiments he obtained support from appropriate military and administrative authorities. He then drafted what is now “one of the oldest series of extant informed consent documents.”[15] The three surviving examples are in Spanish with English translations; two have an individual’s signature and one is marked with an X.[16]
Tearoom Trade is the name of a book by American psychologist Laud Humphreys. In it he describes his research into male homosexual acts.[17] In conducting this research he never sought consent from his research subjects and other researchers raised concerns that he violated the right to privacy for research participants.[17]
The Milgram experiment is the name of a 1961 experiment conducted by American psychologist Stanley Milgram. In the experiment Milgram had an authority figure order research participants to commit a disturbing act of harming another person.[18] After the experiment he would reveal that he had deceived the participants and that they had not hurt anyone, but the research participants were upset at the experience of having participated in the research.[18] The experiment raised broad discussion on the ethics of recruiting participants for research without giving them full information about the nature of the research.[18]
Chester M. Southam used HeLa cells to inject into cancer patients and Ohio State Penitentiary inmates without informed consent to determine if people could become immune to cancer and if cancer could be transmitted.[19]
Medical procedures[edit]
The doctrine of informed consent relates to professional negligence and establishes a breach of the duty of care owed to the patient (see duty of care, breach of the duty, and respect for persons). The doctrine of informed consent also has significant implications for medical trials of medications, devices, or procedures.
Requirements of the professional[edit]
Until 2015 in the United Kingdom and in countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, informed consent in medical procedures requires proof as to the standard of care to expect as a recognised standard of acceptable professional practice (the Bolam Test), that is, what risks would a medical professional usually disclose in the circumstances (see Loss of right in English law). Arguably, this is "sufficient consent" rather than "informed consent." The UK has since departed from the Bolam test for judging standards of informed consent, due to the landmark ruling in Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board. This moves away from the concept of a reasonable physician and instead uses the standard of a reasonable patient, and what risks an individual would attach significance to.
Medicine in the United States, Australia, and Canada also takes this patient-centric approach to "informed consent." Informed consent in these jurisdictions requires healthcare providers to disclose significant risks, as well as risks of particular importance to that patient. This approach combines an objective (a hypothetical reasonable patient) and subjective (this particular patient) approach.
The doctrine of informed consent should be contrasted with the general doctrine of medical consent, which applies to assault or battery. The consent standard here is only that the person understands, in general terms, the nature of and purpose of the intended intervention. As the higher standard of informed consent applies to negligence, not battery, the other elements of negligence must be made out. Significantly, causation must be shown: That had the individual been made aware of the risk he would not have proceeded with the operation (or perhaps with that surgeon).
Optimal establishment of an informed consent requires adaptation to cultural or other individual factors of the patient. For example, people from Mediterranean and Arab appear to rely more on the context of the delivery of the information, with the information being carried more by who is saying it and where, when, and how it's being said, rather than what is said, which is of relatively more importance in typical "Western" countries.[20]
The informed consent doctrine is generally implemented through good healthcare practice: pre-operation discussions with patients and the use of medical consent forms in hospitals. However, reliance on a signed form should not undermine the basis of the doctrine in giving the patient an opportunity to weigh and respond to the risk. In one British case, a doctor performing routine surgery on a woman noticed that she had cancerous tissue in her womb. He took the initiative to remove the woman's womb; however, as she had not given informed consent for this operation, the doctor was judged by the General Medical Council to have acted negligently. The council stated that the woman should have been informed of her condition, and allowed to make her own decision.
Obtaining informed consents[edit]
To capture and manage informed consents, hospital management systems typically use paper-based consent forms which are scanned and stored in a document handling system after obtaining the necessary signatures. Hospital systems and research organizations are adopting an electronic way of capturing informed consents to enable indexing, to improve comprehension, search and retrieval of consent data, thus enhancing the ability to honor to patient intent and identify willing research participants.[21][22][23][24] More recently, Health Sciences South Carolina, a statewide research collaborative focused on transforming healthcare quality, health information systems and patient outcomes, developed an open-source system called Research Permissions Management System (RPMS).[25][26]
Competency of the patient[edit]
The ability to give informed consent is governed by a general requirement of competency. In common law jurisdictions, adults are presumed competent to consent. This presumption can be rebutted, for instance, in circumstances of mental illness or other incompetence. This may be prescribed in legislation or based on a common-law standard of inability to understand the nature of the procedure. In cases of incompetent adults, a health care proxy makes medical decisions. In the absence of a proxy, the medical practitioner is expected to act in the patient's best interests until a proxy can be found.
By contrast, 'minors' (which may be defined differently in different jurisdictions) are generally presumed incompetent to consent, but depending on their age and other factors may be required to provide Informed assent. In some jurisdictions (e.g. much of the U.S.), this is a strict standard. In other jurisdictions (e.g. England, Australia, Canada), this presumption may be rebutted through proof that the minor is ‘mature’ (the ‘Gillick standard’). In cases of incompetent minors, informed consent is usually required from the parent (rather than the 'best interests standard') although a parens patriae order may apply, allowing the court to dispense with parental consent in cases of refusal.
Deception[edit]
Research involving deception is controversial given the requirement for informed consent. Deception typically arises in social psychology, when researching a particular psychological process requires that investigators deceive subjects. For example, in the Milgram experiment, researchers wanted to determine the willingness of participants to obey authority figures despite their personal conscientious objections. They had authority figures demand that participants deliver what they thought was an electric shock to another research participant. For the study to succeed, it was necessary to deceive the participants so they believed that the subject was a peer and that their electric shocks caused the peer actual pain.
Nonetheless, research involving deception prevents the subject/patient from exercising his/her basic right of autonomous informed decision-making and conflicts with the ethical principle of respect for persons.
The Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct set by the American Psychological Association says that psychologists may not conduct research that includes a deceptive compartment unless they can justify the act by the value and importance of the study's results, and show they couldn't obtain the results by some other way. Moreover, the research should bear no potential harm to the subject as an outcome of deception, be it physical pain or emotional distress. Finally, the code requires a debriefing session, in which the experimenter tells the subject about the deception, and gives subjects the option of withdrawing their data.[27]
Abortion[edit]
In some U.S. states, informed consent laws (sometimes called "right to know" laws) require that a woman seeking an elective abortion receive information from the abortion provider about her legal rights, alternatives to abortion (such as adoption), available public and private assistance, and other information specified in the law, before the abortion is performed. Other countries with such laws (e.g. Germany) require that the information giver be properly certified to make sure that no abortion is carried out for the financial gain of the abortion provider and to ensure that the decision to have an abortion is not swayed by any form of incentive.[28][29]
Some informed consent laws have been criticized for allegedly using "loaded language in an apparently deliberate attempt to 'personify' the fetus,"[30] but those critics acknowledge that "most of the information in the [legally mandated] materials about abortion comports with recent scientific findings and the principles of informed consent", although "some content is either misleading or altogether incorrect."[31]
Children[edit]
As children often lack the decision making ability or legal power (competence) to provide true informed consent for medical decisions, it often falls on parents or legal guardians to provide informed permission for medical decisions. This "consent by proxy" usually works reasonably well, but can lead to ethical dilemmas when the judgment of the parents or guardians and the medical professional differ with regard to what constitutes appropriate decisions "in the best interest of the child". Children who are legally emancipated, and certain situations such as decisions regarding sexually transmitted diseases or pregnancy, or for unemancipated minors who are deemed to have medical decision making capacity, may be able to provide consent without the need for parental permission depending on the laws of the jurisdiction the child lives in. The American Academy of Pediatrics encourages medical professionals also to seek the assent of older children and adolescents by providing age appropriate information to these children to help empower them in the decision making process.[32]
Research on children has benefited society in many ways. The only effective way to establish normal patterns of growth and metabolism is to do research on infants and young children. When addressing the issue of informed consent with children, the primary response is parental consent. This is valid, although only legal guardians are able to consent for a child, not adult siblings.[33] Additionally, parents may not order the termination of a treatment that is required to keep a child alive, even if they feel it is in the best interest.[33] Guardians are typically involved in the consent of children, however a number of doctrines have developed that allow children to receive health treatments without parental consent. For example, emancipated minors may consent to medical treatment, and minors can also consent in an emergency.[33]
Research[edit]
Informed consent is part of the ethical clinical research as well, in which a human subject voluntarily confirms his or her willingness to participate in a particular clinical trial, after having been informed of all aspects of the trial that are relevant to the subject's decision to participate. Informed consent is documented by means of a written, signed, and dated informed consent form.[34] In medical research, the Nuremberg Code set a base international standard in 1947, which continued to develop, for example in response to the ethical violation in the Holocaust. Nowadays, medical research is overseen by an ethics committee that also oversees the informed consent process.
As the medical guidelines established in the Nuremberg Code were imported into the ethical guidelines for the social sciences, informed consent became a common part of the research procedure.[35] However, while informed consent is the default in medical settings, it is not always required in the social science. Here, research often involves low or no risk for participants, unlike in many medical experiments. Second, the mere knowledge that they participate in a study can cause people to alter their behavior, as in the Hawthorne Effect: "In the typical lab experiment, subjects enter an environment in which they are keenly aware that their behavior is being monitored, recorded, and subsequently scrutinized."[36]:168 In such cases, seeking informed consent directly interferes with the ability to conduct the research, because the very act of revealing that a study is being conducted is likely to alter the behavior studied. List exemplifies the potential dilemma that can result: "if one were interested in exploring whether, and to what extent, race or gender influences the prices that buyers pay for used cars, it would be difficult to measure accurately the degree of discrimination among used car dealers who know that they are taking part in an experiment."[37] In cases where such interference is likely, and after careful consideration, a researcher may forgo the informed consent process. This is commonly done after weighting the risk to study participants versus the benefit to society and whether participants are present in the study out of their own wish and treated fairly.[38] Researchers often consult with an ethics committee or institutional review board to render a decision.
The birth of new online media, such as social media, has complicated the idea of informed consent. In an online environment people pay little attention to Terms of Use agreements and can subject themselves to research without thorough knowledge. This issue came to the public light following a study conducted by Facebook Inc. in 2014, and published by that company and Cornell University.[39] Facebook conducted a study where they altered the Facebook News Feeds of roughly 700,000 users to reduce either the amount of positive or negative posts they saw for a week. The study then analyzed if the users status updates changed during the different conditions. The study was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
The lack of informed consent led to outrage among many researchers and users.[40] Many believed that by potentially altering the mood of users by altering what posts they see, Facebook put at-risk individuals at higher dangers for depression and suicide. However, supports of Facebook claim that Facebook details that they have the right to use information for research in their terms of use.[41] Others say the experiment is just a part of Facebook’s current work, which alters News Feeds algorithms continually to keep people interested and coming back to the site. Others pointed out that this specific study is not along but that news organizations constantly try out different headlines using algorithms to elicit emotions and garner clicks or Facebook shares.[42] They say this Facebook study is no different than things people already accept. Still, others say that Facebook broke the law when conducting the experiment on user that didn’t give informed consent.[43]
The Facebook study controversy raises numerous questions about informed consent and the differences in the ethical review process between publicly and privately funded research. Some say Facebook was within its limits and others see the need for more informed consent and/or the establishment of in-house private review boards.[44]
Conflicts of interest[edit]
Other, long-standing controversies underscore the role for conflicts of interest among medical school faculty and researchers. For example, coverage of University of California (UC) medical school faculty members has included news of ongoing corporate payments to researchers and practitioners from companies that market and produce the very devices and treatments they recommend to patients.[45] Robert Pedowitz, the former chairman of UCLA’s orthopedic surgery department, reported concern that his colleague’s financial conflicts of interest could negatively affect patient care or research into new treatments.[46] In a subsequent lawsuit about whistleblower retaliation, the University provided a $10 million settlement to Pedowitz while acknowledging no wrongdoing.[46] Consumer Watchdog, an oversight group, observed that University of CA policies were “either inadequate or unenforced…Patients in UC hospitals deserve the most reliable surgical devices and medication…and they shouldn’t be treated as subjects in expensive experiments.”[45] Other UC incidents include taking the eggs of women for implantation into other women without consent[47] and injecting live bacteria into human brains, resulting in potentially premature deaths.[48]
See also[edit]
Anti-Psychiatry
Belmont Report
Consent (BDSM)
Consent (criminal law)
Consensual crime
Declaration of Geneva
Declaration of Helsinki
Doe ex. rel. Tarlow v. District of Columbia
Free, prior and informed consent
Human experimentation
Human experimentation in the United States
Informed assent
Informed consent in sociocratic decision-making
Informed refusal
International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use
Mature minor doctrine
Minors and abortion
Parental consent
Patient safety
Safe, sane and consensual
Schloendorff v. Society of New York Hospital
World Medical Association
Therapeutic misconception
Executive Order 13139
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