text:
Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act
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Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act
Long title
Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act of 1974
Acronyms (colloquial)
RESPA
Enacted by
the 93rd United States Congress
Effective
Dec. 22, 1974
Citations
Public law
P.L. 93-533
Statutes at Large
88 Stat. 1724
Codification
Titles amended
12
U.S.C. sections created
2601-2617
Legislative history
Passed the Senate on July 24, 1974 (unanimous consent)
Passed the House of Representatives on August 14, 1974 (unanimous consent)
Reported by the joint conference committee on Dec. 9, 1974; agreed to by the Senate on Dec. 9, 1974 (unanimous consent) and by the House of Representatives on Dec. 11, 1974 (unanimous consent)
Signed into law by President Gerald Ford on Dec. 22, 1974
Major amendments
P.L. 94-205, 89 Stat. 1157 (1976)
The Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act (RESPA) was a law passed by the United States Congress in 1974 and codified as Title 12, Chapter 27 of the United States Code, 12 U.S.C. §§ 2601–2617. The main objective was to protect homeowners by assisting them in becoming better educated while shopping for real estate services, and eliminating kickbacks and referral fees which add unnecessary costs to settlement services. RESPA requires lenders and others involved in mortgage lending to provide borrowers with pertinent and timely disclosures regarding the nature and costs of a real estate settlement process. RESPA was also designed to prohibit potentially abusive practices such as kickbacks and referral fees, the practice of dual tracking, and imposes limitations on the use of escrow accounts.
Contents
1 History
2 Purpose
3 General Requirements
4 Good-Faith Estimate of Settlement Costs
5 Kickbacks and Unearned Fees
6 Borrower Requests for Information and Notifications of Errors
7 Criticisms
8 Sources
9 External links
History[edit]
RESPA was enacted in 1974 and was originally administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). In 2011, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB), created under the provisions of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, assumed the enforcement and rulemaking authority over RESPA. On December 31, 2013, the CFPB published final rules implementing provisions of the Dodd-Frank Act, which direct the CFPB to publish a single, integrated disclosure for mortgage transactions, which included mortgage disclosure requirements under the Truth in Lending Act (TILA) and sections 4 and 5 of RESPA. As a result, Regulation Z now houses the integrated forms, timing, and related disclosure requirements for most closed-end consumer mortgage loans.
Purpose[edit]
It was created because various companies associated with the buying and selling of real estate, such as lenders, real estate agents, construction companies and title insurance companies were often engaging in providing undisclosed kickbacks to each other, inflating the costs of real estate transactions and obscuring price competition by facilitating bait-and-switch tactics.
For example, a lender advertising a home loan might have advertised the loan with a 5% interest rate, but then when one applies for the loan one is told that one must use the lender's affiliated title insurance company and pay $5,000 for the service, whereas the normal rate is $1,000. The title company would then have paid $4,000 to the lender. This was made illegal, in order to make prices for the services clear so as to allow price competition by consumer demand and to thereby drive down prices.
On July 21, 2011, administration and enforcement of the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act (RESPA) was transferred from the Department of Housing and Urban Development to the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB).
General Requirements[edit]
RESPA outlines requirements that lenders must follow when providing mortgages that are secured by federally related mortgage loans. This includes home purchase loans, refinancing, lender approved assumptions, property improvement loans, equity lines of credit, and reverse mortgages.
Under RESPA, lending institutions must:
Provide certain disclosures when applicable, including a Good-Faith Estimate of Settlement Costs (GFE), Special Information Booklet, HUD-1/1A settlement statement and Mortgage Servicing Disclosures.
Provide the ability to compare the GFE to the HUD-1/1a settlement statements at closing
Follow established escrow accounting practices
Not proceed with the foreclosure process when the borrower has submitted a complete application for loss mitigation options, and
Not pay kickbacks or pay referral fees to settlement service providers (e.g., appraisers, real estate brokers/agents and title companies)
Good-Faith Estimate of Settlement Costs[edit]
For closed-end reverse mortgages, a lender or broker is required to provide the consumer with the standard Good Faith Estimate (GFE) form. A Good Faith Estimate of settlement costs is a three-page document that shows estimates for the costs that the borrower will likely incur at settlement and related loan information. It is designed to allow borrowers to shop for a mortgage loan by comparing settlement costs and loan terms. These costs include, but are not limited to:
Origination charges
Estimates for required services (e.g., appraisals, credit report fees, flood certification)
Title insurance
Per diem interest
Escrow deposits, and
Insurance premiums
The bank or mortgage broker must provide the GFE no later than three business days after the lender or mortgage broker received an application, or information sufficient to complete and application, the application.[1]
Kickbacks and Unearned Fees[edit]
A person may not give or receive a fee or anything of value for a referral of mortgage loan settlement business. This includes an agreement or understanding related to a federally related mortgage. Fees paid for mortgage-related services must be disclosed. Additionally, no person may give or receive any portion, split, or percentage of a fee for services connected with a federally related mortgage except for services actually performed.
Permissible Compensation
A payment to an attorney for services actually rendered;
A payment by a title company to its agent for services actually performed in the issuance of title insurance;
A payment by a lender to its duly appointed agent or contractor for services actually performed in the origination, processing, or funding of a loan;
A payment to a cooperative brokerage and referral arrangements between real estate agents and real estate brokers;
Normal promotional and education activities that are not conditioned on the referral of business, and do not involve the defraying of expenses that otherwise would be incurred by a person in a position to refer settlement services; and
An employer’s payment to its own employees for any referral activities.
It is the responsibility of the lender to monitor third party fees in relationship to the services rendered to ensure no illegal kickbacks or referral fees are made .
Borrower Requests for Information and Notifications of Errors[edit]
Upon receipt of a qualified written request, a mortgage servicer is required to take certain steps, each of which is subject to certain deadlines.[2] The servicer must acknowledge receipt of the request within 5 business days. The servicer then has 30 business days (from the request) to take action on the request. The servicer has to either provide a written notification that the error has been corrected, or provide a written explanation as to why the servicer believes the account is correct. Either way, the servicer has to provide the name and telephone number of a person with whom the borrower can discuss the matter. The servicer cannot provide information to any credit agency regarding any overdue payment during the 60-day period.
If the servicer fails to comply with the "qualified written request", the borrower is entitled to actual damages, up to $2,000 of additional damages if there is a pattern of noncompliance, costs and attorneys fees.[3]
Criticisms[edit]
However, critics say that kickbacks still occur. For example, lenders often provide captive insurance to the title insurance companies they work with, which critics say is essentially a kickback mechanism. Others counter that economically the transaction is a zero sum game, where if the kickback were forbidden, a lender would simply charge higher prices. To which others counter that the intended goal of the legislation is transparency, which it would provide if the lender must absorb the cost of the hidden kickback into the fee they charge. One of the core elements of the debate is the fact that customers overwhelmingly go with the default service providers associated with a lender or a real estate agent, even though they sign documents explicitly stating that they can choose to use any service provider.
There have been various proposals to modify the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act. One proposal is to change the "open architecture" system currently in place, where a customer can choose to use any service provider for each service, to one where the services are bundled, but where the real estate agent or lender must pay directly for all other costs. Under this system, lenders, who have more buying power, would more aggressively seek the lowest price for real estate settlement services.
While both the HUD-1 and HUD-1A serve to disclose all fees, costs and charges to both the buyer and seller involved in a real estate transaction, it is not uncommon to find mistakes on the HUD. Both buyer and seller should know how to properly read a HUD before closing a transaction and at settlement is not the ideal time to discover unnecessary charges and/or exorbitant fees as the transaction is about to be closed. Buyers or sellers can hire an experienced professional such as a real estate agent or an attorney to protect their interests at closing.
Sources[edit]
Jump up ^ "Regulation X Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act" (PDF). CFPB Consumer Laws and Regulations. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. March 2015. Retrieved 18 May 2016. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Jump up ^ "Recent Changes to the Law Governing Qualified Written Requests". Retrieved 2016-04-13.
Jump up ^ 12 USC 2605(f)
External links[edit]
Full text of the act from the Legal Information Institute
Integrated Mortgage Disclosures Under the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act (Regulation X) and the Truth In Lending Act(Regulation Z)
Know Before You Owe | Mortgages
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Real_Estate_Settlement_Procedures_Act&oldid=859824659"
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Cradle of civilization
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Human history
and prehistory
↑ before Homo (Pliocene epoch)
Prehistory
(three-age system)
Stone Age
Lower Paleolithic
Homo
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Upper Paleolithic
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The term "cradle of civilization" refers to locations where, according to current archeological data, civilization is understood to have emerged. Current thinking is that there was no single "cradle", but several civilizations that developed independently, with the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt) understood to be the earliest.[1] Other civilizations arose in Asia among cultures situated along large river valleys, such as Indo-Gangetic Plain in the Indian subcontinent[2][3] and the Yellow River in China.[4] The extent to which there was significant influence between the early civilizations of the Near East and those of East Asia is disputed. Scholars accept that the civilizations of Mesoamerica, mainly in modern Mexico, and Norte Chico in present-day Peru emerged independently from those in Eurasia.[5]
Scholars have defined civilization using various criteria such as the use of writing, cities, a class-based society, agriculture, animal husbandry, public buildings, metallurgy, and monumental architecture.[6][7] The term cradle of civilization has frequently been applied to a variety of cultures and areas, in particular the Ancient Near Eastern Chalcolithic (Ubaid period) and Fertile Crescent, Ancient India and Ancient China. It has also been applied to ancient Anatolia, the Levant and Iran, and used to refer to culture predecessors—such as Ancient Greece as the predecessor of Western Civilization[8]—even when such sites are not understood as an independent development of civilization, as well as within national rhetoric.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 History of the idea
2 Rise of civilization
3 Single or multiple cradles
4 Old World
4.1 Mesopotamia
4.2 Egypt
4.3 India
4.4 China
5 New World
5.1 Central Andes
5.2 Mesoamerica
6 Timeline
7 Cradle of Western civilization
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Sources
History of the idea[edit]
The concept "cradle of civilization" is the subject of much debate. The figurative use of cradle to mean "the place or region in which anything is nurtured or sheltered in its earlier stage" is traced by the Oxford English Dictionary to Spenser (1590). Charles Rollin's Ancient History (1734) has "Egypt that served at first as the cradle of the holy nation".
The phrase "cradle of civilization" plays a certain role in national mysticism. It has been used in Eastern as well as Western cultures, for instance, in Hindu nationalism (In Search of the Cradle of Civilization 1995) and Taiwanese nationalism (Taiwan — The Cradle of Civilization[9] 2002). The terms also appear in esoteric pseudohistory, such as the Urantia Book, claiming the title for "the second Eden", or the pseudoarchaeology related to Megalithic Britain (Civilization One 2004, Ancient Britain: The Cradle of Civilization 1921).
Rise of civilization[edit]
Further information: Neolithic Revolution, Urban revolution, and Chalcolithic
Ancient history
Preceded by Prehistory
Ancient Near East
Sumer
Egypt
Assyria
Elam
Akkad
Babylonia
Canaan
Phoenicia
Israel and Judah
Hittite Empire
Arzawa
Mitanni
Minoan Crete
Mycenaean Greece
Syro-Hittite states
Hayasa-Azzi
Georgia
Anatolia
Armenia
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Urartu
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Medes
Classical antiquity
Greece
Persia (Achaemenid)
Hellenism
Rome
Africa
Late Antiquity
East Asia
China
Korea
Japan
South Asia
Indus Valley
Vedic period
Maha Janapadas
Maurya Empire
Tamilakam
Satavahana
Gupta Empire
Pre-Columbian Americas
Mesoamerica
Olmec
Maya civilization
Teotihuacan
Aztec
Andean civilizations
Chavín culture
Moche
Inca empire
See also
History of the world
Ancient maritime history
Protohistory
Axial Age
Iron Age
Historiography
Ancient literature
Ancient warfare
Cradle of civilization
Followed by the Postclassical Era
v
t
e
The earliest signs of a process leading to sedentary culture can be seen in the Levant to as early as 12,000 BC, when the Natufian culture became sedentary; it evolved into an agricultural society by 10,000 BC.[10] The importance of water to safeguard an abundant and stable food supply, due to favourable conditions for hunting, fishing and gathering resources including cereals, provided an initial wide spectrum economy that triggered the creation of permanent villages.[11]
The earliest proto-urban settlements with several thousand inhabitants emerged in the Neolithic. The first cities to house several tens of thousands were Memphis and Uruk, by the 31st century BC (see Historical urban community sizes).
Historic times are marked apart from prehistoric times when "records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations";[12] which may be in written or oral form. If the rise of civilization is taken to coincide with the development of writing out of proto-writing, the Near Eastern Chalcolithic, the transitional period between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age during the 4th millennium BC, and the development of proto-writing in Harappa in the Indus Valley of South Asia around 3300 BC are the earliest incidences, followed by Chinese proto-writing evolving into the oracle bone script, and again by the emergence of Mesoamerican writing systems from about 2000 BC.
In the absence of written documents, most aspects of the rise of early civilizations are contained in archaeological assessments that document the development of formal institutions and the material culture. A "civilized" way of life is ultimately linked to conditions coming almost exclusively from intensive agriculture. Gordon Childe defined the development of civilization as the result of two successive revolutions: the Neolithic Revolution, triggering the development of settled communities, and the Urban Revolution, which enhanced tendencies towards dense settlements, specialized occupational groups, social classes, exploitation of surpluses, monumental public buildings and writing. Few of those conditions, however, are unchallenged by the records: dense settlements were not attested in Egypt's Old Kingdom and were absent in the Maya area;[citation needed] the Incas lacked writing altogether; and often monumental architecture preceded any indication of village settlement. For instance, in present-day Louisiana, researchers have determined that cultures that were primarily nomadic organized over generations to build earthwork mounds at seasonal settlements as early as 3400 BC. Rather than a succession of events and preconditions, the rise of civilization could equally be hypothesized as an accelerated process that started with incipient agriculture and culminated in the Oriental Bronze Age.[13]
Single or multiple cradles[edit]
A traditional theory of the spread of civilization is that it began in the Fertile Crescent and spread out from there by influence.[14] Scholars more generally now believe that civilizations arose independently at several locations in both hemispheres. They have observed that sociocultural developments occurred along different timeframes. "Sedentary" and "nomadic" communities continued to interact considerably; they were not strictly divided among widely different cultural groups. The concept of a cradle of civilization has a focus where the inhabitants came to build cities, to create writing systems, to experiment in techniques for making pottery and using metals, to domesticate animals, and to develop complex social structures involving class systems.[5]
Current scholarship generally identifies five sites where civilization emerged independently:[7][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]
the Fertile Crescent
the Indus River
the Yellow River
the Central Andes
Mesoamerica
Old World[edit]
Mesopotamia[edit]
Main articles: History of Mesopotamia and Sumer
Map showing the extent of Mesopotamia
Around 10,200 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (7600 to 6000 BC) appeared in the fertile crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards.[23] One of the most notable PPNA settlements is Jericho in the Levant region, thought to be the world's first town (settled around 8500 BC and fortified around 6800 BC).[24][25] In Mesopotamia, the convergence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers produced rich fertile soil and a supply of water for irrigation. The civilizations that emerged around these rivers are among the earliest known non-nomadic agrarian societies. It is because of this that the fertile crescent region, and Mesopotamia in particular, are often referred to as the cradle of civilization.[26] The period known as the Ubaid period (c. 6500 to 3800 BC) is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain, although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium.[27][28] It was during the Ubaid period that the movement towards urbanization began. Agriculture and animal husbandry were widely practiced in sedentary communities, particularly in Northern Mesopotamia, and intensive irrigated hydraulic agriculture began to be practiced in the south.[29] Eridu is the oldest Sumerian site settled during this period, around 5300 BC, and the city of Ur also first dates to the end of this period.[30] In the south, the Ubaid period had a very long duration from around 6500 to 3800 BC; when it is replaced by the Uruk period.[31]
Sumerian civilization coalesces in the subsequent Uruk period (4000 to 3100 BC).[32] Named after the Sumerian city of Uruk, this period saw the emergence of urban life in Mesopotamia and, during its later phase, the gradual emergence of the cuneiform script. Proto-writing in the region dates to around 3500 BC, with the earliest texts dating to 3300 BC; early cuneiform writing emerged in 3000 BC.[33] It was also during this period that pottery painting declined as copper started to become popular, along with cylinder seals.[34] Uruk trade networks started to expand to other parts of Mesopotamia and as far as North Caucasus, and strong signs of governmental organization and social stratification began to emerge leading to the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900 BC).[35][36][37] The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period, although architectural precursors in the form of raised platforms date back to the Ubaid period,[38] and the second phase of the Early Dynastic Period (c. 2700 BC) is also when the legendary king Gilgamesh is believed to have reigned.[39]
Eannatum, the Sumerian king of Lagash, established one of the first verifiable empires in history in 2500 BC.[40] The neighboring Elam, in modern Iran, was also part of the early urbanization during the Chalcolithic period.[41] Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East.[42] The emergence of Elamite written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found.[43][44] During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians.[45] Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere between the 3rd and the 2nd millennia BC.[46] The Semitic-speaking Akkadian empire emerged around 2350 BC under Sargon the Great.[35] The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC. Under Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium. After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, the Akkadian people of Mesopotamia eventually coalesced into two major Akkadian-speaking nations: Assyria in the north, and, a few centuries later, Babylonia in the south.[47][47][48]
Egypt[edit]
Main articles: History of ancient Egypt and Ancient Egypt
The maximum territorial extent of ancient Egypt
The developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phases Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,200 BC) and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (7600 to 6000 BC) appeared in the fertile crescent and from there spread eastwards and westwards.[23] Contemporaneously, a grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had replaced the culture of hunters, fishers, and gathering people using stone tools along the Nile. Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies also suggest that natural climate changes around 8000 BC began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of northern Africa, eventually forming the Sahara. Continued desiccation forced the early ancestors of the Egyptians to settle around the Nile more permanently and to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle.[49] By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of inter-related cultures as far south as Sudan, demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert; it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and use of copper.[50] The oldest known domesticated bovine in Africa are from Fayum dating to around 4400 BC.[51] The Badari cultures was followed by the Naqada culture, which brought a number of technological improvements.[52] As early as the first Naqada Period, Amratia, Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes.[53] By 3300 BC, just before the first Egyptian dynasty, Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper Egypt to the south, and Lower Egypt to the north.[54]
Egyptian civilization begins during the second phase of the Naqda culture, known as the Gerzeh period, around 3500 BC and coalesces with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3150 BC.[55] Farming produced the vast majority of food; with increased food supplies, the populace adopted a much more sedentary lifestyle, and the larger settlements grew to cities of about 5,000 residents. It was in this time that the city dwellers started using mud brick to build their cities, and the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect became popular.[56] Copper instead of stone was increasingly used to make tools[56] and weaponry.[57] Symbols on Gerzean pottery also resemble nascent Egyptian hieroglyphs.[58] Early evidence also exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast, during this time.[59] Concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt, also underwent a unification process. During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the Delta and merged both the Kingdom of Upper and Lower Egypt under his single rule.[60]
The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately followed the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. It is generally taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from the Naqada III archaeological period until about the beginning of the Old Kingdom, c. 2686 BC.[61] With the First Dynasty, the capital moved from Thinis to Memphis with a unified Egypt ruled by a god-king. The hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as art, architecture and many aspects of religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic period. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labour, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.[62] Major advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the subsequent Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population, made possible by a well-developed central administration.[63] Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order. Along with the rising importance of a central administration there arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration.[61] As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC,[64] is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.[65]
India[edit]
Main articles: History of India and Indus Valley Civilization
Indian cultural zone
One of the earliest Neolithic sites in South Asia is Bhirrana along the ancient Saraswati riverine system in the present day state of Haryana in India, dating to around 7600 BC.[66] Other early sites include Lahuradewa in the Middle Ganges region and Jhusi near the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers, both dating to around the 7000 BC.[67][68] The aceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh lasts from 7000 to 5500 BC, with the ceramic Neolithic at Mehrgarh lasting up to 3300 BC; blending into the Early Bronze Age. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia.[69][70] It is likely that the culture centered around Mehrgarh migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.[71]
The Indus Valley Civilisation starts around 3300 BC with what is referred to as the Early Harappan Phase (3300 to 2600 BC). The earliest examples of the Indus Script date to this period,[72][73] as well as the emergence of citadels representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life.[74] Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. By this time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals, including the water buffalo.[75][76]
2600 BC marks the Mature Harappan Phase during which Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centres including Harappa, Dholavira, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi, and more than 1,000 towns and villages, often of relatively small size.[77] Mature Harappans evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin and displayed advanced levels of engineering.[78] The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.[79]
Around 1800 BC, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BC most of the cities had been abandoned. Many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation.[80] The migration of Aryan peoples into the region at this time is also notable; however, the idea of a violent invasion is no longer widely accepted.[81] The Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly and many elements of the civilisation continue in later South Asian and Vedic cultures.[82]
China[edit]
Main articles: History of China and Erlitou culture
Mainland China, Taiwan, and countries linked to the Chinese cultural and political history
Early evidence for Chinese millet agriculture is dated to around 7000 BC,[83] with the earliest evidence of cultivated rice found at Chengtoushan near the Yangtze River, dated to 6500 BC. Chengtoushan may also be the site of the first walled city in China.[84] This Neolithic Revolution gave rise to the Jiahu culture (7000 to 5800 BC).[85] Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (6600 BC) are the earliest form of proto-writing in China.[86] However, it is likely that they should not be understood as writing itself, but as features of a lengthy period of sign-use which led eventually to a fully-fledged system of writing.[87] Excavation of a Peiligang culture site in Xinzheng county, Henan, found a community that flourished in 5500 to 4900 BC, with evidence of agriculture, constructed buildings, pottery, and burial of the dead.[88] With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators.[85] In late Neolithic times, the Yellow River valley began to establish itself as a center of Yangshao culture (5000 to 3000 BC), and the first villages were founded. Later, Yangshao culture was superseded by the Longshan culture, which was also centered on the Yellow River from about 3000 to 2000 BC.[89] The earliest bronze artifacts have been found in the Majiayao culture site (3100 to 2700 BC).[90][91]
Chinese civilization begins during the second phase of the Erlitou period (1900 to 1500 BC), with Erlitou considered the first state level society of East Asia.[92] There is considerable debate whether Erlitou sites correlate to the semi-legendary Xia dynasty. The Xia dynasty (2070 to 1600 BC) is the first dynasty to be described in ancient Chinese historical records such as the Bamboo Annals, first published more than a millennium later during the Western Zhou period. Although Xia is an important element in Chinese historiography, there is to date no contemporary written evidence to corroborate the dynasty. Erlitou saw an increase in bronze metallurgy and urbanization and was a rapidly growing regional center with palatial complexes that provide evidence for social stratification.[93] The earliest traditional Chinese dynasty for which there is both archeological and written evidence is the Shang dynasty (1600 to 1046 BC). Shang sites have yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing, the oracle bone script, mostly divinations inscribed on bones. These inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics from the politics, economy, and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization.[94] Some historians argue that Erlitou should be considered an early phase of the Shang dynasty. The U.S. National Gallery of Art defines the Chinese Bronze Age as the period between about 2000 and 771 BC; a period that begins with the Erlitou culture and ends abruptly with the disintegration of Western Zhou rule.[95] The Sanxingdui culture is another Chinese Bronze Age society, contemporaneous to the Shang dynasty, however they developed a different method of bronze-making from the Shang.[96]
The Shang dynasty was succeeded by the Zhou dynasty (1046 to 256 BC). The succession of dynasties, known as the dynastic cycle, is an important political theory in Chinese history. This theory sees a continuity in Chinese history from early times to the present by looking at the succession of empires or dynasties. Emperors would legitimize their rule by invoking the Mandate of Heaven.[97][98] During the Zhou dynasty, Chinese script evolved into its almost-modern form with the use of a clerical script that emerged during the late Warring States period.[99] In 221 BC, China became culturally and politically unified under a large centralized empire, the Qin dynasty, founded by Emperor Qin Shi Huang. Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the Emperor of China to control the large territory from the center.[100][101]
New World[edit]
Central Andes[edit]
Main articles: Ancient Peru and Norte Chico civilization
Caral of the Norte Chico, the oldest known civilization in the Americas
The earliest evidence of agriculture in the Andean region dates to around 4700 BC at Huaca Prieta and Paredones.[102][103][104] The oldest evidence of canal irrigation in South America dates to 4700 to 2500 BC in the Zaña Valley of northern Peru.[105] The earliest urban settlements of the Andes, as well as North and South America, are dated to 3500 BC at Huaricanga, in the Fortaleza area,[5] and Sechin Bajo near the Sechin River.[106][107]
The Norte Chico civilization proper is understood to have emerged around 3200 BC, as it is at that point that large-scale human settlement and communal construction across multiple sites becomes clearly apparent.[108] Since the early 21st century, it has been established as the oldest known civilization in the Americas. The civilization flourished at the confluence of three rivers, the Fortaleza, the Pativilca, and the Supe. These river valleys each have large clusters of sites. Further south, there are several associated sites along the Huaura River.[109] Notable settlements include the cities of Caral, the largest and most complex Preceramic site, and Aspero.[110]
Norte Chico is unusual in that it completely lacked ceramics and apparently had almost no visual art. Nevertheless, the civilization exhibited impressive architectural feats, including large earthwork platform mounds and sunken circular plazas, and an advanced textile industry.[5][111] The platform mounds, as well as large stone warehouses, provide evidence for a stratified society and a centralized authority necessary to distribute resources such as cotton.[5] However, there is no evidence of warfare or defensive structures during this period.[112] Originally, it was theorized that, unlike other early civilizations, Norte Chico developed by relying on maritime food sources in place of a staple cereal. This hypothesis, the Maritime Foundation of Andean Civilization, is still hotly debated; however, most researches now agree that agriculture played a central role in the civilization's development while still acknowledging a strong supplemental reliance on maritime proteins.[113][114][115]
The discovery of quipu, string-based recording devices, at Caral can be understood as a form of "proto-writing" at Norte Chico.[116] However, the exact use of quipu in this and later Andean cultures has been widely debated.[5] Additionally, the image of the Staff God has been found on a gourd dated to 2250 BC. The Staff God is a major deity of later Andean cultures. The presence of quipu and the commonality of religious symbols suggests a cultural link between Norte Chico and later Andean cultures.[117][118]
Circa 1800 BC, the Norte Chico civilization began to decline, with more powerful centers appearing to the south and north along the coast and to the east inside the belt of the Andes.[119] Pottery eventually developed in the Amazon Basin and spread to the Andean culture region around 2000 BC. The next major civilization to arise in the Andes would be the Chavín culture at Chavín de Huantar, located in the Andean highlands of the present-day Ancash Region. It is believed to have been built around 900 BC and was the religious and political center of the Chavín people.[120]
Mesoamerica[edit]
Main articles: Mesoamerican chronology and Olmec
The Olmec heartland, where the Olmec reigned
The Coxcatlan caves in the Valley of Tehuacán provide evidence for agriculture in components dated between 5000 and 3400 BC.[121] Similarly, sites such as Sipacate in Guatemala provide maize pollen samples dating to 3500 BC.[122] It is estimated that fully domesticated maize developed in Mesoamerica around 2700 BC.[123] Mesoamericans during this period likely divided their time between small hunting encampments and large temporary villages.[124] What would become the Olmec civilization had its roots in early farming cultures of Tabasco, which began around 5100 to 4600 BC.[125]
The emergence of the Olmec civilization has traditionally been dated to around 1600 to 1500 BC. Olmec features first emerged in the city of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, fully coalescing around 1400 BC. The rise of civilization was assisted by the local ecology of well-watered alluvial soil, as well as by the transportation network provided by the Coatzacoalcos River basin.[125] This environment encouraged a densely concentrated population, which in turn triggered the rise of an elite class and an associated demand for the production of the symbolic and sophisticated luxury artifacts that define Olmec culture.[126] Many of these luxury artifacts were made from materials such as jade, obsidian, and magnetite, which came from distant locations and suggest that early Olmec elites had access to an extensive trading network in Mesoamerica. The aspect of Olmec culture perhaps most familiar today is their artwork, particularly the Olmec colossal heads.[127]
San Lorenzo was all but abandoned around 900 BC at about the same time that La Venta rose to prominence. A wholesale destruction of many San Lorenzo monuments occurred around 950 BC. La Venta continued as the center of Olmec culture until its abandonment around 400 BC; constructing monumental architectural achievements such as the Great Pyramid of La Venta.[127][125] The exact cause of the decline of the Olmec culture is uncertain. Between 400 and 350 BC, the population in the eastern half of the Olmec heartland dropped precipitously.[128] This depopulation was probably the result of serious environmental changes that rendered the region unsuited for large groups of farmers, in particular changes to the riverine environment that the Olmec depended upon for agriculture, hunting and gathering, and transportation. These changes may have been triggered by tectonic upheavals or subsidence, or the silting up of rivers due to agricultural practices.[127][125] Within a few hundred years of the abandonment of the last Olmec cities, successor cultures became firmly established. The Tres Zapotes site, on the western edge of the Olmec heartland, continued to be occupied well past 400 BC, but without the hallmarks of the Olmec culture. This post-Olmec culture, often labeled Epi-Olmec, has features similar to those found at Izapa, some 550 km (330 miles) to the southeast.[129]
The Olmecs are sometimes referred to as the mother culture of Mesoamerica, as they were the first Mesoamerican civilization and laid many of the foundations for the civilizations that followed.[130] However, the causes and degree of Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures has been a subject of debate over many decades.[131] Practices introduced by the Olmec include ritual bloodletting and the Mesoamerican ballgame; hallmarks of subsequent Mesoamerican societies such as the Maya and Aztec.[130] Although the Mesoamerican writing system would fully develop later, early Olmec ceramics show representations that may be interpreted as codices.[125]
Timeline[edit]
The following timeline shows the approximate dates of the emergence of civilization (as discussed in the article) in the featured areas and the primary cultures associated with these early civilizations. It is important to note that the timeline is not indicative of the beginning of human habitation, the start of a specific ethnic group, or the development of Neolithic cultures in the area; which often occurred significantly earlier than the emergence of civilization proper.

Cradle of Western civilization[edit]
Main articles: Minoan civilization, Mycenaean Greece, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and Classical antiquity
The Colosseum and the Acropolis, symbols of the Graeco-Roman world. Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture spread throughout Europe.
There is academic consensus that Classical Greece is the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture, democracy, art, theatre, philosophy and science. For this reason it is known as the cradle of Western Civilization.[a] Along with Greece, Rome has sometimes been described as a birthplace or as the cradle of Western Civilization because of the role the city had in politics, republicanism, law, architecture, warfare and Western Christianity.[b]
See also[edit]
Chronology of the ancient Near East
Cradle of Humankind
Human history
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See[8][132][133][134][135][136][137][138][139][140][141]
Jump up ^ [142][143][144][145][146]
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Jump up ^ "Oldest Urban Site in the Americas Found, Experts Claim", National Geographic News, Feb 26, 2008, [4], accessed 20 Jan 2016
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Jump up ^ "Oldest city in the Americas". BBC News. 26 April 2001. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
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Jump up ^ Moseley, Michael (1975). The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization. Menlo Park: Cummings. ISBN 0-8465-4800-3.
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Jump up ^ Hoag, Hanna (15 April 2003). "Oldest evidence of Andean religion found". Nature News (online). doi:10.1038/news030414-4.
Jump up ^ Hecht, Jeff (14 April 2003). "America's oldest religious icon revealed". New Scientist (online). Retrieved 2007-02-13.
Jump up ^ "Archaeologists shed new light on Americas' earliest known civilization" (Press release). Northern Illinois University. 2004-12-22. Archived from the original on February 9, 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-01.
Jump up ^ Burger (1992), Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization
Jump up ^ Nichols, Deborah L., and Christopher A. Pool. The Oxford Handbook of Mesoamerican Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2012. Print.
Jump up ^ Roush, Wade (9 May 1997). "Archaeobiology: Squash Seeds Yield New View of Early American Farming". Science. American Association For the Advancement of Science. 276 (5314): 894–895. doi:10.1126/science.276.5314.894.
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e Diehl, Richard A. (2004). The Olmecs : America's First Civilization. London: Thames and Hudson
Jump up ^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, Dahia Ibo Shabaka, (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Pool, Christopher A. (2007). Olmec Archaeology and Early Mesoamerica. Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Nagy, Christopher (1997). "The Geoarchaeology of Settlement in the Grijalva Delta". In Barbara L. Stark; Philip J. Arnold III. Olmec to Aztec: Settlement Patterns in the Ancient Gulf Lowlands. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. pp. 253–277
Jump up ^ Coe, Michael D. (1968). America's First Civilization: Discovering the Olmec. New York: The Smithsonian Library.
^ Jump up to: a b Coe, Michael D.; Rex Koontz (2002). Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs (5th edition, revised and enlarged ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson.
Jump up ^ Wilford, John Noble; “Mother Culture, or Only a Sister?”, The New York Times, March 15, 2005.
Jump up ^ John E. Findling; Kimberly D. Pelle (2004). Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-313-32278-5.
Jump up ^ Wayne C. Thompson; Mark H. Mullin. Western Europe, 1983. Stryker-Post Publications. p. 337. for ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture ...
Jump up ^ Frederick Copleston (1 June 2003). History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome. A&C Black. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8264-6895-6. PART I PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER II THE CRADLE OF WESTERN THOUGHT:
Jump up ^ Mario Iozzo (2001). Art and History of Greece: And Mount Athos. Casa Editrice Bonechi. p. 7. ISBN 978-88-8029-435-1. The capital of Greece, one of the world's most glorious cities and the cradle of Western culture,
Jump up ^ Marxiano Melotti (25 May 2011). The Plastic Venuses: Archaeological Tourism in Post-Modern Society. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-4438-3028-7. In short, Greece, despite having been the cradle of Western culture, was then an “other” space separate from the West.
Jump up ^ Library Journal. 97. Bowker. April 1972. p. 1588. Ancient Greece: Cradle of Western Culture (Series), disc. 6 strips with 3 discs, range: 44–60 fr., 17–18 min
Jump up ^ Stanley Mayer Burstein (2002). Current Issues and the Study of Ancient History. Regina Books. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-930053-10-6. and making Egypt play the same role in African education and culture that Athens and Greece do in Western culture.
Jump up ^ Murray Milner, Jr. (8 January 2015). Elites: A General Model. John Wiley & Sons. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-7456-8950-0. Greece has long been considered the seedbed or cradle of Western civilization.
Jump up ^ Slavica viterbiensia 003: Periodico di letterature e culture slave della Facoltà di Lingue e Letterature Straniere Moderne dell'Università della Tuscia. Gangemi Editore spa. 2011-11-10. p. 148. ISBN 978-88-492-6909-3. The Special Case of Greece The ancient Greece was a cradle of the Western culture,
Jump up ^ Kim Covert (1 July 2011). Ancient Greece: Birthplace of Democracy. Capstone. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4296-6831-6. Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization. ... Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece.
Jump up ^ Henry Turner Inman. "Rome: the cradle of western civilisation as illustrated by existing monuments". Amazon.com. ISBN 9781177738538. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
Jump up ^ Michael Ed. Grant. "The Birth Of Western Civilisation, Greece & Rome". Amazon.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
Jump up ^ HUXLEY, George (et al). "9780500040034: The Birth of Western Civilization: Greece and Rome". AbeBooks.com. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
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Jump up ^ "Download This PDF eBooks Free" (PDF). File104.filthbooks.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-07. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
Sources[edit]
Samuel Noah Kramer (1959). Anchor Paperback. Doubleday Anchor Books.
Samuel Noah Kramer (1969). Cradle of Civilization. Little Brown & Co. ISBN 0-316-32617-8.
Georg Feuerstein (2001). In Search of the Cradle of Civilization. Quest Books. ISBN 0-8356-0741-0.
Ethel Hofflund (2001). The Cradle of Civilization (Lifepac History & Geography Grade 6). Alpha Omega Publications. ISBN 0-86717-552-4.
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Gautam Adani
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Gautam Adani
Native name
ગૌતમ અદાણી
Born
Gautam Shantilal Adani
(1962-06-24) 24 June 1962 (age 55)
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Residence
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Nationality
Indian
Occupation
Chairman, Adani Group
Known for
Founder and chairman, Adani Group
Net worth
$8.81 billion (September 2017)[1]
Spouse(s)
Priti Adani
Children
Karan Adani
Jeet Adani
Parent(s)
Shantilal and Shanta Adani
Relatives
Vinod Adani (brother)
Gautam Shantilal Adani (born 24 June 1962) is an Indian billionaire businessman who is the chairman and founder of Adani Group. According to Forbes, his net worth is estimated to be $8.81 billion as of September 2017. [1] He founded the Adani Group in 1988, which now deals in businesses spanning coal trading, coal mining, oil & gas exploration, ports, logistics, power generation, agriculture, edible oils, transmission and gas distribution.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Adani Group
4 Kamuthi
5 Controversy
6 Adani Foundation
7 Personal life
8 References
9 External links
Early life[edit]
Gautam Adani was born into a Gujarati Jain Bania family on 24 June 1962, in Ahmedabad. He is the son of Shantilal and Shanta Adani and has seven siblings. His parents had migrated from the town of Tharad in the northern part of Gujarat. He did his schooling at the Sheth Chimanlal Nagindas Vidyalaya school in Ahmedabad. He started a bachelor's degree in commerce at Gujarat University, but dropped out after the second year.[3]
Career[edit]
After working as a diamond sorter at Mahindra Brothers for two years, Adani set up his own diamond brokerage business in Mumbai, India.[4] Mahasukh Adani, his elder brother, called him back to Ahmedabad to run his newly purchased plastic factory.[4] He soon started commodity trading by importing polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a key raw material for manufacturing plastic.[4]
Adani Group[edit]
In 1988, he started Adani Enterprises Limited (formerly known as the Adani Export Ltd), the flagship company of the Adani Group, that traded in a variety of power and agricultural commodities. The 1991 economic liberalization policies fuelled the rapid growth of the business leading to huge profitability of Adani Exports. This provided further capital to Adani to expand his business. In 2006, Adani Exports was renamed to Adani Enterprises Limited.[5] In 1993, the Government of Gujarat invited private companies to run the Mundra Port and in 1995 the contract was given to Adani Group. Today, Mundra Port is the largest Private Sector port in India, with capability of handling close to 210 million tonnes of cargo per annum. [5]
Adani is also the founder and promoter of Adani Power Ltd (APL), a power business arm of Adani Group. Adani Power has thermal power plants with capacity of 4620 MW, the largest private thermal power producer of the country. It is also the largest solar power producer of India with capacity 648 MW.[6]
Kamuthi[edit]
In September 2016, Adani Green Energy (Tamil Nadu), the renewable wing of the Adani Group, kicked off operations in Kamuthi in Ramnathapuram in Tamil Nadu with a capacity of 648 megawatts (MW) at an estimated cost of Rs. 4,550 crore. [7]
Controversy[edit]
During the time of 2014 Loksabha elections of India, Adani was accused of various controversies. He was being accused of supporting Narendra Modi for his campaign in Bharatiya Janata Party. [8] Even though claiming on national media that he has no special favors with Modi, ,[9] Modi was seen traveling on Adani group's chartered planes to rallies across India.[10][11] To counter this allegation, Mr Adani spoke out in an interview with CNBC and clarified that the BJP paid market price to Adani Group for using its aviation services.[12]
It was alleged that the NDA government was favouring Adani by allegedly waiving off Rs. 200 crore fine on Adani Port and SEZ.[13] Adani, later, in an interview clarified the fine has not been dropped and the government is not favouring Adani either.[14] He further clarified that the mine is owned by Rajasthan Government and Adani Group is just the mine contractor.[14]
Adani Foundation[edit]
The Adani Foundation was founded in 1996, and is registered under the Bombay Public Charity Trusts Act of 1950 and Society’s Registration Act 1860.[15] Other than Gujarat, the Foundation operates in the states of Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Odisha.[15]
Personal life[edit]
He is married to Priti Adani, who is a dentist and heads the Adani Foundation as a managing trustee.[16] They have two sons. [17]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Gautam Adani & family". Forbes. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Adani Enterprises Ltd". BusinessWeek. 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Gautam Adani Business Profile". Business Maps of India. 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Gautam Adani Biography- About family, children, education, wife, age, and more". Business.mapsofindia.com. 2 June 2015. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Mehta, Harit (10 April 2014). "Gautam Adani, the baron to watch out for if Narendra Modi becomes king". The Times of India. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "ABB links 648 MW solar project at Kamuthi with national grid - The Economic Times". Economictimes.indiatimes.com. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Share on FacebookShare on Twitter (21 September 2016). "Adani: Adani unveils world's largest solar power plant in Tamil Nadu - Times of India". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Allegations political, didn't get land at Re 1 from Modi: Adani". The Times of India. 28 April 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Press Trust of India (27 April 2014). "Gautam Adani denies any special favours from Modi". The Indian Express. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Modi flies only on Gujarat Inc. money". The Times of India. 29 September 2007. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Can someone explain why Modi is using Adani's private jet?". Reddit.com. 2 March 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "GAUTAM ADANI INTERVIEW Youtube HD Video Online". Onlinenewsvideo.net. 28 April 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Modi government cancels Rs 200cr penalty: Achhe din for Adani only?". Dailyo.in. 3 July 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gautam Adani: We don't seek special favours from BJP or any individual". The Indian Express. 11 July 2016. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gautam Adani". Globalrecorder.com. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Ahmedabad Mirror (6 July 2016). "Being sultan - Ahmedabad Mirror". Ahmedabadmirror.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
Jump up ^ https://www.ft.com/content/ffce04fe-d295-11e2-aac2-00144feab7de
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gautam Adani.
Profile at Forbes
Adani Website
Adani Foundation
Fortune Foods Official Website
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