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Order (biology)
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This article is about the taxonomic rank. For the sequence of species in a taxonomic list, see taxonomic order. For other uses, see Order.
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The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. A class contains one or more orders. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.
In biological classification, the order (Latin: ordo) is
a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, and species, with order fitting in between class and family. An immediately higher rank, superorder, may be added directly above order, while suborder would be a lower rank.
a taxonomic unit, a taxon, in that rank. In that case the plural is orders (Latin ordines).
Example: All owls belong to the order Strigiformes.
What does and does not belong to each order is determined by a taxonomist, as is whether a particular order should be recognized at all. Often there is no exact agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no hard rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing an order. Some taxa are accepted almost universally, while others are recognised only rarely.[1]
For some groups of organisms, consistent suffixes are used to denote that the rank is an order. The Latin suffix -(i)formes meaning "having the form of" is used for the scientific name of orders of birds and fishes, but not for those of mammals and invertebrates. The suffix -ales is for the name of orders of plants, fungi, and algae.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Hierarchy of ranks
1.1 Zoology
1.2 Botany
2 History of the concept
2.1 Botany
2.2 Zoology
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Hierarchy of ranks[edit]
Zoology[edit]
For some clades covered by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a number of additional classifications are sometimes used, although not all of these are officially recognised.
Name
Meaning of prefix
Example 1
Example 2
Magnorder magnus: large, great, important Boreoeutheria
Superorder super: above Euarchontoglires Parareptilia
Grandorder grand: large Euarchonta
Mirorder mirus: wonderful, strange Primatomorpha
Order Primates Procolophonomorpha
Suborder sub: under Haplorrhini Procolophonia
Infraorder infra: below Simiiformes Hallucicrania
Parvorder parvus: small, unimportant Catarrhini
In their 1997 classification of mammals, McKenna and Bell used two extra levels between superorder and order: "grandorder" and "mirorder".[3] Michael Novacek (1986) inserted them at the same position. Michael Benton (2005) inserted them between superorder and magnorder instead.[4] This position was adopted by Systema Naturae 2000 and others.
Botany[edit]
In botany, the ranks of subclass and suborder are secondary ranks pre-defined as respectively above and below the rank of order.[5] Any number of further ranks can be used as long as they are clearly defined.[5]
The superorder rank is commonly used, with the ending -anae that was initiated by Armen Takhtajan's publications from 1966 onwards.[6]
History of the concept[edit]
The order as a distinct rank of biological classification having its own distinctive name (and not just called a higher genus (genus summum)) was first introduced by the German botanist Augustus Quirinus Rivinus in his classification of plants that appeared in a series of treatises in the 1690s. Carl Linnaeus was the first to apply it consistently to the division of all three kingdoms of nature (minerals, plants, and animals) in his Systema Naturae (1735, 1st. Ed.).
Botany[edit]
Title page of the 1758 edition of Linnaeus's Systema Naturæ.[7]
For plants, Linnaeus' orders in the Systema Naturae and the Species Plantarum were strictly artificial, introduced to subdivide the artificial classes into more comprehensible smaller groups. When the word ordo was first consistently used for natural units of plants, in 19th century works such as the Prodromus of de Candolle and the Genera Plantarum of Bentham & Hooker, it indicated taxa that are now given the rank of family (see ordo naturalis, natural order).
In French botanical publications, from Michel Adanson's Familles naturelles des plantes (1763) and until the end of the 19th century, the word famille (plural: familles) was used as a French equivalent for this Latin ordo. This equivalence was explicitly stated in the Alphonse De Candolle's Lois de la nomenclature botanique (1868), the precursor of the currently used International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants.
In the first international Rules of botanical nomenclature from the International Botanical Congress of 1905, the word family (familia) was assigned to the rank indicated by the French "famille", while order (ordo) was reserved for a higher rank, for what in the 19th century had often been named a cohors[8] (plural cohortes).
Some of the plant families still retain the names of Linnaean "natural orders" or even the names of pre-Linnaean natural groups recognised by Linnaeus as orders in his natural classification (e.g. Palmae or Labiatae). Such names are known as descriptive family names.
Zoology[edit]
In zoology, the Linnaean orders were used more consistently. That is, the orders in the zoology part of the Systema Naturae refer to natural groups. Some of his ordinal names are still in use (e.g. Lepidoptera for the order of moths and butterflies, or Diptera for the order of flies, mosquitoes, midges, and gnats).[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Biology portal
Biological classification
Cladistics
Phylogenetics
Rank (botany)
Rank (zoology)
Systematics
Taxonomy
Virus classification
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Tobin, Allan J.; Dusheck, Jennie (2005). Asking About Life. Boston: Cengage Learning. pp. 403–408. ISBN 978-0-030-27044-4.
Jump up ^ (McNeill et al. 2012 & Article 17.1)
Jump up ^ McKenna, M.C. & Bell, S.G. (1997), Classification of Mammals, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-11013-6
Jump up ^ Benton, Michael J. (2005). Vertebrate Palaeontology (3rd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-63205-637-8.
^ Jump up to: a b (McNeill et al. 2012 & Article 4)
Jump up ^ Naik, V.N. (1984), Taxonomy of Angiosperms, Tata McGraw-Hill, p. 111, ISBN 9780074517888 CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin) (10th ed.). Stockholm: Laurentius Salvius.
Jump up ^ Briquet, J. (1912). Règles internationales de la nomenclature botanique adoptées par le congrès international de botanique de Vienne 1905, deuxième edition mise au point d'après les décisions du congrès international de botanique de Bruxelles 1910; International rules of botanical nomenclature adopted by the International Botanical Congresses of Vienna 1905 and Brussels 1910; Internationale Regeln der botanischen Nomenclatur angenommen von den Internationalen Botanischen Kongressen zu Wien 1905 und Brüssel 1910. Jena: Gustav Fischer. Page 1.
References[edit]
McNeill, J.; Barrie, F.R.; Buck, W.R.; Demoulin, V.; Greuter, W.; Hawksworth, D.L.; Herendeen, P.S.; Knapp, S.; Marhold, K.; Prado, J.; Prud'homme Van Reine, W.F.; Smith, G.F.; Wiersema, J.H.; Turland, N.J. (2012). International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth International Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July 2011. Regnum Vegetabile 154. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag KG. ISBN 978-3-87429-425-6.
[hide]
v
t
e
Taxonomic ranks
Domain/Superkingdom
Kingdom
Subkingdom
Infrakingdom/Branch
Superphylum/Superdivision
Phylum/Division
Subphylum
Infraphylum
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Superclass
Class
Subclass
Infraclass
Parvclass
Legion
Cohort
Magnorder
Superorder
Order
Suborder
Infraorder
Parvorder
Section (zoo.)
Superfamily
Family
Subfamily
Supertribe
Tribe
Subtribe
Genus
Subgenus
Section (bot.)
Series (bot.)
Species
Subspecies
Variety
Form
Authority control
GND: 4302971-1
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Interphase
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Not to be confused with Interface (chemistry).
This article is about the phase in the cell cycle. For the video game, see Interphase (video game).
An illustration of interphase. The chromatin has not yet condensed, and the cell is undergoing its normal functions.
An image of the nucleus of a cell (HT1080) currently in interphase (likely G1). Note: Cytoplasm of this cell or the neighboring cell is not visible (top-left), which is currently in the telophase of mitosis. Image taken using an optical microscope and DAPI staining of DNA.
Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its life. During this phase, the cell copies its DNA in preparation for mitosis.[1] Interphase is the 'daily living' or metabolic phase of the cell, in which the cell obtains nutrients and metabolizes them, grows, reads its DNA, and conducts other "normal" cell functions.[1] The majority of eukaryotic cells spend most of their time in interphase. This phase was formerly called the resting phase. However, interphase does not describe a cell that is merely resting; rather, the cell is living, and preparing for later cell division, so the name was changed. A common misconception is that interphase is the first stage of mitosis. However, since mitosis is the division of the nucleus, prophase is actually the first stage.[2]
In interphase, the cell gets itself ready for mitosis or meiosis. Somatic cells, or normal diploid cells of the body, go through mitosis in order to reproduce themselves through cell division, whereas diploid germ cells (i.e., primary spermatocytes and primary oocytes) go through meiosis in order to create haploid gametes (i.e., sperm and ova) for the purpose of sexual reproduction. Chromosomes are copied.
Contents
[hide]
1 Stages of interphase
2 Interphase within sequences of cellular processes
2.1 Interphase and the cell cycle
2.2 Interphase and other cellular processes
3 See also
4 References
Stages of interphase[edit]
There are three stages of cellular interphase, with each phase ending when a cellular checkpoint checks the accuracy of the stage's completion before proceeding to the next. The stages of interphase are:
G1 (Gap 1), in which the cell grows and functions normally. During this time, a high amount of protein synthesis occurs and the cell grows (to about double its original size) – more organelles are produced and the volume of the cytoplasm increases. If the cell is not to divide again, it will enter G0.[3]
Synthesis (S), in which the cell duplicates its DNA (via semiconservative replication).
G2 (Gap 2), in which the cell resumes its growth in preparation for division. The mitochondria divide and the cell continues to grow until mitosis begins. In plants, chloroplasts also divide during G2.
In addition, some cells that do not divide often or ever, enter a stage called G0 (Gap zero), which is either a stage separate from interphase or an extended G1.
The duration of time spent in interphase and in each stage of interphase is variable and depends on both the type of cell and the species of organism it belongs to. Most cells of adult mammals spend about 20 hours in interphase; this accounts for about 90% of the total time involved in cell division.[4] Interphase includes G1, S, and G2 phases. Mitosis and cytokinesis, however, are separate from interphase.
Interphase within sequences of cellular processes[edit]
Interphase and the cell cycle[edit]
When G2 is completed, the cell enters a relatively brief period of nuclear and cellular division, composed of mitosis and cytokinesis, respectively. After the successful completion of mitosis and cytokinesis, both resulting daughter cells re-enter G1 of interphase.
In the cell cycle, interphase is preceded by telophase and cytokinesis of the M phase. In alternative fashion, interphase is sometimes interrupted by G0 phase, which, in some circumstances, may then end and be followed by the remaining stages of interphase. After the successful completion of the G2 checkpoint, the final checkpoint in interphase, the cell proceeds to prophase, or in plants to preprophase, which is the first stage of mitosis.
G0 phase is viewed as either an extended G1 phase where the cell is neither dividing nor preparing to divide and or as a distinct quiescent stage which occurs outside of the cell cycle.[5]
Interphase and other cellular processes[edit]
In gamete production interphase is succeeded by meiosis. In programmed cell death, interphase is followed or preempted by apoptosis.
See also[edit]
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Marieb, Elaine (2000), Essentials of human anatomy and physiology, San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, ISBN 0805349405
Jump up ^ The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Tutorial The Biology Project – Cell Biology. University of Arizona.
Jump up ^ Cummings, M. R. (2014). Human Heredity: Principles and Issues (10th ed., pp. 28-29). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Jump up ^ Mader, S. S. 2007. Biology 9th Ed. McGraw Hill Higher Education, Boston, MA, USA. ISBN 978-0-07-325839-3
Jump up ^ Re: Are the cells in the G0 (g zero) phase of mitosis really suspended? Erin Cram, Grad student, Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Berkeley. 1999. MadScience Network. Question ID 942142089.Cb.
[hide]
v
t
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Cell cycle proteins
Cyclin
A (A1, A2)
B (B1, B2, B3)
D (D1, D2, D3)
E (E1, E2)
CDK
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CDK-activating kinase
CDK inhibitor
INK4a/ARF (p14arf/p16, p15, p18, p19)
cip/kip (p21, p27, p57)
P53 p63 p73 family
p53
p63
p73
Other
Cdc2
Cdc25
Cdc42
Cellular apoptosis susceptibility protein
E2F
Maturation promoting factor
Wee
Cullin (CUL7)
Phases and
checkpoints
Interphase
G1 phase
S phase
G2 phase
M phase
Mitosis (Preprophase
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase)
Cytokinesis
Cell cycle checkpoints
Restriction point
Spindle checkpoint
Postreplication checkpoint
Other cellular phases
Apoptosis
G0 phase
Meiosis
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interphase&oldid=836776689"
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