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Shades of blue
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For other uses, see Shades of Blue (disambiguation).
"Shade of Blue" redirects here. For the song by Black Rebel Motorcycle Club, see Take Them On, On Your Own.
For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Blue.
Blue
Wavelength
440–490 nm
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#0000FF
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 0, 255)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(100, 100, 0, 0)
HSV (h, s, v)
(240°, 100%, 100[1]%)
Source
X11
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Varieties[2] of the color blue may differ in hue, chroma (also called saturation, intensity, or colorfulness), or lightness (or value, tone, or brightness), or in two or three of these qualities. Variations in value are also called tints and shades, a tint being a blue or other hue mixed with white, a shade being mixed with black. A large selection of these various colors is shown below.
Contents
[hide]
1 Tints of blue
1.1 Baby blue
1.2 Light blue
1.3 Periwinkle
1.4 Powder blue
1.5 Morning blue
2 Computer web color blue
2.1 Blue (RGB) (X11 blue)
3 Additional definitions of blue
3.1 Blue (CMYK) (pigment blue)
3.2 Blue (NCS) (psychological primary blue)
3.3 Blue (Munsell)
3.4 Blue (Pantone)
3.5 Blue (Crayola)
3.6 Medium blue
3.7 Spanish blue
3.8 Liberty
3.9 Egyptian blue
3.10 Ultramarine
3.11 Dark blue
3.12 Resolution blue
3.13 Navy blue
3.14 Midnight blue
3.15 Independence
3.16 Space cadet
3.17 Fluorescent Blue
3.18 Teal
3.19 Teal Blue
4 Variations of blue in culture
5 Wrapping the spectrum into a color wheel
6 See also
7 References
Tints of blue[edit]
In this section, the term tint is used in its technical sense as used in color theory, meaning a blueish color mixed with white or light gray.
Baby blue[edit]
Main article: Baby blue
Baby blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#89CFF0
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(137, 207, 240)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(43, 14, 0, 6)
HSV (h, s, v)
(199°, 43%, 94%)
Source
Maerz and Paul[3]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Baby blue is known as one of the pastel colors. With a hue code of 199, this color is a tone of azure.
The first recorded use of baby blue as a color name in English was in 1892.[4]
Light blue[edit]
Main article: Light blue
Light blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#ADD8E6
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(173, 216, 230)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(25, 6, 0, 10)
HSV (h, s, v)
(195°, 25%, 90%)
Source
X11
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
The web color light blue is displayed in the color box at right. Variations of this color are known as sky blue, baby blue, or angel blue. Within the X11 color system, with a hue code of 194, this color is closer to cyan than to blue.
The first recorded use of "light blue" as a color term in English is in the year 1915.[5]
Periwinkle[edit]
Main article: Periwinkle (color)
Periwinkle
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#CCCCFF
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(204, 204, 255)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(20, 20, 0, 0)
HSV (h, s, v)
(240°, 20%, 100%)
Source
Maerz & Paul
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Shown in the right is the color periwinkle, or periwinkle blue. Another name for this color is lavender blue. The color is a mixture of white and blue. It is named after the Periwinkle flower and is also commonly referred to as a tone of light blue.
Powder blue[edit]
Main article: Powder blue
Powder Blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#B0E0E6
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(176, 224, 230)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(24, 3, 0, 10)
HSV (h, s, v)
(187°, 23%, 90%)
Source
X11[1]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
The web color powder blue is shown on the right.
The first recorded use of powder blue as a color name in English was in 1774.[6]
Morning blue[edit]
Morning Blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#8DA399
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(141, 163, 153)
HSV (h, s, v)
(153°, 14%, 64%)
Source
ISCC-NBS
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
Displayed at right is the color morning blue. It is a representation of the color of the morning sky.
The year the first recorded use of morning blue as a color name in English is unknown.
Source of color: ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names (1955)--Color Sample of Morning Blue (color sample #149)
Computer web color blue[edit]
Blue (RGB) (X11 blue)[edit]
Blue (RGB) (X11 blue)
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#0000FF
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 0, 255)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(Not, possible, in, CMYK)
HSV (h, s, v)
(240°, 100%, 100%)
Source
X11 color names[7]
HTML/CSS[1]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Red, green, and blue lights, representing the three basic additive primary colors of the RGB color system, red, green, and blue
The color defined as blue in the RGB color model, X11 blue, is shown at right. This color is the brightest possible blue that can be reproduced on a computer screen, and is the color named blue in X11. It is one of the three primary colors used on the RGB color space, along with red and green. The three additive primaries in the RGB color system are the three colors of light chosen such as to provide the maximum gamut of colors that are capable of being represented on a computer or television set.
This color is also called color wheel blue. It is at precisely 240 degrees on the HSV color wheel, also known as the RGB color wheel. It is a spectral color which lies at, or near, the short-wave (violet) end of the traditional "blue" and possibly was classified as "indigo" by Newton.[8] Its complementary color is yellow.
Additional definitions of blue[edit]
Blue (CMYK) (pigment blue)[edit]
Blue (CMYK) (pigment blue)
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#333399
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(51, 51, 153)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(67, 67, 0, 40)
HSV (h, s, v)
(240°, 67%, 60%)
Source
CMYK[dead link]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Cyan, magenta, and yellow are the three subtractive primary colors used in printing
The color defined as blue in the CMYK color system used in printing, also known as pigment blue, is the tone of blue that is achieved by mixing process (printer's) cyan and process (printer's) magenta in equal proportions. It is displayed at right.
The purpose of the CMYK color system is to provide the maximum possible gamut of color reproducible in printing by the use of only three primaries.
The color indicated is only approximate as the colors of printing inks may vary.
Blue (NCS) (psychological primary blue)[edit]
Blue (NCS)
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#0087BD
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 135, 189)
HSV (h, s, v)
(197°, 100%, 74%)
Source
sRGB approximation to NCS 2060-B[9]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
Approximations within the sRGB gamut to the primary colors of the Natural Color System, a model based on the opponent process theory of color vision
The color defined as blue in the NCS or Natural Color System is an azure-like color shown at right (NCS 2060-B). The Natural Color System is a color system based on the four unique hues or psychological primary colors red, yellow, green, and blue. The NCS is based on the opponent process theory of vision.
The “Natural Color System” is widely used in Scandinavia.
Blue (Munsell)[edit]
Blue (Munsell)
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#0093AF
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 147, 175)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(100, 16, 0, 31)
HSV (h, s, v)
(190°, 100%, 69%)
Source
Munsell Color Wheel
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
The hues of the Munsell color system, at varying values, and maximum chroma to stay in the sRGB gamut
The color defined as blue in the Munsell color system (Munsell 5B) is shown at right. The Munsell color system is a color space that specifies colors based on three color dimensions: hue, value (lightness), and chroma (color purity), spaced uniformly (according to the logarithmic scale which governs human perception) in three dimensions in the Munsell color solid, which is shaped like an elongated oval at an angle. In order for all the colors to be spaced uniformly, it was found necessary to use a color wheel with five primary colors: red, yellow, green, blue, and purple.
The Munsell color displayed is only approximate, as these spectral colors have been adjusted to fit into the sRGB gamut. In the 21st century, this hue is classified as an intermediate between azure and cyan.
Blue (Pantone)[edit]
Blue (Pantone)
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#0018A8
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 24, 168)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(100, 80, 0, 34)
HSV (h, s, v)
(231°, 100%, 66[10]%)
Source
Pantone TPX[11]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Blue (Pantone) is the color that is called blue in Pantone.
The source of this color is the "Pantone Textile Paper eXtended (TPX)" color list, color # Blue C, EC, HC, M, PC, U, or UP—Blue.[12]
Blue (Crayola)[edit]
Blue (Crayola)
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#1F75FE
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(31, 117, 254)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(88, 54, 0, 0)
HSV (h, s, v)
(217°, 88%, 100[13]%)
Source
Crayola
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Blue (Crayola) is the color called blue in Crayola crayons.
"Blue" was one of the original Crayola crayons formulated in 1903.
In this section, the term shade is used in its technical sense as used in color theory, meaning a blueish color mixed with black or dark gray. The colors arranged in order of their value (brightness) (V in the HSV code), the brighter colors toward the top and the darker colors toward the bottom.
Medium blue[edit]
Medium Blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#0000CD
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 0, 205)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(100, 100, 0, 20)
HSV (h, s, v)
(240°, 100%, 80%)
Source
X11
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Displayed at right is the web color medium blue. It is a shade of the standard (h = 240°) blue.
Spanish blue[edit]
Blue (G&S)
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#0070BB
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 112, 184)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(100, 45, 0, 0)
HSV (h, s, v)
(203°, 100%, 72%)
Source
Gallego and Sanz[14]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Spanish blue is the color that is called Azul (the Spanish word for "blue") in the Guía de coloraciones (Guide to colorations) by Rosa Gallego and Juan Carlos Sanz, a color dictionary published in 2005 that is widely popular in the Hispanophone realm. It is a shade of azure.
Liberty[edit]
Liberty
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#545AA7
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(84, 90, 167)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(50, 46, 0, 35)
HSV (h, s, v)
(236°, 50%, 66[15]%)
Source
ISCC-NBS[16]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
At right is displayed the color liberty.
The first recorded use of liberty as a color name in English was in 1918.[17]
The source of this color is: ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names (1955)--Color Sample of Liberty (color sample #196)
Egyptian blue[edit]
Main article: Egyptian blue
Egyptian Blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#1034A6
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(16, 52, 166)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(90, 69, 0, 35)
HSV (h, s, v)
(226°, 90%, 65%)
Source
Internet
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Egyptian blue is a pigment that was used in Ancient Egypt.
Ultramarine[edit]
Ultramarine
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#3F00FF
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(63, 0, 255)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(75.3, 100, 0, 0)
HSV (h, s, v)
(254.8°, 100%, 1%)
Source
[Unsourced]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Main article: Ultramarine
Ultramarine is a blue pigment in use since medieval times.
Dark blue[edit]
Dark Blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#00008B
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 0, 139)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(100, 100, 0, 46)
HSV (h, s, v)
(240°, 100%, 55%)
Source
X11
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Dark blue is a shade of the standard (h = 240°) blue. The name comes from the word "Dark" (which originated from Old English dark, derk, deork; Anglo-Saxon dearc, and Gaelic and Irish dorch, dorcha) and "Blue" (taken from French and originated from the Indo-European root bhlewos).
Resolution blue[edit]
Resolution Blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#002387
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 35, 185)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(100, 74, 0, 47)
HSV (h, s, v)
(224°, 100%, 53%)
Source
Xona.com Color List
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
At right is displayed the color resolution blue.
This color name first came into use in 2001 when it was formulated as one of the colors on the Xona.com Color List.
Navy blue[edit]
Main article: Navy blue
Navy Blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#000080
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 0, 128)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(100, 100, 0, 50)
HSV (h, s, v)
(240°, 100%, 50%)
Source
HTML/CSS[1]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Navy blue is a shade of the standard (h = 240°) blue. Navy blue got its name from the dark blue (contrasted with white) worn by officers in the British Royal Navy since 1748 (originally called marine blue before 1840) and subsequently adopted by other navies around the world.
The first recorded use of navy blue as a color name in English was in 1840.[18]
Midnight blue[edit]
Main article: Midnight blue
Midnight Blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#191970
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(25, 25, 112)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(97, 78, 39, 29)
HSV (h, s, v)
(240°, 78%, 44%)
Source
X11
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
At right is displayed the color midnight blue.
This is the X11 web color midnight blue.
This color was originally called midnight. The first recorded use of midnight as a color name in English was in 1915.[19]
Independence[edit]
Independence
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#4C516D
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(76, 81, 109)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(30, 26, 0, 57)
HSV (h, s, v)
(231°, 30%, 43[20]%)
Source
ISCC NBS
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
At right is displayed the color independence.
The first recorded use of independence as a color name in English was in 1927.[21]
The source of this color is: ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names (1955)--Color Sample of Independence (color sample #204).
Space cadet[edit]
Main article: Cadet grey § Space cadet
Space Cadet
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#1D2951
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(29, 41, 81)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(64, 49, 0, 68)
HSV (h, s, v)
(226°, 64%, 32[22]%)
Source
Resene
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Displayed at right is the color space cadet.
Space cadet is one of the colors on the Resene Color List, a color list widely popular in Australia and New Zealand. The color "space cadet" was formulated in 2007.
This color is apparently a formulation of an impression of the color that cadets in space navy training would wear.
Fluorescent Blue[edit]
Fluorescent blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#15F4EE
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(21, 244, 238)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(91, 0, 2, 4)
HSV (h, s, v)
(178°, 91%, 96%)
Source
[Unsourced]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Fluorescent blue is a shade of blue that is radiant based on fluorescent colors scheme. This is main color in Indian 50-rupee note.
Teal[edit]
Main article: Teal
Teal
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#008080
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(0, 128, 128)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(100, 0, 0, 50)
HSV (h, s, v)
(180°, 100%, 50%)
Source
HTML/CSS[1]
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Teal is displayed at right. It is a dark cyan color that is a representation of the color of the neck coloring of a duck called the common teal.
Teal Blue[edit]
Teal blue
Color coordinates
Hex triplet
#367588
sRGBB (r, g, b)
(54, 117, 136)
CMYKH (c, m, y, k)
(60, 14, 0, 47)
HSV (h, s, v)
(194°, 60%, 53%)
Source
Kelly, Kenneth L. and Judd, Deanne B. (December 1976) "Color: Universal Language and Dictionary of Names", National Bureau of Standards, Spec. Publ. 440
B: Normalized to [0–255] (byte)
H: Normalized to [0–100] (hundred)
Teal blue is a medium tone of teal with more blue. The first recorded use of teal blue as a color name in English was in 1927.[23]
Variations of blue in culture[edit]
Blueberries
Note: For blue in general in culture, please go to the main article on the color blue
Cartography
In historical atlases published in Germany, light blue is traditionally used as a color to represent Germany, as opposed to pink for England and the British Empire, purple for France, and light green for Russia.[24]
Fashion
Dark clothing for males such as black, brown, or dark blue business suits have become much more popular since the mid-1990s, as opposed to the pastel colored business suits worn in the 1970s by major leaders in such institutions as the United States Congress (the vast difference in the clothing worn in the 1970s as opposed to the 2000s (decade) can be readily seen by looking at a videotape of the Watergate hearings).
German police officer
Law Enforcement
In many parts of the world, police wear dark blue uniforms.
Sexuality
In Russian, the word for sky blue, голубой, can be used to mean a 'male homosexual'.[25]
In English, phrase "blue joke" means dirty joke (a joke intended for adults; see blue comedy).
Sociology
In Western civilisation, those in the upper classes in high places of political or economic power often wear dark blue suits. Ordinary members of the working class (especially those who work in the computer industry) often refer derisively to these management functionaries as the suits.[26] This terminology is also used in the television industry—the network executives are often referred to by the creative people (actors, directors, and screenwriters) as the suits.[27]
Also, the term blue blood usually refers to the European nobility or upper class, and is based on a medieval belief that the royal blood was blue.[28] In its ironical sense, the term may refer to snobbism and arrogancy.
Dark blue or medium blue can also represent the working class. A blue-collar worker is a member of the working class who typically performs manual labor and earns an hourly wage. Industrial and manual workers wear durable clothing that can be dirty, soiled, or even scrapped at work. A popular element of such clothes has been a light blue or navy blue work shirt and blue is also a popular color for work coveralls, the shirts and coveralls both typically made from denim.
At the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race on the Thames in London, dark blue is the color of the University of Oxford and light blue is the color of the University of Cambridge. Dark blue and light blue are also nicknames for students of these respective universities.[29]
Wrapping the spectrum into a color wheel[edit]
If the visible spectrum is wrapped to form a color wheel, blue (additive primary) appears midway between green and violet:
Visible spectrum wrapped to join cyan and magenta in an additive mixture of blue
See also[edit]
List of colors
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "W3C TR CSS3 Color Module, HTML4 color keywords". W3C. May 2003. Retrieved 2008-02-05.
Jump up ^ http://drawingblog.mycoloringland.com/blue-shades/
Jump up ^ The color displayed in the color box above matches the color called baby blue in the 1930 book by Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill; the color baby blue is displayed on page 93, Plate 35, Color Sample E2.
Jump up ^ Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 190; Color Sample of Baby Blue: Page 93 Plate 35 Color Sample E2
Jump up ^ Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 190
Jump up ^ Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 202. See color sample of powder blue, Page 95--Plate 36 Color Sample H2
Jump up ^ "X11 rgb.txt". Retrieved 2008-02-05.
Jump up ^ Waldman, Gary (2002). Introduction to light : the physics of light, vision, and color (Dover ed.). Mineola: Dover Publications. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-486-42118-6.
Jump up ^ The sRGB values are taken by converting the NCS color 2060-B using the “NCS Navigator” tool at the NCS website.
Jump up ^ web.Forret.com Color Conversion Tool set to color #0018A8 (Blue (Pantone)):
Jump up ^ Type the word "Blue" into the indicated window on the Pantone Color Finder and the color will appear. There are seven versions, all with the same color codes—C, EC, HC, M, PC, U, and UP.
Jump up ^ Pantone TPX Pantone Color Finder--Type the word "Blue" into the indicated window on the Pantone Color Finder and the color will appear. There are seven versions, all with the same color codes—C, EC, HC, M, PC, U, and UP.:
Jump up ^ web.forret.com Color Conversion Tool set to hex code #1F75FE (Blue (Crayola)):
Jump up ^ Gallego, Rosa; Sanz, Juan Carlos (2005). Guía de coloraciones (Gallego, Rosa; Sanz, Juan Carlos (2005). Guide to Colorations) Madrid: H. Blume. ISBN 84-89840-31-8
Jump up ^ web.forret.com Color Conversion Tool set to hex code #545AA7 (Liberty):
Jump up ^ Color sample #196 on the ISCC-NBS color list is the color sample that matches the color in the book by Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill--Color Sample of Liberty: Page 109 Plate 43 Color Sample C12
Jump up ^ Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 197; Color Sample of Liberty: Page 109 Plate 43 Color Sample C12
Jump up ^ Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 103; Color Sample of Navy blue: Page 131 Plate 40 Color Sample E11
Jump up ^ Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York: 1930 McGraw-Hill Page 199; Color Sample of Midnight: Page 103 Plate 40 Color Sample A8
Jump up ^ web.forret.com Color Conversion Tool set to hex code of color #4C516D (Independence):
Jump up ^ Maerz and Paul A Dictionary of Color New York:1930 McGraw-Hill Page 196; color sample of Independence: Page 117 Plate 47 Color Sample H12
Jump up ^ web.Forret.com Color Conversion Tool set to color #1D2951 (Space Cadet):
Jump up ^ Maerz, Aloys John and M. Rea Paul (1930) A Dictionary of Color, New York, McGraw-Hill, p. 205; color sample of Teal Blue: p. 101 Plate 39 Color Sample L6
Jump up ^ See the Grosshistoricher Weltatlas, 1965 edition (Other German historical atlases use these same colors.)
Jump up ^ "Gay.ru". Gay.ru. Retrieved 2009-04-14.
Jump up ^ The Cuckoo's Egg: Tracking a Spy Through the Maze of Computer Espionage, Clifford Stoll, 1989, ISBN 0-7434-1146-3
Jump up ^ Shatner, William (with Chris Kreski) Star Trek Memories New York:1993 HarperCollins
Jump up ^ "WHAT IS the meaning and origin of "blue blood"?". The Hindu. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
Jump up ^ The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Wordsworth Editions. 2001. p. 149.
[show]
v
t
e
Shades of blue
Air Force blue Air superiority blue Alice blue Azure Baby blue Bleu de France Blue Blue-gray Bondi blue Brandeis blue
Byzantine blue Cambridge Blue Carolina blue Celeste Cerulean Cobalt blue Columbia blue Cornflower blue Cyan Dark blue
Deep sky blue Denim Dodger blue Duke blue Egyptian blue Electric blue Eton blue Federal blue Glaucous Electric indigo
Indigo International Klein Blue Iris Light blue Majorelle Blue Marian blue Maya blue Medium blue Midnight blue Navy blue
Non-photo blue Oxford Blue Palatinate blue Periwinkle Persian blue Phthalo blue Powder blue Prussian blue Royal blue Sapphire
Sky blue Steel blue Teal Tiffany Blue True Blue Tufts Blue Turquoise UCLA Blue Ultramarine Violet-blue
Viridian Yale Blue YInMn Blue Zaffre
Related topics:
Ao (color)
St. Patrick's blue
Template:Shades of cyan
[show]
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Color classifications
Color
Index
Color systems,
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ANPA
Color charts
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Colour Index International (CI list of dyes)
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Federal Standard 595
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Neisseria gonorrhoeae
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Gram-stain of gonococcal urethritis. Note distribution in neutrophils and presence of both intracellular and extracellular bacteria. (CDC)
Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Proteobacteria
Class: Betaproteobacteria
Order: Neisseriales
Family: Neisseriaceae
Genus: Neisseria
Species: N. gonorrhoeae
Binomial name
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
(Zopf 1885) Trevisan 1885[1]
Synonyms
Micrococcus der Gonorrhoe Neisser 1879[2]
Gonococcus neisseri Lindau 1898
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, also known as gonococcus (singular), or gonococci (plural) is a species of gram-negative diplococci bacteria isolated by Albert Neisser in 1879.[3] It causes the sexually transmitted genitourinary infection gonorrhea[4] as well as other forms of gonococcal disease including disseminated gonococcemia, septic arthritis, and gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum.
It is oxidase positive, aerobic, and it survives within neutrophils.[4] To culture, it requires carbon dioxide supplementation and enriched agar (chocolate agar) with various antimicrobials (Thayer-Martin). It exhibits antigenic variation through recombination of its pili and surface proteins that interact with the immune system.[3]
Sexual transmission is possible through vaginal, anal, or oral sex.[5] Sexual transmission may be prevented through the use of barrier protection.[6] Perinatal transmission may occur during childbirth, and may be prevented by antibiotic treatment of the mother before birth and the application of antibiotic eye gel on the eyes of the newborn.[6] After an episode of gonococcal infection, infected persons do not develop immunity to future infections. Reinfection is possible due to N. gonorrhoeae's ability to evade the immune system by varying its surface proteins.[7]
N. gonorrhoeae can cause infection of the genitals, throat, and eyes.[7] Asymptomatic infection is common in males and females.[8][6][9] Untreated infection may spread to the rest of the body (disseminated gonorrhea infection), especially the joints (septic arthritis). Untreated infection in women may cause pelvic inflammatory disease and possible infertility due to the resulting scarring.[7] Diagnosis is through culture, gram stain, or PCR of a urine sample, urethral swab, or cervical swab.[10][11] Chlamydia co-testing and testing for other STI's is recommended due to high rates of coinfection.[10]
Due to resistance to penicillins, standard treatment is with the third generation cephalosporin ceftriaxone.[11] Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem due to N. gonnorhoeae's recombinant abilities.[12] There is currently no vaccine available for N. gonorrhoeae although efforts are underway to develop one.[13] Because it is possible to contract gonorrhea multiple times from the same partner (who may or may not be symptomatic) notification and treatment of sexual partners is recommended.[7][11]
Contents
[hide]
1 Microbiology
1.1 Culture and identification
1.2 Surface proteins
1.3 Antigenic variation
1.4 Survival of gonococci
2 Genome
2.1 Horizontal gene transfer
3 Transmission
4 Disease
4.1 Diagnosis
4.2 Prevention
4.3 Treatment
4.4 Antibiotic resistance
4.5 Vaccine
5 History
5.1 Name origin
5.2 Discovery
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Microbiology[edit]
Neisseria species are fastidious Gram-negative cocci that require nutrient supplementation to grow in laboratory cultures. Neisseria are facultatively intracellular and typically appear in pairs (diplococci), resembling the shape of coffee beans. Nesseria is non-spore forming, non-motile and an obligate aerobe (requires oxygen to grow). Of the 11 species of Neisseria that colonize humans, only two are pathogens. N. gonorrhoeae is the causative agent of gonorrhea (also called "the clap") and N. meningitidis is the causative agent of meningitis.
Culture and identification[edit]
Thayer-Martin Agar is selective for growth of Neisseria species. Further testing (oxidase, gram stain, carbohydrate utilization) is needed to differentiate N. gonorrhoeae from meningitidis
Carbohydrate utilization of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. N. gonorrhoeae will oxidise glucose, not maltose, sucrose, or lactose; N. meningitidis ferments glucose and maltose.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae is usually isolated on Thayer-Martin agar (or VPN) agar in an environment enriched with 3-7% carbon dioxide.[10] Thayer-Martin agar is a chocolate agar plate (heated blood agar) containing nutrients and antimicrobials (vancomycin, colistin, nystatin, and trimethoprim). This agar preparation facilitates the growth of Neisseria species while inhibiting the growth of contaminating bacteria and fungi. Martin Lewis and New York City are other types of selective chocolate agar commonly used for neisseria growth.[10] N. gonorrhoeae is oxidase positive (possessing cytochrome c oxidase) and catalase positive (able to convert hydrogen peroxide to oxygen).[10] When incubated with the carbohydrates lactose, maltose, sucrose, and glucose, N. gonorrhoeae will oxidize only the glucose.[10]
Surface proteins[edit]
On its surface, N. gonorrhoeae bears hair-like pili, surface proteins with various functions, and sugars called lipooligosaccharides. The pili mediate adherence, movement, and DNA exchange. The Opa proteins interact with the immune system, as do the Porins. Lipooligosaccharide (LOS) is an endotoxin that provokes an immune response. All are antigenic and all exhibit antigenic variation (see below). The pili exhibit the most variation. The pili, Opa proteins, porins, and even the LOS have mechanisms to inhibit the immune response, making asymptomatic infection possible.[14]
Dynamic polymeric protein filaments called type IV pili allow N. gonorrhoeae to adhere to and move along surfaces. To enter the host the bacteria uses the pili to adhere to and penetrate mucosal surfaces.[4] The pili are a necessary virulence factor for N. gonorrhoeae; without them, the bacteria is unable to cause infection.[7] To move, the bacteria uses the type IV pili like a grappling hook, extending and retracting it for movement. Pili extend and attach to a substrate that signals the pilus to retract, dragging the cell forward. The resulting movement is referred to as twitching motility.[15] N. gonorrhoeae is able to pull 100,000 times its own weight, and it has been claimed that the pili used to do so are the strongest biological motor known to date, exerting one nanonewton.[16] A set of ATPase proteins power the pulling actions of the type IV pilus: Pil F (extension) and Pil T (retraction).[17][18] The adhesive functions of the gonococcal pilus plays a role in microcolony aggregation and biofilm formation.
This illustration depicts a Gram-stain of a urethral exudate showing typical intracellular gram-negative diplococci, and pleomorphic extracellular gram-negative organisms, which is diagnostic for gonococcal urethritis.
Surface proteins called Opa proteins can be used to bind to receptors on immune cells and prevent an immune response. There are at least 12 Opa proteins and the many permutations of surface proteins make it more difficult for immune cells to recognize N. gonorrhoeae and mount a defense.[19]
Lipooligosaccharide (LOS) is a low-weight version of lipopolysaccharide present on the surfaces of most other gram negative bacteria. It is a sugar (saccharide) side chain attached to lipid A (thus "lipo-") in the outer membrane coating the cell wall of the bacteria. The root "oligo" refers to the fact that it is a few sugars shorter than the typical lipopolysaccharide.[4] As an endotoxin LOS provokes inflammation. The shedding of LOS by the bacteria is responsible for local injury in, for example, pelvic inflammatory disease.[4] Although its main function is as an endotoxin, LOS may disguise itself with host sialic acid and block initiation of the complement cascade.[4]
Antigenic variation[edit]
N. gonorrhoeae evades the immune system through a process called antigenic variation, in which the N. gonorrhoeae bacterium is able to recombine its genes and alter the antigenic determinants (sites where antibodies bind) such as the Opa proteins[20] and Type IV pili[21] that adorn its surface.[4] It is able to vary the composition of its pili, Opa proteins, and lipooligosaccharides (LOS); of these, the pili exhibit the most antigenic variation due to chromosomal rearrangement.[7][4] Every time the bacteria replicate they may switch multiple Opa proteins on or off through slipped-strand mispairing. That is, the bacteria introduces frameshift mutations that bring genes in or out of frame. The result is that different Opa genes are translated every time.[4] In addition to the ability to rearrange the genes it already has, it is also naturally competent to acquire new DNA, via its type IV pilus, specifically proteins Pil Q and Pil T.[22] These processes allow N. gonorrhoeae to acquire/spread new genes, disguise itself with different surface proteins, and prevent the development of immunological memory – an ability which has led to antibiotic resistance and has made vaccine development difficult.[23]
Survival of gonococci[edit]
After gonococci invade and transcytose the host epithelial cells they land in the submucosa, where neutrophils promptly consume them.[4] The pili and Opa proteins on the surface may interfere with phagocytosis,[7] but most gonococci end up in neutrophils. The exudates from infected individuals contain many neutrophils with ingested gonococci. Neutrophils release an oxidative burst of reactive oxygen species in their phagosomes in order to kill the gonococci.[24] However, a significant fraction of the gonococci can resist killing through the action of their catalase[4] which breaks down reactive oxygen species and are able to reproduce within the neutrophil phagosomes.
Stohl and Seifert showed that the bacterial RecA protein, which mediates repair of DNA damage, plays an important role in gonococcal survival.[25] Michod et al. have suggested that N. gonorrhoeae may replace DNA damaged in neutrophil phagosomes with DNA from neighboring gonococci.[26] The process in which recipient gonococci integrate DNA from neighboring gonococci into their genome is called transformation.
The growth of Neisseria gonorrhoeae colonies on New York City medium agar, a specialised and selective media for Gonococci
Genome[edit]
The genomes of several strains of N. gonorrhoeae have been sequenced. Most of them are about 2.1 Mb in size and encode 2,100 to 2,600 proteins (although most seem to be in the lower range).[27] For instance, strain NCCP11945 consists of one circular chromosome (2,232,025 bp) encoding 2,662 predicted ORFs and one plasmid (4,153 bp) encoding 12 predicted ORFs. The estimated coding density over the entire genome is 87%, and the average G+C content is 52.4%, values that are similar to those of strain FA1090. The NCCP11945 genome encodes 54 tRNAs and four copies of 16S-23S-5S rRNA operons.[28]
Horizontal gene transfer[edit]
In 2011, researchers at Northwestern University found evidence of a human DNA fragment in a Neisseria gonorrhoeae genome, the first example of horizontal gene transfer from humans to a bacterial pathogen.[29][30]
Transmission[edit]
N. gonorrhoeae may be transmitted through vaginal, oral, or anal sex; nonsexual transmission is unlikely in adult infection.[5] It can also be transmitted to the newborn during passage through the birth canal if the mother has untreated genitourinary infection. Given the high rate of asymptomatic infection, all pregnant women should be tested for gonorrhea infection.[5]
Traditionally, the bacteria was thought to move attached to spermatozoon, but this hypothesis did not explain female to male transmission of the disease. A recent study suggests that rather than "surf" on wiggling sperm, N. gonorrhoeae bacteria uses hairlike structures called pili to anchor onto proteins in the sperm and move through coital liquid.[31]
Disease[edit]
Main article: Gonorrhoea
Symptoms of infection with N. gonorrhoeae differ, depending on the site of infection. Note also that many infected men are asymptomatic and most infected females (50-80%) are asymptomatic.[8][14][5]
In symptomatic men, the primary symptom of genitourinary infection is urethritis – burning with urination (dysuria), increased urge to urinate, and a pus-like (purulent) discharge from the penis. The discharge may be foul smelling.[4] If untreated, scarring of the urethra may result in difficulty urinating. Infection may spread from the urethra in the penis to nearby structures including the testicles (epididymitis/orchitis), or to the prostate (prostatitis).[4][7][32] Men who have had a gonorrhea infection have a significantly increased risk of having prostate cancer.[33]
In symptomatic women, the primary symptoms of genitourinary infection are increased vaginal discharge, burning with urination (dysuria), increased urge to urinate, pain with intercourse, or menstrual abnormalities. Pelvic inflammatory disease results if N. gonorrhoeae ascends into the pelvic peritoneum (via the cervix, endometrium and fallopian tubes). The resulting inflammation and scarring of the fallopian tubes can lead to infertility and increased risk of ectopic pregnancy.[4] Pelvic inflammatory disease develops in 10 to 20% of the females infected with N. gonorrhoeae.[4]
N. gonorrhoeae may cause infection of the throat (pharyngitis) through oral sex. Infected persons may experience sore throat and swollen lymph nodes, or may be asymptomatic.[7][4]
N. gonorrhoeae may cause infection of the anus/rectum (proctitis) through anal sex. Infected persons may experience blood or a pus-like discharge, or may be asymptomatic.[7][4]
In perinatal infection, the primary manifestation is infection of the eye (neonatal conjunctivitis or ophthalmia neonatorum) when the newborn is exposed to N. gonorrhoeae in the birth canal. The eye infection can lead to corneal scarring or perforation, ultimately resulting in blindness. If the newborn is exposed during birth, conjunctivitis occurs within 2–5 days after birth and is severe.[4][34] Gonococcal ophthalmia neonatorum, once common in newborns, is prevented by the application of erythromycin (antibiotic) gel to the eyes of babies at birth as a public health measure. Silver nitrate is no longer used in the United States.[34][4]
Disseminated N. gonorrhoeae infections can occur in which gonococci enter the bloodstream, often spreading to the joints and causing a rash (dermatitis-arthritis syndrome).[4] Dermatitis-arthritis syndrome presents with joint pain (arthritis), tendon inflammation (tenosynovitis), and painless non-pruritic (non-itchy) dermatitis.[7] Disseminated infection and PID tend to begin after menses due to reflux during menses, facilitating spread.[4] Rarely, disseminated infection may cause infection of the meninges of the brain and spinal cord (meningitis) or infection of the heart valves (endocarditis).[4][34]
Diagnosis[edit]
Tests that use polymerase chain reaction (PCR, aka nucleic acid amplification) to identify genes unique to N. gonorrhoeae are recommended for screening and diagnosis of gonorrhea infection. These PCR-based tests require a sample of urine, urethral swabs, or cervical/vaginal swabs. Culture (growing colonies of bacteria in order to isolate and identify them) and gram-stain (staining of bacterial cell walls to reveal morphology) can also be used to detect the presence of N. gonorrhoeae in all specimen types except urine.[9][34]
If gram-negative, oxidase-positive diplococci are visualized on direct gram stain of urethral pus (male genital infection), no further testing is needed to establish the diagnosis of gonorrhea infection.[7][10] However, in the case of female infection direct gram stain of cervical swabs is not useful because the N. gonorrhoeae organisms are less concentrated in these samples. The chances of false positives are increased as gram-negative diplococci native to the normal vaginal flora cannot be distinguished from N. gonorrhoeae. Thus, cervical swabs must be cultured under the conditions described above. If oxidase positive, gram-negative diplococci are isolated from a culture of a cervical/vaginal swab specimen, then the diagnosis is made. Culture is especially useful for diagnosis of infections of the throat, recutum, eyes, blood, or joints – areas where PCR-based tests are not well established in all labs.[6][10] Culture is also useful for antimicrobial sensitivity testing, treatment failure, and epidemiological purposes (outbreaks, surveillance).[10]
In patients who may have disseminated gonococcal infection (DGI), all possible mucosal sites should be cultured (e.g., pharynx, cervix, urethra, rectum).[6] Three sets of blood cultures should also be obtained.[35] Synovial fluid should be collected in cases of septic arthritis.[6]
Patients should also be tested for other sexually transmitted infections including chlamydia, syphilis, and HIV. Studies have found co-infection with chlamydia ranging from 46 to 54% in young people with gonorrhea.[36][37] For this reason, gonorrhea and chlamydia testing are often combined.[9][11][4] Patients diagnosed with gonorrhea infection have a fivefold increase risk of HIV transmission.[38] Additionally, infected persons who are HIV positive are more likely to shed and transmit HIV to uninfected partners during an episode of gonorrhea.[39]
Prevention[edit]
Transmission can be reduced by using latex barriers (e.g. condoms or dental dams) during sex and by limiting sexual partners.[6] Condoms and dental dams should be used during oral and anal sex as well. Spermicides, vaginal foams, and douches are not effective for prevention of transmission.[4]
Treatment[edit]
Ceftriaxone (a third-generation cephalosporin) is the first line treatment.[40] Because co-infection with chlamydia is so common, people are often treated for both by combining ceftriaxone with azithromycin or doxycycline.[4] Azithromycin is preferred for additional coverage of resistant gonorrhea.[41][6] Sexual partners (defined by the CDC as sexual contact within the past 60 days)[11] should also be notified, tested, and treated.[6][40]
Antibiotic resistance[edit]
Antibiotic resistance in gonorrhea has been noted beginning in the 1940s. Gonorrhea was treated with penicillin, but doses had to be progressively increased in order to remain effective. By the 1970s, penicillin- and tetracycline-resistant gonorrhea emerged in the Pacific Basin. These resistant strains then spread to Hawaii, California, the rest of the United States, and Europe. Fluoroquinolones were the next line of defense, but soon resistance to this antibiotic emerged as well. Since 2007, standard treatment has been third-generation cephalosporins, such as ceftriaxone, which are considered to be our "last line of defense".[42][43]
Recently, a high-level ceftriaxone-resistant strain of gonorrhea called H041 was discovered in Japan. Lab tests found it to be resistant to high concentrations of ceftriaxone, as well as most of the other antibiotics tested. Within N. gonorrhoeae, there are genes that confer resistance to every single antibiotic used to cure gonorrhea, but thus far they do not coexist within a single gonococcus. However, because of N. gonorrhoeae's high affinity for horizontal gene transfer, antibiotic-resistant gonorrhea is seen as an emerging public health threat.[43]
Vaccine[edit]
Due to the relative frequency of infection and the rapid evolution of antibiotic resistance in strains of N. gonorrhoeae, vaccines are thought to be an important goal in the prevention of infection. Development of a vaccine has been complicated by the ongoing evolution of resistant strains and antigenic variation (the ability of N. gonorrhoeae to disguise itself with different surface markers to evade the immune system).[44]
History[edit]
Name origin[edit]
Neisseria gonnorhoeae is named for Albert Neisser who isolated it as the causative agent of the disease gonorrhea in 1978.[45][3] Galen (130 AD) coined the term "gonorrhea" from the Greek gonos which means "seed" and rhoe which means "flow".[46][47] Thus gonorrhea means "flow of seed", a description referring to the white penile discharge, assumed to be semen, seen in male infection.[45]
Discovery[edit]
In 1878 Albert Neisser isolated and visualized N. gonorrhoeae diplococci in samples of pus from 35 men and women with the classic symptoms of genitourinary infection with gonorrhea – two of whom also had infections of the eyes.[48] In 1882, Leistikow and Loeffler were able to grow the organism in culture.[45] Then in 1883 Max Bockhart proved conclusively that the bacterium isolated by Albert Neisser was the causative agent of the disease known as gonorrhea by inoculating the penis of a healthy man with the bacteria.[48] The man developed the classic symptoms of gonorrhea days after – satisfying the last of Koch's postulates. Until this point researchers debated whether syphilis and gonorrhea were manifestations of the same disease or two distinct entities.[49][48][47] One such 18th century researcher, John Hunter, tried to settle the debate in 1767[47] by inoculating a man with pus from a patient with gonorrhea. He erroneously concluded that both disease were indeed the same when the man developed the copper-colored rash classic syphilis, respectively.[50][49] Although many sources repeat that Hunter inoculated himself,[50][45] others have argued that it was in fact another man.[51] After Hunter's experiment other scientists sought to disprove his conclusions by inoculating other male physicians, medical students,[45] and incarcerated men with gonorrheal pus, who all developed the burning and discharge of gonorrhea. One researcher, Ricord, took the initiative to perform 667 inoculations of gonorrheal pus on patients of a mental hospital, with zero cases of syphilis.[47][45] Notably, it was not until the advent of penicillin in the 1940s when effective treatments for gonorrhea were available.
See also[edit]
Neisseria meningitidis
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i https://www.cdc.gov/std/tg2015/clinical.htm section on prevention methods
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External links[edit]
Todar, Kenneth. "Pathogenic Neisseriae: Gonorrhea, Neonatal Ophthalmia and Meningococcal Meningitis". Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology.
Gonorrhea at eMedicine
"Neisseria gonorrhoeae". NCBI Taxonomy Browser. 485.
Type strain of Neisseria gonorrhoeae at BacDive – the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
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Admiral of the fleet of the Soviet Union
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Admiral of the fleet of the Soviet Union
(1955 – 1994)
Marshal's Star – big shoulder board
Rank insignia Soviet Armed Forces
Introduction 1955
Rank group Flag officer
Army Marshal of the Soviet Union
NATO
equivalent OF-10
An admiral of the fleet of the Soviet Union (Russian: адмирал флота Cоветского Cоюза, translit. admiral flota Sovietskogo Soyuza), was the highest naval rank of the Soviet Union. It was comparable to NATO five-star rank (OF-10 level).
Overview[edit]
The rank was largely honorary and could be considered equivalent to admiral of the fleet in other nations. It was formally established by the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union on March 3, 1955, and replaced a similarly named rank, admiral of the fleet (aдмирал флота) that had been equivalent to marshal of the Soviet Union since 1945. The holders were entitled to a marshal's star.
Upon its creation, the only two admirals of the fleet, Nikolai Kuznetsov and Ivan Isakov, were "promoted" to this rank. Less than a year later Kuznetsov was demoted to vice admiral for political reasons in 1956 and Isakov remained the only admiral of the fleet of the Soviet Union until his death in 1967. His successor, Admiral Sergei Gorshkov, then became the third and final admiral of the fleet of the Soviet Union. Gorshkov died in 1988 and no further appointments were made before the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.
From 1962 onwards, it was one grade higher than admiral of the fleet, which was recreated as an intermediate rank, equivalent to general of the army.
List of admirals of the fleet of the Soviet Union[edit]
Ivan Isakov (1894–1967); appointed March 3, 1955
Nikolai Kuznetsov (1904–74); appointed March 3, 1955; demoted February 17, 1956; restored posthumously July 26, 1988
Sergei Gorshkov (1910–88); appointed October 28, 1967
See also[edit]
Ranks and rank insignia of the Soviet Army 1943–1955, and ... 1955–1991
Marshal of the Soviet Union
Soviet military ranks
Junior rank
Admiral of the fleet
(ranks Soviet Navy)
Admiral of the fleet
of the Soviet Union
(Marshal of the Soviet Union)
Senior rank
Generalissimus of the Soviet Union

This Soviet Union–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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