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Head and neck anatomy
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An MRI scan of the human head.
This article describes the anatomy of the head and neck of the human body, including the brain, bones, muscles, blood vessels, nerves, glands, nose, mouth, teeth, tongue, and throat.
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Bones
1.2 Muscles
1.3 Skin
1.4 Mouth
1.4.1 Teeth
1.4.2 Salivary glands
1.4.3 Tongue
1.5 Nose
1.6 Microanatomy
2 Blood, lymph and nerve supply
2.1 Blood supply
2.1.1 Blood–brain barrier
2.2 Venous drainage
2.3 Lymphatic system
2.4 Nerve supply
2.4.1 Cranial nerves
3 Function
3.1 Endocrine glands
3.2 Respiratory system
3.3 Central nervous system
4 Development
4.1 Bones
4.2 Teeth
5 Clinical significance
5.1 Infection
5.2 Other
5.3 Airway obstruction
6 References
7 External links
Structure[edit]
Bones[edit]
The head is rests on the top part of the vertebral column, with the skull joining at C1 (the first cervical vertebra known as the atlas). The skeletal section of the head and neck forms the top part of the axial skeleton and is made up of the skull, hyoid bone, auditory ossicles, and cervical spine.
The skull can be further subdivided into:
the cranium (8 bones: frontal, 2-parietal, occipital, 2-temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid), and
the facial bones (14 bones: 2-zygomatic, 2-maxillary, 2-palatine, 2-nasal, 2-lacrimal, vomer, 2-inferior conchae, mandible).
The occipital bone joins with the atlas near the foramen magnum, a large hole (foramen) at the base of the skull. The atlas joins with the occipital condyle above and the axis below. The spinal cord passes through the foramen magnum.
Muscles[edit]
Group Name Nerve Function
facial expression Epicranius: Frontalis and Occipitalis facial nerve eyebrows and scalp
facial expression Orbicularis oris facial nerve closes lips
facial expression Zygomaticus major facial nerve smiling
facial expression Zygomaticus minor facial nerve smiling
facial expression Levator labii superioris facial nerve upper lip
facial expression Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi facial nerve upper lip
facial expression Depressor labii inferioris facial nerve lower lip
facial expression Depressor anguli oris facial nerve frowning
facial expression Platysma facial nerve frowning (during fear or shock)
facial expression Buccinator facial nerve cheeks
facial expression Mentalis facial nerve chin
facial expression Platysma facial nerve frowning
facial expression Risorius facial nerve mouth angle
facial expression Orbicularis oculi facial nerve closes eye
facial expression Nasalis facial nerve flare nostrils
facial expression Corrugator supercilli facial nerve eyebrow
facial expression Levator palpebrae superioris oculomotor nerve upper eyelid
chewing – lower mandible Masseter Trigeminal nerve closing and protruding mandible,
chewing – lower mandible Temporalis Trigeminal nerve elevates and controls side to side movement of mandible
chewing – lower mandible Medial pterygoid Trigeminal nerve elevates mandible,
chewing – lower mandible Lateral pterygoid Trigeminal nerve protracts mandible, opens mouth.
tongue – extrinsic Genioglossus hypoglossal nerve protraction,
tongue – extrinsic Styloglossus hypoglossal nerve elevation and retraction,
tongue – extrinsic Hyoglossus hypoglossal nerve depresses tongue
tongue – extrinsic Palatoglossus Pharyngeal plexus, pharyngeal branch of vagus nerve elevates tongue while swallowing
oral cavity floor Digastric Trigeminal nerve and Facial nerve hyoid and mandible movement
oral cavity floor Stylohyoid Facial nerve elevates hyoid
oral cavity floor Mylohyoid Trigeminal nerve hyoid and mandible movement
oral cavity floor Geniohyoid Cervical nerve C-1 hyoid, tongue, and mandible movement
move head Sternocleidomastoid Accessory nerve nodding and turning
move head Semispinalis dorsal rami of cervical nerves extends head, supports turning
move head Splenius capitis dorsal rami of middle and lower cervical nerves extend head, supports turning
move head Longissimus capitis dorsal rami of middle and lower cervical nerves extends head, supports turning
move head Rectus capitis posterior major Suboccipital nerve C-1 extends head
move head Rectus capitis posterior minor Suboccipital nerve C-1 extends head
Skin[edit]
The head and neck is covered in skin and its appendages, termed the integumentary system. These include hair, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and sensory nerves. The skin is made up of three microscopic layers: epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelium and is divided into the following five sublayers or strata, listed in order from outer to inner:
Stratum corneum,
Stratum lucidum,
Stratum granulosum,
Stratum spinosum,
Stratum germinativum also called stratum basale. The deepest layer is the miotic layer, stratum basale producing daughter cells by mitosis.
Mouth[edit]
Main article: Mouth
The mouth, also called the oral cavity , is the entranceway into the digestive system containing both primary and accessory organs of digestion.
Teeth[edit]
Main article: Human tooth
Two rows of teeth are supported by facial bones of the skull, the maxilla above and the mandible below. Adults have 32 permanent teeth, and children have 20 deciduous teeth. There are various tooth shapes for different jobs. For example, when chewing, the upper teeth work together with the lower teeth of the same shape to bite, chew, and tear food. The names of these teeth are:
(1) Incisors, there are eight incisors located in the front of the mouth (four on the top and four on the bottom). They have sharp, chisel-shaped crowns that cut food.
(2) Cuspids (or canine tooth), the four cuspids are next to each incisor. Cuspids have a pointed edge to tear food.
(3) Premolars (or bicuspids), the four pairs of molars are located next to the cuspids. They crush and tear food.
(4) Molars, there are twelve molars, in sets of three, at the back of the mouth. They have wide surfaces that help to grind food.
The white visible part of a tooth is called the crown. The rounded upper projections of the back teeth are cusps. The hard white exterior covering of the tooth is the enamel. As the tooth tapers below the gumline, the neck is formed. Below the neck, holding the tooth into the bone, is the root of the tooth. The inner portions of the tooth consist of the dentin, a bonelike tissue, and the pulp. The pulp is a soft tissue area containing the nerve and blood vessels to nourish and protect the tooth, located within the pulp cavity.
A tooth sits in a specialized socket called the alveolus. The tooth is held in location by a periodontal ligament, with the assistance of cementum. Teeth are surrounded by gingiva, or gums, part of the periodontium, support tissue of oral cavity protection. The periodontium includes all of the support membranes of the dental structures surround and support the teeth such as the gums and the attachment surfaces and membranes. These include epithelial tissues (epithelium), connective tissues, (ligaments and bone), muscle tissue and nervous tissue.
Salivary glands[edit]
Main article: salivary glands
There are three sets of salivary glands: the parotid, the submandibular and the sublingual glands. The (exocrine) glands secrete saliva for proper mixing of food and provides enzymes to start chemical digestion. Saliva helps to hold together the formed bolus which is swallowed after chewing. Saliva is composed primarily of water, ions, salivary amylase, lysozymes, and trace amounts of urea.
Tongue[edit]
The tongue is a specialized skeletal muscle that is specially adapted for the activities of speech, chewing, developing gustatory sense (taste) and swallowing. The tongue contains two sets of muscles, the intrinsic- involved with shape of tongue, and the extrinsic- involved with tongue movement. It is attached to the hyoid bone. Terms meaning tongue include "glosso" (from Greek) and "lingual" ((from Latin).
Nose[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018)
Microanatomy[edit]
The outer surfaces of the head and neck are lined by epithelium. The protective tissues of the oral cavity are continuous with the digestive tract are called mucosa or mucous membranes. The cells of the inner oral cavity are called the buccal mucosa.
The oral cavity is lined by a stratified squamous epithelium containing about three layers of cells.[citation needed] They line the oral, nasal, and external auditory meatus, (ear), providing lubrication and protection against pathogens.
The lips are also protected by specialized sensory cells called Meissner's corpuscles.
Blood, lymph and nerve supply[edit]
Blood supply[edit]
Blood circulates from the upper systemic loop originating at the aortic arch, and includes: the brachiocephalic artery, left common carotid artery and left subclavian artery. The head and neck are emptied of blood by the subclavian vein and jugular vein.
Right side of neck dissection showing the brachiocephalic, right common carotid artery and its branches
The brachiocephalic artery or trunk is the first and largest artery that branches to form the right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery. This artery provides blood to the right upper chest, right arm, neck, and head, through a branch called right vertebral artery. The right and left vertebral artery feed into the basilar artery and upward to the Posterior cerebral artery, which provides most of the brain with oxygenated blood. The posterior cerebral artery and the posterior communicating artery are within the circle of Willis.
The left common carotid artery divides to form the: internal carotid artery (ICA) and an external carotid artery (ECA). The ICA supplies the brain. The ECA supplies the neck and face.
The left subclavian artery and the right subclavian artery, one on each side of the body form the internal thoracic artery, the vertebral artery, the thyrocervical trunk, and the costocervical trunk. The subclavian becomes the axiliary artery at the lateral border of the first rib. The left subclavian artery also provides blood to the left upper chest and left arm.
Blood–brain barrier[edit]
The Blood–brain barrier (BBB) is semi-permeable membrane that controls the capillary leak potential of the circulatory system. In most parts of the body, the smallest blood vessels, called capillaries, are lined with endothelial cells, which have small spaces between each individual cell so substances can move readily between the inside and the outside of the capillary. This is not in the case of brain. In the brain, the endothelial cells fit tightly together to create a tight junction and substances cannot pass out of the bloodstream.
Specialized glial cells called astrocytes form a tight junction or protective barrier around brain blood vessels and may be important in the development of the BBB. Astrocytes may also be responsible for transporting ions (electrolytes) from the brain to the blood.
Venous drainage[edit]
Blood from the brain and neck flows from: (1) within the cranium via the internal jugular veins, a continuation of the sigmoid sinuses. The right and left external jugular veins drain from the parotid glands, facial muscles, scalp into the subclavian veins. The right and left vertebral veins drain the vertebrae and muscles into the right subclavian vein and into the superior vena cava, into the right atrium of the heart.
Lymphatic system[edit]
The lymphatic system drains the head and neck of excess interstitial fluid via lymph vessels or capillaries, equally into the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
Lymph nodes line the cervical spine and neck regions as well as along the face and jaw.
The tonsils also are lymphatic tissue and help mediate the ingestion of pathogens.
Tonsils in humans include, from superior to inferior: nasopharyngeal tonsils (also known as adenoids), palatine tonsils, and lingual tonsils.
Together this set of lymphatic tissue is called the tonsillar ring or Waldeyer's ring.
Nerve supply[edit]
The spinal nerves arise from the spinal column. The top section of the spine is the cervical section, which contains nerves that innervate muscles of the head, neck and thoracic cavity, as well as transmit sensory information to the CNS.
The cervical spine section contains seven vertebrae, C-1 through C-7, and eight nerve pairs, C-1 through C-8.
There is the formation of an extensive network of nerve groups or tracts attaching to the spinal cord in arrangements called rami or plexus.
The sensory branches of spinal nerves include: lesser occipital, C-2, great auricular, (C-2 and C-3); transverse cervical, C-2 and C-3; and supraclavicular, C-3 and C-4. These nerve groups transmit afferent (sensory) information from the scalp, neck, and shoulders to the brain.
The motor branches of spinal nerves include: ansa cervicalis, dividing into a superior root, C-1, and an inferior root, C-2 and C-3, and the phrenic nerve, C-3 to C-5, the segmental nerve branches, C-1 to C-5. These nerve groups transmit efferent nerve (motor) information from the brain to muscle groups of the scalp, neck, diaphragm (anatomy), and shoulders.
Additionally there are: (C5-C8, and T1) Brachial plexus, providing the entire nerve supply of the shoulder and upper limb; and includes supraclavicular branches (dorsal scapular, suprascapular, long thoracic) lateral cord (musculocutaneous, lateral antibrachial cutaneous, lateral head of median nerve), medial cord (ulnar, medial head of median nerve, medial antibrachial cutaneous, medial brachial cutaneous), posterior cord (axillary, radial), controlling the arm.
Damage to a person's spinal cord above C-5 may result in respiratory arrest and death if medicinal aid does not intervene.
Cranial nerves[edit]
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the brain; these affect movements and sensation, and some special organs such as hearing of parts of the head and neck.
Function[edit]
Movements of the neck includes: flexion, extension, (nodding yes), and rotation (shaking head no).
The mouth has evolved to support chewing, (mastication) and swallowing (deglutition), and speech (phonation).
In addition to the teeth, other structures that aid chewing are the lips, cheeks, tongue, hard palate, soft palate, and floor of the mouth.
Endocrine glands[edit]
Several glands of the endocrine system are found within the head and neck. Endocrine means that the secretion is used within the body. Endocrine glands are termed as ductless and release their secretions directly into the blood. The endocrine system is under the direct supervision of the nervous system, using the negative feedback principal of homeostasis, to create hormones which act as chemical instant messengers.
The hypothalamus connects directly to the pituitary gland, both through the circulatory system and by direct connection of neurons. Also, within the cranium, the pineal gland, which attaches to the thalamus, controls the body's 24-hour rhythms circadian rhythm through the release of melatonin.
The pituitary gland secretes hormones that directly impact the body as well as hormones that indirectly control body functions because they activate other endocrine glands, such as the adrenal cortex (ACTH) and the thyroid gland (TSH). These two glands when stimulated by pituitary hormones then release their own hormones. The pituitary gland has two lobes, the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe secretes: growth hormone (GH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Prolactin (PRL), and the posterior lobe secretes: Antidieuretic hormone (ADH), and Oxytocin. There is an intermediate lobe, in adult humans it is just a thin layer of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary, nearly indistinguishable from the anterior lobe. The intermediate lobe produces melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH).
In the neck are the thyroid and parathyroid glands, that secrete hormones that control metabolism and blood calcium levels. The four parathyroid glands are situated upon the back surface of the thyroid gland.
Respiratory system[edit]
See also: Respiratory system
The respiratory system begins in the head and neck, with air entering and leaving the body through the mouth and nose. The respiratory system involving the head and neck includes:
the nasal cavity for filtering, moistening, and warming the air
the pharynx or throat which is the combining point for respiratory and digestive system
the larynx or voice box containing the epiglottis
the trachea, or windpipe
These lead down into the lower respiratory tract. A critical junction between the respiratory and digestive systems is the epiglottis, a cartilage flap which shuts during swallowing to prevent aspiration. The epiglottis is normally open to support respiration and shuts during swallowing to prevent food and fluids from entering the trachea, activating the gag reflex or initiates the choking mechanism.
Central nervous system[edit]
Main article: central nervous system
The nervous system is composed of a central nervous system (CNS), brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), cranial nerves and spinal nerves. The CNS is located within the dorsal cavity, and the PNS extends through the ventral cavity. The central nervous system provides control and coordination of all eleven body systems and utilizes the endocrine system to form hormone chemical messengers that transport through the blood to influence the activity of individual cells of the body and their associated tissues, organs and systems.
The CNS receives sensory (afferent) input from the PNS and directs the flow of information to association neurons (interneurons) to create chemical synapse responses which in turn cause the formation of motor (efferent nerve) responses to stimulus. Association neurons are located in the grey matter of the spinal cord and the brain.
The CNS is protected by the cranium, vertebral column, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid. The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. The spinal cord and the brain stem are joined at the base of the cranium at the foramen magnum. Most of the functions of the head and neck are directly influenced by the brain and transmitted to the PNS via the cranial nerves and spinal nerves of the cervical portion of the spine.
The PNS has two subdivisions
somatic nervous system (SNS). The SNS is associated with the voluntary control of body movements through the action of skeletal muscles, and also the reception of external stimuli.
the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS is divided into subsystems: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic (PNS) nervous systems. The SNS and PNS often have opposing effects in the same organs or physiological systems, and the ANS is a major factor in maintaining homeostasis.

Development[edit]
See also: Face and neck development of the human embryo
Bones[edit]
As the fetus develops, the facial bones usually form into pairs and then fuse together. As the cranium fuses, sutures are formed that resemble stitching between bone plates. In a newborn, the junction of the parietal bones with the frontal and occipital bones, form the anterior (front) and posterior (back) fontanelle, or soft spots. The separation of the cranial bone plates at time of birth facilitate passage of the head of the fetus through the mother's birth canal, or pelvic girdle. The parietal bones, and occipital bone can overlap each other in the birth canal, and form the unusual looking "cone head" appearance in a newborn when delivered in a natural, or vaginal, delivery.
Teeth[edit]
Humans normally will produce two sets of teeth called primary dentition, or deciduous teeth, and secondary dentition, or permanent teeth.
A tooth is the toughest known substance in the body exceeding bones in density and strength. Tooth enamel lends great strength to the tooth structure. The formation of a developing tooth includes the process of dentin formation, (see: Dentinogenesis) and enamel formation, (see: amelogenesis). The tooth breaks through the gum into the mouth in a process called eruption. The formation of teeth begins in early fetal development and goes through six stages:
(1) initiation stage, 6th - 7th week
(2) bud stage, 8th wk
(3) cap stage, 9th-10 wk
(4) bell stage, 11th-12th wk
(5) apposition
(6) maturation stage
Clinical significance[edit]
Infection[edit]
Severe viral infections that affect the mouth, lips, or the oral cavity include: Oral cancer may have a viral link.
Minor viral infections include: Mumps is a viral infection of the parotid salivary glands. Chicken pox is a viral infection that can spread to the mouth.
Thrush (Candidiasis) fungal infection. Tonsillitis is an inflammation of the tonsils and may cause a sore throat and fever. In chronic cases tonsillectomy may be required.
Infected teeth can on rare occasions cause infection to spread leading to cavernous sinus thrombosis, mediastinitis, or Ludwig's angina causing airway blockage.
Diseases may be transmitted by contact of the head, mouth, or body fluids, such as Herpes Simplex Virus Type I (HSV-1), Herpes Simplex Virus Type II (HSV-2) genital herpes, which may present as a lesion on the lips, and contactable via skin to skin contact
Other[edit]
Other diseases include: Gingivitis gum disease, periodontal disease, oral forms of syphilis and gonorrhea. Dental caries or dental cavities.
Temporomandibular joint diseases and disorders, commonly called TMJ.
Autoimmune diseases such as: Crohn's disease of the oral cavity, see reference below.
Careful observation of the oral cavity, teeth and gums may reveal indicators of other medical conditions. For example, a person suffering from the eating disorder, Bulimia nervosa may show signs of excessive tooth and gum erosion.
Airway obstruction[edit]
The airway in the head and neck may be obstructed with swelling associated with an enlarged tongue (glossomegaly), tonsils, with swelling associated with anaphylactic shock, angiooedema, or a foreign body.
Anaphylactic shock requires advanced medical care immediately; but other first aid measures include rescue breathing (part of CPR) and administration of epinephrine using an EpiPen for immediate administration of epinephrine (adrenaline) to reverse swelling and to keep the respiratory airway (trachea) open.
References[edit]
http://www.med-ed.virginia.edu/courses/rad/cspine/anatomy1.html
http://www.pediatric-orthopedics.com/Topics/Bones/Skull/Skullduggery/Foramen_Magnum/foramen_magnum.html
Skull bones
ADHA Dental Hygiene
Medline, Crohn disease
Brain-blood barrier, University of Washington
Skin nerve receptors
Cells Alive, Anatomy of a splinter
External links[edit]
Core Curriculum Syllabus: Review of Anatomy at Baylor College of Medicine
Core Curriculum Syllabus: Review of Anatomy - Temporal Bone and Ear at Baylor College of Medicine
Dental anatomy at Colorado State University
Neuroscience for Kids at University of Washington
Histology of peridontium at University of Pittsburgh
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Development of the head and neck
Face
Nasal placode
Nasal pit
Nasal prominences
Lateral
Medial
Intermaxillary segment
Frontonasal prominence
Maxillary prominence
Mandibular prominence
Meckel's cartilage
Mouth
Palate
Primary palate
Secondary palate
Tongue
Lateral lingual swelling
Median tongue bud
Copula linguae
Hypopharyngeal eminence
Gustatory placode
General
Pharyngeal apparatus
Pharyngeal groove
Cervical sinus
Pharyngeal arch
Pharyngeal pouch
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Joints and ligaments of the head and neck
Temporomandibular
Capsule
Articular disk
Lateral
Temporomandibular ligament
Medial
Sphenomandibular ligament
Stylomandibular ligament
Atlanto-occipital
capsule
membranes (anterior atlantoöccipital membrane
posterior atlantoöccipital membrane)
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Muscles of the head
Extraocular
Oblique
inferior
superior
Rectus
superior
inferior
medial
lateral
Levator palpebrae superioris
superior tarsal
Masticatory
Masseter
Temporalis
sphenomandibularis
Pterygoid
lateral
medial
Fascia
masseteric
temporal
Facial
Ear
Auricular
anterior
superior
posterior
Temporoparietalis
Scalp/eyelid
Occipitofrontalis
occipitalis
frontalis
Orbicularis oculi
depressor supercilii
Corrugator supercilii
Nose
Procerus
Nasalis
dilator naris
Depressor septi nasi
Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi
Mouth
Levator anguli oris
Levator labii superioris
Zygomaticus
major
minor
Orbicularis oris
Risorius
Buccinator
Depressor anguli oris
Depressor labii inferioris
Mentalis
Transversus menti
Soft palate
Veli palatini
tensor
levator
Musculus uvulae
Palatopharyngeus
Palatoglossus
Tongue
Extrinsic
Genioglossus
Hyoglossus
chondroglossus
Styloglossus
Palatoglossus
Intrinsic
Superior longitudinal
Inferior longitudinal
Transverse
Vertical
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Muscles of the neck
Cervical
Platysma
Sternocleidomastoid
Longus capitis
Longus colli
Scalene
anterior
middle
posterior
Rectus capitis anterior muscle
Rectus capitis lateralis muscle
Suboccipital
Rectus capitis posterior
major
minor
Obliquus capitis
inferior
superior
Suprahyoid
Mylohyoid
Stylohyoid
Digastric
Geniohyoid
Infrahyoid
Thyrohyoid
Sternohyoid
Sternothyroid
Omohyoid
Pharynx
Pharyngeal constrictor
superior
middle
inferior
Stylopharyngeus
Salpingopharyngeus
Larynx
Cricothyroid
Cricoarytenoid
posterior
lateral
Arytenoid
oblique arytenoid
aryepiglottic
transverse arytenoid
Thyroarytenoid
vocal
thyroepiglottic
Trachea
Trachealis
Fasciae
Deep cervical fascia
Pretracheal fascia
Prevertebral fascia
Investing layer
Carotid sheath
Alar fascia
Palatine aponeurosis
Buccopharyngeal fascia
Pharyngobasilar fascia
Pharyngeal raphe
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Arteries of the head and neck
CC
EC
sup. thyroid
superior laryngeal
sternocleidomastoid branch
infrahyoid branch
cricothyroid branch
glandular branches
asc. pharyngeal
posterior meningeal
pharyngeal branches
inferior tympanic
lingual
suprahyoid
dorsal lingual
deep lingual
sublingual
facial
cervical branches (ascending palatine, tonsillar, submental, glandular)
facial branches (inferior labial
superior labial / nasal septum
lateral nasal
angular)
occipital
sternocleidomastoid
meningeal
occipital
auricular
descending
post. auricular
stylomastoid
stapedial
auricular
occipital
Parotid
sup. temporal
transverse facial
middle temporal (zygomatico-orbital)
anterior auricular
frontal
parietal
maxillary
1st part / mandibular
anterior tympanic
deep auricular
middle meningeal (superior tympanic, petrosal)
accessory meningeal
inferior alveolar
2nd part / pterygoid
to muscles of mastication (deep temporal, pterygoid, masseteric)
buccal
3rd part / pterygopalatine
posterior superior alveolar
infraorbital (anterior superior alveolar)
descending palatine (greater palatine, lesser palatine)
artery of the pterygoid canal
sphenopalatine (posterior septal branches, posterior lateral nasal)
pharyngeal
IC
cervical
carotid sinus
petrous
Vidian
caroticotympanic
cavernous/
ophthalmic
orbital group:anterior ethmoidal
posterior ethmoidal
lacrimal (lateral palpebral)
medial palpebral
terminal (supraorbital, supratrochlear, dorsal nasal)
ocular group: central retinal
ciliary (short posterior, long posterior, anterior)
Circulus arteriosus major
hypophysial (superior, inferior)
brain
Circle of Willis
ACA (anterior communicating, Recurrent artery of Heubner, Orbitofrontal artery)
MCA (anterolateral central, Prefrontal artery, Superior terminal branch, Inferior terminal branch, Anterior temporal branch)
posterior communicating
anterior choroidal
SC
vertebral artery
meningeal
spinal (posterior, anterior)
basilar: pontine
labyrinthine
cerebellar (AICA, SCA, PICA)
cerebral (PCA)
thyrocervical trunk
inferior thyroid
inferior laryngeal
tracheal
esophageal
ascending cervical
pharyngeal
glandular branches
transverse cervical
superficial branch
deep branch / dorsal scapular
scapular anastomosis
suprascapular
acromial branch
scapular anastomosis
costocervical trunk
deep cervical
Supreme Intercostal artery
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Veins of the head and neck
External jugular
Retromandibular
maxillary
pterygoid plexus
superficial temporal
anterior auricular
Direct
posterior auricular
transverse cervical
suprascapular
anterior jugular
jugular venous arch
Internal jugular
Diploic/brain
Cerebral
Superficial:
superior
superficial middle
inferior
inferior anastomotic (Labbé)
superior anastomotic (Trolard)
Deep:
great
internal
basal
deep middle
superior thalamostriate
Cerebellar
superior
inferior
Sinuses
To COS
superior sagittal
straight
inferior sagittal
occipital
To CS
sphenoparietal
intercavernous
superior ophthalmic
ethmoidal
central retinal
nasofrontal
vorticose veins
inferior ophthalmic
To IJV
sigmoid: transverse
petrosquamous
superior petrosal
inferior petrosal
basilar plexus
internal auditory veins
condylar
Facial/common facial
frontal
supraorbital
angular
superior labial
inferior labial
deep facial
Direct
lingual
dorsal lingual
deep lingual
sublingual
pharyngeal
superior thyroid
superior laryngeal
middle thyroid
Brachiocephalic
Vertebral
occipital
occipital emissary
suboccipital venous plexus
deep cervical
Direct
inferior thyroid
inferior laryngeal
thymic
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Anatomy of the lymphatic system
Head and neck
Head
Back
Occipital
Mastoid/retroauricular
Parotid
Superficial
Deep
preauricular
infra-auricular
intraglandular
Front
Facial
buccinator
nasolabial
Mandibular
Submandibular
Submental
Cervical
Superficial
anterior
lateral
Deep
Deep anterior cervical
pretracheal
paratracheal
prelaryngeal
thyroid
Deep lateral cervical
superior deep cervical
inferior deep cervical
retropharyngeal
jugulodigastric
jugulo-omohyoid
Other
Anterior cervical
Lateral cervical
Supraclavicular
Vessels
Jugular trunk
Arm and axilla
Nodes
Axillary
Brachial
Pectoral
Subscapular
Central
Apical
Arm
Supratrochlear
Deltopectoral
Vessels
Subclavian lymph trunk
Chest
Nodes
Parasternal
Intercostal
Superior diaphragmatic
Trachea and bronchi
superior
inferior
bronchopulmonary
paratracheal
intrapulmonary
Vessels
Thoracic duct
Right lymphatic duct
Bronchomediastinal lymph trunk
Abdomen
Nodes
Paraaortic
Retroaortic
Lateral aortic
Preaortic
(Celiac
gastric
hepatic
splenic
Superior mesenteric
mesenteric
ileocolic
mesocolic
Inferior mesenteric
pararectal)
Other
Iliac
Common
external
internal
Sacral
Retroperitoneal lymph nodes
Vessels
Lumbar lymph trunk
Intestinal trunk
Cisterna chyli
Leg
Inguinal
deep
Cloquet's node
superficial
Popliteal
show
v
t
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The cranial nerves
Terminal
Nuclei
septal nuclei
Course
no significant branches
Olfactory
Nuclei
anterior olfactory nucleus
Course
olfactory bulb
olfactory tract
Optic
Nuclei
lateral geniculate nucleus
Course
optic chiasm
optic tract
Oculomotor
Nuclei
oculomotor nucleus
Edinger–Westphal nucleus
Branches
superior
parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion
inferior
Trochlear
Nucleus
Branches
no significant branches
Trigeminal
Nuclei
PSN
spinal trigeminal nucleus
MN
TMN
Course
trigeminal ganglion
Branches
ophthalmic
maxillary
mandibular
Abducens
Nucleus
Branches
no significant branches
Facial
Near origin
Intermediate nerve
Geniculate
Inside
facial canal
Greater petrosal
pterygopalatine ganglion
Nerve to the stapedius
Chorda tympani
lingual nerve
submandibular ganglion
At stylomastoid
foramen
Posterior auricular
Suprahyoid
digastric
stylohyoid
Parotid plexus
temporal
zygomatic
buccal
mandibular
cervical
Nuclei
Facial motor nucleus
Solitary nucleus
Superior salivary nucleus
Vestibulocochlear
Nuclei
vestibular nuclei
cochlear nuclei
Cochlear nerve
striae medullares
lateral lemniscus
Vestibular
Scarpa's ganglion
Glossopharyngeal
Before jugular fossa
Ganglia
superior
inferior
After jugular fossa
Tympanic
tympanic plexus
lesser petrosal
otic ganglion
Stylopharyngeal branch
Pharyngeal branches
Tonsillar branches
Lingual branches
Carotid sinus
Nuclei
Nucleus ambiguus
Inferior salivatory nucleus
Solitary nucleus
Vagus
Before jugular fossa
Ganglia
superior
inferior
After jugular fossa
Meningeal branch
Auricular branch
Neck
Pharyngeal branch
pharyngeal plexus
Superior laryngeal
external
internal
Recurrent laryngeal
Superior cervical cardiac
Thorax
Inferior cardiac
Pulmonary
Vagal trunks
anterior
posterior
Abdomen
Celiac
Renal
Hepatic
Anterior gastric
Posterior gastric
Nuclei
Nucleus ambiguus
Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve
Solitary nucleus
Accessory
Nuclei
nucleus ambiguus
spinal accessory nucleus
Cranial
Spinal
Hypoglossal
Nucleus
Branches
lingual
show
v
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Nerves of the cervical plexus
Superficial
C2
Lesser occipital
C2–C3
Greater auricular
Transverse cervical
C3–C4
Supraclavicular
Deep
C1–C3
Ansa cervicalis
superior root
inferior root
C3–C5
Phrenic
show
v
t
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Anatomy of the human nose
External nose
Ala of nose
nasal cartilages
Septal nasal
Lateral nasal
Major alar
Minor alar
Vomeronasal
Nasal cavity
Openings
Nasal vestibule
Nostril
Choana
Lateral wall
Nasal conchae: Supreme nasal concha
Superior nasal concha
Middle nasal concha
Inferior nasal concha
Nasal meatus: (Supreme
superior
middle
inferior)
Sphenoethmoidal recess
Ethmoid bulla
Agger nasi
Ethmoidal infundibulum
Semilunar hiatus
Maxillary hiatus
Medial wall
Nasal septum
Vomeronasal organ
Nasal mucosa
Olfactory mucosa
Paranasal sinuses
Maxillary sinus
Sphenoidal sinuses
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid sinus
Naso-pharynx
Pharyngeal opening of auditory tube
Salpingopharyngeal fold
Salpingopalatine fold
Torus tubarius
Pharyngeal tonsil
Pharyngeal recess
show
v
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Anatomy of the larynx
Cartilage
major/unpaired: Epiglottis
Vallecula
Thyroid
Adam's apple
Cricoid
minor/paired: Arytenoid
Vocal process
Muscular process
Corniculate
Cuneiform
Ligaments/folds
extrinsic ligaments: Hyoepiglottic ligament
Thyrohyoid membrane
Lateral ligament
Median ligament
Thyroepiglottic ligament
Cricotracheal ligament
intrinsic ligaments, upper: Quadrangular membrane
Aryepiglottic
Vestibular ligament/Vestibular fold
intrinsic ligaments, lower: Cricothyroid ligament
Median
Lateral/Conus elasticus
Vocal ligament/Vocal folds
Laryngeal cavity
Laryngeal inlet
Vestibule
Rima vestibuli
Ventricle
Rima glottidis/Glottis
Infraglottic cavity
Laryngeal muscles
Cricothyroid
Cricoarytenoid
posterior
lateral
Arytenoid
oblique arytenoid
aryepiglottic
transverse arytenoid
Thyroarytenoid
vocal
thyroepiglottic
Other
Cricothyroid articulation
Cricoarytenoid articulation
show
v
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Anatomy of the mouth
Lip
Vermilion border
Frenulum of lower lip
Labial commissure of mouth
Philtrum
Cheek
Buccal fat pad
Roof
Hard palate
Soft palate
Palatine raphe
Incisive papilla
Gums
Interdental papilla
Gingival sulcus
Gingival margin
Gingival fibers
Junctional epithelium
Mucogingival junction
Sulcular epithelium
Stippling
Periodontium
Cementum
Gingiva
Periodontal ligament
Glands
Parotid gland
duct
Submandibular gland
duct
Sublingual gland
duct
Teeth
see tooth anatomy
Tongue
Top
Taste bud
Median sulcus
Terminal sulcus
Foramen cecum
Lingual tonsils
Underside
Frenulum
Fimbriated fold
Sublingual caruncle
Glossoepiglottic folds
Lingual septum
Back of mouth
Oropharynx
fauces
Plica semilunaris of the fauces
Uvula
Palatoglossal arch
Palatopharyngeal arch
Tonsillar fossa
Palatine tonsil
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text:
The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)
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This article is about the Leonardo da Vinci painting. For other uses, see The Last Supper (disambiguation).
The Last Supper
Il Cenacolo or L'Ultima Cena
Artist
Leonardo da Vinci
Year
1490s (Julian)
Medium
Tempera, Gesso
Dimensions
460 cm (180 in) × 880 cm (350 in)
Location
Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan
Coordinates
45°28′00″N 9°10′15″E / 45.466666666667°N 9.1708333333333°E / 45.466666666667; 9.1708333333333Coordinates: 45°28′00″N 9°10′15″E / 45.466666666667°N 9.1708333333333°E / 45.466666666667; 9.1708333333333
Website
legraziemilano.it/il-cenacolo/
[edit on Wikidata]
The Last Supper (Italian: Il Cenacolo [il tʃeˈnaːkolo] or L'Ultima Cena [ˈlultima ˈtʃeːna]) is a late 15th-century mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci housed by the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. It is one of the world's most recognizable paintings.[1]
The work is presumed to have been started around 1495–96 and was commissioned as part of a plan of renovations to the church and its convent buildings by Leonardo's patron Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. The painting represents the scene of the Last Supper of Jesus with his apostles, as it is told in the Gospel of John, 13:21.[2] Leonardo has depicted the consternation that occurred among the Twelve Disciples when Jesus announced that one of them would betray him.
Due to the methods used, a variety of environmental factors, and intentional damage, very little of the original painting remains today despite numerous restoration attempts, the last being completed in 1999.
Contents
1 Painting
1.1 Important copies
2 Medium
3 Damage and restorations
3.1 Major restoration
4 The Last Supper in culture
4.1 Painting, mosaic, and photography
4.2 Modern art
4.3 Literature
4.4 Film and television
5 Other speculation
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
Painting[edit]
Crucifixion, opposite Leonardo's Last Supper
The Last Supper, ca. 1520, by Giovanni Pietro Rizzoli, called Giampietrino (active 1508–1549), after Leonardo da Vinci, Oil on canvas, in the collection of The Royal Academy of Arts, London; full-scale copy that was the main source for the twenty-year restoration of the original (1978-1998). It includes several lost details such as Christ's feet and the salt cellar spilled by Judas. Giampietrino is thought to have worked closely with Leonardo when he was in Milan. The painting hung in the chapel of Magdalen College, Oxford from 1992.[3]
The Last Supper, ca. 1520, Andrea Solari, after Leonardo da Vinci, oil on canvas, in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum, Tongerlo Abbey.
The Last Supper measures 460 cm × 880 cm (180 in × 350 in) and covers an end wall of the dining hall at the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The theme was a traditional one for refectories, although the room was not a refectory at the time that Leonardo painted it. The main church building had only recently been completed (in 1498), but was remodeled by Bramante, hired by Ludovico Sforza to build a Sforza family mausoleum.[4]
The painting was commissioned by Sforza to be the centerpiece of the mausoleum.[5] The lunettes above the main painting, formed by the triple arched ceiling of the refectory, are painted with Sforza coats-of-arms.
The opposite wall of the refectory is covered by the Crucifixion fresco by Giovanni Donato da Montorfano, to which Leonardo added figures of the Sforza family in tempera. (These figures have deteriorated in much the same way as has The Last Supper.)
Leonardo began work on The Last Supper in 1495 and completed it in 1498—he did not work on the painting continuously. The beginning date is not certain, as the archives of the convent for the period have been destroyed, and a document dated 1497 indicates that the painting was nearly completed at that date.[6]
One story goes that a prior from the monastery complained to Leonardo about the delay, enraging him. He wrote to the head of the monastery, explaining he had been struggling to find the perfect villainous face for Judas, and that if he could not find a face corresponding with what he had in mind, he would use the features of the prior who complained.[7][8]
A study for The Last Supper from Leonardo's notebooks showing nine apostles identified by names written above their heads

The Last Supper specifically portrays the reaction given by each apostle when Jesus said one of them would betray him. All twelve apostles have different reactions to the news, with various degrees of anger and shock. The apostles are identified from a manuscript[9] (The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci p. 232) with their names found in the 19th century. (Before this, only Judas, Peter, John and Jesus were positively identified.) From left to right, according to the apostles' heads:
Bartholomew, James, son of Alphaeus, and Andrew form a group of three; all are surprised.
Judas Iscariot, Peter, and John form another group of three.
Judas is wearing green and blue and is in shadow, looking rather withdrawn and taken aback by the sudden revelation of his plan. He is clutching a small bag, perhaps signifying the silver given to him as payment to betray Jesus, or perhaps a reference to his role within the 12 disciples as treasurer.[10] He is also tipping over the salt cellar. This may be related to the near-Eastern expression to "betray the salt" meaning to betray one's Master. He is the only person to have his elbow on the table and his head is also horizontally the lowest of anyone in the painting.
Peter looks angry and is holding a knife pointed away from Christ, perhaps foreshadowing his violent reaction in Gethsemane during Jesus' arrest.
The youngest apostle, John, appears to swoon.
Jesus
Apostle Thomas, James the Greater, and Philip are the next group of three.
Thomas is clearly upset; the raised index finger foreshadows his incredulity of the Resurrection.
James the Greater looks stunned, with his arms in the air. Meanwhile, Philip appears to be requesting some explanation.
Matthew, Jude Thaddeus, and Simon the Zealot are the final group of three.
Both Jude Thaddeus and Matthew are turned toward Simon, perhaps to find out if he has any answer to their initial questions.
In common with other depictions of the Last Supper from this period, Leonardo seats the diners on one side of the table, so that none of them has his back to the viewer. Most previous depictions excluded Judas by placing him alone on the opposite side of the table from the other eleven disciples and Jesus, or placing halos around all the disciples except Judas.
Leonardo instead has Judas lean back into shadow. Jesus is predicting that his betrayer will take the bread at the same time he does to Saints Thomas and James to his left, who react in horror as Jesus points with his left hand to a piece of bread before them. Distracted by the conversation between John and Peter, Judas reaches for a different piece of bread not noticing Jesus too stretching out with his right hand towards it (Matthew 26: 23). The angles and lighting draw attention to Jesus, whose turned right cheek is located at the vanishing point for all perspective lines; his hands are located at the golden ratio of half the height of the composition.[11]
The painting contains several references to the number 3, which represents the Christian belief in the Holy Trinity. The Apostles are seated in groupings of three; there are three windows behind Jesus; and the shape of Jesus' figure resembles a triangle. The painting can also be interpreted using the Fibonacci series: 1 table, 1 central figure, 2 side walls, 3 windows and figures grouped in threes, 5 groups of figures, 8 panels on the walls and 8 table legs, and 13 individual figures.[11] There may have been other references that have since been lost as the painting deteriorated.
Important copies[edit]
Two early copies of The Last Supper are known to exist, presumed to be work by Leonardo's assistants. The copies are almost the size of the original, and have survived with a wealth of original detail still intact.[12] One, by Giampietrino, is in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts, London, and the other, by Cesare da Sesto, is installed at the Church of St. Ambrogio in Ponte Capriasca, Switzerland. A third copy (oil on canvas) is painted by Andrea Solari (c. 1520) and is on display in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum of the Tongerlo Abbey, Belgium.
Medium[edit]
For this work, Leonardo sought a greater detail and luminosity than could be achieved with traditional fresco.[13] He painted The Last Supper on a dry wall rather than on wet plaster, so it is not a true fresco. Because a fresco cannot be modified as the artist works, Leonardo instead chose to seal the stone wall with a double layer of dried plaster.[13] Then, borrowing from panel painting, he added an undercoat of white lead to enhance the brightness of the oil and tempera that was applied on top. This was a method that had been described previously, by Cennino Cennini in the 14th century. However, Cennini had recommended the use of secco for the final touches alone.[14] These techniques were important for Leonardo's desire to work slowly on the painting, giving him sufficient time to develop the gradual shading or chiaroscuro that was essential in his style.
Damage and restorations[edit]
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A protective structure was built in front of the da Vinci wall fresco. This photo shows the bombing damage in 1943, suggesting the magnitude of the greater damage that was averted.
Because the painting was on a thin exterior wall, the effects of humidity were felt more keenly, and the paint failed to properly adhere to the wall. Because of the method used, soon after the painting was completed on February 9, 1498 it began to deteriorate.[13] As early as 1517, the painting was starting to flake, and in 1532 Gerolamo Cardano described it as "blurred and colorless compared with what I remember of it when I saw it as a boy".[15] By 1556—fewer than sixty years after it was finished—Leonardo's biographer Giorgio Vasari described the painting as already "ruined" and so deteriorated that the figures were unrecognizable. By the second half of the sixteenth century Gian Paolo Lomazzo stated that "the painting is all ruined".[13] In 1652, a doorway was cut through the (then unrecognisable) painting, and later bricked up; this can still be seen as the irregular arch shaped structure near the center base of the painting. It is believed, through early copies, that Jesus' feet were in a position symbolizing the forthcoming crucifixion. In 1768, a curtain was hung over the painting for the purpose of protection; it instead trapped moisture on the surface, and whenever the curtain was pulled back, it scratched the flaking paint.
A first restoration was attempted in 1726 by Michelangelo Bellotti, who filled in missing sections with oil paint then varnished the whole mural. This repair did not last well and another restoration was attempted in 1770 by an otherwise unknown artist named Giuseppe Mazza. Mazza stripped off Bellotti's work then largely repainted the painting; he had redone all but three faces when he was halted due to public outrage. In 1796, French revolutionary anti-clerical troops used the refectory as an armory; they threw stones at the painting and climbed ladders to scratch out the Apostles' eyes. The refectory was then later used as a prison; it is not known if any of the prisoners may have damaged the painting. In 1821, Stefano Barezzi, an expert in removing whole frescoes from their walls intact, was called in to remove the painting to a safer location; he badly damaged the center section before realizing that Leonardo's work was not a fresco. Barezzi then attempted to reattach damaged sections with glue. From 1901 to 1908, Luigi Cavenaghi first completed a careful study of the structure of the painting, then began cleaning it. In 1924, Oreste Silvestri did further cleaning, and stabilised some parts with stucco.
During World War II, on August 15, 1943, the refectory was struck by Allied bombing; protective sandbagging prevented the painting from being struck by bomb splinters, but it may have been damaged further by the vibration. From 1951 to 1954, another clean-and-stabilise restoration was undertaken by Mauro Pelliccioli.
Major restoration[edit]
The painting as it looked in the 1970s
The painting's appearance by the late 1970s had become badly deteriorated. From 1978 to 1999, Pinin Brambilla Barcilon guided a major restoration project which undertook to stabilize the painting, and reverse the damage caused by dirt and pollution. The 18th- and 19th-century restoration attempts were also reverted. Since it had proved impractical to move the painting to a more controlled environment, the refectory was instead converted to a sealed, climate-controlled environment, which meant bricking up the windows. Then, detailed study was undertaken to determine the painting's original form, using scientific tests (especially infrared reflectoscopy and microscopic core-samples), and original cartoons preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. Some areas were deemed unrestorable. These were re-painted using watercolor in subdued colors intended to indicate they were not original work, while not being too distracting.
This restoration took 21 years and, on 28 May 1999, the painting was returned to display. Intending visitors were required to book ahead and could only stay for 15 minutes. When it was unveiled, considerable controversy was aroused by the dramatic changes in colors, tones, and even some facial shapes. James Beck, professor of art history at Columbia University and founder of ArtWatch International, had been a particularly strong critic.[16] Michael Daley, director of ArtWatch UK, has also complained about the restored version of the painting. He has been critical of Christ's right arm in the image which has been altered from a draped sleeve to what Daley calls "muff-like drapery".[17]
The Last Supper in culture[edit]
The Last Supper made in salt in Wieliczka Salt Mine (Poland)
The Last Supper has frequently been referenced, reproduced, or parodied in Western culture. Some of the more notable examples are:
Painting, mosaic, and photography[edit]
A 16th-century oil on canvas copy is conserved in the abbey of Tongerlo, Antwerp, Belgium. It reveals many details that are no longer visible on the original.[citation needed] The Roman mosaic artist Giacomo Raffaelli made another life-sized copy (1809–1814) in the Viennese Minoritenkirche.[citation needed]
Modern art[edit]
In 1955, Salvador Dalí painted The Sacrament of the Last Supper, with Jesus portrayed as blond and clean shaven, pointing upward to a spectral torso while the apostles are gathered around the table heads bowed so that none may be identified. It is reputed to be one of the most popular paintings in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.
In 1986, Andy Warhol was commissioned to produce a series of paintings based on The Last Supper that were exhibited initially in Milan. This was his last series of paintings before his death.[18]
Sculptor Marisol Escobar rendered The Last Supper as a life-sized, three-dimensional, sculptural assemblage using painted and drawn wood, plywood, brownstone, plaster, and aluminum. This work, Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper, (1982–84) is in New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art.[19]
In 1988, Susan Dorothea White painted The First Supper showing 13 women from all regions of the world, with the woman in the position of Leonardo's Christ figure being an Australian aboriginal.[20][21]
In 2001, Chinese artist Zeng Fanzhi painted Last Supper, showing 13 mask-wearing people seated at a table strewn with watermelon fragments. The oil painting was sold for $23.3 million at Sotheby's auction on October 7, 2013, setting a new record for contemporary Asian artwork.[22]
In 1998, modern artist Vik Muniz displayed a recreation of The Last Supper, made entirely out of Bosco Chocolate Syrup.[23]
Literature[edit]
Author Mary Shelley describes her impression of the painting in her travel narrative, Rambles in Germany and Italy published in 1844:
First we visited the fading inimitable fresco of Leonardo da Vinci. How vain are copies! not in one, nor in any print, did i ever see the slightest approach to the expression in our Savior's face, such as it is in the original. Majesty and love—these are the words that would describe it—joined to an absence of all guile that expresses the divine nature more visibly than I ever saw it in any other picture.[24]
—  Mary Shelley, Travel Writing (1996), Pages 131–132
Film and television[edit]
In Luis Buñuel's Spanish film Viridiana, a tableau vivant of Leonardo's painting is staged with beggars. Another beggar 'photographs' the scene by flashing them. This scene contributed to its refusal by the Vatican who called it "blasphemous."
In Norman Jewison's 1973 film version of "Jesus Christ Superstar", in the Last Supper sequence, Jesus and the 12 apostles briefly mimic the posture of each character in Da Vinci's painting
The painting is parodied in Mel Brooks's movie History of the World, Part I, making Leonardo a contemporary of Jesus. It is also parodied in the original movie MASH, in the scene where Hawkeye Pierce stages a "last supper" for Walt (Painless) Waldowski before his planned suicide. The various doctors, all in surgical scrubs, pose in imitation of the painting.
Many parodies of the painting appear on the small screen, including The Simpsons' Season 16 episode "Thank God, It's Doomsday," with Homer as Jesus and Moe and his other patrons as the disciples; That '70s Show's first-season episode "Streaking," with Eric flanked by his friends (and Jackie wondering why everyone is sitting on the same side of the table); and South Park's Season 13 episode "Margaritaville," with Kyle and his friends eating at a pizza parlor. In one episode of the CBC drama Murdoch Mysteries called Barenaked Ladies, the suspects recreate the poses of Peter, Judas and Thomas in their victims.
Other speculation[edit]
Detail of the "beloved disciple" to Jesus's right, identified by art historians as the apostle John,[25][26] but speculated in The Da Vinci Code and similar works to actually be Mary Magdalene in disguise.[25][26]
The Last Supper has been the target of much speculation by writers and historical revisionists alike, usually centered on purported hidden messages or hints found within the painting, especially since the publication of the novel The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown in 2003. Dan Brown proposed that the person to Jesus' right (left of Jesus from the viewer's perspective) is actually Mary Magdalene disguised as the Apostle John.[25][26] This speculation originated in earlier books The Templar Revelation (1997) by Lynn Picknett and The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail by Michael Baigent, Henry Lincoln and Richard Leigh (1982).[26] Art historians hold that the figure is the Apostle John,[25][26] who only appears feminine due to Leonardo's characteristic fascination with blurring the lines between the sexes, a quality which is found in his other paintings, such as St. John the Baptist (painted c. 1513–1516).[25][26] Christopher Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon comment "If he [John] looks effeminate and needs a haircut, so does James, the second figure on the left.".[26]
Furthermore, according to Ross King, an expert on Italian art, Mary Magdalene's appearance at the last supper would not have been controversial and Leonardo would have had no motive to disguise her as one of the other disciples,[25] since she was widely venerated in her role as the "Apostle to the Apostles" and was the patron of the Dominican Order, for whom The Last Supper was painted.[25] There would have even been precedent for it, since the earlier Italian Renaissance painter Fra Angelico had included her in his painting of the Last Supper.[25]
Giovanni Maria Pala, an Italian musician, has indicated that the positions of hands and loaves of bread can be interpreted as notes on a musical staff and, if read from right to left, as was characteristic of Leonardo's writing, form a musical composition.[27][28][29]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Leonardo Da Vinci's 'The Last Supper' reveals more secrets". sciencedaily.com. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci –. "Santa Maria delle Grazie – Milan". Inexhibit. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Chapel with return Renaissance painrefting". Oxford Times. 14 September 2017. p. 19.
Jump up ^ "Santa Maria delle Grazie & The Last Supper". Timeout.com. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "Leonardo's Itinerary: Early maturity in Milan (1482-1499)". Museo Galileo. 5 March 2008. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Kenneth Clark.Leonardo da Vinci, Penguin Books 1939, 1993, p144.
Jump up ^ "The Last Supper". lairweb.org.nz. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "DaVinci". The Mark Steel Lectures. Series 2. Episode 2. The Open University. 7 October 2003. BBC. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci—Complete by Leonardo da Vinci". Gutenberg.org. 1 January 2004. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
Jump up ^ Cfr. Matthew 26:15; John 12:6 and 13:29.
^ Jump up to: a b White, Susan D. (2006). Draw Like Da Vinci. London: Cassell Illustrated, p.132. ISBN 9781844034444.
Jump up ^ "Last Supper (copy after Leonardo)". University of the Arts, London. Retrieved 2008-08-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Leonardo's Last Supper". Smart history presented by the Khan Academy. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Last Supper". The Last Supper. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Wykes, Alan (1969). Doctor Cardano, physician extraordinary. p. 26.
Jump up ^ Phillip William (24 May 1999). "The Last Supper or a dog's dinner?". The Guardian. guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Dayla Alberge (14 March 2012). "Have art restorers ruined Leonardo's masterpiece?". The Independent. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Haden-Guest, Anthony (3 August 1999). "Warhol's Last Supper". Artnet. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Susan White - veelzijdig werk, Kunstbeeld (Amsterdam) Oct. 1990, vol. 14 (10) p.62 (translation)
Jump up ^ Allen, Christopher. 'Ludicrous Leonardo', The Sydney Morning Herald, 23 December 1988, p.10
Jump up ^ "Zeng's 'Last Supper' Sells for Record $23.3 Million at Sotheby's Auction". WSJ.com. October 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Vicki (25 September 1998). "ART REVIEW; It's a Leonardo? It's a Corot? Well, No, It's Chocolate Syrup". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Shelley, Mary (1996). Travel Writing. London: Pickering. pp. 131–132. ISBN 1-85196-084-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h King, Ross (2012). Leonardo and the Last Supper. New York City, New York and London, England: Bloomsbury. pp. 187–189. ISBN 978-0-7475-9947-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Christopher Hodapp, Alice Von Kannon, The Templar Code For Dummies, page 257 (Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0-470-12765-0).
Jump up ^ Rossella Lorenzi (9 November 2007). "Leonardo's 'Last Supper' Hides True Da Vinci Code". Discovery News. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "Da Vinci's "Last Supper" has hidden music (includes link to recording)". Extra.beloblog.com. Archived from the original on 2008-07-23. Retrieved 2009-02-08.
Jump up ^ mp3 file of the composition, hosted.ap.org
Further reading[edit]
Steinberg, Leo. Leonardo's Incessant 'Last Supper'". New York: Zone Books, 2001.
Detailed review of Steinberg's 'Incessant Last Supper' at 3 Pipe Problem
Bertelli, Carlo (November 1983). "Restoration Reveals The Last Supper". National Geographic. Vol. 164 no. 5. pp. 664–684. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
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Jump up ^ "Leonardo's Last Supper". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
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