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Autocracy
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An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme power (social and political) is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of a coup d'état or mass insurrection).[1] Absolute monarchy (such as Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Brunei and Swaziland) and dictatorships (such as North Korea) are the main modern day forms of autocracy.
In earlier times, the term "autocrat" was coined as a favorable feature of the ruler, having some connection to the concept of "lack of conflicts of interests" as well as an indication of grandeur and power. The Russian Tsar for example was styled, "Autocrat of all the Russias", as late as the early 20th century.
Contents
[hide]
1 History and etymology
2 Comparison with other forms of government
3 Origin and developments
4 Maintenance
5 Autocracy promotion
6 Historical examples
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History and etymology[edit]
In the Medieval Greek language, the term Autocrates was used for anyone holding the title emperor, regardless of the actual power of the monarch. Some historical Slavic monarchs, such as Russian tsars and emperors, included the title Autocrat as part of their official styles, distinguishing them from the constitutional monarchs elsewhere in Europe.
Comparison with other forms of government[edit]
Both totalitarianism and military dictatorship are often identified with, but need not be, an autocracy. Totalitarianism is a system where the state strives to control every aspect of life and civil society. It can be headed by a supreme dictator, making it autocratic, but it can also have a collective leadership such as a commune, junta, or single political party.
In an analysis of militarized disputes between two states, if one of the states involved was an autocracy the chance of violence occurring doubled.[2]
Origin and developments[edit]
Examples from early modern Europe suggests early statehood was favorable for democracy.[3] But, according to Jacob Hariri, outside Europe, history shows that early statehood has led to autocracy.[4] The reasons he gives are: continuation of the original autocratic rule and absence of "institutional transplantation"[4] or European settlement. This may be because of the country's capacity to fight colonization or the presence of state infrastructure that Europeans did not need to build new institutions to rule. In all the cases, representative institutions were unable to get introduced in these countries and they sustained their autocratic rule. European colonization was varied and conditional on many factors. Countries which were rich in natural resources had an extractive and indirect rule, whereas other colonies saw European settlement.[5] Because of this settlement, these countries possibly experienced setting up of new institutions. Colonization also depended on factor endowments and settler mortality.[4]
Mancur Olson theorizes the development of autocracies as the first transition from anarchy to state. Anarchy for Olson is characterized by a number of "roving bandits" who travel around many different geographic areas extorting wealth from local populations leaving little incentive for populations to invest, and produce. As local populations lose the incentive to produce, there is little wealth for either the bandits to steal or the people to use. Olson theorizes autocrats as "stationary bandits" who solve this dilemma by establishing control over a small fiefdom and monopolize the extortion of wealth in the fiefdom in the form of taxes. Once an autocracy is developed, Olson theorizes that both the autocrat and the local population will be better off as the autocrat will have an "encompassing interest" in the maintenance and growth of wealth in the fiefdom.[6] Because violence threatens the creation of rents, the "stationary bandit" has incentives to monopolize violence and to create a peaceful order.
Douglass North, John Joseph Wallis and Barry R. Weingast describe autocracies as limited access orders that arise from this need to monopolize violence.[7] In contrast to Olson, these scholars understand the early state not as a single ruler, but as an organization formed by many actors. They describe the process of autocratic state formation as a bargaining process among individuals with access to violence. For them, these individuals form a dominant coalition that grants each other privileges such as the access to resources. As violence reduces the rents, members of the dominant coalition have incentives to cooperate and to avoid fighting. A limited access to privileges is necessary to avoid competition among the members of the dominant coalition, who then will credibly commit to cooperate and will form the state.
Maintenance[edit]
Because autocrats need a power structure to rule, it can be difficult to draw a clear line between historical autocracies and oligarchies. Most historical autocrats depended on their nobles, the military, the priesthood or other elite groups.[8] Some autocracies are rationalized by assertion of divine right.
According to Douglass North, John Joseph Wallis and Barry R. Weingast, in limited access orders the state is ruled by a dominant coalition formed by a small elite group that relates to each other by personal relationships. In order to remain in power, this elite hinders people outside the dominant coalition to access organizations and resources. Autocracy, then, is maintained as long as the personal relationships of the elite continue to forge the dominant coalition. These scholars further suggest that once the dominant coalition starts to become broader and allow for impersonal relationships, limited access orders can give place to open access orders.[7]
For Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson and James Robinson, the allocation of political power explains the maintenance of autocracies, which they usually refer to as "extractive states".[9] For them, the de jure political power comes from political institutions, whereas the de facto political power is determined by the distribution of resources. Those holding the political power in the present will design the political and economic institutions in the future according to their interests. In autocracies, both de jure and de facto political powers are concentrated in one person or a small elite that will promote institutions for keeping the de jure political power as concentrated as the de facto political power, thereby maintaining autocratic regimes with extractive institutions.
Autocracy promotion[edit]
It has been argued that authoritarian regimes, such as China and Russia, have attempted to export their system of government to other countries through "autocracy promotion".[10] A number of scholars are skeptical that China and Russia have successfully exported authoritarianism abroad.[11][12][13][14]
Historical examples[edit]
The Roman Empire: In 27 B.C., Augustus founded the Roman Empire following the end of the Roman Republic. Augustus officially kept the Roman Senate while effectively consolidating all of the real power in himself. Rome was peaceful and prosperous until the dictatorial rule of Commodus starting in 161 A.D. The third century saw invasions from the barbarians as well as economic decline. Both Diocletian and Constantine ruled as totalitarian leaders, strengthening the control of the emperor. The empire grew extremely large, and was ruled by a tetrarchy, instituted by Diocletian. Eventually, it was split into two halves: the Western (Roman) and the Eastern (Byzantine). The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 after civic unrest, further economic decline, and invasions led to the surrender of Romulus Augustus to Odoacer, a German king.[15]
Aztec Empire: In Mesoamerica, the Aztecs were a tremendous military powerhouse that earned a fearsome reputation of capturing prisoners during battle to be used for sacrificial rituals. The priesthood supported a pantheon that demanded human sacrifice, and the nobility consisted mainly of warriors who had captured many prisoners for these sacrificial rites. The Aztec Emperor hence functioned both as the sole ruler of the empire and its military forces, and as the religious figurehead behind the empire's aggressive foreign policy.
People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong.
Tsarist and Imperial Russia: Shortly after being crowned as ruler, Tsar Ivan immediately removed his political enemies by execution or exile and established dominance over an Empire, expanding the borders of his kingdom dramatically. To enforce his rule, Ivan the Terrible established the Streltzy as Russia's standing army, and he developed two cavalry divisions that were fiercely loyal to the Tsar; the Cossacks, and the Oprichniki. In his later years, Ivan made orders for his forces to sack the city of Novgorod in fear of being overthrown. The ideology Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality was introduced by Emperor Nicholas I of Russia.
Soviet Union: During Joseph Stalin's rule.
Tokugawa Shogunate: Medieval Japan was caught in a vicious series of skirmishes between warring clans, states, and rulers, all of them vying for power in a mad scramble. While many of these lords struggled against each other openly, Ieyasu Tokugawa seized mastery of all of Japan through a mix of superior tactics and cunning diplomacy, until he became the dominant power of the land. By establishing his shogunate as the sole ruling power in Japan, Ieyasu Tokugawa controlled all aspects of life, closing the borders of Japan to all foreign nations and ruling with a policy of isolationism.
Nazi Germany: After the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the National Socialist German Worker's Party began a more subtle political strategy to take over the government. Following a tense social and political environment in the 1930s, the Nazis under Adolf Hitler took advantage of the civil unrest of the state to seize power through cunning propaganda and by the charismatic speeches of their party leader. By the time Hitler was appointed chancellor, the Nazi party began to restrict civil liberties on the public following the Reichstag Fire. With a combination of cooperation and intimidation, Hitler and his party systematically weakened all opposition to his rule, transforming the Weimar Republic into a fascist dictatorship where Hitler alone spoke and acted on behalf of Germany. Nazi Germany is an example of an autocracy run primarily by a single leader, but many decisions made by Hitler coincided with the interests and ideology of the Nazi Party in mind, also making an example of an autocracy ruled by a political party rather than solely one man.
See also[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Autocracy.
Anocracy
Authoritarianism
Centralisation
Führerprinzip
Theocracy
Tsarist autocracy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Paul M. Johnson. "Autocracy: A Glossary of Political Economy Terms". Auburn.edu. Retrieved 2012-09-14.
Jump up ^ Pinker, Steven (2011). The Better Angels Of Our Nature. Penguin. p. 341. ISBN 978-0-141-03464-5.
Jump up ^ Tilly, Charles. "Western-state Making and Theories of Political Transformation".
^ Jump up to: a b c Hariri, Jacob. "The Autocratic Legacy of Early Statehood".
Jump up ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; A. Robinson, James. "Reversal of Fortune: Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World Income Distribution".
Jump up ^ Olson, Mancur (1993-01-01). "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development". The American Political Science Review. 87 (3): 567–576. doi:10.2307/2938736.
^ Jump up to: a b Douglass C. North; John Joseph Wallis; Barry R. Weingast (2008). "Violence and the Rise of Open-Access Orders". Journal of Democracy. 20 (1): 55–68. doi:10.1353/jod.0.0060.
Jump up ^ Tullock, Gordon. "Autocracy", Springer Science+Business, 1987. ISBN 90-247-3398-7
Jump up ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (2005). "Chapter 6 Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-Run Growth". Handbook of Economic Growth. Elsevier. 1, Part A: 385–472.
Jump up ^ Kurlantzick, Joshua (2013-03-30). "A New Axis of Autocracy". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2017-05-17.
Jump up ^ Tansey, Oisín (2016-01-02). "The problem with autocracy promotion". Democratization. 23 (1): 141–163. doi:10.1080/13510347.2015.1095736. ISSN 1351-0347.
Jump up ^ Way, Lucan (2016-01-27). "Weaknesses of Autocracy Promotion". Journal of Democracy. 27 (1): 64–75. doi:10.1353/jod.2016.0009. ISSN 1086-3214.
Jump up ^ Brownlee, Jason (2017-05-15). "The limited reach of authoritarian powers". Democratization. 0 (0): 1–19. doi:10.1080/13510347.2017.1287175. ISSN 1351-0347.
Jump up ^ "The limits of autocracy promotion: The case of Russia in the 'near abroad'".
Jump up ^ "Password Logon Page". ic.galegroup.com. Retrieved 2016-04-10.
External links[edit]
Felix Bethke: Research on Autocratic Regimes: Divide et Impera, Katapult-Magazine (2015-03-15)
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text:
Post–World War II economic expansion
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In the United States and several other countries, the boom was manifested in suburban development and urban sprawl, aided by automobile ownership.
The post–World War II economic expansion, also known as the postwar economic boom, the long boom, and the Golden Age of Capitalism, was a period of strong economic growth beginning after World War II and ending with the 1973–75 recession.[1] The United States, Soviet Union, Western European and East Asian countries in particular experienced unusually high and sustained growth, together with full employment. Contrary to early predictions, this high growth also included many countries that had been devastated by the war, such as Japan (Japanese post-war economic miracle), West Germany and Austria (Wirtschaftswunder), France (Trente Glorieuses), Italy (Italian economic miracle), Greece (Greek economic miracle), Taiwan (Taiwan Miracle) and South Korea (Miracle of the Han River).
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Timeline
3 Global economic climate
4 Causes
4.1 Productivity
4.1.1 New products and services
4.2 Economic aftermath of war
4.3 Keynesian economics
4.3.1 Infrastructure spending
4.3.2 Military spending
4.4 Financial repression
4.5 Wealth redistribution
4.6 Low oil prices
4.7 International cooperation
4.7.1 Institutional arrangements
4.7.1.1 US Council of Economic Advisers
5 Specific countries
5.1 Belgium
5.2 France
5.3 Italy
5.4 Japan
5.5 Soviet Union
5.6 Sweden
5.7 United Kingdom
5.8 United States
5.9 West Germany
6 Effects
7 Decline
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Further reading
Terminology[edit]
In academic literature, the period is frequently referred to as the post–World War II economic boom, though this term can refer to much shorter booms in particular markets. It is also known as the Long Boom, though this term is generic and can refer to other periods. The golden age of Capitalism is a common name for this period in both academic and economics books.
The term is also used in other contexts. In older sources and occasionally in contemporary ones, Golden age of Capitalism can refer to the period of the Second Industrial Revolution from approximately 1870 to 1914, which also saw rapid economic expansion. Yet another name for the quarter century following the end of World War II is the Age of Marx, though the Soviet Union's economic statistics were not reliable during this period.[2][3]
Timeline[edit]
Economist Roger Middleton states that economic historians generally agree on 1950 as the start date for the golden age,[4] while Robert Skidelsky states 1951 is the most recognized start date.[5] Both Skidelsky and Middleton have 1973 as the generally recognized end date, though sometimes the golden age is considered to have ended as early as 1970.
This long term business cycle ended with a number of events in the early 1970s:
the collapse of the Bretton Woods monetary system in 1971
the growing international trade in manufactured goods, such as automobiles and electronics
the 1973 oil crisis,
the 1973–1974 stock market crash,
the ensuing 1973–75 recession, and
May Day 1975 the deregulation of fixed fees for trading stocks and market based commissions
While this is the global period, specific countries experienced business expansions for different periods; in Taiwan, the Taiwan Miracle lasted into the late 1990s, for instance, while in France the period is referred to as Trente Glorieuses (30 glorious [years]) and is considered to extend for the 30-year period from 1945 to 1975.
Global economic climate[edit]
In the United States, unemployment fluctuated during the 1950s, but dropped steadily during the 1960s.
OECD members enjoyed real GDP growth averaging over 4% per year in the 1950s, and nearly 5% per year in the 1960s, compared with 3% in the 1970s and 2% in the 1980s.[6]
Skidelsky devotes ten pages of his 2009 book Keynes: The Return of the Master to a comparison of the golden age to what he calls the Washington Consensus period, which he dates as spanning 1980–2009 (1973–1980 being a transitional period):[5]
Metric
Golden Age
Washington Consensus
Average global growth 4.8% 3.2%
Unemployment (US) 4.8% 6.1%
Unemployment (France) 1.2% 9.5%
Unemployment (Germany) 3.1% 7.5%
Unemployment (Great Britain) 1.6% 7.4%
Skidelsky suggests the high global growth during the golden age was especially impressive as during that period Japan was the only major Asian economy enjoying high growth (Taiwan and South Korea at the time being small economies). It was not until later that the world had the exceptional growth of China raising the global average. Skidelsky also reports that inequality was generally decreasing during the golden age, whereas since the Washington Consensus was formed it has been increasing.
Globally, the golden age was a time of unusual financial stability, with crises far less frequent and intense than before or after. Martin Wolf reports that between 1945–71 (27 years) the world saw only 38 financial crises, whereas from 1973–97 (24 years) there were 139.[7]
Causes[edit]
Allied war bonds matured during these years, transferring cash from governments to private households.
Productivity[edit]
See also: Agricultural productivity
High productivity growth from before the war continued after the war and until the early 1970s. Manufacturing was aided by automation technologies such as feedback controllers, which appeared in the late 1930s were a fast-growing area of investment following the war. Wholesale and retail trade benefited from new highway systems, distribution warehouses, and material handling equipment such as forklifts and intermodal containers.[8][9] Oil displaced coal in many applications, particularly in locomotives and ships.[10] In agriculture, the post WW II period saw the widespread introduction of the following:
Chemical fertilizers
Tractors
Combine harvesters
High-yielding variety
Pesticides
New products and services[edit]
Industries that were created or expanded during the post war period included television, commercial aviation and particularly in the US, computer technology.
Economic aftermath of war[edit]
Economists employing Marxian economic analysis and Crisis theory argue that the period of prosperity was a temporary phase in capitalist development fueled by a revival of capital stock, large pools of labor and raw materials, and technological innovation emerging from the end of the Second World War and the scale of defeats of the international working class.[11] This era of prosperity helped prop up the perspective that the crises and business cycles inherent to capitalism could be solved through macroeconomic Keynesian policies, when in actuality the fundamental instabilities of capitalism had not been resolved.[12]
Keynesian economics[edit]
Many Western governments funded large infrastructure projects during this period. Here the redevelopment of Norrmalm and the Stockholm Metro, Sweden.
Keynesian economists argue that the post war expansion was caused by adoption of Keynesian economic policies. Naomi Klein has argued the high growth enjoyed by Europe and America was the result of Keynesian economic policies and in the case of rapidly rising prosperity that this post war period saw in parts of South America, by the influence of developmentalist economics led by Raúl Prebisch.[13]
Infrastructure spending[edit]
One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956.[14] He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence the highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers.
Military spending[edit]
Another explanation for this period is the theory of the permanent war economy, which suggests that the large spending on the military helped stabilize the global economy; this has also been referred to as "Military Keynesianism".
Financial repression[edit]
This period also saw financial repression—low nominal interest rates and low or negative real interest rates (nominal rates lower than inflation plus taxation), via government policy—resulting respectively in debt servicing costs being low (low nominal rates) and in liquidation of existing debt (via inflation and taxation).[15] This allowed countries (such as the US and UK) to both deal with their existing government debt level and reduce the level of debt without needing to direct a high portion of government spending to debt service.
Wealth redistribution[edit]
Historical federal marginal tax rates for income for the lowest and highest income earners in the US[16]
Real income in the United States by percentile, normalized to 2007 costs. All social classes grew wealthier during the 1950s and 1960s, but the lower percentiles have only seen marginal improvement since then.
Much property was destroyed in war. In the inter-war period, the Great Depression also caused investments to lose value.[17]
During both World Wars, progressive taxation and capital levies were introduced, with the generally-stated aim of distributing the sacrifices required by the war more evenly. While tax rates dipped between the wars, they did not return to pre-war levels. Top tax rates increased dramatically, in some cases tenfold. This had a significant effect on both income and wealth distributions. Such policies were commonly referred to as the "conscription of income" and "conscription of wealth".[17]
"a fundamental objection to the government’s policy of conscription is that it conscripts human life only, and that it does not attempt to conscript wealth... " — Liberal party election platform, autumn 1917, Canada
The Economist opposed capital levies, but supported "direct taxation heavy enough to amount to rationing of citizens' incomes". Rationing of goods was also widely used, with the aim of distributing scarce resources efficiently.[citation needed] Rationing was widely done with ration stamps, a second currency that entitled the bearer to buy (with regular money) a certain amount of a certain sort of good (for instance, two ounces of meat,[18] or a certain amount of clothing[19] or fuel). Price controls were also used (for instance, the price of restaurant meals was capped).[18]
In the post-war period, progressive taxation persisted. Inheritance taxes also had an effect. Rationing in the United Kingdom lasted until 1954. Allied war bonds matured during the post-war years, transferring cash from governments to private households.
Low oil prices[edit]
The real oil price was low during the post-war decades, with this ending in the 1973 oil crisis.
In the 1940s, the price of oil was about $17, rising to just over $20 during the Korean War (1951–1953). During the Vietnam War (1950s – 1970s) the price of oil slowly declined to under $20. During the Arab oil embargo of 1973—the first oil shock—the price of oil rapidly rose to double in price.
International cooperation[edit]
Poster for the Marshall Plan
See also: Aftermath of World War II
Among the causes can be mentioned the rapid normalization of political relations between former Axis powers and the western Allies. After the war, the major powers were determined not to repeat the mistakes of the Great Depression, some of which were ascribed to post–World War I policy errors. The Marshall Plan for the rebuilding of Europe is most credited for reconciliation, though the immediate post-war situations was more complicated. In 1948 the Marshall Plan pumped over $12 billion to rebuild and modernize Western Europe. The European Coal and Steel Community formed the foundation of what was to become the European Union in later years.
Institutional arrangements[edit]
Institutional economists point to the international institutions established in the post-war period. Structurally, the victorious Allies established the United Nations and the Bretton Woods monetary system, international institutions designed to promote stability. This was achieved through a number of policies, including promoting free trade, instituting the Marshall Plan, and the use of Keynesian economics.
US Council of Economic Advisers[edit]
In the United States, the Employment Act of 1946 set the goals of achieving full employment, full production, and stable prices. It also created the Council of Economic Advisers to provide objective economic analysis and advice on the development and implementation of a wide range of domestic and international economic policy issues. In its first 7 years the CEA made five technical advances in policy making:[20]
The replacement of a "cyclical model" of the economy by a "growth model,"
The setting of quantitative targets for the economy,
Use of the theories of fiscal drag and full-employment budget,
Recognition of the need for greater flexibility in taxation, and
Replacement of the notion of unemployment as a structural problem by a realization of low aggregate demand.
Specific countries[edit]
The economies of the United States, Japan, West Germany, France, and Italy did particularly well. Japan and West Germany caught up to and exceeded the GDP of the United Kingdom during these years, even as the UK itself was experiencing the greatest absolute prosperity in its history. In France, this period is often looked back to with nostalgia as the Trente Glorieuses, or "Glorious Thirty", while the economies of West Germany and Austria were characterized by Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle), and in Italy it is called Miracolo economico (economic miracle). Most developing countries also did well in this period.
Belgium[edit]
Main article: Belgian economic miracle
Belgium experienced a brief but very rapid economic recovery in the aftermath of World War II. The comparatively light damage sustained by Belgium's heavy industry during the German occupation and the Europe-wide need for the country's traditional exports (steel and coal, textiles, and railway infrastructure) meant that Belgium became the first European country to regain its pre-war level of output in 1947. Economic growth in the period was accompanied by low inflation and sharp increases in real living standards.
However, lack of capital investment meant that Belgium's heavy industry was ill-equipped to compete with other European industries in the 1950s. This contributed to the start of deindustrialisation in Wallonia and the emergence of regional economic disparities.
France[edit]
Main article: Trente Glorieuses
Between 1947 and 1973, France went through a boom period (5% growth per year on average) dubbed by Jean Fourastié Trente Glorieuses - the title of a book published in 1979. The economic growth occurred mainly due to productivity gains and to an increase in the number of working hours. Indeed, the working population grew very slowly, the "baby boom" being offset by the extension of the time dedicated to study. Productivity gains came from catching up with the United States. In 1950, the average income in France was 55% of that of an American; it reached 80% in 1973. Among the "major" nations, only Japan had faster growth in this era than France.[21]
The extended period of transformation and modernization also involved an increasing internationalization of the French economy. France by the 1980s had become a leading world economic power and the world's fourth-largest exporter of manufactured products. It became Europe's largest agricultural producer and exporter, accounting for more than 10 percent of world trade in such goods by the 1980s. The service sector grew rapidly and became the largest sector, generating a large foreign-trade surplus, chiefly from the earnings from tourism.[22]
Italy[edit]
Main article: Italian economic miracle
The Italian economy experienced very variable growth. In the 1950s and early 1960s the Italian economy boomed, with record high growth-rates, including 6.4% in 1959, 5.8% in 1960, 6.8% in 1961, and 6.1% in 1962. This rapid and sustained growth was due to the ambitions of several[quantify] Italian businesspeople, the opening of new industries (helped by the discovery of hydrocarbons, made for iron and steel, in the Po valley), re-construction and the modernisation of most Italian cities, such as Milan, Rome and Turin, and the aid given to the country after World War II (notably through the Marshall Plan).[23][page needed][24][need quotation to verify]
Japan[edit]
Main article: Japanese economic miracle
A transistor radio made by Sanyo in 1959. Japan manufactured much of the world's consumer electronics during this period.
After 1950 Japan's economy recovered from the war damage and began to boom, with the fastest growth rates in the world.[25] Given a boost by the Korean War, in which it acted as a major supplier to the UN force, Japan's economy embarked on a prolonged period of extremely rapid growth, led by the manufacturing sectors. Japan emerged as a significant power in many economic spheres, including steel working, car manufacturing and the manufacturing of electronics. Japan rapidly caught up with the West in foreign trade, GNP, and general quality of life. The high economic growth and political tranquility of the mid to late 1960s were slowed by the quadrupling of oil prices in 1973. Almost completely dependent on imports for petroleum, Japan experienced its first recession since World War II. Another serious problem was Japan's growing trade surplus, which reached record heights. The United States pressured Japan to remedy the imbalance, demanding that Tokyo raise the value of the yen and open its markets further to facilitate more imports from the United States.[26]
Soviet Union[edit]
In the 1950s the Soviet Union, having reconstructed the ruins left by the war, experienced a decade of prosperous, undisturbed, and rapid economic growth, with significant technological achievements most notably the first earth satellite. The nation ranked in the top 15 most prosperous countries. However, the growth slowed and ended by 1960, as the Khrushchev regime poured resources into large military and space projects, and the civilian sector languished. While every other major nation greatly expanded its service sector, that sector in the Soviet Union (medicine, for example) was given low priority.[27] Following Khrushchev's ouster, and the appointment of a collective leadership led by Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin, the economy was revitalised.[28] The economy continued to grow apace during the mid-to-late 1960s, during the Eighth Five-Year Plan.[29] However, economic growth began to falter during the early to mid-1970s,[28] beginning the Era of Stagnation.
Sweden[edit]
Main article: Record years
Sweden emerged almost unharmed from World War II, and experienced tremendous economic growth until the early 1970s, as Social Democratic Prime Minister Tage Erlander held his office from 1946 to 1969. Sweden used to be a country of emigrants until the 1930s, but the demand for labor spurred immigration to Sweden, especially from Finland and countries like Greece, Italy and Yugoslavia. Urbanization was fast, and housing shortage in urban areas was imminent until the Million Programme was launched in the 1960s.
United Kingdom[edit]
The national debt of the United Kingdom was at a record high percentage of the GDP as the war ended, but was largely repaid by 1975.
A 1957 speech by UK Prime Minister Harold Macmillan[30] captures what the golden age felt like, even before the brightest years which were to come in the 1960s.
"Let us be frank about it: most of our people have never had it so good. Go round the country, go to the industrial towns, go to the farms and you will see a state of prosperity such as we have never had in my lifetime – nor indeed in the history of this country."
Unemployment figures[31] show that unemployment was significantly lower during the Golden Age than before or after:
Epoch
Date range
Percentage of British labour force unemployed.
Pre Golden Age 1921–1938 13.4
Golden Age 1950–1969 1.6
Post Golden Age 1970–1993 6.7
In addition to superior economic performance, other social indexes were higher in the golden age; for example the proportion of Britain's population saying they are "very happy" has fallen from 52% in 1957 to just 36% in 2005.[32][33]
United States[edit]
Main article: Economic history of the United States § Postwar prosperity: 1945–1973
See also: Economic stagnation § End of stagnation in the U.S. after the Great Depression
The period from the end of World War II to the early 1970s was one of the greatest eras of economic expansion in world history. In the US, Gross Domestic Product increased from $228 billion in 1945 to just under $1.7 trillion in 1975. By 1975, the US economy represented some 35% of the entire world industrial output, and the US economy was over 3 times larger than that of Japan, the next largest economy.[34]
$200 billion in war bonds matured, and the G.I. Bill financed a well-educated work force. The middle class swelled, as did GDP and productivity. The US underwent its own golden age of economic growth. This growth was distributed fairly evenly across the economic classes, which some attribute to the strength of labor unions in this period—labor union membership peaked during the 1950s. Much of the growth came from the movement of low-income farm workers into better-paying jobs in the towns and cities—a process largely completed by 1960.[35]
Libertarian historian Burton W. Folsom Jr. argues that under the leadership of Senator Walter George, Congress ended most economic controls, cut taxes, slashed spending, and expected entrepreneurs to create the jobs needed for the returning soldiers. The predicted postwar depression never happened and the economy, grew rapidly as unemployment stabilized at 3.9 percent.[36][37]
West Germany[edit]
Main article: Wirtschaftswunder
Assembly of the Volkswagen Beetle in West Germany
West Germany, under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and economic minister Ludwig Ehrhard, saw prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s. Journalists dubbed it the Wirtschaftswunder or "Economic Miracle".[38] Industrial production doubled from 1950 to 1957, and gross national product grew at a rate of 9 or 10% per year, providing the engine for economic growth of all of Western Europe. Labor union's support of the new policies, postponed wage increases, minimized strikes, supported technological modernization, and a policy of co-determination (Mitbestimmung), which involved a satisfactory grievance resolution system and required the representation of workers on the boards of large corporations,[39] all contributed to such a prolonged economic growth. The recovery was accelerated by the currency reform of June 1948, US gifts of $1.4 billion Marshall Plan aid, the breaking down of old trade barriers and traditional practices, and the opening of the global market.[40] West Germany gained legitimacy and respect, as it shed the horrible reputation Germany had gained under the Nazis. West Germany played a central role in the creation of European cooperation; it joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958.
Effects[edit]
The increased free time of adolescents caused the rise of youth subcultures such as Mods.
The post-war economic boom had many social, cultural, and political effects (not least of which was the demographic bulge termed the baby boom). Movements and phenomena associated with this period include the height of the Cold War, postmodernism, decolonisation, a marked increase in consumerism, the welfare state, the space race, the Non-Aligned Movement, import substitution, counterculture of the 1960s, opposition to the Vietnam War, the Civil Rights Movement, the sexual revolution, the beginning of second-wave feminism, and a nuclear arms race. In the United States, the middle-class began a mass migration away from the cities and towards the suburbs. Thus, it can be summed up as a period of prosperity in which most people could enjoy a job for life, a house and a family.
In the West, there emerged a near-complete consensus against strong ideology and a belief that technocratic and scientific solutions could be found to most of humanity's problems, a view advanced by US President John F. Kennedy in 1962. This optimism was symbolized through such events as the 1964 New York World's Fair, and Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society programs, which aimed at eliminating poverty in the United States.
Decline[edit]
The sharp rise in oil prices (due to the 1973 oil crisis) hastened the transition to the post-industrial economy, and a multitude of social problems began to emerge. During the 1970s steel crisis, demand for steel declined, and the Western world faced competition from newly industrialized countries. This was especially harsh for mining and steel districts such as the North American Rust Belt and the West German Ruhr area.
See also[edit]
Post-war consensus, in Britain
Four Asian Tigers
Mexican miracle
Spanish miracle
Nixon shock
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ http://m.oxfordscholarship.com/mobile/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198287414.001.0001/acprof-9780198287414
Jump up ^ Desai, Meghnad (2002). Marx's Revenge: The Resurgence of Capitalism and the Death of Statist Socialism,. Verso. p. 216. ISBN 1-85984-429-4.
Jump up ^ Ball, Terence; Bellamy, Richard Paul (2002). The Cambridge history of twentieth-century political thought. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. ISBN 1-85984-429-4.
Jump up ^ Middleton, Roger (2000). The British Economy Since 1945. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 3. ISBN 0-333-68483-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Skidelsky, Robert (2009). Keynes: The Return of the Master. Allen Lane. pp. 116, 126. ISBN 978-1-84614-258-1.
Jump up ^ Marglin, Stephen A.; Schor, Juliet B. The Golden Age of Capitalism. Clarendon Press. p. 1. Retrieved 2015-12-20.
Jump up ^ Wolf, Martin (2009). "3". Fixing Global Finance. Yale University Press. p. 31.
Jump up ^ Field, Alexander J. (2011). A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15109-1.
Jump up ^ Bjork, Gordon J. (1999). The Way It Worked and Why It Won’t: Structural Change and the Slowdown of U.S. Economic Growth. Westport, CT; London: Praeger. pp. 2, 67. ISBN 0-275-96532-5.
Jump up ^ Grübler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport (PDF). Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. p. 87<Fig. 3.1.5>
Jump up ^ Yaffe, David; Bullock, Paul (1979). "Inflation, the Crisis and the Post-War Boom". Revolutionary Communist No. 3/4 (Second Edition), November 1979. Retrieved December 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ Panitch, Leo; Miliband, Ralph (1992). "The New World Order and the Socialist Agenda". The Socialist Register. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ Klein, Naomi (2008). The Shock Doctrine. Penguin. p. 55.
Jump up ^ "The cracks are showing". The Economist. June 26, 2008. Retrieved October 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ The Liquidation of Government Debt, Reinhart, Carmen M. & Sbrancia, M. Belen
Jump up ^ "U.S. Federal Individual Income Tax Rates History, 1913–2011". Tax Foundation. 9 September 2011. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b https://web.stanford.edu/group/scheve-research/cgi-bin/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/ScheveStasavage_IO_2010.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/War/londonRation.html
Jump up ^ https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/8-facts-about-clothes-rationing-in-britain-during-the-second-world-war
Jump up ^ Salant, Walter S. "Some Intellectual Contributions of the Truman Council of Economic Advisers to Policy-Making," History of Political Economy, 1973, Vol. 5 Issue 1, pp 36–49
Jump up ^ P. Sicsic, and C. Wyplosz. "France: 1945-92." in Economic Growth in Europe since 1945, edited by N. Crafts and G. Toniolo. (Cambridge University Press, 1996)
Jump up ^ Andrea Boltho, "Economic Policy in France and Italy since the War: Different Stances, Different Outcomes?," Journal of Economic Issues 35#3 (2001) pp 713+ online
Jump up ^ Vera Zamagni, Vera, The economic history of Italy 1860-1990 (Oxford University Press, 1993)
Jump up ^ Giangiacomo Nardozzi, "The Italian" Economic Miracle". Rivista di storia economica (2003) 19$2 pp: 139-180, in English.
Jump up ^ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History (2002) pp 562-98
Jump up ^ Hans Brinckmann, and Ysbrand Rogge. Showa Japan: The Post-War Golden Age and Its Troubled Legacy (2008)
Jump up ^ Gur Ofer, The service sector in Soviet economic growth (1973) p. 21 online
^ Jump up to: a b Sandle, Mark; Bacon, Edwin (2002). Brezhnev Reconsidered. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-0-333-79463-0.
Jump up ^ Brown, Archie (2009). The Rise & Fall of Communism. Bodley Head. p. 403. ISBN 978-1-84595-067-5.
Jump up ^ "1957: Britons 'have never had it so good'". BBC. 1957-07-20. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
Jump up ^ Sloman, John (2004). Economics. Penguin. p. 811.
Jump up ^ Mark Easton (2006-05-02). "Britain's happiness in decline". BBC. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
Jump up ^ Nigel Healey, ed., Britain's Economic Miracle: Myth or Reality? (1992) excerpt
Jump up ^ Countries GDP 1975: GDP annual comparison, CountryEconomy.com
Jump up ^ French, Michael. US Economic History Since 1945 (1997)
Jump up ^ Burton W. Folsom; Anita Folsom (2011). FDR Goes to War: How Expanded Executive Power, Spiraling National Debt, and Restricted Civil Liberties Shaped Wartime America. Simon and Schuster. p. 311.
Jump up ^ James Ciment (2015). Postwar America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History. Routledge. p. 419.
Jump up ^ Jurgen Weber, Germany, 1945-1990 (Central European University Press, 2004) pp. 37-60
Jump up ^ Friedrich Fürstenberg, "West German Experience with Industrial Democracy," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 431, (May, 1977), pp. 44–53 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Detlef Junker, ed., The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 1945-1968 (Cambridge University Press, 2004) vol 1:291-309
Further reading[edit]
Brinckmann, Hans, and Ysbrand Rogge. Showa Japan: The Post-War Golden Age and Its Troubled Legacy (2008)
Bullock, Paul and Yaffe, David [1975] Inflation, the Crisis and the Post-War Boom RC 3/4 November 1975, RCG
Crafts, N. and G. Toniolo, eds. Economic Growth in Europe since 1945 (Cambridge University Press, 1996)
Cairncross, Frances; Cairncross, Alec (1994), The Legacy of the Golden Age: 1960s and Their Economic Consequences, Routledge
Marglin, Stephen A.; Schor, Juliet B. (1992), The Golden Age of Capitalism: Reinterpreting the Postwar Experience, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-828741-4
Webber, Michael John; Rigby, David L. (1996), The golden age illusion: rethinking postwar capitalism
Yarrow, Andrew L. "The big postwar story: Abundance and the rise of economic journalism." Journalism History 32.2 (2006): 58+ online
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Earth's orbit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Earth at different points in its orbit
Earth's orbit is the trajectory along which Earth travels around the Sun. The average distance between the Earth and the Sun is 149.60 million km (92.96 million mi),[1] and one complete orbit takes 365.256 days (1 sidereal year), during which time Earth has traveled 940 million km (584 million mi).[2] Earth's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167.
As seen from Earth, the planet's orbital prograde motion makes the Sun appear to move with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1° (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours) eastward per solar day.[nb 1] Earth's orbital speed averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h; 67,000 mph), which is fast enough to cover the planet's diameter in 7 minutes and the distance to the Moon in 4 hours.[3]
From a vantage point above the north pole of either the Sun or Earth, Earth would appear to revolve in a counterclockwise direction around the Sun. From the same vantage point, both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate also in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of study
2 Influence on Earth
3 Events in the orbit
4 Future
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History of study[edit]
Main article: Heliocentrism
Heliocentric Solar System
Heliocentrism (lower panel) in comparison to the geocentric model (upper panel)
Heliocentrism is the scientific model that first placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System and put the planets, including Earth, in its orbit. Historically, heliocentrism is opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. Aristarchus of Samos already proposed a heliocentric model in the 3rd century BC. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus' De revolutionibus presented a full discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe[4] in much the same way as Ptolemy had presented his geocentric model in the 2nd century. This "Copernican revolution" resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent. "Although Copernicus's groundbreaking book...had been [printed] over a century earlier, [the Dutch mapmaker] Joan Blaeu was the first mapmaker to incorporate his revolutionary heliocentric theory into a map of the world."[5]
Influence on Earth[edit]
Main article: Season
Because of Earth's axial tilt (often known as the obliquity of the ecliptic), the inclination of the Sun's trajectory in the sky (as seen by an observer on Earth's surface) varies over the course of the year. For an observer at a northern latitude, when the north pole is tilted toward the Sun the day lasts longer and the Sun appears higher in the sky. This results in warmer average temperatures, as additional solar radiation reaches the surface. When the north pole is tilted away from the Sun, the reverse is true and the weather is generally cooler. Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle, an extreme case is reached in which there is no daylight at all for part of the year. This is called a polar night. This variation in the weather (because of the direction of the Earth's axial tilt) results in the seasons.[6]
Events in the orbit[edit]
By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices – the two points in the Earth's orbit of the maximum tilt of the Earth's axis, towards the Sun or away from the Sun – and the equinoxes – the two points in the Earth's orbit where the Earth's tilted axis and an imaginary line drawn from the Earth to the Sun are exactly perpendicular to one another. The solstices and equinoxes divide the year up into four approximately equal parts. In the northern hemisphere winter solstice occurs on or about December 21; summer solstice is near June 21; spring equinox is around March 20; and autumnal equinox is about September 23.[7] The effect of the Earth's axial tilt in the southern hemisphere is the opposite of that in the northern hemisphere, thus the seasons of the solstices and equinoxes in the southern hemisphere are the reverse of those in the northern hemisphere (e.g. the northern summer solstice is at the same time as the southern winter solstice).
In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (for other eras, see precession and Milankovitch cycles). The changing Earth–Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9%[8] in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.[9]
The Hill sphere (gravitational sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1,500,000 kilometers (0.01 AU) in radius, or approximately 4 times the average distance to the moon.[10][nb 2] This is the maximal distance at which the Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects orbiting the Earth must be within this radius, otherwise they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.
Orbital characteristics
epoch J2000.0[nb 3]
aphelion 152.10×10^6 km (94.51×10^6 mi)
1.0167 AU[nb 4]
perihelion 147.10×10^6 km (91.40×10^6 mi)
0.98329 AU[nb 4]
semimajor axis 149.60×10^6 km (92.96×10^6 mi)
1.000001018 AU[11]
eccentricity 0.0167086[11]
inclination 7.155° to Sun's equator
1.578690°[12] to invariable plane
longitude of the ascending node 174.9°[11]
longitude of perihelion 102.9°[11]
argument of periapsis 288.1°[11][nb 5]
period 365.256363004 days[13]
average speed 29.78 km/s (18.50 mi/s)[3]
107,200 km/h (66,600 mph)
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis — nearest point to the Sun) on anywhere from January 2 to January 5, the point of March equinox on March 19, 20, or 21, the point of June solstice on June 20, 21, or 22, the aphelion (apoapsis — farthest point from the Sun) on anywhere from July 3 to July 5, the September equinox on September 22, 23, or 24, and the December solstice on December 21, 22, or 23.[7] The diagram shows an exaggerated shape of Earth's orbit; the actual orbit is less eccentric than pictured.
Because of the axial tilt of the Earth in its orbit, the maximal intensity of Sun rays hits the Earth 23.4 degrees north of equator at the June Solstice (at the Tropic of Cancer), and 23.4 degrees south of equator at the December Solstice (at the Tropic of Capricorn).[14]
Future[edit]
Main article: Stability of the Solar System
Mathematicians and astronomers (such as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, and Jürgen Moser) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions, and this quest led to many mathematical developments and several successive "proofs" of stability for the Solar System.[15] By most predictions, Earth's orbit will be relatively stable over long periods.[16]
In 1989, Jacques Laskar's work indicated that the Earth's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years' time.[17] Modeling the Solar System is a subject covered by the n-body problem.
See also[edit]
Astronomy portal
Astronomical unit
Barycenter
Earth's axial tilt
Earth's rotation
Geocentric orbit – the orbit of any object orbiting the Earth, such as the Moon or an artificial satellite
Satellite
Space station
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Our planet takes about 365 days to orbit the Sun. A full orbit has 360°. That fact demonstrates that each day, the Earth travels roughly 1° in its orbit. Thus, the Sun will appear to move eastward across the sky relative to the stars by that same amount.
Jump up ^ For the Earth, the Hill radius is
R H = a ( m 3 M ) 1 / 3 , {\displaystyle R_{H}=a\left({\frac {m}{3M}}\right)^{1/3},}
where m is the mass of the Earth, a is an astronomical unit, and M is the mass of the Sun. So the radius in AU is about ( 1 3 ⋅ 332 946 ) 1 / 3 ≈ 0.01 {\displaystyle \left({\frac {1}{3\cdot 332\,946}}\right)^{1/3}\approx 0.01} .[citation needed]
Jump up ^ All astronomical quantities vary, both secularly and periodically. The quantities given are the values at the instant J2000.0 of the secular variation, ignoring all periodic variations.
^ Jump up to: a b aphelion = a × (1 + e); perihelion = a × (1 – e), where a is the semi-major axis and e is the eccentricity.
Jump up ^ The reference lists the longitude of perihelion, which is the sum of the longitude of the ascending node and the argument of perihelion. Subtracting from that (102.937°) the node longitude of 174.873° gives −71.936°. Adding 360° gives 288.064°. That addition does not change the angle but expresses it in the usual 0–360° range for longitudes.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Sun: Facts & Figures". Solar System Exploration. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved July 29, 2015.
Jump up ^ Jean Meeus, Astronomical Algorithms 2nd ed, ISBN 0-943396-61-1 (Richmond, VA: Willmann-Bell, 1998) 238. See Ellipse#Circumference. The formula by Ramanujan is accurate enough.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, David R. (2004-09-01). "Earth Fact Sheet". NASA. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
Jump up ^ De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Johannes Petreius. 1543.
Jump up ^ Jerry Brotton, A History of the World in Twelve Maps, London: Allen Lane, 2012, ISBN 9781846140990 p. 262.
Jump up ^ "What causes the seasons? (NASA)". Retrieved January 22, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Date & Time of Solstices & Equinoxes". August 28, 2013. Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Aphelion is 103.4% of the distance to perihelion. See "Orbital characteristics" table. Due to the inverse square law, the radiation at perihelion is about 106.9% of the radiation at aphelion.[citation needed]
Jump up ^ Williams, Jack (2005-12-20). "Earth's tilt creates seasons". USAToday. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
Jump up ^ Vázquez, M.; Montañés Rodríguez, P.; Palle, E. (2006). "The Earth as an Object of Astrophysical Interest in the Search for Extrasolar Planets" (PDF). Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Simon, J.L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.; Laskar, J. (February 1994). "Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 282 (2): 663–683. Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
Jump up ^ Allen, Clabon Walter; Cox, Arthur N. (2000). Allen's Astrophysical Quantities. Springer. p. 294. ISBN 0-387-98746-0.
Jump up ^ The figure appears in multiple references, and is derived from the VSOP87 elements from section 5.8.3, p. 675 of the following: Simon, J. L.; Bretagnon, P.; Chapront, J.; Chapront-Touzé, M.; Francou, G.; Laskar, J. (February 1994). "Numerical expressions for precession formulae and mean elements for the Moon and planets". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 282 (2): 663–683. Bibcode:1994A&A...282..663S.
Jump up ^ "What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle?". Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Laskar, J. (2001). "Solar System: Stability". In Murdin, Paul. Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astropvhysics. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing. article 2198. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Gribbin, John (2004). Deep simplicity : bringing order to chaos and complexity (1st U.S. ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6256-0.
Jump up ^ "Earth-Venus smash-up possible". June 11, 2009. Retrieved Jan 22, 2015.
External links[edit]
Media related to Earth's orbit at Wikimedia Commons
[show]
v
t
e
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Types
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mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: مدار الارض – Arabic

values: Орбита на Земята – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordbane
Jordbane – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdbahn
Erdbahn – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values: Τροχιά της Γης – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: حرکت انتقالی زمین – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: पृथ्वी की कक्षा – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Mișcarea de revoluție a Pământului – Romanian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Орбита Земли – Russian

values: Rrotullimi i Tokës rreth Diellit – Albanian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: Орбіта Землі – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: Chuyển động của Trái Đất quanh Mặt Trời – Vietnamese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Earth_s_orbit rootpage-Earth_s_orbit skin-vector action-view