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Article Three of the United States Constitution
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Article Three of the United States Constitution
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Article Three of the United States Constitution establishes the judicial branch of the federal government. The judicial branch comprises the Supreme Court of the United States and lower courts as created by Congress.
Contents
[hide]
1 Section 1: Federal courts
1.1 Number of courts
1.2 Tenure
1.3 Salaries
2 Section 2: Judicial power, jurisdiction, and trial by jury
2.1 Clause 1: Cases and controversies
2.2 Eleventh Amendment and state sovereign immunity
2.3 Clause 2: Original and appellate jurisdiction
2.4 Judicial review
2.5 Clause 3: Federal trials
3 Section 3: Treason
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Section 1: Federal courts[edit]
Section 1 vests the judicial power of the United States in federal courts, requires a supreme court, allows inferior courts, requires good behavior tenure for judges, and prohibits decreasing the salaries of judges.
The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.
Number of courts[edit]
Article III authorizes one Supreme Court, but does not set the number of justices that must be appointed to it. Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 refers to a Chief Justice (who shall preside over the impeachment trial of a President). The number of justices is fixed by statute at nine: the one chief justice, and eight associate justices.[1]
Proposals to divide the Supreme Court into separate panels have been made, but all have failed. Because all such proposals have failed, the Supreme Court has never ruled on the constitutionality of such a division. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote, "the Constitution does not appear to authorize two or more Supreme Courts functioning in effect as separate courts."
The Supreme Court is the only federal court that is explicitly mandated by the Constitution. During the Constitutional Convention, a proposal was made for the Supreme Court to be the only federal court, having both original jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction. This proposal was rejected in favor of the provision that exists today. Under this provision, the Congress may create inferior (i.e., lower) courts under both Article III, Section 1, and Article I, Section 8. The Article III courts, which are also known as "constitutional courts", were first created by the Judiciary Act of 1789. Article I courts, which are also known as "legislative courts", consist of regulatory agencies, such as the United States Tax Court. Article III courts are the only ones with judicial power, and so decisions of regulatory agencies remain subject to review by Article III courts. However, cases not requiring "judicial determination" may come before Article I courts. In the case of Murray's Lessee v. Hoboken Land & Improvement Co. 59 U.S. 272 (1855), the Supreme Court ruled that cases involving "a suit at the common law, or in equity, or admiralty" inherently involve judicial determination and must come before Article III courts. Other cases, such as bankruptcy cases, have been held not to involve judicial determination, and may therefore go before Article I courts. Similarly, several courts in the District of Columbia, which is under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress, are Article I courts rather than Article III courts. This article was expressly extended to the United States District Court for the District of Puerto Rico by the U.S. Congress through Federal Law 89-571, 80 Stat. 764, signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1966. This transformed the article IV United States territorial court in Puerto Rico, created in 1900, to an Article III federal judicial district court.
The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937—frequently called the court-packing plan,[2]— was a legislative initiative to add more justices to the Supreme Court proposed by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt shortly after his victory in the 1936 presidential election. Although the bill aimed generally to overhaul and modernize all of the federal court system, its central and most controversial provision would have granted the President power to appoint an additional Justice to the U.S. Supreme Court for every sitting member over the age of 70½, up to a maximum of six.
The Constitution is silent when it comes to judges of courts which have been abolished. The Judiciary Act of 1801 increased the number of courts to permit the Federalist President John Adams to appoint a number of Federalist judges before Thomas Jefferson took office. When Jefferson became President, the Congress abolished several of these courts and made no provision for the judges of those courts. Judicial Code of 1911 abolished "circuit riding" and transferred the circuit courts authority and jurisdiction to the district courts.
Tenure[edit]
The Constitution provides that judges "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior." The term "good behavior" is interpreted to mean that judges may serve for the remainder of their lives, although they may resign or retire voluntarily. A judge may also be removed by impeachment and conviction by congressional vote (hence the term good behavior); this has occurred fourteen times. Three other judges, Mark W. Delahay,[3] George W. English,[4] and Samuel B. Kent,[5] chose to resign rather than go through the impeachment process.
Salaries[edit]
The compensation of judges may not be decreased, but may be increased, during their continuance in office.
Section 2: Judicial power, jurisdiction, and trial by jury[edit]
Section 2 delineates federal judicial power, and brings that power into execution by conferring original jurisdiction and also appellate jurisdiction upon the Supreme Court. Additionally, this section requires trial by jury in all criminal cases, except impeachment cases.
The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;—to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;—to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;—to Controversies between two or more States;—between a State and Citizens of another State;—between Citizens of different States;—between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.
In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.
Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.
Clause 1: Cases and controversies[edit]
Main article: Case or Controversy Clause
Clause 1 of Section 2 authorizes the federal courts to hear actual cases and controversies only. Their judicial power does not extend to cases which are hypothetical, or which are proscribed due to standing, mootness, or ripeness issues. Generally, a case or controversy requires the presence of adverse parties who have a genuine interest at stake in the case. In Muskrat v. United States, 219 U.S. 346 (1911), the Supreme Court denied jurisdiction to cases brought under a statute permitting certain Native Americans to bring suit against the United States to determine the constitutionality of a law allocating tribal lands. Counsel for both sides were to be paid from the federal Treasury. The Supreme Court held that, though the United States was a defendant, the case in question was not an actual controversy; rather, the statute was merely devised to test the constitutionality of a certain type of legislation. Thus the Court's ruling would be nothing more than an advisory opinion; therefore, the court dismissed the suit for failing to present a "case or controversy."
A significant omission is that although Clause 1 provides that federal judicial power shall extend to "the laws of the United States," it does not also provide that it shall extend to the laws of the several or individual states. In turn, the Judiciary Act of 1789 and subsequent acts never granted the U.S. Supreme Court the power to review decisions of state supreme courts on pure issues of state law. It is this silence which tacitly made state supreme courts the final expositors of the common law in their respective states. They were free to diverge from English precedents and from each other on the vast majority of legal issues which had never been made part of federal law by the Constitution, and the U.S. Supreme Court could do nothing about that, as it would ultimately concede in Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins (1938). By way of contrast, other English-speaking federations like Australia and Canada never adopted the Erie doctrine. That is, their highest courts have always possessed plenary power to impose a uniform nationwide common law upon all lower courts and never adopted the strong American distinction between federal and state common law.
Eleventh Amendment and state sovereign immunity[edit]
Main articles: Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution and Sovereign immunity in the United States
In Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 U.S. 419 (1793), the Supreme Court ruled that Article III, Section 2 abrogated the States’ sovereign immunity and authorized federal courts to hear disputes between private citizens and States. This decision was overturned by the Eleventh Amendment, which was passed by the Congress on March 4, 1794 1 Stat. 402 and ratified by the states on February 7, 1795. It prohibits the federal courts from hearing any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.[6]
Clause 2: Original and appellate jurisdiction[edit]
See also: Jurisdiction stripping
Clause 2 of Section 2 provides that the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases affecting ambassadors, ministers and consuls, and also in those controversies which are subject to federal judicial power because at least one state is a party; the Court has held that the latter requirement is met if the United States has a controversy with a state.[7][8] In other cases, the Supreme Court has only appellate jurisdiction, which may be regulated by the Congress. The Congress may not, however, amend the Court's original jurisdiction, as was found in Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (Cranch 1) 137 (1803) (the same decision which established the principle of judicial review). Marbury held that Congress can neither expand nor restrict the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. However, the appellate jurisdiction of the Court is different. The Court's appellate jurisdiction is given "with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make."
Often a court will assert a modest degree of power over a case for the threshold purpose of determining whether it has jurisdiction, and so the word "power" is not necessarily synonymous with the word "jurisdiction".[9][10]
Judicial review[edit]
Main articles: Judicial review and Judicial review in the United States
The power of the federal judiciary to review the constitutionality of a statute or treaty, or to review an administrative regulation for consistency with either a statute, a treaty, or the Constitution itself, is an implied power derived in part from Clause 2 of Section 2.[11]
Though the Constitution does not expressly provide that the federal judiciary has the power of judicial review, many of the Constitution's Framers viewed such a power as an appropriate power for the federal judiciary to possess. In Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton wrote,
The interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts. A constitution, is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the constitution ought to be preferred to the statute, the intention of the people to the intention of their agents.[12]
Others, however, disagreed, claiming that each branch could determine for itself the constitutionality of its actions.
A continuation of the text of Federalist No. 78 by Hamilton [below] counterbalances the tone of "judicial supremacists" who demand that both Congress and the Executive are compelled by the Constitution to enforce all court decisions, including those that, in their eyes, or those of the People, violate fundamental American principles.
Nor does this conclusion by any means suppose a superiority of the judicial to the legislative power. It only supposes that the power of the people is superior to both; and that where the will of the legislature, declared in its statutes, stands in opposition to that of the people, declared in the Constitution, the judges ought to be governed by the latter rather than the former. They ought to regulate their decisions by the fundamental laws, rather than by those which are not fundamental.[12] [emphasis added]
Hamilton continues. . .
It can be of no weight to say that the courts, on the pretense of a repugnancy, may substitute their own pleasure to the constitutional intentions of the legislature. This might as well happen in the case of two contradictory statutes; or it might as well happen in every adjudication upon any single statute. The courts must declare the sense of the law; and if they should be disposed to exercise WILL instead of JUDGMENT, the consequence would equally be the substitution of their pleasure to that of the legislative body. The observation, if it prove any thing, would prove that there ought to be no judges distinct from that body.[12] [emphasis added]
Marbury v. Madison involved a highly partisan set of circumstances. Though Congressional elections were held in November 1800, the newly elected officers did not take power until March. The Federalist Party had lost the elections. In the words of President Thomas Jefferson, the Federalists "retired into the judiciary as a stronghold". In the four months following the elections, the outgoing Congress created several new judgeships, which were filled by President John Adams. In the last-minute rush, however, Federalist Secretary of State John Marshall had neglected to deliver 17 of the commissions to their respective appointees. When James Madison took office as Secretary of State, several commissions remained undelivered. Bringing their claims under the Judiciary Act of 1789, the appointees, including William Marbury, petitioned the Supreme Court for the issue of a writ of mandamus, which in English law had been used to force public officials to fulfill their ministerial duties. Here, Madison would be required to deliver the commissions.
Secretary of State James Madison, who won Marbury v. Madison, but lost Judicial review.
Marbury posed a difficult problem for the court, which was then led by Chief Justice John Marshall, the same person who had neglected to deliver the commissions when he was the Secretary of State. If Marshall's court commanded James Madison to deliver the commissions, Madison might ignore the order, thereby indicating the weakness of the court. Similarly, if the court denied William Marbury's request, the court would be seen as weak. Marshall held that appointee Marbury was indeed entitled to his commission. However, Justice Marshall contended that the Judiciary Act of 1789 was unconstitutional, since it purported to grant original jurisdiction to the Supreme Court in cases not involving the States or ambassadors[citation needed]. The ruling thereby established that the federal courts could exercise judicial review over the actions of Congress or the executive branch.
However, Alexander Hamilton, in Federalist No. 78, expressed the view that the Courts hold only the power of words, and not the power of compulsion upon those other two branches of government, upon which the Supreme Court is itself dependent. Then in 1820, Thomas Jefferson expressed his deep reservations about the doctrine of judicial review:
You seem ... to consider the judges as the ultimate arbiters of all constitutional questions; a very dangerous doctrine indeed, and one which would place us under the despotism of an oligarchy. Our judges are as honest as other men, and not more so. They have, with others, the same passions for party, for power, and the privilege of their corps.... Their power [is] the more dangerous as they are in office for life, and not responsible, as the other functionaries are, to the elective control. The Constitution has erected no such single tribunal, knowing that to whatever hands confided, with the corruptions of time and party, its members would become despots. It has more wisely made all the departments co-equal and co-sovereign within themselves.[13]
Clause 3: Federal trials[edit]
A nineteenth-century painting of a jury.
Clause 3 of Section 2 provides that Federal crimes, except impeachment cases, must be tried before a jury, unless the defendant waives his right. Also, the trial must be held in the state where the crime was committed. If the crime was not committed in any particular state, then the trial is held in such a place as set forth by the Congress. The United States Senate has the sole power to try impeachment cases.[14]
Two of the Constitutional Amendments that comprise the Bill of Rights contain related provisions. The Sixth Amendment enumerates the rights of individuals when facing criminal prosecution and the Seventh Amendment establishes an individual's right to a jury trial in certain civil cases. It also inhibits courts from overturning a jury's findings of fact. The Supreme Court has extended the protections of these amendments to individuals facing trial in state courts through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Section 3: Treason[edit]
Main article: Treason laws in the United States
Iva Toguri, known as Tokyo Rose, and Tomoya Kawakita were two Japanese Americans who were tried for treason after World War II.
Section 3 defines treason and its punishment.
Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.
The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.
The Constitution defines treason as specific acts, namely "levying War against [the United States], or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort." A contrast is therefore maintained with the English law, whereby crimes including conspiring to kill the King or "violating" the Queen, were punishable as treason. In Ex Parte Bollman, 8 U.S. 75 (1807), the Supreme Court ruled that "there must be an actual assembling of men, for the treasonable purpose, to constitute a levying of war."[15]
Under English law effective during the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, including the Treason Act 1351, there were essentially five species of treason.[citation needed] Of the five, the Constitution adopted only two: levying war and adhering to enemies. Omitted were species of treason involving encompassing (or imagining) the death of the king, certain types of counterfeiting, and finally fornication with women in the royal family of the sort which could call into question the parentage of royal successors. James Wilson wrote the original draft of this section, and he was involved as a defense attorney for some accused of treason against the Patriot cause.
Section 3 also requires the testimony of two different witnesses on the same overt act, or a confession by the accused in open court, to convict for treason. This rule was derived from an older English statute, the Treason Act 1695.[16]
In Cramer v. United States, 325 U.S. 1 (1945), the Supreme Court ruled that "[e]very act, movement, deed, and word of the defendant charged to constitute treason must be supported by the testimony of two witnesses."[17] In Haupt v. United States, 330 U.S. 631 (1947), however, the Supreme Court found that two witnesses are not required to prove intent, nor are two witnesses required to prove that an overt act is treasonable. The two witnesses, according to the decision, are required to prove only that the overt act occurred (eyewitnesses and federal agents investigating the crime, for example).
Punishment for treason may not "work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person" so convicted. The descendants of someone convicted for treason could not, as they were under English law, be considered "tainted" by the treason of their ancestor. Furthermore, Congress may confiscate the property of traitors, but that property must be inheritable at the death of the person convicted.
In Federalist No. 43 James Madison wrote regarding the Treason Clause:
As treason may be committed against the United States, the authority of the United States ought to be enabled to punish it. But as new-fangled and artificial treasons have been the great engines by which violent factions, the natural offspring of free government, have usually wreaked their alternate malignity on each other, the convention have, with great judgment, opposed a barrier to this peculiar danger, by inserting a constitutional definition of the crime, fixing the proof necessary for conviction of it, and restraining the Congress, even in punishing it, from extending the consequences of guilt beyond the person of its author.
Based on the above quotation, it was noted by the lawyer William J. Olson in an amicus curiae in the case Hedges v. Obama that the Treason Clause was one of the enumerated powers of the federal government.[18] He also stated that by defining treason in the U.S. Constitution and placing it in Article III "the founders intended the power to be checked by the judiciary, ruling out trials by military commissions. As James Madison noted, the Treason Clause also was designed to limit the power of the federal government to punish its citizens for “adhering to [the] enemies [of the United States by], giving them aid and comfort.”"[18]
See also[edit]
United States constitutional criminal procedure
References[edit]
Jump up ^ 28 U.S.C. § 1
Jump up ^ Epstein, Lee; Walker, Thomas G. (2007). Constitutional Law for a Changing America: Institutional Powers and Constraints (6th ed.). Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. ISBN 978-1-933116-81-5., at 451.
Jump up ^ "Judges of the United States Courts – Delahay, Mark W". Federal Judicial Center. n.d. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
Jump up ^ staff (n.d.). "Judges of the United States Courts – English, George Washington". Federal Judicial Center. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
Jump up ^ "Judges of the United States Courts – Kent, Samuel B". Federal Judicial Center. n.d. Retrieved 2009-07-02.
Jump up ^ "Annotation 1 – Eleventh Amendment – State Immunity". FindLaw. Retrieved May 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ United States v. Texas, 143 U.S. 621 (1892). A factor in United States v. Texas was that there had been an "act of congress requiring the institution of this suit". With a few narrow exceptions, courts have held that Congress controls access to the courts by the United States and its agencies and officials. See, e.g., Newport News Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Co., 514 U.S. 122 ("Agencies do not automatically have standing to sue for actions that frustrate the purposes of their statutes"). Also see United States v. Mattson, 600 F. 2d 1295 (9th Cir. 1979).
Jump up ^ Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. 264 (1821): "[T]he original jurisdiction of the Supreme court, in cases where a state is a party, refers to those cases in which, according to the grant of power made in the preceding clause, jurisdiction might be exercised, in consequence of the character of the party."
Jump up ^ Cover, Robert. Narrative, Violence and the Law (U. Mich. 1995): "Every denial of jurisdiction on the part of a court is an assertion of the power to determine jurisdiction...."
Jump up ^ Di Trolio, Stefania. "Undermining and Unintwining: The Right to a Jury Trial and Rule 12(b)(1) Archived July 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.", Seton Hall Law Review, Volume 33, page 1247, text accompanying note 82 (2003).
Jump up ^ "The Establishment of Judicial Review". Findlaw.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Federalist Papers : No. 78". Archived from the original on 29 October 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-28.
Jump up ^ Jefferson, Thomas. The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Letter to William Jarvis (September 28, 1820).
Jump up ^ U.S. Constitution, Art. I, sec. 3
Jump up ^ Bollman, at 126
Jump up ^ This rule was abolished in the United Kingdom in 1945.
Jump up ^ Cramer, at 34
^ Jump up to: a b Olson, William J. (16 April 2012). "Case 1:12-cv-00331-KBF Document 29-2 Filed 04/16/12 AMICUS CURIAE BRIEF OF VIRGINIA STATE DELEGATE BOB MARSHALL, VIRGINIA STATE SENATOR DICK BLACK, DOWNSIZE DC FOUNDATION, DOWNSIZEDC.ORG, INC., U.S. JUSTICE FOUNDATION, INSTITUTE ON THE CONSTITUTION, GUN OWNERS FOUNDATION, GUN OWNERS OF AMERICA, INC., THE LINCOLN INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH AND EDUCATION, THE WESTERN CENTER FOR JOURNALISM, CONSERVATIVE LEGAL DEFENSE AND EDUCATION FUND, U.S. BORDER CONTROL, RESTORING LIBERTY ACTION COMMITTEE, TENTH AMENDMENT CENTER, CENTER FOR MEDIA AND DEMOCRACY, BILL OF RIGHTS DEFENSE COMMITTEE, PASTOR CHUCK BALDWIN, PROFESSOR JEROME AUMENTE, AND THE CONSTITUTION PARTY NATIONAL COMMITTEE IN SUPPORT OF PLAINTIFFS" (PDF). Friedman, Harfenist, Kraut & Perlstein, PPC. lawandfreedom.com. pp. 15–16.
Bibliography[edit]
Irons, Peter. (1999). A People's History of the Supreme Court. New York: Penguin.
This article incorporates material from Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937.
External links[edit]
Kenneth R. Thomas and Larry M. Eig (Eds). (2014). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation., gpo.gov
CRS Annotated Constitution: Article 3, law.cornell.edu
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text:
List of territorial entities where English is an official language
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nations in which English is an official language (de facto or de jure). Anglosphere countries are those where English is the main native language.
Anglosphere
Official as majority language
Official as minority language
Co-official as majority language
Co-official as minority language
Unofficial[clarification needed]
Not official as majority language
Not official as minority language
All areas of the world that were ever part of the British Empire. Current British Overseas Territories have their names underlined in red.
The following is a list of territories where English is an official language, that is, a language used in citizen interactions with government officials. In 2015, there were 54 sovereign states and 27 non-sovereign entities where English was an official language. Many country subdivisions have declared English an official language at the local or regional level.
The majority of states where English is an official language are former territories of the British Empire. Notable exceptions include Rwanda, which was formerly a Belgian territory, Cameroon, where only part of national territory were under British mandate, and Liberia, the Philippines, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, which were under American rule. English is the sole official language of the Commonwealth of Nations and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, NAFTA, African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Caribbean Community, Union of South American Nations and many other international organizations. Although English is de jure not an official language at the national level in the United States, most states and territories within the United States have English as an official language. Only Puerto Rico uses a language other than English as a primary working language.
The United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand, where the overwhelming majority of native English speakers reside, do not have English as an official language de jure, but English is considered to be their de facto official language due to its dominant position in these countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 Sovereign states
2 Non-sovereign entities
3 Country subdivisions
4 See also
5 Footnotes
6 References
Sovereign states[edit]
Countries where English is a de jure official language
Country
Region
Population1
Primary language?
Antigua and Barbuda[1] Caribbean 85,000 Yes
Bahamas[1] Caribbean 331,000 Yes
Barbados[2] Caribbean 294,000 Yes
Belize[3] Central America 288,000 Yes
Botswana[3] Africa 1,882,000 No
Burundi[4] Africa 10,114,505 No
Cameroon[1] Africa 22,534,532 No
Canada[1] North America 35,985,751 Yes
Cook Islands14[1] Oceania 20,000 Yes
Dominica[1] Caribbean 73,000 Yes
Federated States of Micronesia[1] Oceania 110,000 No
Fiji[1] Oceania 828,000 No
Gambia[1] Africa 1,709,000 No
Ghana[1] Africa 27,000,000 Yes (used as lingua franca)
Grenada[1] Caribbean 106,000 Yes
Guyana[5] South America 738,000 Yes
India[3][6] Asia 1,247,540,000 No (but official and educational)
Ireland[7][8] Europe 4,581,000 Yes (Irish is first official language)
Jamaica[9] Caribbean 2,714,000 Yes
Kenya[1] Africa 45,010,056 Yes (used in business and education)
Kiribati[1] Oceania 95,000 No
Lesotho[1] Africa 2,008,000 No
Liberia[1] Africa 3,750,000 No (Majority of people speaks English)
Malawi[10] Africa 16,407,000 No
Malta[1] Europe 430,000 No (but official and educational)
Marshall Islands[1] Oceania 59,000 No
Mauritius[1] Africa / Indian Ocean 1,262,000 No
Namibia[1] Africa 2,074,000 No (used as lingua franca)
Nauru[11] Oceania 10,000 No
Nigeria[1][12] Africa 182,202,000 Yes (used as lingua franca)
Niue14[1] Oceania 1,600 No
Pakistan[1] Asia 199,085,847 No (but official and educational)
Palau[3] Oceania 20,000 No
Papua New Guinea[13][14] Oceania 7,059,653 No
Philippines[1][15] Asia 102,885,100 No (but official and educational)
Rwanda[1] Africa 11,262,564 No (but official and educational)
Saint Kitts and Nevis[16] Caribbean 50,000 Yes
Saint Lucia[1] Caribbean 165,000 Yes
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines[17] Caribbean 120,000 Yes
Samoa[18] Oceania 188,000 No
Seychelles[1] Africa / Indian Ocean 87,000 No
Sierra Leone[1] Africa 6,190,280 Yes
Singapore[19] Asia 5,469,700[20] No (but official and educational)
Solomon Islands[1] Oceania 507,000 No
South Africa[21] Africa 54,956,900 No (but official, educated and
lingua franca in formal economy )
South Sudan[22] Africa 12,340,000 No
Sudan[1] Africa 40,235,000 No
Swaziland[1] Africa 1,141,000 No
Tanzania[1] Africa 51,820,000 No
Tonga[23] Oceania 100,000 No
Trinidad and Tobago[1] Caribbean 1,333,000 Yes
Tuvalu[3] Oceania 11,000 No
Uganda[1] Africa 37,873,253 No (official and educated)[24]
Vanuatu[25] Oceania 226,000 No
Zambia[1] Africa 16,212,000 No
Zimbabwe[1] Africa 13,061,239 No (used as lingua franca)
Countries where English is a de facto official language
Country
Region
Population
Primary language?
Australia Oceania 23,520,000 Yes
New Zealand[26] Oceania 4,294,000 Yes
United Kingdom Europe 63,705,000 Yes
United States North America 318,224,000 Yes
Countries where English is a de facto official, but not primary language
Country
Region
Population1
Bahrain[27][28] Asia / Middle East 1,378,000
Bangladesh[29] Asia 150,039,000
Brunei[30][31] Asia 415,717
Cyprus[32] Europe 1,141,166
Eritrea[1] Africa 6,234,000
Ethiopia[1] Africa 85,000,000
Israel[33][34][35] Asia / Middle East 8,051,200
Jordan[36] Asia / Middle East 9,882,401
Kuwait[37] Asia / Middle East 4,348,395
Malaysia[38] Asia 30,018,242
Maldives[39] Asia 427,756
Myanmar Asia 51,486,253
Qatar[40] Asia / Middle East 2,675,522
Sri Lanka[41][42] Asia 20,277,597
United Arab Emirates[43] Asia / Middle East 5,779,760
Non-sovereign entities[edit]
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de jure official language
Entity
Region
Population1
Akrotiri and Dhekelia Europe 15,700
American Samoa11 Oceania 67,700
Anguilla[1] Caribbean 13,101
Bermuda9[1] North America 65,000
British Virgin Islands[1] Caribbean 23,000
Cayman Islands[3] Caribbean 47,000
Curacao[44] Caribbean 150,563
Falkland Islands South Atlantic 3,000
Gibraltar[1] Europe 29,257
Guam4 Oceania 173,000
Hong Kong2[1] Asia 7,097,600
Isle of Man8 Europe 80,058
Jersey6[1] Europe 89,300
Norfolk Island[1] Australia 1,828
Northern Mariana Islands7 Oceania 53,883
Pitcairn Islands13[1] Oceania 50
Puerto Rico3 Caribbean 3,991,000
Sint Maarten[45] Caribbean 40,900
Turks and Caicos Islands[1] Caribbean 26,000
U.S. Virgin Islands5 Caribbean 111,000
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official language
Entity
Region
Population1
British Indian Ocean Territory Indian Ocean 3,000
Guernsey10 Europe 61,811
Montserrat[1] Caribbean 5,900
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha[3] South Atlantic 5,660
Non-sovereign entities where English is a de facto official, but not primary, language
Entity
Region
Population1
Christmas Island12[1] Australia 1,508
Cocos (Keeling) Islands[1] Australia 596
Tokelau[46] Oceania 1,400
Country subdivisions[edit]
In these country subdivisions, English has de jure official status, but English is not official in their respective countries at the national level.
Country subdivisions where English is a de jure official language
Subdivision
Country
Region
Population
Alabama[47] United States North America 4,833,722
Alaska[48] United States North America 735,132
Arizona[49] United States North America 6,626,624
Arkansas[47] United States North America 2,959,373
California[47] United States North America 38,332,521
Colorado[47] United States North America 5,268,367
Florida[47] United States North America 19,552,860
Georgia[47] United States North America 9,992,167
Hawaii[47] United States Oceania 1,404,054
Idaho[47] United States North America 1,612,136
Illinois[47] United States North America 12,882,135
Indiana[47] United States North America 6,570,902
Iowa[47] United States North America 3,090,416
Kansas[47] United States North America 2,893,957
Kentucky[47] United States North America 4,395,295
Louisiana[50] United States North America 4,670,724
Massachusetts[50] United States North America 6,794,422
Mississippi[47] United States North America 2,991,207
Missouri[47] United States North America 6,083,672
Montana[47] United States North America 1,015,165
Nebraska[47] United States North America 1,868,516
New Hampshire[47] United States North America 1,323,459
North Carolina[47] United States North America 9,848,060
North Dakota[47] United States North America 723,393
Northern Ireland United Kingdom Europe
Oklahoma[51] United States North America 3,850,568
Saba[52] Netherlands Caribbean 1,991
San Andrés y Providencia[53] Colombia South America 75,167
Sarawak[54][55][56] Malaysia Asia 2,471,140
Scotland[57] United Kingdom Europe 5,313,600
Sint Eustatius[52] Netherlands Caribbean 3,897
South Carolina[47] United States North America 4,774,839
South Dakota[47] United States North America 844,877
Tennessee[47] United States North America 6,495,978
Texas[47] United States North America 27,469,114
Utah[47] United States North America 2,900,872
Virginia[47] United States North America 8,260,405
Wales[58] United Kingdom Europe 3,063,456
West Virginia[59] United States North America 1,844,128
Wyoming[47] United States North America 582,658
See also[edit]
Commonwealth realms portal
British Empire portal
Anglo-America
Commonwealth of Nations
British Overseas Territories
English-speaking world
List of countries by English-speaking population
British Empire
Footnotes[edit]
^1 The population figures are based on the sources in List of countries by population, with information as of 23 January 2009 (UN estimates, et al.), and refer to the population of the country and not necessarily to the number of inhabitants that speak English in the country in question.
^2 Hong Kong is a former British Crown colony (1843-1981) and British Dependent Territory (1981-1997); it is currently a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (1997- present)
^3 Puerto Rico is, historically and culturally, connected to the Spanish-speaking Caribbean; Spanish is also an official language on the island. Puerto Rico is an unincorporated United States territory referred to as a "Commonwealth"
^4 Guam is an organized unincorporated territory of the United States
^5 The US Virgin Islands is an insular area of the United States
^6 Jersey is a British Crown dependency
^7 The Northern Mariana Islands is a commonwealth in political union with the United States
^8 Isle of Man is a British Crown dependency
^9 Bermuda is a British Overseas Territory
^10 Guernsey is a British Crown dependency
^11 American Samoa is an unincorporated U.S. territory
^12 Christmas Island is an external territory of Australia
^13 Pitcairn Islands is a British Overseas Territory
^14 The Cook Islands and Niue are associated states of New Zealand that lack general recognition.
^15 Somaliland is a de facto state, recognized internationally as an autonomous region of Somalia.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw Official language; "Field Listing - Languages". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2009-01-11.
Jump up ^ "Society". Government Information Service (Barbados). Archived from the original on 2009-02-13. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g English usage; "Field Listing - Languages". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2009-01-11.
Jump up ^ "English is now official language of Burundi". IWACU English News. 17 July 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "National Profile". Government Information Agency (Guyana). Archived from the original on 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ N. Krishnaswamy; Lalitha Krishnaswamy (6 January 2006). "3.14 English Becomes a Second Language". The story of English in India. Foundation Books. ISBN 978-81-7596-312-2.
Jump up ^ The Constitution
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-06. Retrieved 2013-01-02.
Jump up ^ The Constitution of Jamaica (section 20(6e) ? implicit)
Jump up ^ Malawi Investment Promotion Agency (August 2005). "Opportunities for investment and Trade in Malawi ? the Warm Heart of Africa". Government of Malawi. Archived from the original on 2009-02-25. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ "Nauru". New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. 2008-12-03. Retrieved 2009-01-18. English and Nauruan are official.
Jump up ^ "Country profile: Nigeria". BBC News. April 30, 2008. Retrieved November 10, 2008.
Jump up ^ "General Information on Papua New Guinea". Papua New Guinea Tourism Promotion Authority. Archived from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ "Country profile: Papua New Guinea". BBC News. 2008-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, Article XIV". Chanrobles Law Library. 1987. Retrieved October 27, 2007. (See Article XIV, Section 7)
Jump up ^ "Primary Schools". Government of St Christopher (St Kitts) and Nevis. Archived from the original on 2009-01-03. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ "St. Vincent and the Grenadines Profile". Agency for Public Information (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines). Archived from the original on 2010-11-12. Retrieved 2011-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Legislations: List of Acts and Ordinances". The Parliament of Samoa. Archived from the original on October 1, 2006. Retrieved 2009-01-18. Languages for official legislation are Samoan and English.
Jump up ^ Wong, Aline (2000-11-24). "Education in a Multicultural Setting - The Singapore Experience". Ministry of Education, Government of Singapore. Archived from the original on 2008-05-04. Retrieved 2009-01-18. There are four official languages: English, Chinese, Malay and Tamil.
Jump up ^ "Statistics Singapore - Latest Data - Population (Mid-Year Estimates)". Statistics Singapore. June 2014. Archived from the original on 5 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa". Constitutional Court of South Africa. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16. Retrieved 2009-01-11.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of Southern Sudan". Southern Sudan Civil Society Initiative. Retrieved 2011-07-09.
Jump up ^ Kingdom of Tonga (March 2008). "The United Nations / Universal Periodic Review by the United Nations Human Rights Council". Archived from the original on January 25, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-18. English and Tongan are listed as official.
Jump up ^ "East Africa Living Encyclopedia". The University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center.
Jump up ^ "Constitution of the Republic of Vanuatu". Government of the Republic of Vanuatu. 1980. Archived from the original on 2009-01-24. Retrieved 2009-01-18.
Jump up ^ New Zealand Government (21 December 2007). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand (PDF) (Report). p. 89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2015. In addition to the M?ori language, New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand. The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings, facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use. English, the medium for teaching and learning in most schools, is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use. For these reasons, these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum.
Jump up ^ "Bahrain: Languages". Britannica Online. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Living in Bahrain". BSB. Archived from the original on June 24, 2012. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "[T]eaching of English continued in primary, secondary and tertiary level not because it was the official language but it became thelanguage of trade and commerce. Over the years, the prominence of English continued to rise. ... English language is dominantly present in every side of our national life while on the other hand in our constitution it is clearly declared that the language of the country is Bengali. In fact, nothing is said about the status of English language in our constitution. On one hand, economic activities in the private companies are carried out in English while there is a government law (Bengali procholon ain1987) that government offices must use Bengali in their official works. So from the government point of view Bengali is the national-official language of Bangladesh and English is the most important foreign language. But in reality English is the second language of the country and in many places English is more important than Bengali in Bangladesh." https://www.scribd.com/doc/53272796/Sucess-of-English-language-in-Bangladesh-rec
Jump up ^ English is a "Statutory national working language." Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2013. "Brunei." Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online edition: https://www.ethnologue.com/country/BN Accessed 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Under the constitution of 1959, Malay is the official language of Brunei; but English may be used "for all official purposes." Laws are written in English and Malay, with the English version being the authoritative one. "Laws of Brunei: Revised Edition. Section 82" (PDF). 1984. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J.; Trudgill, Peter, eds. (2006). "Greece and Cyprus". Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society / Soziolinguistik: ein internationales Handbuch zur Wissenschaft von Sprache und Gesellschaft. Handbooks of linguistics and communication science / Handbucher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft. 3 (2nd ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1881?1889.
Jump up ^ Spolsky, Bernard (1999). Round Table on Language and Linguistics. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 169?70. ISBN 0-87840-132-6. In 1948, the newly independent state of Israel took over the old British regulations that had set English, Arabic, and Hebrew as official languages for Mandatory Palestine but, as mentioned, dropped English from the list. In spite of this, official language use has maintained a de facto role for English, after Hebrew but before Arabic.
Jump up ^ Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot, Hava (2004). "Part I: Language and Discourse". In Diskin Ravid, Dorit; Bat-Zeev Shyldkrot, Hava. Perspectives on Language and Development: Essays in Honor of Ruth A. Berman. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 90. ISBN 1-4020-7911-7. English is not considered official but it plays a dominant role in the educational and public life of Israeli society. ... It is the language most widely used in commerce, business, formal papers, academia, and public interactions, public signs, road directions, names of buildings, etc. English behaves 'as if' it were the second and official language in Israel.
Jump up ^ Shohamy, Elana (2006). Language Policy: Hidden Agendas and New Approaches. Routledge. pp. 72?73. ISBN 0-415-32864-0. In terms of English, there is no connection between the declared policies and statements and de facto practices. While English is not declared anywhere as an official language, the reality is that it has a very high and unique status in Israel. It is the main language of the academy, commerce, business, and the public space.
Jump up ^ " English, though without official status, is widely spoken throughout the country and is the de facto language of commerce and banking, as well as a co-official status in the education sector; almost all university-level classes are held in English and almost all public schools teach English along with Standard Arabic." de Gruyter, Walter (2006). Sociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society. Ulrich Ammon. p. 1921. ISBN 9783110184181. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ " English is widely spoken. It is used in business and is a compulsory second language in schools." "Kuwait Guide". Commisceo Global. Retrieved June 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "English remains an active second language, and serves as the medium of instruction for maths and sciences in all public schools. Malaysian English, also known as Malaysian Standard English, is a form of English derived from British English. Malaysian English is widely used in business, along with Manglish, which is a colloquial form of English with heavy Malay, Chinese, and Tamil influences. The government discourages the misuse of Malay and has instituted fines for public signs that mix Malay and English." "About Malaysia:Language". My Government: The Government of Malaysia's Official Portal. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Other languages spoken in Maldives include English, which is also recognized as the second main language. Initially, Dhivehi was used as the medium of teaching in schools, but the need to promote higher education led to the conversion of syllabus in English. Now, English is widely spoken by the locals of Maldives." "Maldives Languages". Retrieved Feb 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Baker, Colin; Jones, Sylvia Prys (1998). Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. Multilingual Matters. p. 429. ISBN 978-1853593628.
Jump up ^ English is a "De facto national working language, used in government." Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2013. "Sri Lanka." Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online edition: https://www.ethnologue.com/country/LK Accessed 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Under the constitution of 1978, Sinhala and Tamil are the official languages of Sri Lanka, but English is "the link language." Any person is entitled "to receive communications from, and to communicate and transact business with, any official in his official capacity" in English, to receive an English translation of "any official register, record, publication or other document," and "to communicate and transact business in English." English translations must be made for "all laws and subordinate legislation," "all Orders, Proclamations, rules, by-laws, regulations and notifications." "THE CONSTITUTION OF THE DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF SRI LANKA: Chapter IV". 1978. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Hanani, Fatiha (December 2009). Impact of English on Young Arabs' Use of Arabic in the UAE (Master of Arts thesis). American University of Sharjah.
Jump up ^ "LANDSVERORDENING van de 28ste maart 2007 houdende vaststelling van de officiele talen (Landsverordening officiele talen)" (in Dutch). Government of the Netherlands. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
Jump up ^ According to Art. 1 para 2. Constitution of Sint Maarten Archived 2013-03-03 at WebCite: "The official languages are Dutch and English"
Jump up ^ "Associated Countries and External Territories: Tokelau". Commonwealth Secretariat. Archived from the original on 24 March 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Crawford, James (June 24, 2008). "Language Legislation in the U.S.A." languagepolicy.net. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Alaska Supreme Court Upholds State's Official English Law". Business Wire. November 5, 2007. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Arizona makes English official". Washington Times. November 8, 2006. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-20. Retrieved 2016-03-18.
Jump up ^ Slipke, Darla (November 3, 2010). "Oklahoma elections: Republican-backed measures win approval". NewsOK. The Oklahoman. Retrieved April 28, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b English can be used in relations with the government
"Invoeringswet openbare lichamen Bonaire, Sint Eustatius en Saba" (in Dutch). wetten.nl. Retrieved 2012-10-14.
Jump up ^ "Consulta de la Norma:". alcaldiabogota.gov.co.
Jump up ^ "Sarawak makes English official language along with BM". themalaymailonline.com.
Jump up ^ "Sarawak to recognise English as official language besides Bahasa Malaysia". BorneoPost Online - Borneo, Malaysia, Sarawak Daily News. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05.
Jump up ^ "Sarawak adopts English as official language". thesundaily.my.
Jump up ^ Scottish Government. "Scottish Facts and Information". Scotland.org. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ National Assembly for Wales (2012). "National Assembly for Wales (Official Languages) Act 2012". Legislation.gov.uk. Retrieved March 19, 2014.
Jump up ^ "West Virginia is the 32nd State to pass Official English". Pro English. March 5, 2016. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
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Dialysis tubing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the use of dialysis in a laboratory, research, production or educational setting. For information on the use of dialysis as a treatment for kidney or liver failure see, dialysis or liver dialysis. For information on dialysis or reverse osmosis usage in water treatment see, reverse osmosis. For additional information of laboratory dialysis see Dialysis (biochemistry).
Dialysis tubing
Dialysis tubing, also known as Visking tubing, is a type of semi-permeable membrane tubing[1] used in separation techniques, that facilitates the removal or exchange of small molecules from macromolecules in solution based on differential diffusion. In the context of life science research, dialysis tubing is typically used in the sample clean-up and processing of proteins and DNA samples or complex biological samples such as blood or serums. Dialysis tubing is also frequently used as a teaching aid to demonstrate the principles of diffusion, osmosis, Brownian motion and the movement of molecules across a restrictive membrane. For the principles and usage of dialysis in a research setting, see Dialysis (biochemistry).
History, properties and composition[edit]
Dialysis occurs throughout nature and the principles of dialysis have been exploited by humans for thousands of years using natural animal or plant based membranes.[2][3][4] The term dialysis was first routinely used for scientific or medical purposes in the late 1800s and early 1900s, pioneered by the work of Thomas Graham. The first mass-produced man-made membranes suitable for dialysis were not available until the 1930s based on materials used in the food packaging industry such as Cellophane. In the 1940s, Willem Kolff constructed the first dialyzer (artificial kidney), and successfully treated patients with renal failure using dialysis across semi-permeable membranes. Today, dialysis tubing for laboratory applications comes in a variety of dimensions and molecular-weight cutoffs (MWCO). In addition to tubing, dialysis membranes are also found in a wide range of different preformatted devices, significantly improving the performance and ease of use of dialysis.
Different dialysis tubing or flat membranes are produced and characterized as differing molecular-weight cutoffs (MWCO) ranging from 1-1,000,000 kDa. The MWCO determination is the result of the number and average size of the pores created during the production of the dialysis membrane. The MWCO typically refers to the smallest average molecular mass of a standard molecule that will not effectively diffuse across the membrane upon extended dialysis. Thus, a dialysis membrane with a 10K MWCO will generally retain >90% of a protein having a molecular mass of at least 10 kDa. Pore sizes typically range from ~10-100 Angstroms for 1K to 50K MWCO membranes.
It is important to note that the MWCO of a membrane is not a sharply defined value. Molecules with mass near the MWCO of the membrane will diffuse across the membrane slower than molecules significantly smaller than the MWCO. In order for a molecule to rapidly diffuse across a membrane it typically needs to be at least 20-50 times smaller than the membranes MWCO rating. Therefore, it is not practical to try separating a 30kDa protein from a 10kDa protein using dialysis across a 20K rated dialysis membrane. Dialysis tubing for laboratory use is typically made of a film of regenerated cellulose or cellulose ester. However; dialysis membranes made of polysulfone, polyethersulfone (PES), etched polycarbonate, or collagen are also extensively used for specific medical, food, or water treatment applications.
Manufacturing[edit]
Membranes composed of either regenerated cellulose or cellulose esters are manufactured through distinct processes of modifying and cross-linking cellulose fibers derived from wood pulp or cotton fibers to form films with differing properties and pore sizes. Variations in the manufacturing process significantly change the properties and pores sizes of the film. While similar in composition, most of the cellulosed-based membranes manufactured are not necessarily useful for dialysis. Cellulose-based membranes are also widely used for applications ranging from food wrapping, film stock, or “plastic” wrap. See reference for a review of cellulose membranes and manufacturing.[5]
For dialysis applications, regenerated cellulose-based membranes are extruded as tubing or sheets and then dried. Glycerol is frequently added as a humectant to prevent cracking during drying and to help maintain the desired pore structure. Regenerated cellulose membranes are very hydrophilic and hydrate rapidly when introduced to water. Due to their additional crosslinking, regenerated cellulose membranes have better chemical compatibility and heat stability than membranes made from cellulose esters. Regenerated cellulose membranes are more resistant to organic solvents and to the weak or dilute acids and bases that are commonly used in protein and molecular biology applications. Membranes based on cellulose esters are typically supplied wet and come in a greater range of MWCOs. Pore sizes are typically more consistent across cellulose acetate membranes.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dialysis Tubing, York High School
Jump up ^ "Separation characteristics of dialysis membranes".
Jump up ^ "Fundamentals of membrane Dialysis".
Jump up ^ Ing, Todd S. (2012). Dialysis: History, Development and Promise. World Scientific Publishing Co Pte Ltd. ISBN 9789814289757.
Jump up ^ Klemm, Dieter; Brigitte Heublein; Hans-Peter Fink; Andreas Bohn (2005). "Cellulose: Fascinating Biopolymer and Sustainable Raw Material". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 44 (22): 3358–3393. doi:10.1002/anie.200460587. PMID 15861454.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dialysis_tubing&oldid=805553565"
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Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997
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Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997
Act to provide for the abolishment of corporal punishment authorised in legislation; and to provide for matters connected therewith.
Citation
Act No. 33 of 1997
Enacted by
Parliament of South Africa
Date assented to
28 August 1997
Date commenced
5 September 1997
Status: Spent
The Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997 (Act No. 33 of 1997) is an act of the Parliament of South Africa that abolished judicial corporal punishment.[1] It followed the Constitutional Court's 1995 decision in the case of S v Williams and Others that caning of juveniles was unconstitutional. Although the ruling in S v Williams was limited to the corporal punishment of males under the age of 21, Justice Langa mentioned in dicta that there was a consensus that corporal punishment of adults was also unconstitutional.[2]
The act contains two substantive sections. The first provides that "any law which authorises corporal punishment by a court of law, including a court of traditional leaders," is repealed to the extent that it authorises such a punishment. The second makes specific textual amendments various statutes, including the Black Administration Act, the Magistrates' Courts Act and the Criminal Procedure Act, to remove references to corporal punishment.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Section 13: The abolition of JCP". Judicial Corporal Punishment in South Africa. World Corporal Punishment Research. 2005. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
Jump up ^ S v Williams and Others [1995] ZACC 6 at para. 10, 1995 (3) SA 632, 1995 (7) BCLR 861 (9 June 1995), Constitutional Court (South Africa)
External links[edit]
Abolition of Corporal Punishment Act, 1997
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_Corporal_Punishment_Act,_1997&oldid=742293306"
Categories:
South African legislation
Penal system in South Africa
1997 in South African law
Corporal punishments
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