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Milan Central railway station
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For the district of Milan, see Stazione di Milano Centrale.
Milano Centrale
Inside the station
Location
Piazza Duca d'Aosta
20124 Milan
Italy
Coordinates
45°29′10″N 09°12′13″E / 45.48611°N 9.20361°E / 45.48611; 9.20361Coordinates: 45°29′10″N 09°12′13″E / 45.48611°N 9.20361°E / 45.48611; 9.20361
Owned by
Rete Ferroviaria Italiana
Operated by
Grandi Stazioni
Line(s)
Milan–Bologna (high-speed)
Milan–Bologna (traditional)
Milan–Turin (high-speed)
Milan–Turin (traditional)
Milan–Genoa
Milan–Venice
Milan–Chiasso (–Zürich)
Milan–Domodossola (–Brig)
Milan–Lecco
Tracks
24
Connections
Milan Metro
ATM trams
ATM buses and trolleybuses
Airport buses
Construction
Architect
Ulisse Stacchini
History
Opened
1 July 1931; 86 years ago (1931-07-01)
Electrified
1938 (1938)
Traffic
Passengers
120 million per year
Location
Milano Centrale
Location within Milan
Milan Central or Milano Centrale is the main railway station of the city of Milan, Italy and one of the main railway stations in Europe. The station is a terminus and located at the northern end of central Milan. It was officially inaugurated in 1931 to replace the old central station (built 1864), which was a transit station but with a limited number of tracks and space, so could not handle the increased traffic caused by the opening of the Simplon tunnel in 1906.
Milano Centrale has high speed connections to Turin in the west, Venice via Verona in the east and on the north-south mainline to Bologna, Rome, Naples and Salerno. The Simplon and Gotthard railway lines connect Milano Centrale to Bern and Geneva via Domodossola and Zürich via Chiasso in Switzerland.
Destinations of inter-city and regional railways radiate from Milano Centrale to Ventimiglia (border of France), Genova, Turin, Domodossola (border of Swiss Canton of Valais/Wallis), Tirano (border of Swiss Canton of Graubünden/Grisons), Bergamo, Verona, Mantova, Bologna and La Spezia.
The Milan suburban railway service, however, does not use Milano Centrale but the other mainline stations: Porta Garibaldi (northwest), Cadorna (west) and Rogoredo (east).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Train services
2.1 Domestic (High-speed)
2.2 Domestic
2.3 Cross-border (Night train)
2.4 Cross-border
2.5 Platforms
2.6 Unusual track layout
3 Gallery
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
The first Milano Centrale railway station from Giornale dell'Ingegnere e Architetto, January 1865, vol. 13, Annex
A view of the arrival hall
The roof of the central section
Lateral view of the gallery. Photo by Paolo Monti, 1969
The first Milano Centrale station opened in 1864 in the area now occupied by the Piazza della Repubblica, south of the modern station.[1] It was designed by French architect Louis-Jules Bouchot (1817–1907) and its architectural style was reminiscent of Parisian buildings of that period. The station was designed to replace Porta Tosa station (opened in 1846 as the terminus of the line to Treviglio and eventually Venice) and Porta Nuova station (opened in 1850 as the second terminus on the line to Monza, which was eventually extended to Chiasso) and was interconnected with all lines, either existing or under construction, surrounding Milan. It remained in operation until 30 June 1931, when the current station was opened. There is now no trace of the old station left.
King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy laid the cornerstone of the new station on April 28, 1906, before a blueprint for the station had even been chosen. The last, real, contest for its construction was won in 1912 by architect Ulisse Stacchini, whose design was modeled after Union Station in Washington, DC,[2] and the construction of the new station began. The purported style was an eclectic mix called "Assyrian-Lombard."[3]
Due to the Italian economic crisis during World War I, construction proceeded very slowly, and the project, rather simple at the beginning, kept changing and became more and more complex and majestic. This happened especially when Benito Mussolini became Prime Minister, and wanted the station to represent the power of the Fascist regime.[4] The major changes were the new platform types and the introduction of the great steel canopies by Alberto Fava; 341 m (1,119 ft) long and covering an area of 66,500 square metres (716,000 sq ft).
Construction resumed in earnest in 1925 and on July 1, 1931, the station was officially opened in the presence of Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano.
Its façade is 200 metres (660 ft) wide and its vault is 72 metres (236 ft) high, a record when it was built. It has 24 platforms. Each day about 330,000 passengers use the station, totaling about 120 million per year.
The station has no definite architectural style, but is a blend of many different styles, especially Liberty and Art Deco, but not limited to those. It is adorned with numerous sculptures. “The ‘incongruous envelope of stone’ (Attilio Pracchi) of this gigantic and monumental building dominates Piazza Duca d’Aosta.” [5]
On September 25, 2006, officials announced a €100 million project, already in progress, to refurbish the station. Of the total cost, €20 million has been allocated to restore "certain areas of high artistic value" while the remaining €80 million will be used for more general improvements to the station to make it more functional with the current railway services. The project includes moving the ticket office and installing new elevators and escalators for increased accessibility.[6]
There remains unrestored and inaccessible areas to the public within the station including a waiting room with swastikas on the floor designed to receive Hitler.[3]
Train services[edit]
The station has 24 tracks. Every day about 320,000 passengers pass through the station using about 500 trains, for an annual total of 120 million passengers. The station is served by national and international routes, with both long-distance and regional lines. Daily international destinations include Bern, Lugano, Geneva, Zürich, Paris, Vienna, Barcelona and Munich.[7] The station is also connected to Milan-Malpensa Airport through the Malpensa Express airport train.
The following services call at the station (incomplete):
Domestic (High-speed)[edit]
High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciarossa) Turin-Salerno: Turin Porta Nuova - Turin Porta Susa - Milan Centrale - Milan Rogoredo - Bologna Centrale - Florence S.M.Novella - Rome Tiburtina - Rome Termini - Naples Centrale - Salerno
High speed train (Trenitalia Frecciarossa) Milan-Bari: Milan - Bologna - Ancona - Pescara - Foggia – Bari
High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciarossa) Milan-Venice: Milan - Brescia - Peschiera del Garda - Verona - Vicenza - Padua - Venice
High-speed train (Italo NTV) Turin-Salerno: Turin - Milan - Bologna - Florence - Rome - Naples - Salerno
High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciabianca) Turin-Venice: Turin - Novara - Milan - Brescia - Verona - Vicenza - Padua - Venice - (Trieste)
High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciabianca) Milan-Lecce: Milan - Piacenza - Parma - Reggio d'Emilia - Modena - Bologna - Rimini - Pesaro - Ancona - Pescara - Termoli - Foggia - Bari - Brindisi - Lecce
High-speed train (Trenitalia Frecciabianca) Milan-Bari/Taranto: Milan - Modena - Bologna - Rimini - Ancona - Pescara - Foggia - Bari - Taranto
Domestic[edit]
For regional (Regio) trains to Monza and Como from Milano Centrale, refer to the 'cross-border' services. There is no train service of Milan Suburbano at the Centrale station.
Airport train (Trenord Malpensa Express) Milan-Malpensa Airport: Milan - (Busto Arsizio) - Malpensa Airport
Intercity train (Trenitalia Intercity) Milan-Lecce: Milan - Piacenza - Parma - Modena - Bologna - Rimini - Ancona - Pescara - Foggia - Trani - Bari - Fasano - Brindisi - Lecce
Intercity train (Trenitalia Intercity) Milan-Taranto: Milan - Lodi - Piacenza - Parma - Reggio Emilia - Modena - Bologna - Faenza - Cesena - Rimini - Riccione - Pesaro - Senigalla - Ancona - Giulianova - Pescara - Termoli - Foggia - Trani - Bisceglie - Bari - Taranto
Intercity train (Trenitalia Intercity) Milan-Livorno: Milan - Pavia - Tortona - Genova Piazza Principe - Genova Brignole - Santa Margherita Ligure-Portofino - Rapallo - Chiavari - Sestri Levante - Levanto - Monterosso - La Spezia Centrale - Massa Centro - Viareggio - Pisa Centrale - Livorno Centrale
Intercity train (Trenitalia Intercity) Milan-Ventimiglia: Milan - Pavia - Genova - San Remo - Ventimiglia
Night train (Trenitalia Intercity Notte) Milan-Lecce: Milan - Piacenza - Parma - Reggio d'Emilia - Modena - Bologna - Cesana - Rimini - Ancona - Pescara - Foggia - Bari - Trani - Brindisi - Lecce
Regional train (Trenitalia Regionale Veloce) Turin-Milan: Turin - Vercelli - Novara - Milan
Regional train (Trenitalia Regional) Milan-Alessandria: Milan - Pavia - Voghera - Tortona - Alessandria
Regional train (Trenord Regio) Milan-Verona: Milan - Brescia - Peschiera del Garda - Verona
Regional train (Trenord Regio) Milan-Tirano: Milan - Lecco - Sondrio - Tirano
Regional train (Trenord Regio) Milan-Mantua: Milan - Lodi - Codgono - Cremona - Piadana - Mantova
Regional train (Trenord Regio) Milan-Bergamo: Milan - Treviglio - Bergamo
Historic train (Fondazione FS/Trenitalia Storico) Milan-Varallo: Milan - Novara - Varallo Sesia
Cross-border (Night train)[edit]
(CH for Switzerland, D for Germany, A for Austria, F for France, MN for Monaco)
On 11 December 2016, ÖBB will take over Deutsche Bahn's night trains. The Munich-Milan service will be withdrawn.
Night train (Thello EuroNight) Paris-Venice: Venice - Padua - Verona - Milan (Centrale) - Milan (Rho-Fiera for Expo 2015) - Dijon (F) - Paris (F)
Night train (DB City Night Line) Milan-Munich/Vienna: Milan - Brescia - Peschiera del Garda - Verona^ - (Rovereto/Rofreit) - (Trento/Trient) - Bolzano/Bozen - (Brennero/Brenner) - Innsbruck (A) - Jenbach (A) - Kufstein (A) - Munich (D)
^ Train connects at Verona with ÖBB EuroNight Rome-Vienna: DB CityNightLine splits into two trains (first half couples with ÖBB Rome-Vienna and leaves for Vienna or Rome; second half continues to Munich or Milan). Vienna-Rome splits into two trains (first half continues to Rome or Vienna; second half couples with DB CityNightLine for Milan or Munich).
Cross-border[edit]
After the opening of Gotthard Base Tunnel, train services between Milan and Switzerland will increase in frequency from 11 December 2016. All SBB-CFF-FSS Eurocity will save 35 minutes of total journey time between Bellinzona and Arth-Goldau.
From December 2017, a new cross-border service Milan-Frankfurt (DB-SBB Eurocity) via Zürich will be operational.
Regional train (TiLo Regio) Milan-Bellinzona: Milan - Monza - Como (San Giovanni) - Chiasso (CH) - Lugano (CH) - Bellinzona (CH)
Intercity train (SBB-CFF-FSS EuroCity) Geneva-Milan/Venice: Geneva/Genf (CH) - Lausanne (CH) - Brig (CH) - Domodossola - Milan - (Brescia) - (Verona) - (Padua) - (Venice)
Intercity train (SBB-CFF-FSS EuroCity) Basel-Milan: Basel SBB (CH) - Bern/Berne (CH) - Thun (CH) - Brig (CH) - Domodossola - Stresa - Busto Arsizio - Milan
Intercity train (SBB-CFF-FSS EuroCity) Zürich-Milan: Zürich (CH) - Zug (CH) - Arth-Goldau (CH) - Bellinzona (CH) - Lugano (CH) - Chiasso (CH) - Como (San Giovanni) - Monza - Milan
Intercity train (SBB-CFF-FSS EuroCity) Luzern-Milan: Luzern (CH) - Arth-Goldau (CH) - Bellinzona (CH) - Lugano (CH) - Chiasso (CH) - Como (San Giovanni) - Monza - Milan
Intercity train (Thello EuroCity) Milan-Marseilles: Milan - Genoa - San Remo - Menton (F) - Monaco Monte Carlo (MN) - Nice (F) - Cannes (F) - Marseille (F)
Preceding station
Trenitalia
Following station
Torino Porta Susa
toward Torino Porta Nuova
Frecciarossa
Roma Termini
toward Salerno
Terminus Frecciarossa
Reggio Emilia AV Mediopadana
toward Bari Centrale
Novara
toward Turin Porta Nuova
Frecciabianca
Brescia
toward Trieste Centrale
Terminus Frecciabianca
Brescia
toward Udine
Terminus Frecciabianca
Piacenza
toward Lecce
Terminus Frecciabianca
Piacenza
toward Taranto
Gallarate
toward Basel SBB
EuroCity Terminus
Gallarate
toward Geneva Cornavin
EuroCity
Brescia
toward Venice Santa Lucia
Dijon
toward Paris-Gare de Lyon
Thello
Brescia
toward Venice
Pavia
toward Marseille-St-Charles
Thello Terminus
Terminus Intercity Notte
Piacenza
toward Lecce
Terminus Intercity Notte
Bologna Centrale
toward Lecce
Rho Fiera Milano
toward Torino Porta Nuova
Treno regionale Terminus
Preceding station
Nuovo Trasporto Viaggiatori
Following station
Torino Porta Susa
toward Torino Porta Nuova
Italo
Milano Rogoredo
toward Salerno
Preceding station
Trenord
Following station
Milano Porta Garibaldi
toward Malpensa Aeroporto Terminal 2
Treno regionale Terminus
Terminus Treno regionale
Milano Lambrate
toward Verona Porta Nuova
Terminus Treno regionale
Milano Lambrate
toward Bergamo
Platforms[edit]
[hide]
Trenord
Malpensa Express
Legend
Malpensa Aeroporto Terminal 2
Malpensa Aeroporto Terminal 1
Ferno-Lonate Pozzolo
Busto Arsizio Nord
Castellanza
Rescaldina
Saronno
Milano Nord Bovisa
Milano Cadorna
Milano Porta Garibaldi
Milano Centrale
The station, along with Roma Termini and Firenze Santa Maria Novella, has security gates which prevent access to the platforms without a ticket.
Each platform is usually dedicated to some particular route. The current organization is as follows, although temporary changes may occur.
Platforms 1-3: Chiasso/Domodossola/Milan-Turin (ES* AV)
Platforms 4-6: Turin/Cisalpino Milan–Como–Arth Goldau–Basel / Zürich
Platforms 7-13: Venice / Udine
Platforms 14-17: Bologna–Florence–Rome–Naples
Platforms 18-23: Genoa-Livorno / Ventimiglia / Parma /Cremona-Mantua /Milan-Treviglio-Bergamo
Platform 24: Operations
Unusual track layout[edit]
On the northern side of the railway yard there used to be a loop curve so that trains could turn around and reverse back into the station. The trains could so be displaced from the left side of the station to the right side and vice versa without crossing all the tracks. The tracks on the loop curve are partially broken up.[8]
Gallery[edit]
See also[edit]
Trains portal
Architecture portal
Milan portal
History of rail transport in Italy
List of railway stations in Lombardy
Rail transport in Italy
Railway stations in Milan
Railway stations in Italy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ see also Milano Repubblica railway station
Jump up ^ http://milan.today/en/interesting/milano-centrale-history-across-generations
^ Jump up to: a b Daverio, Philippe. Lombardy. Milan: RCS Libri, 2015. p 47.
Jump up ^ http://milan.today/en/interesting/milano-centrale-history-across-generations
Jump up ^ Touring Club Guida di Milano, p. 471
Jump up ^ "100mln Euros to requalify Milan Railway Central Station". AGI. 2006-09-25. Archived from the original on January 5, 2007. Retrieved 2006-09-28.
Jump up ^ "International Destinations". Ferrovie dello Stato. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Can easily be seen on Google Earth and most old maps
External links[edit]
official page at Grandistazioni website
Winchester, Clarence, ed. (1936), "Milan Central station", Railway Wonders of the World, pp. 546–552 illustrated contemporary description of the station
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Milano Centrale railway station.
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text:
United States Department of the Treasury
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"OFR" redirects here. For other uses, see OFR (disambiguation).
United States Department of the Treasury
Seal of the U.S. Department of the Treasury
Flag of the U.S. Department of the Treasury

Treasury Building
Agency overview
Formed
September 2, 1789; 228 years ago (1789-09-02)
Preceding agency
Board of Treasury
Jurisdiction
Federal government of the United States
Headquarters
Treasury Building
1500 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, D.C., U.S
38°53′54″N 77°2′3″W / 38.89833°N 77.03417°W / 38.89833; -77.03417Coordinates: 38°53′54″N 77°2′3″W / 38.89833°N 77.03417°W / 38.89833; -77.03417
Employees
86,049 (2014)
Annual budget
"$14 billion (2013)" (PDF).
Agency executives
Steven Mnuchin, Secretary
Vacant, Deputy Secretary
Jovita Carranza, Treasurer
Child agencies
Internal Revenue Service
United States Mint
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Several others
Website
treasury.gov
The Department of the Treasury is an executive department and the treasury of the United States federal government. Established by an Act of Congress in 1789 to manage government revenue, its responsibilities include: producing currency and coinage, collecting taxes and paying bills of the US government, managing the federal finances, supervising banks and thrifts, and advising on fiscal policy.[1] The Department is administered by the Secretary of the Treasury, who is a member of the Cabinet. On February 13, 2017, the Senate confirmed Steven Mnuchin as Secretary of the Treasury.
The first Secretary of the Treasury was Alexander Hamilton, who was sworn into office on September 11, 1789.[2] Hamilton was asked by President George Washington to serve after first having asked Robert Morris (who declined, recommending Hamilton instead). Hamilton almost single-handedly worked out the nation's early financial system, and for several years was a major presence in Washington's administration as well. His portrait is on the obverse of the U.S. ten-dollar bill while the Treasury Department building is shown on the reverse. Besides the Secretary, one of the best-known Treasury officials is the Treasurer of the United States whose signature, along with the Treasury Secretary's, appears on all Federal Reserve notes.
The Treasury prints and mints all paper currency and coins in circulation through the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and the United States Mint. The Department also collects all federal taxes through the Internal Revenue Service, and manages U.S. government debt instruments.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Revolutionary Period
1.2 Hamilton and the Establishment of the Department of the Treasury
1.3 2003 Reorganization
2 Responsibilities
2.1 Mission
2.2 Basic functions
3 Organization
3.1 Structure
3.2 Bureaus
3.3 Budget and staffing
4 Freedom of Information Act processing performance
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 External links
History[edit]
Revolutionary Period[edit]
The history of the Department of the Treasury began in the turmoil of the American Revolution, when the Continental Congress at Philadelphia deliberated the crucial issue of financing a war of independence against Great Britain. The Congress had no power to levy and collect taxes, nor was there a tangible basis for securing funds from foreign investors or governments. The delegates resolved to issue paper money in the form of bills of credit, promising redemption in coin on faith in the revolutionary cause. On June 22, 1775—only a few days after the Battle of Bunker Hill, Congress issued $2 million in bills; on July 25, 28 citizens of Philadelphia were employed by the Congress to sign and number the currency.
On July 29, 1775, the Second Continental Congress assigned the responsibility for the administration of the revolutionary government's finances to Joint Continental Treasurers, George Clymer and Michael Hillegas. The Congress stipulated that each of the colonies contribute to the Continental government's funds. To ensure proper and efficient handling of the growing national debt in the face of weak economic and political ties between the colonies, the Congress, on February 17, 1776, designated a committee of five to superintend the Treasury, settle the accounts, and report periodically to the Congress. On April 1, a Treasury Office of Accounts, consisting of an Auditor General and clerks, was established to facilitate the settlement of claims and to keep the public accounts for the government of the United Colonies. With the signing of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, the new-born republic as a sovereign nation was able to secure loans from abroad.
Despite the infusion of foreign and domestic loans to pay for a war of independence, the United Colonies were unable to establish a well-organized agency for financial administration. Michael Hillegas was first called Treasurer of the United States on May 14, 1777. The Treasury Office was reorganized three times between 1778 and 1781. The $241.5 million of paper Continental Dollars devalued rapidly. By May 1781, the dollar collapsed at a rate of from 500 to 1000 to 1 against hard currency. Protests against the worthless money swept the colonies and angry Americans coined the expression "not worth a Continental".
Robert Morris was designated Superintendent of Finance in 1781 and restored stability to the nation's finances. Morris, a wealthy colonial merchant, was nicknamed "the Financier" because of his reputation for procuring funds or goods on a moment's notice. His staff included a Comptroller, a Treasurer, a Register, and auditors, who managed the country's finances through 1784, when Morris resigned because of ill health. The Treasury Board of three Commissioners continued to oversee the finances of the confederation of former colonies until September 1789.
Hamilton and the Establishment of the Department of the Treasury[edit]
The First Congress of the United States was called to convene in New York on March 4, 1789, marking the beginning of government under the Constitution. On September 2, 1789, Congress created a permanent institution for the management of government finances:
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there shall be a Department of Treasury, in which shall be the following officers, namely: a Secretary of the Treasury, to be deemed head of the department; a Comptroller, an Auditor, a Treasurer, a Register, and an Assistant to the Secretary of the Treasury, which assistant shall be appointed by the said Secretary.[3]
Alexander Hamilton took the oath of office as the first Secretary of the Treasury on September 11, 1789. Hamilton had served as George Washington's aide-de-camp during the Revolution, and was of great importance in the ratification of the Constitution. Because of his financial and managerial acumen, Hamilton was a logical choice for solving the problem of the new nation's heavy war debt. Hamilton's first official act was to submit a report to Congress in which he laid the foundation for the nation's financial health.
To the surprise of many legislators, he insisted upon federal assumption and dollar-for-dollar repayment of the country's war debt of $75 million in order to revitalize the public credit: "[T]he debt of the United States' was the price of liberty. The faith of America has been repeatedly pledged for it, and with solemnities that give peculiar force to the obligation." Hamilton foresaw the development of industry and trade in the United States, and suggested that government revenues be based upon customs duties. His sound financial policies also inspired investment in the Bank of the United States, which acted as the government's fiscal agent.
2003 Reorganization[edit]
Treasury Building
Congress transferred several agencies that had previously been under the aegis of the Treasury department to other departments as a consequence of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Effective January 24, 2003, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF), which had been a bureau of the Department since 1972, was extensively reorganized under the provisions of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The law enforcement functions of ATF, including the regulation of legitimate traffic in firearms and explosives, were transferred to the Department of Justice as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (BATFE). The regulatory and tax collection functions of ATF related to legitimate traffic in alcohol and tobacco remained with the Treasury at its new Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB).
Effective March 1, 2003, the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, the United States Customs Service, and the United States Secret Service were transferred to the newly created Department of Homeland Security ("DHS").
Responsibilities[edit]
Treasury Department official, surrounded by packages of newly minted currency, counting and wrapping dollar bills. Washington, D.C., 1907.
Mission[edit]
The mission of the Department of the Treasury is to "maintain a strong economy and create economic and job opportunities by promoting the conditions that enable economic growth and stability at home and abroad, strengthen national security by combating threats and protecting the integrity of the financial system, and manage the U.S. Government’s finances and resources effectively".
Basic functions[edit]
The basic functions of the Department of the Treasury mainly include:[4]
Producing all currency and coinage of the U.S.;
Collecting taxes, duties and money paid to and due to the U.S.:
Paying all bills of the U.S.;
Managing the federal finances;
Managing government accounts and the United States public debt;
Supervising national banks and thrift institutions;
Advising on domestic and international financial, monetary, economic, trade and tax policy (fiscal policy being the sum of these);
Enforcing federal finance and tax laws;
Investigating and prosecuting tax evaders;
Publishing statistical reports.
With respect to the estimation of revenues for the executive branch, Treasury serves a purpose parallel to that of the Office of Management and Budget for the estimation of spending for the executive branch, the Joint Committee on Taxation for the estimation of revenues for Congress, and the Congressional Budget Office for the estimation of spending for Congress.
From 1830 until 1901, the responsibility of overseeing weights and measures was carried out by the Office of Standard Weights and Measures, which was part of the U.S. Treasury Department.[5] After 1901, the responsibility was assigned to the agency that subsequently became known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Organization of the U.S. Dept. of the Treasury.
The Office of Foreign Assets Control and the main branch of the Treasury Department Federal Credit Union are located in the Freedman's Bank Building in Washington, D.C.
Organization[edit]
The Department of the Treasury is organized into two major components: the Departmental offices and the operating bureaus. The Departmental Offices are primarily responsible for the formulation of policy and management of the Department as a whole, while the operating bureaus carry out the specific operations assigned to the Department.
Structure[edit]
Seal on United States Department of the Treasury on the Building
Secretary of the Treasury[6]
Deputy Secretary of the Treasury
Treasurer of the United States
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
United States Mint
Under Secretary for Domestic Finance[7]
Assistant Secretary for Financial Institutions
Office of Financial Institutions
Assistant Secretary for Financial Markets
Office of Financial Markets
Fiscal Assistant Secretary
Office of Fiscal Service
Bureau of the Fiscal Service
Assistant Secretary for Financial Stability
Office of Financial Stability
Under Secretary for International Affairs[8]
Assistant Secretary for International Markets and Development
Assistant Secretary for International Affairs
Office of Environment and Energy[9]
Under Secretary for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence (Office of Terrorism and Financial Intelligence)[10]
Assistant Secretary for Terrorist Financing
Office of Terrorist Financing and Financial Crimes
Assistant Secretary for Intelligence and Analysis
Office of Intelligence and Analysis
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
Office of Foreign Assets Control
Treasury Executive Office for Asset Forfeiture
Assistant Secretary for Management / Chief Financial Officer / Performance Improvement Officer
Assistant Secretary for Economic Policy
Assistant Secretary for Legislative Affairs
Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs/Director of policy planning
Assistant Secretary for Tax Policy
Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau
Commissioner of Internal Revenue
Internal Revenue Service
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency
Office of the General Counsel
Office of the Inspector General
Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA)
Bureaus[edit]
Bureau Description
The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB) is responsible for enforcing and administering laws covering the production, use, and distribution of alcohol and tobacco products. TTB also collects excise taxes for firearms and ammunition.
The Bureau of Engraving & Printing (BEP) The Bureau of Engraving & Printing (BEP) designs and manufactures U.S. currency, securities, and other official certificates and awards.
The Bureau of the Fiscal Service The Bureau of the Fiscal Service was formed from the consolidation of the Financial Management Service and the Bureau of the Public Debt. Its mission is to promote the financial integrity and operational efficiency of the U.S. government through exceptional accounting, financing, collections, payments, and shared services.
The Community Development Financial Institution (CDFI) Fund The Community Development Financial Institution (CDFI) Fund was created to expand the availability of credit, investment capital, and financial services in distressed urban and rural communities.
The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) supports law enforcement investigative efforts and fosters interagency and global cooperation against domestic and international financial crimes. It also provides U.S. policy makers with strategic analyses of domestic and worldwide trends and patterns.
The Inspector General The Inspector General conducts independent audits, investigations and reviews to help the Treasury Department accomplish its mission; improve its programs and operations; promote economy, efficiency and effectiveness; and prevent and detect fraud and abuse.
The Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) The Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) provides leadership and coordination and recommends policy for activities designed to promote economy, efficiency, and effectiveness in the administration of the internal revenue laws. TIGTA also recommends policies to prevent and detect fraud and abuse in the programs and operations of the IRS and related entities.
The Internal Revenue Service The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is the largest of Treasury's bureaus. It is responsible for determining, assessing, and collecting internal revenue in the United States.
The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) charters, regulates, and supervises national banks to ensure a safe, sound, and competitive banking system that supports the citizens, communities, and economy of the United States.
The U.S. Mint The U.S. Mint designs and manufactures domestic, bullion and foreign coins as well as commemorative medals and other numismatic items. The Mint also distributes U.S. coins to the Federal Reserve banks as well as maintains physical custody and protection of the nation's silver and gold assets.
Budget and staffing[edit]
The Treasury Department was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $22.6 billion. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:[11]
Program
Funding (in millions)
Employees (in FTEs)
Management and Finance
Department Administration $311 1,320
Office of the Inspector General $35 213
Inspector General for Tax Administration $157 837
Special Inspector General for TARP $34 192
Community Development Financial Institutions Fund $225 73
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network $108 346
Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau $101 517
Bureau of the Fiscal Services $348 2,350
Tax Administration
Internal Revenue Service $12,476 92,009
International Programs
International Programs $2,610 0
Non-Appropriated Bureaus
Office of Fiscal Stability $184 86
Small Business Lending Programs $17 25
State Small Business Credit Initiative $7 12
Financial Stability Oversight Council $20 26
Office of Financial Research $92 249
Bureau of Engraving and Printing $749 1,944
United States Mint $3,571 1,874
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency $1,104 3,997
TOTAL $22,583 106,080
Freedom of Information Act processing performance[edit]
In the latest Center for Effective Government analysis of 15 federal agencies which receive the most Freedom of Information Act FOIA requests, published in 2015 (using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available), the Treasury earned a D by scoring 68 out of a possible 100 points, i.e. did not earn a satisfactory overall grade.[12]
See also[edit]
Government of the United States portal
Federal Reserve System
MicroLoan Program
Title 12 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Title 17 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Title 19 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Title 31 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Treasury Enterprise Architecture Framework
Treasury Information System Architecture Framework
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ "An Act to Establish the Treasury Department" (PDF). September 2, 1789. Retrieved 2014-11-05.
Jump up ^ "Appointment as Secretary of the Treasury".
Jump up ^ "Chapter 12, 1 Statue. 65" (PDF).
Jump up ^ US Treasury website Organization
Jump up ^ Records of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), National Archives website, (Record Group 167), 1830–1987.
Jump up ^ Treasury Order 101-05, U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. 10 January 2011. Updated 26 April 2011. Accessed 11 November 2012.
Jump up ^ DF Org Chart, "The Office of Domestic Finance". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. October 2011. Accessed 11 November 2012.
Jump up ^ International Affairs, "About International Affairs". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. 14 February 2012. Accessed 11 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "Environment and Energy". www.treasury.gov. Retrieved 2017-10-30.
Jump up ^ Terrorism and Financial Intelligence, "About Terrorism and Financial Intelligence". U.S. Dept. of the Treasury. July 2, 2012. Accessed November 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ 2015 Department of the Treasury Budget in Brief, pg 9, United States Department of the Treasury, Accessed 2015-07-06
Jump up ^ Making the Grade: Access to Information Scorecard 2015, March 2015, 80 pages, Center for Effective Government, retrieved 21 March 2016
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to United States Department of the Treasury.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Treasury.
Official website
Department of the Treasury in the Federal Register
Map of Major Foreign Holders Of Treasury Securities 2009
Annual Reports of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of Finances – These annual reports also contain the reports of the many departments of the Treasury, including the Bureau of the Mint, Bureau of Engraving and Printing, Bureau of Customs, Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, Secret Service, and the Internal Revenue Service.
United States Department of the Treasury at the Wayback Machine (archived December 26, 1996)
Act to establish the Treasury Department. 1st Congress, 1st Session, Ch. 12, 1 Stat. 65
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Social perception
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Further information on Social perception: Social psychology and social cognition
Social perception (or person perception) is the study of how people form impressions of and make inferences about other people as sovereign personalities.[1] People learn about others' feelings and emotions by picking up information they gather from physical appearance, verbal, and nonverbal communication. Facial expressions, tone of voice, hand gestures, and body position or movement are just a few examples of ways people communicate without words. A real-world example of social perception would be understanding that others disagree with what one said when one sees them roll their eyes. There are four main components of social perception: observation, attribution, integration, and confirmation.
Observations serve as the raw data of social perception—an interplay of three sources: persons, situations, and behavior. These sources are used as evidence in supporting a person's impression or inference about others. Another important factor to understand when talking about social perception is attribution. Attribution is expressing an individual's personality as the source or cause of their behavior during an event or situation.[2] In order to fully understand the impact of personal or situational attributions, social perceivers must integrate all available information into a unified impression. To finally confirm these impressions, people try to understand, find, and create information in the form of various biases. Most importantly, social perception is shaped by an individual's current motivations, emotions, and cognitive load capacity. Cognitive load is the complete amount of mental effort utilized in the working memory. All of this combined determines how people attribute certain traits and how those traits are interpreted.
The fascination and research for social perception date back to the late 1800s when social psychology was first being discovered. As more and more research on social perception is done, the realization of its significance in understanding and predicting our social world continues to grow. This overview article aims to inform readers about the processes of social perception along with brief descriptions to relevant and related theories.
Contents
[hide]
1 Observation
1.1 Persons – physical influence
1.2 Situations – context from prior experiences
1.3 Behaviors – nonverbal communication
2 Attribution
2.1 Attribution theories
2.1.1 Two-step process of making attributions
2.1.2 Jones's correspondent inference theory
2.1.3 Kelley's covariation theory
3 Integration
3.1 Information integration theory
3.2 Implicit personality theory
4 Confirmation
4.1 Competence as social perceivers
4.2 Factors that influence social perception
4.2.1 Accuracy
4.2.1.1 Difficulties in accuracy research
4.2.1.2 Testing
4.2.2 Inaccuracy/distortions
4.2.2.1 Bias
4.2.2.1.1 Self
4.2.2.1.2 Group
4.2.2.1.3 Interaction
5 See also
6 References
Observation[edit]
The processes of social perception begin with observing: persons, situations, and/or behaviors in order to gather evidence in support of an initial impression.
Persons – physical influence[edit]
Although society tries to train people not to judge others based on their physical traits, as social perceivers, we cannot help but be influenced by others' hair, skin color, height, weight, style of clothes, pitch in voice, etc., when making a first impression. People have the tendency to judge others by associating certain facial features with specific personality types. For example, studies indicate that people are perceived to be stronger, more assertive, and competent if they have small eyes, low eyebrows, an angular chin, wrinkled skin, and a small forehead. While baby-faced people tend to be connected to impotence and harmlessness.[3]
Situations – context from prior experiences[edit]
People are able to easily predict the sequences or results of an event based on the extent and depth of their past experiences with a similar event. The ability to anticipate the outcomes of a situation is also greatly influenced by an individual's cultural background because this inevitably shapes the types of experiences. Situational observations either lead humans to have preset notions about certain events or to explain the causes of human behaviors.[3]
Behaviors – nonverbal communication[edit]
Nonverbal communication helps people express their emotions, attitudes, and personalities. The most dominant form of nonverbal communication is the use of facial expressions to channel different emotions. Greatly influenced by Charles Darwin's research on facial expressions and book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), it is believed that all humans, regardless of culture or race, encode and decode the six "primary" emotions, (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust), universally in the same way. To encode means to communicate nonverbal behavior, while to decode means to interpret the meaning or intention of the nonverbal behavior. Decoding sometimes is inaccurate due to affect blend, (a facial expression with two differently registered emotions), and/or display rules, (culturally dictated rules about which nonverbal behaviors are acceptable to display).[1] Other nonverbal cues such as: body language, eye contact, and vocal intonations can affect social perception by allowing for thin-slicing. Thin-slicing describes the ability to make quick judgements from finding consistencies in events based only on narrow frames of experience.
Attribution[edit]
With the observations drawn from persons, situations, and behavior, the next step is to make inferences in order to identify an individual's inner dispositions.
Attribution theories[edit]
A large component of social perception is attribution. Attribution is the use of information gathered through observation to help individuals understand and rationalize the causes of one's own and others' behaviors. Psychological research on attribution began with the work of Fritz Heider in 1958, and was subsequently developed by others such as Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner. People make attributions to understand the world around them in order to seek reasons for an individual's particular behavior. When people make attributions they are able to make judgments as to what was the cause or causes of a certain behavior. Attribution theory is the study of what systems and models people implement in order to make attributions about the behavior of others. It attempts to explain how we use information about the social environment to understand others' behavior.
One common bias people exhibit in attribution is called the fundamental attribution error. The fundamental attribution error is the tendency for people to attribute others' actions or behaviors to internal traits as opposed to external circumstances.[4] An example of how this may manifest in the real world as pointed out in research by Furnham and Gunter is how one's view of the justness of poverty may be affected by one's financial status: one who has not experienced poverty may see it as being more or less deserved than might someone who has been impoverished at some point.[5] In this way, fundamental attribution error can be a barrier to empathizing with others, as one does not consider all the circumstances involved in the actions of others.
Two-step process of making attributions[edit]
Unlike conventional attribution theories, the two-step process of attribution suggests that people analyze others' behaviors first by automatically making an internal attribution and only then considering possible external attributions that may affect the initial inference.[1] Heider's most valuable contribution to the topic of attribution is the dichotomy: When attempting to decide why individuals behave a certain way, we can make either an internal or external attribution.[1] Internal attribution, (also called dispositional attribution or personal attribution[3]), is the assumption that an individual is acting a certain way due to something about that individual, such as personality, character, or attitude. External attribution, also called situational attribution, is the inference that an individual is acting a certain way due to the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most individuals would respond in the same way in that similar situation. Essentially, people first assume that a person's behavior is due to his or her personality, and then attempt to modify this attribution by also factoring in the person's situation.[1]
Jones's correspondent inference theory[edit]
According to Edward Jones and Keith Davis's correspondent inference theory, people learn about other individuals from behavior that is chosen freely, that is not anticipated, and that results in a small number of favorable outcomes.[1] There are three factors that people use as a basis for their inferences:
An individual's degree of choice
The expectedness of the behavior
The intentions or motives behind the effects or consequences of the behavior
Kelley's covariation theory[edit]
According to American social psychologist Harold Kelley, individuals make attributions by utilizing the covariation principle. The covariation principle claims that people attribute behavior to the factors that are present when a certain behavior occurs and the factors that are absent when it does not occur.[1] There are three types of covariation information that are particularly helpful: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.
If a single individual and a large majority of individuals behave similarly in reaction to a specific stimulus, then the individual's behavior is attributed to the stimulus and is high in consensus. The individual's behavior due to this specific stimulus should be compared to the individual's behavior in reaction other stimuli within the same broader category. This helps judge whether the level of distinctiveness information is high, and thus attributed to the stimulus. Lastly, consistency information is used to see what happens to the behavior at another time when the individual and the stimulus both remain unchanged.[1]
Integration[edit]
Unless a snap judgement is made from observing persons, situations, or behavior, people integrate the dispositions to form impressions.
Information integration theory[edit]
Norman H. Anderson, an American social psychologist, developed the information integration theory in 1981. The theory states that impressions are made from the perceiver's personal dispositions and a weighted average of the target individual's characteristics.[1] The differences among perceivers are due to people using themselves as a standard, or frame of reference, when judging or evaluating others. People also tend to view their own skills and traits to be favorable for others to also have. These impressions formed about others can also be influenced by the current, temporary mood of the perceiver. A concept called, priming also affects a perceiver's impressions of others. Priming is the tendency for recently perceived or implemented concepts or words to come to mind easily and influence the understanding of the new information.[1] Trait information also impacts people's impressions of others, and psychologist Solomon Asch was the first to discover that the existence of one trait tends to indicate the existence of other traits. Asch claimed that there are central traits which are traits that exert a strong effect on the perceiver's overall impressions.[1] Lastly, the sequence in which a trait is realized can also influence the trait's impact. Research shows that there is a tendency for information presented at the beginning of a sequence to have a greater effect on impressions than information presented later on, a concept called primacy effect.[1]
Implicit personality theory[edit]
Implicit personality theory is a type of model people use to group various kinds of personality qualities together.[1] Put in another way, implicit personality theories describe the way in which an observer uses the traits displayed by another person to form impressions about that other person. People pay attention to a variety of cues, including: visual, auditory, and verbal cues to predict and understand the personalities of others, in order to fill in the gap of the unknown information about a person, which assists with social interactions.
Certain traits are seen as especially influential in the formation of an overall impression of an individual; these are called central traits. Other traits are less influential in impression formation, and are called peripheral traits. Which traits are central or peripheral is not fixed, but can vary based on context. For instance, saying that a person is warm versus cold may have a central impact on an individual's impression formation when paired with traits such as "industrious" and "determined", but have a more peripheral impact when paired with traits such as "shallow" or "vain".[6]
Kim and Rosenberg[7] demonstrate that when forming impressions of others, individuals assess others on an evaluative dimension. Which is to say that, when asked to describe personality traits of others, individuals will rate others on a "good-bad" dimension. People's implicit personality theories also include a number of other dimensions, such as a "strong-weak" dimension, an "active-passive" dimension, an "attractive-unattractive" dimension, etc. However, the evaluative "good-bad" dimension was the only one that universally appeared in people's descriptions of others, while the other dimensions appeared in many, but not all, people's assessments. Thus, the dimensions included in implicit personality theories on which others are rated vary from person to person, but the "good-bad" dimension appears to be part of all people's implicit personality theories.
Confirmation[edit]
After making and integrating attributions, individuals form impressions that are subject to confirmation biases and the threat of a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Competence as social perceivers[edit]
It is true that people fall for the biases identified by social psychologists and for some biases that may have not yet been identified. Despite these misjudgments, there are four reasons that soundly prove people's competence as social perceivers:
People can more accurately perceive social behaviors and interactions when they have a greater history of experiences with the other people.
People can make more circumscribed predictions of how other individuals will act when he or she is in their presence.
Social perception skills can be improved through learning the rules of probability and logic.
People can make more precise inferences about others when motivated by concerns for open-mindedness and accuracy.[3]
Factors that influence social perception[edit]
Accuracy[edit]
The accuracy of social perception relates to the connection between judgments people make of others' psychological attributes, and the reality of those attributes with regards to the people being judged. There are three slightly varying approaches to interpreting accuracy the: pragmatic, constructivist, and realistic approaches. Empirical research suggests that social perception is mostly accurate, but the degree of accuracy is based on four major moderator variables. These moderators are attributes of the: judge, target, trait that is judged, and information on which the judgment is based. The Realistic Accuracy Model (RAM) explains that these moderators are a result of the process for accurate judgment. The process of accurate personality judgment starts with the target revealing relevant information, which then must be available to a judge, who then identifies and uses it to form a final judgment.[8]
Difficulties in accuracy research[edit]
While accurate social perception is important, it has also been rather neglected. It is difficult to provide a set list of criteria that can be checked-off as accuracy can be subjective in nature. In the past, there was an assumption that people’s judgements were also considered erroneous and often mistaken. As such, many researchers have chosen to pursue other facets of research instead. It was not until these assumptions were proved incorrect through research and research methods became more sophisticated that genuine effort was put into analyzing accurate social perceptions.[9]
Testing[edit]
TASIT (The Awareness of Social Inference Test) is an audiovisual test that In the past for the clinical assessment of social perception. The test is based upon several critical components of social perception that are crucial for social competence using complex, dynamic, visual, and auditory cues to assess these critical components. The test assesses the ability to identify emotions, a skill that is impaired in many clinical conditions. It also assesses the ability to judge what a speaker may be thinking or what their intentions are for the other person in the conversation, also referred to as theory of mind. Lastly, the test was developed to assess the ability to differentiate between literal and non-literal conversational remarks. The test is divided into three parts to measure; emotion, social inference – minimal, and social inference enriched. The test is composed of scenes, or vignettes, and those being assessed are asked to identify the emotions, a, feelings, beliefs, intentions, and meanings of the interactions. They are also assessed on more complex interactions to assess ability to interpret sarcasm.[10] The results of this testing assess the level of social perception of an individual.
TASIT has adequate psychometric properties as a clinical test of social perception. It is not overly prone to practice effects and is reliable for repeat administrations. Performance on TASIT is affected by information processing speed, working memory, new learning and executive functioning, but the uniquely social material that comprises the stimuli for TASIT will provide useful insights into the particular difficulties people with clinical conditions experience when interpreting complex social phenomena.[10]
Inaccuracy/distortions[edit]
Bias[edit]
People are prone to numerous types of confirmation biases—tendencies to construe, find, and formulate information in ways that prove existing opinions.[1] Preconceived prejudices, stereotypes, and discrimination otherwise known as social biases can contribute towards these tendencies.[11] People are also subject to exhibiting belief perseverance, the tendency to hold false convictions even after they have been disproved.[1]
Self[edit]
Availability heuristic – Tendency to place more importance and reliance on more immediate memories when evaluating specific topics, methods, concepts, or decisions. It is a mental shortcut that operates on the notion that if something can be recalled, then it must at least be as important as alternatives that are less easily recalled.[12]
Dunning–Kruger effect – An effect by which test takers fail to understand their poor performance because they suffer a double fault: A.) Shortfall of knowledge prevents them from producing correct responses & B.) Shortfall of knowledge prevents them from recognizing their lesser responses when compared to those of others.[13]
Overconfidence bias – When one's confidence in their ability is greater than their actual ability.[13]
Egocentric bias – The tendency to rely too heavily on one's own judgements and abilities, stemming partially from the need to satisfy one's ego.[14]
Defensive attribution hypothesis – Tendency of people to attribute more blame to the perpetrator of an accident as the consequences become more severe.[15] However, if people perceive themselves to be more similar to the perpetrator characteristically or circumstantially they will rate the perpetrator as less culpable for the accident as the severity of consequences increase. If people perceive themselves as less similar they will rate the perpetrator as more culpable.[15]
Forer effect (Barnum effect) – Placing high belief in a general, vague description thinking it was meant specifically for an individual. For instance, people interpret horoscopes as applying to their specific situation, when in actuality the horoscope was written to apply to a wide range of people's experiences.[16]
Counterfactual thinking – Tendency to think up alternative events or outcomes that might have happened, but did not.[1]
Belief perseverance – Tendency to continue to maintain one's beliefs despite firm contradictory information.[17]
Self-fulfilling prophecy – Method by which an individual's expectations about other individuals or themselves eventually cause actions in ways that confirm those expectations.[18]
Correspondence bias – Tendency to draw inferences about a person's characteristics from behaviors that could be explained by the situation alone.
Group[edit]
Status quo bias – Tendency to favor current or certain circumstances because they are familiar. Any changes to these circumstances are perceived as a loss.[19]
Ingroup bias – Tendency to favor one's own group members and their actions over those of outsiders.[20]
Stereotyping – Attributing traits to people based on certain traits of the group they are perceived to belong to.[21]
Interaction[edit]
Halo effect – Tendency for the observed overall impression of an individual to affect the observers feelings and thoughts about other attributes or traits of the individual.[22]
False-consensus effect – Tendency for people to overestimate the magnitude to which people share their behaviors, opinions, and attributes.[3]
Base-rate fallacy – Tendency to prefer specific information over Base rate or generic information.[1]
Psychological projection – A defense mechanism people subconsciously use in order to grapple with challenging feelings or emotions by attributing them to others. This incorporates Blame shifting.[23]
Actor-Observer bias – Tendency of those acting in a situation to blame their actions on the situation, while those observing have the tendency to place the blame on the actors.[24]
See also[edit]
Conformity
Framing (social sciences)
Group dynamics
Interpersonal attraction
Interpersonal perception
Joint attention
Nonverbal communication
Persuasion
Prejudice
References[edit]
Library resources about
Social perception
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Aronson, Elliot; Wilson, Timothy D.; Akert, Robin M. (2010). Social Psychology Seventh Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. pp. 83–115. ISBN 0-13-814478-8.
Jump up ^ "Attribution Theory | Simply Psychology". www.simplypsychology.org. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kassin, Saul; Fein, Steven; Markus, Hazel Rose (2008). Social Psychology Seventh Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. pp. 93–127. ISBN 978-0-618-86846-9.
Jump up ^ Ross, L. (1977). "The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process". Advances in Experimental Psychology. 10: 174–214.
Jump up ^ Furnham, A.F.; Gunter, B. (1984). "Just world beliefs and attitudes towards the poor". British Journal of Social Psychology. 23: 265–269. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.1984.tb00637.x.
Jump up ^ Nauts, S.; Langner, O.; Huijsmans, I.; Vonk, R.; Wigboldus, D. H. J. (2014). "Forming impressions of personality: A replication and review of Asch's (1946) evidence for a primacy-of-warmth effect in impression formation". Social Psychology. 45 (3): 153–163. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000179.
Jump up ^ Kim, M. P.; Rosenberg, S. (1980). "Comparison of two structural models of implicit personality theory". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 38 (3): 375–389. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.3.375.
Jump up ^ Smelser, Neil J.; Baltes, Paul B. (2001). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Elsevier Ltd. pp. 11243–11246. ISBN 978-0-08-043076-8.
Jump up ^ Funder, D. C. (2001-01-01). Baltes, Paul B., ed. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. Oxford: Pergamon. pp. 11243–11246. ISBN 9780080430768.
^ Jump up to: a b McDonald; Bornhofen; Shum; Long; Saunders; Neulinger (2006). "Reliability and validity of The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT): A clinical test of social perception". Disability and Rehabilitation. 28 (24): 1529–1542. doi:10.1080/09638280600646185.
Jump up ^ Sritharan, R.; Gawronski, B. (2010). "Changing implicit and explicit prejudice: Insights from the associative-propositional evaluation model". Social Psychology. 41 (3): 113–123. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000017.
Jump up ^ "What Is an Availability Heuristic?".
^ Jump up to: a b Kruger, J. M.; Dunning, D. (1999). "Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 77: 1121–1134. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121. PMID 10626367.
Jump up ^ Ross, M.; Sicoly, F. (1979). "Egocentric biases in availability and attribution". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 37: 322–336. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.3.322.
^ Jump up to: a b Burger, J.M. (1981). "Motivational biases in the attribution of responsibility for an accident: A meta-analysis of the Defensive Attribution Hypothesis". Psychological Bulletin. 90 (3): 496–512. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.90.3.496.
Jump up ^ Dickson, D.; Kelly, I. (1985). "The "Barnum effect" in personality assessment: A review of the literature". Psychological Reports. 57 (2): 367–382. doi:10.2466/pr0.1985.57.2.367.
Jump up ^ "Belief Perseverance definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com". www.alleydog.com. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Good one to know!". BusinessDictionary.com. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Status quo bias". Behavioraleconomics.com | The BE Hub. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Ingroup Bias definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com". www.alleydog.com. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Definition of STEREOTYPE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
Jump up ^ "The halo effect". The Economist. 2009-10-14. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
Jump up ^ lifescript. "Psychological Projection: Dealing With Undesirable Emotions". Retrieved 2016-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Actor-Observer Bias definition | Psychology Glossary | alleydog.com". www.alleydog.com. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
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