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Death of Caroline Byrne
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Death of Caroline Byrne
Date
7 June 1995 (1995-06-07)
Location
The Gap, Watsons Bay, New South Wales, Australia
Coordinates
33°50′38″S 151°17′06″E / 33.843803°S 151.284998°E / -33.843803; 151.284998Coordinates: 33°50′38″S 151°17′06″E / 33.843803°S 151.284998°E / -33.843803; 151.284998
Cause
Death by falling
Deaths
Caroline Byrne
Coroner
John Abernethy
Suspect(s)
Gordon Wood
Charges
Murder
Verdict
Guilty, overturned on appeal
Caroline Byrne (1970–1995), an Australian model, was found at the bottom of a cliff at The Gap in Sydney in the early hours of 8 June 1995. Her then boyfriend Gordon Eric Wood (b 1962), who at the time of her death was chauffeur and personal assistant to successful businessman Rene Rivkin, was convicted of her murder on 21 November 2008 and spent three years in Goulburn jail. He was acquitted of the conviction in February 2012.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Events of 7 June 1995
2 Media interest
2.1 Offset Alpine speculation
2.2 Peripheral celebrities
3 Inquests, investigation and trials
4 Trial evidence
4.1 Presentation of the Crown case
4.2 Location of the body
4.3 Suicide history
4.4 Presentation of the defence
4.5 Deliberation and verdict
5 Appeal
6 Post-appeal
7 Sources
8 References
Events of 7 June 1995[edit]
The Gap at Watsons Bay, location of Byrne's death.
Born on 8 October 1970,[3] Byrne had been in a relationship with Wood since 1992. She was a model but principally worked as a modelling instructor for Sydney deportment and etiquette educator June Dally-Watkins. On 7 June 1995, she failed to turn up for work and for an appointment with a psychiatrist. There would come to be three claimed sightings of her near The Gap at Watsons Bay that afternoon and evening, in the company of two men, one of whom matched Wood's description. Two of the sightings – at 1 pm and 3 pm – were by local cafe owners, Craig Martin and Lance Melbourne. In 1998 John Doherty an Irish artist who had been out of the country in the intervening years, came forward to say that around 8.30pm that evening he too had sighted Byrne outside his studio window arguing with one man while another man stood nearby.[4]
Wood denied being present at Watsons Bay that afternoon. Evidence was sworn at both inquests by Wood's friends Brett Cochrane and Nic Samartis that they lunched with him briefly around 1:15 pm in Potts Point before he was called away after a call from Rivkin.[5]:206 Wood claimed that he was asked by Rivkin to chauffeur prominent lobbyist and ex-federal minister Graham Richardson to an appointment and then spent the afternoon doing regular chores for Rivkin before going home around 7 pm. The Richardson alibi was compromised by Richardson when he was interviewed by police in 2001, when he advised that he had lunched that day with rugby league identity Peter Moore.[4]
Wood's movements in the afternoon have never been reported prior to the late evening, when Wood said he awoke on his couch having fallen asleep in front of the television and was immediately alarmed that Byrne was still not home. Wood has said he did not know Byrne's whereabouts but was led by what he termed "telepathic communication" to The Gap. He had first driven to the beachfront car-park at Bondi Beach where he and Caroline had spent much time and then to a favourite park at Camp Cove where they had often picnicked. Heading back from Camp Cove he spotted Byrne's white Suzuki Vitara parked in a lane at The Gap. It was when running about the cliff-top and shouting her name that Wood encountered two rock fishermen who verified his appearance around midnight.
Wood then rang Tony Byrne and Caroline's brother Peter. He drove back into Sydney city and collected them and all three then went to the Gap and scoured the cliff-top. Peter Byrne would later give evidence that at about 1am Wood claimed to have spotted her body at the base of the cliff using torchlight. Byrne himself said he could see nothing and nor could the police who arrived soon after with police torches. The night was dark and the cliff misty. Peter Byrne would claim it was difficult to see the rocks below the cliff, let alone a body. The contention whether Wood had claimed he could see something in the darkness would figure in much media speculation over the years and would form a key part of Crown evidence in the 2008 trial. In 2011 the Appeal Court felt that the Crown had presented speculation in this area posing as evidence. This would be one of the grounds resulting in Wood's 2011 appeal being upheld.
The identity of the second man supposedly sighted by Melbourne and Martin with Wood in Watsons Bay earlier in the day has remained unclear. With evidence contradicting the likelihood that the man was either of those whom the police considered in investigation (Caroline's modelling agent Adam Leigh or Rivkin associate Gary Redding) the Crown would choose to pose speculation without evidence on either during the trial and drew criticism from the trial judge and later the appellant judges.
Media interest[edit]
Byrne's death was accepted as a suicide by local Rose Bay Police and others. No photographs were taken of the location of her body's landing point.
In 1996, Caroline's father begin to agitate against the notion of suicide such that from 1997 onwards the case and circumstances of Byrne's death were regularly examined in Australia's national newspapers and reported as "one of Sydney's unsolved crimes". The death of a beautiful model at one of Sydney's notorious suicide spots, the connection to the flamboyant and newsworthy Rivkin, and a net of witnesses and commentators which included some prominent Sydney identities all added to the intrigue of the case.
Offset Alpine speculation[edit]
Attention was particularly heightened by the still unproven speculation of a connection with Rene Rivkin's financial activities. The day before Byrne's death, Wood and Rivkin were interviewed by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission about the Offset Alpine fire of 1993 and the true ownership of share parcels traded in Offset Alpine owned by nominees related to Swiss bank accounts.[5]:203 Tony Byrne would claim that Wood had indicated to his daughter that the fire was a set-up for insurance purposes.
Ultimately in 2001 Rivkin was charged with insider trading (of Qantas shares) and his eventual conviction in 2003 would have a devastating effect on his mental stability, culminating in his 2005 suicide.[6] However the ASIC investigation into share trading in Offset Alpine and the true beneficiaries would prove an epic that outlived Rivkin, commencing in 1995 and continuing from 2005 with a focus shifted to Graham Richardson and Trevor Kennedy until eventually closed without outcome by ASIC in 2010.[7]
Peripheral celebrities[edit]
Adding to this intrigue was a list of celebrities with a peripheral involvement in the case. Byrne's medical doctor who had referred her to the psychiatric appointment she did not keep on 7 June was television celebrity physician, Dr Cindy Pan.[5]:205 Graham Richardson's diarised luncheon appointment that day (which caused him to question whether he may have been chauffeured anywhere by Wood) was with rugby league identity Peter Bullfrog Moore at Sydney's Hilton Hotel and was set up to broker a peace deal in the Super League war which deeply divided Australian rugby league at that time. Wood always claimed that he had driven Moore from a noon meeting with Rivkin to what may well have been a lunch, though the press and (later) the Crown ignored this possibility. Moore died in July 2000 a year prior to the Strikeforce Irondale interview with Richardson, thus preventing corroboration of the luncheon timings and Rivkin too was dead before the trial.[8]
Caroline's close friends included entertainer Tania Zaetta and actress Kylie Watson, a Home and Away cast member. It was the amateur sleuthing around Watsons Bay armed with photographs of Byrne in the weeks after her death which had Dally-Watkins and Watson uncover the Martin/Melbourne sighting lead.[5]:206 Other celebrity witnesses who would figure in the case at some point included businessman John Singleton, journalist Paul Barry and paparazzo Jamie Fawcett.
Inquests, investigation and trials[edit]
Two inquests were held into Byrne's death by New South Wales State coroner John Abernethy, with Wood claiming it was suicide. The second inquest in 1998 delivered an open finding. That same year, Wood left Australia.
Police investigations continued from 2000 onwards as "Strikeforce Irondale" with hundreds of witnesses interviewed and resulting in a brief of evidence running to more than 350 pages. Caroline's father Tony Byrne continued to press for action from the investigation eventually enrolling the assistance of New South Wales politician Fred Nile who raised questions about the investigation in State Parliament up till 2004.[9]
In 2004 scientific reports relating to the physics of a body falling/jumping/being projected from the cliff produced by Professor Rod Cross were the principal elements of new evidence which encouraged the Crown to push for a trial of Gordon Wood.[10] In March 2006 the New South Wales Director of Public Prosecutions Nicholas Cowdery QC agreed with police that there was enough evidence to charge Wood with Byrne's murder.[11] Wood was detained in London in April 2006, extradited to Australia and released on bail by a Sydney court on 4 May. On 6 July 2007, Wood was committed to stand trial for the murder of Byrne.
The first trial started on 21 July 2008 with Mark Tedeschi QC appearing for the Crown and Winston Terracini QC defending Wood. On 6 August 2008, Justice Graham Barr declared a mistrial because of the alleged contact that a member of the jury had with 2GB radio host Jason Morrison. The juror, who remained anonymous, claimed that some of the jurors were planning a secret night visit to the crime scene (the Gap) being organised by a particular juror who was a "bully" and who had "already decided that Wood was guilty." Justice Barr ruled "I had to discharge the jury ... because some jurors disobeyed my instructions and misconducted themselves."[12]
The second trial commenced on 25 August 2008 and for the first time in New South Wales court history a panel of 15 jurors was sworn in instead of the usual 12 to provide some contingency. [12]
Trial evidence[edit]
Presentation of the Crown case[edit]
Following the aborted first trial Tedeschi, as Crown Prosecutor, presented the Crown case over a nine-week period from 26 August until 24 October 2008. Over 70 witnesses were called and the jury heard hours of audio and video evidence including taped interviews with Rivkin and Wood.[13]
Witnesses called by the prosecution included Pan, Richardson, Watson, Zaetta, Singleton, Fawcett, Bob Hagan and sports journalist Phil Rothfield. Tony Byrne, Peter Byrne, Dally-Watkins and her daughter Carol Clifford appeared. Doherty and Cochrane gave evidence via video link up from overseas. Police witnesses included Tracey Smit and Paul Griffiths (officers on scene), Sgt Mark Powderly, Sgt Neville Greatorex (who gave evidence on police procedures), Snr Const Lisa Camwell (who retrieved the body) and the first investigating officer of the case Sgt Craig Woods of Rose Bay who had first dismissed the death as suicide and who gave evidence that in the first weeks Tony Byrne too accepted the suicide verdict and was explicitly against the idea of an inquest. Another ex-policeman to appear was Caroline's former boyfriend Andrew Blanchette. At one stage Justice Barr counselled Blanchette that he ought consider taking legal advice before answering a particular question. Sensationally on his second day in the witness box, Blanchette admitted that early that morning he had phoned another witness – Melinda Medich, his girlfriend and a minor at the time of Byrne's death – before she was due to give evidence later that day. Blanchette was reported to police by Medich who had not heard from him for a number of years. Blanchette denied that he had been attempting to influence her evidence.
Location of the body[edit]
Retired University of Sydney physicist Associate Professor Rod Cross spent two days in the witness box. Over a six-year period Cross had produced six reports on the case - with his initial findings being quite different to the later findings presented in the trial.[10] Although formally qualified in the field of plasma physics, Cross had experience working with biomechanists regarding sports research and had published and refereed many papers on biomechanics;[14] he was therefore proposed by police investigators as a forensic expert in fall dynamics. Between 1998 and 2004 Cross' reports all concluded that Byrne could have jumped to her death, as he was told that Byrne's body had been found at a distance of 9 metres (30 ft) from the cliff.[15] In 2005, when he was recontacted by the police that the position of the body was in fact farther away ((11.8 metres (39 ft)), he conducted experiments which informed his speculation that Byrne could not have jumped that far and must have been thrown.[5]:210[16] The required launch speed, from the top of the 29 metres (95 ft) high cliff, was 4.5 m/s (see range of a projectile[17][18]), and the available runup distance was only 4 metres (13 ft) – although appeal submissions in 2011 called this into question. Cross tested eleven females from the New South Wales Police Academy and found that they could dive and land head first (in a swimming pool) at about 3.5 m/s after a 4 metres (13 ft) runup. A strong male could throw a 61 kilograms (134 lb) female at 4.8 m/s after a runup of only 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) or 3 metres (9.8 ft).
During the trial the Court was told of some uncertainty regarding the actual location where the body was found. Senior Constable Lisa Camwell, one of the officers who retrieved Byrne's body in 1995 gave evidence that she had in 1996 participated in a video re-enactment in which she indicated the body's location. She gave evidence that in 2004 she was contacted by an officer in charge of the murder investigation (Sergeant Powderly) and told that the position of Ms Byrne's body had become a significant issue. She was told that the body position she had indicated on the video now appeared to be incorrect. Media reports during the second trial suggested the location of the body was an essential component to the Crown case that Ms Byrne was not pushed nor jumped, but was forcefully thrown to her death.[19]
Suicide history[edit]
The court heard that Caroline's mother Andrea Byrne had committed suicide in March 1991 after she became depressed following a breast enlargement operation that went wrong.[20] Terracini also read to the court a letter Tony Byrne had previously provided to police in which he claimed that Caroline had made an attempt on her own life via overdose in 1992. In court Byrne denied that Caroline had on that occasion intended to kill herself and instead was making "a cry for help". At another stage of the cross examination, he claimed to suppose that had Caroline wanted to kill herself she would have copied her mother's method rather than jumping from a cliff.[21]
Byrne's doctor, author and television personality Cindy Pan, gave evidence that she had seen Byrne for two years before her death and had specifically discussed Byrne's depression with her in the weeks leading up to her death. Dr Pan told the court Byrne said she had felt depressed for about a month and the condition had worsened in the week leading up to their appointment on 5 June 1995. Pan said the model told her she could not put a finger on what she was unhappy about.
"I was trying to explore with her what she might be depressed about, but she was not really able to identify any one specific thing," Pan told the court. She said Byrne told her she "had the same thing three years ago" and had been put on medication, which had helped. Pan said Byrne denied having thoughts of self-harm and she referred her to a psychiatrist, obtaining an appointment for 4 pm on 7 June.[22]
Presentation of the defence[edit]
One defence witness, Prof John Hilton, a forensic pathologist, was called during the Prosecution case, due to his later unavailability. Otherwise Terracini commenced the defence case on 27 October 2008 calling another physics expert Prof Marcus Pandy, a biomechancial engineer who conducted experiments on running and jumping speeds of two females. Only a handful of defence witnesses were called – two forensic pathologists, one psychiatrist, Prof Pandy, a stunt diver, and Wood's sister Jacqueline Schmidt – and the defence case concluded within a week.
With the trial drawing to a close, the jury made a number of requests of Justice Barr that included a visit the Gap for a third time; for a transcript of Doherty's evidence; and for video footage of Pandy's running experiments.[23]
Deliberation and verdict[edit]
For the first time in New South Wales court history, a ballot was used to select the three jurors who would stand down so that twelve of the sitting fifteen would deliberate to a verdict. After five full days of deliberation on 21 November 2008 they found Wood guilty.[24][25] On 3 December 2008 Wood was sentenced to a custodial sentence of 17 years, with a minimum time in prison of 13 years. Wood lodged an appeal to the conviction.[26]
Appeal[edit]
Wood's appeal hearing commenced on 22 August 2011 in the Criminal Court of Appeal before Chief Judge at Common Law Peter McClellan, Justice Megan Latham, and Justice Stephen Rothman. Wood's barrister Tim Game SC submitted that the jury's verdict was unreasonable and not supported by the evidence. His submission spoke of nine grounds for appeal. One was that the trial miscarried by reason of the prejudice occasioned by the Tedeschi's closing address. Others related to criticisms of Barr's directions to the jury.
Early media reporting of the appeal focused on Game's submission that the scientific evidence used to convict Wood and presented by Associate Professor Cross was flawed. A photograph was presented in the trial and purported to be taken in 1996 showing that scrub near the fenceline had limited Byrne's possible run-up to the jump, supporting an argument that she would have needed to have been thrown to achieve the horizontal distance from the cliff wall that her body travelled. The appeal judges heard and the Crown acknowledged that the photo was in fact taken in 2003 and that photo's quality meant that a shadow might have appeared to be scrub. The appeal judges heard that a 1996 colour photo which showed that there was no scrub limiting the run-up was available to the Crown during the trial but that the Crown had chosen to introduce the blurrier, non-contemporaneous, more ambiguous image.[27]
Game's submission, consistent with so much of the trial evidence, concerned matters relating to the exact positioning of Byrne's body at the base of the rocks and the orientation of her legs and torso and leading to questions regarding the contended launch point and the assumptions and assertions made by Cross in his pre-trial studies and reports and his trial evidence. Day two of Game's submission focused on the police's changed view between 1996 and 2005 as to Byrne's landing spot and specifically trial evidence given by Sergeant Mark Powderly used to justify the reconstruction.[28]
The Criminal Court of Appeal delivered their opinion on 24 February 2012 acquitting Wood of Byrne's murder and ordering his release from jail.[1] The appellate judges delivered a unanimous decision that there was insufficient evidence beyond reasonable doubt that Wood murdered Byrne and that the jury's verdict was not supported. They dismissed the Crown evidence as being critically flawed and ruled that the possibility of her suicide ought not have been excluded.[1][29]
McClennan J. described Cross' experiments as "unsophisticated" and in the summation of his decision said that he was not satisfied by either of the two motives presented by the Crown.[1] Regarding the motive submitted by Tedeschi that Caroline had information about Rivkin's business dealings that Wood was trying to hide, McClennan said "The exploitation of public rumour and the use of mere innuendo to compensate for inadequate evidence of motive is not consistent with the obligations of a prosecutor to press the Crown case "to its legitimate strength" by reliance upon credible evidence".[30] McLennan was also troubled that the notion Caroline may have been unconscious when she left the cliff top was introduced by the Crown late in the case.[31] He described Tedeschi's suggestion, first made in his closing address and mentioned at no other time in evidence, that a "shot-put" action was used to despatch Caroline as "an invention of the prosecutor...for which there was absolutely no support in evidence".[32] McClennan also expressed some doubt as the reliability of evidence concerning the claimed sightings of Wood and Byrne at Watson's Bay on 7 June 1995 noting that some of these witnesses had come forward years after the event and the initial investigations; he raised concerns that the Melbourne/Martin first identification of Wood and Byrne was based on a specific photos shown to them by Dally-Watkins rather than from being picked from a selection. Tedeschi was criticised by McClellan for presenting reasoning that was "dangerous" and "entirely without foundation". Tedeschi contributed to the alleged miscarriage with his "50 killer questions" which took an "impermissible course" in asking the jury to consider rhetorical questions dealing with matters that had not been presented with in evidence.[32] McClennan ruled that he was not persuaded that Sgt Powderly's evidence regarding the changed landing position of the body was entirely reliable.[33]
Wood was freed from prison on 24 February 2012; having served three years two months in Goulburn Correctional Centre, following an initial month in Parklea prison. Three weeks later the new New South Wales Director of Public Prosecutions, Lloyd Babb SC, issued a press release simply announcing that "the OPDD will not appeal the Court of Criminal Appeal's judgement in the matter of R v Gordon Wood . No further comment will be issued".[34] This was 24 hours after meeting Tony Byrne and attending the Gap with him – a meeting which Byrne described as 'fruitful'.[35]
Post-appeal[edit]
Wood left Australia after his release from prison and spent time in the United States and Britain. In 2014 he brought defamation actions against the Sydney radio stations 2GB and 2UE, Channel Seven Sydney, and The Daily Telegraph[36]which were all settled out of court in his favour for undisclosed sums.[37]
In 2016 Wood sued the state of NSW for millions of dollars plus costs for malicious prosecution and wrongful imprisonment, based on a number of grounds including a "hopelessly corrupted" and "ridiculous" police case against him.[38] In a witness statement filed as part of his lawsuit against the state, Mr Wood said that during his three years in Goulburn Jail he lived in constant fear of guards who dished out "therapy" and was king-hit and knocked unconscious in the prison yard by an infamous rapist and killer.[39]
Sources[edit]
Wainwright, Robert (2009). The Killing of Caroline Byrne. Allen and Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74114-851-0.
Cross, Rod (2009). Evidence for Murder: How Physics Convicted a Killer. UNSW Press. ISBN 978-1-74223-107-5.
Court of Criminal Appeal full judgement
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Davies, Lisa; Hall, Louise; Bibby, Paul (24 February 2012). "Gordon Wood acquitted of murdering Caroline Byrne". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Wood v R [2012] NSWCCA 21 (24 February 2012)". austlii.edu.au. 29 February 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Cross, Rod (2009). Evidence for Murder: How Physics Convicted a Killer. UNSW Press. p. 8. ISBN 1459603516.
^ Jump up to: a b Cornford, Philip (5 April 2006). "Mystery born in a woman's dying cry". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Chenoweth, Neil (2007). Packer's Lunch. Allen and Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74175-323-3.
Jump up ^ Verrender, Ian (3 May 2005). "Pity the poor man". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Moran, Susannah (29 May 2010). "ASIC gives up on Offset Alpine mystery". The Australian. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Wainwright, Robert (27 June 2007). "Let me see Caroline's breasts: Wood". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Nile, Fred (18 March 2004). "Caroline Byrne Murder Investigation". Hansard transcript. Parliament of New South Wales. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Wainwright, Robert (12 June 2007). "Man 'threw girlfriend like a spear'". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, Jane (4 April 2006). "Police make breakthrough in high profile murder case" (transcript). The World Today. Australia. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fresh jury sworn in for Wood trial". The Australian. Archived from the original on 2012-12-15.
Jump up ^ Cooke, Jennifer (7 July 2007). "Twelve years on, Wood to face murder trial over girlfriend's death". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Cross, Rod (2012). "Publications". Physics Department, The University of Sydney. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Stephen Luntz (2011). Forensics, Fossils and Fruitbats: A Field Guide to Australian Scientists. p. 161. ISBN 9780643097452.
Jump up ^ Cross, Rod (April 2009). "Never let the science get in the way of a good story" (transcript of evidence). Physics Department, The University of Sydney. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Assuming 0.5m takeoff distance and a horizontal throw, the minimum speed, conservatively assuming no air resistance, is 4.64m/s. [1]
Jump up ^ Rod Cross (2006). "Fatal Falls from a Height: Two Case Studies". J Forensic Sci. 51: 93. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2005.00026.x.
Jump up ^ "Officer could not recall location of Caroline Byrne's body". The Australian. AAP. 9 September 2008. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Wood trial: Caroline's dad still in denial that she suicided". ABC News. Australia. 29 August 2008. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Coopes, Amy (30 August 2008). "Trial told Rivkin lavished 'toy boy'". The Age. Melbourne. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Cindy Pan evidence". The Australian. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008.
Jump up ^ McClymont, Kate (29 October 2008). "Wood jury asks for Gap visit". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ McClymont, Kate (21 November 2008). "Gordon Wood guilty of murdering Caroline Byrne". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Williams, Hugh (21 November 2008). "Ex-boyfriend convicted of Australian model's murder". CNN. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Davies, Lisa (18 March 2011). "Gordon Wood launches appeal against murder conviction". The Daily Telegraph. Australia. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Davies, Lisa (23 August 2011). "Appeal on Gap murder of Caroline Byrne". Daily Telegraph. Australia. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Police officer lied for Gordon Wood, inquest hears". Daily Telegraph. Australia. 23 August 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Wood v R [2012] NSWCCA 21 (24 February 2012), Criminal Court of Appeal (New South Wales)
Jump up ^ Wood v R [2012] NSWCCA 21 at p. 305 (24 February 2012), Criminal Court of Appeal (New South Wales)
Jump up ^ Wood v R [2012] NSWCCA 21 at p. 277 (24 February 2012), Criminal Court of Appeal (New South Wales)
^ Jump up to: a b Hall, Louise; Jacobsen, Geesche (25 February 2012). "State prosecutor's reasoning in Wood trial 'dangerous'". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Wood v R [2012] NSWCCA 21 at p. 317 (24 February 2012), Criminal Court of Appeal (New South Wales)
Jump up ^ "Gordon Wood will not face further court challenge: DPP". The Sydney Morning Herald.
Jump up ^ "Tony still bitter". Daily Telegraph. Australia. 18 March 2012. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Wood defamation action against News settled SMH 10feb2015
Jump up ^ Out of work Wood lives off trust fund - The Australian 28feb2017
Jump up ^ Wood's a malicious prosecution suit - ABCNews 24feb2016
Jump up ^ Prison A Living Death - Yahoo7News 28feb2017
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text:
Your Love (The Outfield song)
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Jump to: navigation, search
"Your Love"
UK vinyl single
Single by The Outfield
from the album Play Deep
B-side
"61 Seconds"
Released
14 February 1986
Format
7"
12"
Recorded
26 July 1985
Air Studios
(London)
Genre
Pop rock
new wave
power pop
Length
3:36
Label
Columbia
Songwriter(s)
John Spinks
Producer(s)
William Wittman
The Outfield singles chronology
"Say It Isn't So"
(1985) "Your Love"
(1986) "All the Love"
(1986)
"Say It Isn't So"
(1985) "Your Love"
(1986) "All the Love"
(1986)
"Your Love" is a song by the English rock band the Outfield, taken from their debut album Play Deep (1985). The song was penned by the band's guitarist John Spinks.
Despite the band being from London, the song was not a major hit in the UK, but was in the United States, where it reached #6 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #7 on the Mainstream Rock chart in 1986.
Contents
[hide]
1 Commercial performance
2 Reception
3 Music video
4 Charts
4.1 Year-end charts
5 References
6 External links
Commercial performance[edit]
"Your Love" became a major hit nearly solely in the United States, where it became a song of the summer. It was first released as the second single from Play Deep in November 1985. It was first pushed to album-oriented rock (AOR) radio, to maintain momentum generated by the album's lead single, "Say It Isn't So". After entering the top ten of Billboard's Top Rock Tracks chart (which measured the playlists of AOR stations across the U.S.), Columbia began expanding the song to top 40 radio in February 1986.[1] It then peaked at number seven on the Top Rock Tracks chart during the week of March 1.[2] The song entered the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 in May 1986, peaking at number six during the week of May 10. Overall, it spent 22 weeks on the Hot 100.[3]
Reception[edit]
Rolling Stone contributor Jimmy Guterman wrote that the track "seems to advocate philandering," and that "the repulsive misogyny contaminates the whole song."[4] Dennis Hunt from the Los Angeles Times criticizes the whole of Play Deep as "thoroughly derivative music," he praises the song's "lovely melodic line that's engagingly performed by vocalist Tony Lewis, who has obviously been listening to Journey's Steve Perry."[5]
Music video[edit]
The song's music video was directed by Jon Jopson.[6] The concept for the clip is the Outfield filming a music video for the song, and prominently features a painting motif. They perform in front of a backdrop of the Play Deep album cover, which is also being finger-painted offstage by an artist, played by actress JoAnn Willette. Her character and lead vocalist Tony Lewis appear flirtatious throughout the clip. Willette was interviewed about her role on the blog Noblemania in 2013, and gave details about the making of the clip. It was shot in Astoria on a soundstage over one day; at the end of the video, Willette can be seen exiting the studio at dawn, the time the production wrapped.[7] The video is mainly footage of the group playing the song, highlighting their unity as a performing band: "We didn't want a situation where they had to be actors or something that wasn't what they are," said the band's manager, Kip Krones, at the time.[1]
The video was first added to MTV's schedule during the week of 19 February 1986,[8] and began attracting major rotation. It peaked at number two on MTV's Top 20 Countdown in late April 1986.[1]
Play Deep (The Outfield Album) - Your Love
Charts[edit]
Chart (1986)
Peak
position
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[9]
37
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[10]
33
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[11]
17
Germany (Official German Charts)[12]
52
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[13]
83
US Billboard Hot 100[3]
6
US Mainstream Rock (Billboard)[2]
6
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1986)
Position
US Billboard Hot 100[14] 62
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Bessman, Jim (July 26, 1986). "How the Outfield Became Sluggers" (PDF). Billboard. 98 (30). Billboard Publications, Inc. p. 3.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Outfield Chart History (Mainstream Rock)". Billboard. Retrieved May 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Outfield Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved January 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Guterman, Jimmy (1985). "Play Deep Review". Rolling Stone (477).
Jump up ^ Dennis Hunt (June 1, 1986). "Hit Puts The Outfield Team In The Big Leagues". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Enter Sandman | Metallica | Music Video". MTV. Viacom Media Networks. Retrieved May 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Marc Tyler Nobleman. "The Girl in the Video: "Your Love" (1986)". Noblemania. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ "MTV Programming". Billboard. 98 (9). Billboard Publications, Inc. March 1, 1986. p. 39.
Jump up ^ "RPM 100 Singles" (PDF). RPM. Ottawa: Library and Archives Canada. 44 (13). June 21, 1986. OCLC 352936026. Retrieved May 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – The Outfield – Your Love" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – The Outfield – Your Love" (in Dutch). Single Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Musicline.de – The Outfield Single-Chartverfolgung" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH.
Jump up ^ "Official Singles Chart Top 100". Official Charts Company. Retrieved January 15, 2016.
Jump up ^ Billboard Top 100 - 1986. "Billboard Top 100 - 1986 - Longbored Surfer - Charts". Longbored Surfer. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
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The Outfield
Tony Lewis
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Alan Jackman
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Studio albums
Play Deep
Bangin'
Voices of Babylon
Diamond Days
Rockeye
It Ain't Over...
Extra Innings
Any Time Now
Replay
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Live in Brazil
The Outfield Live
Compilations
Playing the Field
Big Innings: The Best of The Outfield
Singles
"Your Love"
"All the Love"
"Since You've Been Gone"
"Voices of Babylon"
"For You"
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Viral video
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A viral video[1][2] is a video that becomes popular through a viral process of Internet sharing, typically through video sharing websites, social media and email.[3][4]
Viral videos often contain humorous content and include televised comedy sketches, such as The Lonely Island's "Lazy Sunday" and "Dick in a Box", Numa Numa[5][6] videos, The Evolution of Dance,[5] Chocolate Rain[7] on YouTube; and web-only productions such as I Got a Crush... on Obama.[8] Some eyewitness events have also been caught on video and have "gone viral"[9] such as the Battle at Kruger.[10]
In 2012, the Kony 2012 video by Invisible Children, Inc. became the most viral video in history,[11] with approximately 34,000,000 views three days after its upload to YouTube on 5 March 2012,[12] and 100,000,000 views six days after publication.[13] Another recent example is the 2012 single "Gangnam Style" by Psy, which received one billion views in five months[14][15] and was the most viewed video on YouTube from 2012 until 2017, the title being taken by "Despacito".[16]
In April 2018, Ultra Music uploaded a music video of El Chombo's Dame Tu Cosita, the song that was popular on musical.ly. The video became viral and it hit 150 000 000 views in the first two weeks.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Qualification
3 Reasons for popularity
4 Categories by subject
4.1 Band and music promotion
4.2 Education
4.3 Customer complaints
4.4 Cyberbullying
4.5 Police misconduct
5 Political implications
6 Financial implications
7 Notable sites
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Videos were shared long before YouTube or even the Internet by word-of-mouth, film festivals, VHS tapes, and even to fill time gaps during the early days of cable.[17] Perhaps the earliest was Reefer Madness, a 1936 "educational" film that circulated under several different titles. It was rediscovered by Keith Stroup, founder of NORML, who circulated prints of the film around college film festivals in the 1970s. The company who produced the prints, New Line Cinema, was so successful they began producing their own films.[17] The most controversial was perhaps a clip from a newscast from Portland, Oregon in November 1970. In the clip, the disposal of a beached whale carcass by dynamite is documented, including the horrific aftermath of falling mist and chunks since the exclusion zone wasn't big enough.[18] The exploding whale story obtained urban legend status in the Northwest and gained new interest in 1990 after Dave Barry wrote a hysterical column about the event,[19] leading to copies being distributed over bulletin board systems—a sort of primitive Internet—around 1994.[17][20][21]
The "humorous home movie" genre dates back at least to 1963, when the TV series "Your Funny, Funny Films"[22] debuted. The series showcased amusing film clips, mostly shot on 8mm equipment by amateurs. The idea was revived in 1989 with America's Funniest Home Videos, a series described by an ABC executive as a one-time "reality-based filler special" that was inspired by a segment of a Japanese variety show, Fun With Ken and Kaito Chan, borrowing clips from various Japanese home video shows as well.[23] Now the longest-running primetime entertainment show in the history of ABC, the show's format includes showing clips of home videos sent in to the show's committee, and then the clips are voted on by a live filmed audience, with the winners winning a monetary prize.[24]
During the internet's public infancy, the 1996 Seinfeld episode "The Little Kicks" addresses the distribution of a viral video through non-online, non-broadcast means. It concludes with the citizens of New York City having individually witnessed Elaine's terrible dancing via a bootleg copy of a feature film, establishing that the dancing footage had effectively gone viral.
Viral videos began circulating as animated GIFs small enough to be uploaded to websites over dial-up Internet access or through email as attachments in the early 1990s.[25] Videos were also spread on message boards, P2P file sharing sites, and even coverage from mainstream news networks on television.[26] Two of the most successful viral videos of the early internet era were "The Spirit of Christmas" and "Dancing Baby". "The Spirit of Christmas" surfaced in 1995, spread through bootleg copies on VHS and on the internet, as well as an AVI file on the PlayStation game disc for Tiger Woods 99 (which later led to a recall).[26][27] The popularity of the videos led to the creation of the television series South Park after it was picked up by Comedy Central.[28] "Dancing Baby", a 3D-rendered dancing baby video by the creators of Character Studio for 3D Studio MAX, became something of a late 1990s cultural icon in 1996 in part due to its exposure on worldwide commercials, editorials about Character Studio, and the popular television series Ally McBeal.[28][29][30] The video may have first spread when Ron Lussier, the animator who cleaned up the raw animation, began passing the video around his workplace, LucasArts.[31]
Later distribution of viral videos on the internet before YouTube, which was created in 2005 and bought by Google in 2006, were mostly though websites dedicated to hosting humorous content, such as Newgrounds and YTMND, although message boards such as eBaum's World and Something Awful were also instrumental.[26] Notably, some content creators hosted their content on their own websites, such as Joel Veitch's site for his band Rather Good, which hosted quirky Flash videos for the band's songs; the most popular was "We Like the Moon", whose viral popularity on the internet prompted Quiznos to parody the song for a commercial.[32] The most famous self-hosted home of viral videos is perhaps Homestar Runner, launched in 2000 and still running.[26] The introduction of social media such as Facebook and Twitter has created even more avenues for videos to go viral. More recently, there has been a surge in viral videos on video sharing sites such as YouTube, partially because of the availability of affordable digital cameras.[33] Beginning in December 2015, YouTube introduced a "trending" tab to alert users to viral videos using an algorithm based on comments, views, "external references", and even location.[34] The feature reportedly does not use viewing history to serve up related content, and the content may be curated by YouTube.[35]
Qualification[edit]
There are several ways to gauge whether a video has "gone viral". The statistic perhaps most mentioned is number of views, and as sharing has become easier, the threshold requirement of sheer number of views has increased. YouTube personality Kevin Nalty (known as Nalts) recalls on his blog: "A few years ago, a video could be considered 'viral' if it hit a million views", but says as of 2011, only "if it gets more than 5 million views in a 3–7 day period" can it be considered "viral".[36][37] To compare, 2004's "Numa Numa" received two million hits on Newgrounds in its first three months (a figure explained in a 2015 article as "a staggering number for the time").[26]
Nalts also posits three other considerations: buzz, parody, and longevity,[36] which are more complex ways of judging a viral video's views. Buzz addresses the heart of the issue; the more a video is shared, the more discussion the video creates both online and offline. What he emphasizes is notable is that the more buzz a video gets, the more views it gets. A study on viral videos by Carnegie Mellon University found that the popularity of the uploader affected whether a video would become viral,[38] and having the video shared by a popular source such as a celebrity or a news channel also increases buzz.[36] It is also part of the algorithm YouTube uses to predict popular videos.[34] Parodies, spoofs and spin-offs often indicate a popular video, with long-popular video view counts given with original video view counts as well as additional view counts given for the parodies. Longevity indicates if a video has remained part of the Zeitgeist.
Reasons for popularity[edit]
Due to their societal impact and marketability, viral videos attract attention in both advertising and academia, which try to account for the reason viral videos are spread and what will make a video go viral. Several theories exist.
A viral video's longevity often relies on a hook which draws the audience to watch them. The hook is able to become a part of the viral video culture after being shown repeatedly. The hooks, or key signifiers, are not able to be predicted before the videos become viral.[39] The early view pattern of a viral video can be used to forecast its peak day in future.[4] Notable examples include "All your base are belong to us", based on the poorly translated video game Zero Wing, which was first distributed in 2000 as a GIF animation and became popular for the grammatically incorrect hook of its title, and Don Hertzfeldt's 2000 Academy Awards Best Animated Short Film nomination "Rejected" with the quotable hooks "I am a banana" and "My spoon is too big!"[40] Another early video was the Flash animation "The End of the World", created by Jason Windsor and uploaded to Albino Blacksheep in 2003, with quotable hooks such as "but I'm le tired" and "WTF, mates?"[40][41]
Rosanna Guadagno, a social psychologist at the University of Texas at Dallas, found in a study that people preferred to share a funny video rather than one of a man treating his own spider bite, and overall they were more likely to share any video that evoked an intense emotional response.[42] Two professors at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania also found that uplifting stories were more likely to be shared on the New York Times' web site than disheartening ones.[42]
Others postulate that sharing is driven by ego in order to build up an online persona for oneself. Chartbeat, a company that measures online traffic, compiled data comparing the amount of time spent reading an article and the number of times it was shared and found that people often post articles on Twitter they haven't even read.[42]
Categories by subject[edit]
See also: List of viral videos
Band and music promotion[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2015)
Many independent musicians, as well as large companies such as Universal Music Group, use YouTube to promote videos. Six of the 10 most viral YouTube videos of 2015 were rooted in music.[43]
One such video, the "Free Hugs Campaign" with accompanying music by the Sick Puppies, was one of the winners of the 2006 YouTube Awards.[44] However, the awards received criticism over the voting process and accused of bias.[45] However, the main character of the video, Juan Mann, received positive recognition after being interviewed on Australian news programs and appearing on The Oprah Winfrey Show.[46]
Education[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2015)
Viral videos continue to increase in popularity as teaching and instructive aids. In March 2007, an elementary school teacher, Jason Smith, created TeacherTube, a website for sharing educational videos with other teachers. The site now features over 54,000 videos.[47] Some college curricula are now using viral videos in the classroom as well. Northwestern University offers a course called "YouTubing 101". The course invites students to produce their own viral videos, focusing on marketing techniques and advertising strategies.[48]
Customer complaints[edit]
"United Breaks Guitars", by the Canadian folk rock music group Sons of Maxwell, is an example of how viral videos can be used by consumers to pressure companies to settle complaints.[49] Another example is Brian Finkelstein's video complaint to Comcast, 2006. Finkelstein recorded a video of a Comcast technician sleeping on his couch. The technician had come to repair Brian's modem but had to call Comcast's central office and fell asleep after being placed on hold waiting for Comcast.[50][51]
Cyberbullying[edit]
The Canadian high school student known as Star Wars Kid was subjected to significant harassment and ostracizing after the viral success of his video. His family accepted a financial settlement after suing the individuals responsible for posting the video online.[52]
In July 2010, an 11-year-old girl with the pseudonym "Jessi Slaughter" was subjected to a campaign of harassment and cyberbullying following the viral nature of videos she had uploaded to Stickam and YouTube. As a result of the case, the potential for cyberbullying as a result of viral videos was widely discussed in the media.[53][54]
Police misconduct[edit]
Further information: Video evidence
The Chicago Tribune reported that in 2015, nearly 1,000 civilians in the United States were shot and killed by police officers— whether the officers behind the trigger are heroes or villains is now often publicly called into question in the age of viral videos.[55] As more people are uploading videos of their encounters with police, more departments are encouraging their officers to wear body cameras.[56] The procedure for releasing such video is currently evolving and could potentially incriminate more suspects than officers, although current waiting times of several months to release such videos appear to be attempted cover-ups of police mistakes.[57] In October 2015, then-FBI Director James Comey remarked in a speech at the University of Chicago Law School that the increased attention on police in light of recent viral videos showing police involved in fatal shootings has made officers less aggressive and emboldened criminals. Comey has acknowledged that there is no data to back up his assertion; according to him, viral videos are one of many possible factors such as cheaper drugs and more criminals being released from prison. Other top officials at the Justice Department have stated that they do not believe increased scrutiny of officers has increased crime.[58]
Two videos went viral in October 2015 of a white school police officer assaulting an African-American student. The videos, apparently taken with cell phones by other students in the classroom, were picked up by local news outlets and then further spread by social media.[59]
Dash cam videos of the Chicago police shooting of Laquan McDonald were released after 14 months of being kept sealed, which went viral and sparked further questions about police actions. Chicago's mayor, Rahm Emanuel, fired Police Superintendent Garry McCarthy and there have also been demands for Emanuel to resign.[60] An eerily similar case, the shooting of Ronald Johnson by Chicago police also caught on a dash cam and also attempted to be kept secret, is currently part of an ongoing federal lawsuit against the city.[61]
Political implications[edit]
The United States presidential election, 2008, showcased the impact of political viral videos. For the first time, YouTube hosted the CNN-YouTube presidential debates, calling on YouTube users to pose questions. In this debate, the opinions of viral video creators and users were taken seriously. There were several memorable viral videos that appeared during the campaign. In June 2007, "I Got a Crush... on Obama", a music video featuring a girl claiming to have a crush on presidential candidate Barack Obama, appeared. Unlike previously popular political videos, it did not feature any celebrities and was purely user-generated. The video garnered many viewers and gained attention in the mainstream media.[62]
YouTube became a powerful source of campaigning for the 2008 Presidential Election. Every major party candidate had their own YouTube channel in order to communicate with the voters, with John McCain posting over 300 videos and Barack Obama posting over 1,800 videos. The music video, "Yes We Can", by will.i.am demonstrates user-generated publicity for the 2008 Presidential Campaign. The video depicts many celebrities as well as black and white clips of Barack Obama. This music video inspired many parodies and won an Emmy for Best New Approaches in Daytime Entertainment.[63]
The proliferation of viral videos in the 2008 campaign highlights the fact that people increasingly turn to the internet to receive their news. In a study for the Pew Research Center in 2008, approximately 2% of the participants said that they received their news from non-traditional sources such as MySpace or YouTube.[64] The campaign was widely seen as an example of the growing influence of the internet on United States politics; further evidenced by the founding of viral video producers like Brave New Films.[65]
During the United States presidential election, 2012, Obama Style and Mitt Romney Style, the parodies of Gangnam Style, both peaked on Election Day and received approximately 30 million views within one month before Election Day.[4] Mitt Romney Style, which negatively portrays Mitt as an affluent, extravagant and arrogant businessman, received an order of magnitude views more than Obama Style.[citation needed]
Financial implications[edit]
The web traffic gained by viral videos allows for advertising revenue. The YouTube website is monetized by selling and showing advertising. According to the New York Times, YouTube uses an algorithm called "reference rank" to evaluate the viral potential of videos posted to the site. Using evidence from as few as 10,000 views, it can assess the probability that the video will go viral. If it deems the video a viable candidate for advertising, it contacts the original poster by e-mail and offers a profit-sharing contract. By this means, such videos as "David After Dentist" have earned more than $100,000 for their owners.[66] One successful YouTube video creator, Andrew Grantham, whose "Ultimate Dog Tease" had been viewed more than 170,000,000 times (as of June 2015), entered an agreement with Paramount Pictures in February 2012 for the development of a feature film. The film was to be written by Alec Berg and David Mandel.[67] Pop stars such as Justin Bieber and Esmée Denters also started their careers via YouTube videos which ultimately went viral. By 2014, pop stars such as Miley Cyrus, Eminem, and Katy Perry were regularly obtaining web traffic in the order of 120 to 150 million hits a month,[68] numbers far in excess of what many viral videos receive. In March 2014, it was reported that a YouTube channel called Stampylonghead, owned by a UK broadcaster Joseph Garrett, was regularly receiving hits at a similar rate. Garrett posts daily videos of himself playing Minecraft. Garrett estimates that "channels with more than 100,000 subscribers generate enough cash for a decent living."[68]
Companies also use viral videos as a type of marketing strategy. The Dove Campaign for Real Beauty is considered to have been one of the first viral marketing strategies to hit the world when Dove released their Evolution video in 2006.[69] Their online campaign continued to generate viral videos when Real Beauty Sketches was released in 2013 and spread all throughout social media, especially Facebook and Twitter.
Notable sites[edit]
Albino Blacksheep
Break.com
BuzzFeed
eBaum's World
Fail Blog
Facebook
Google Video
JibJab
LiveLeak
Metacafe
Newgrounds
Nico Nico Douga
Upworthy
Vine (service)
Veoh.com
VT[disambiguation needed]
WorldStar HipHop
YouTube
YTMND
See also[edit]
Internet portal
Internet meme
List of Internet phenomena
List of viral videos
List of viral music videos
Positive feedback
Seeding agency
Shock site
Streisand effect
Viral marketing
References[edit]
Jump up ^ About.com, retrieved 30 March 2016, explains how "viral," which comes from virus, largely but not wholly relates to "viral video" in an online context http://webtrends.about.com/od/howtoguides/a/Viral-Online.htm
Jump up ^ Oxford Dictionaries, retrieved 30 March 2016, used the following example of how "viral" relates to video: "the video went viral and was seen by millions" https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/viral
Jump up ^ "Definition of 'viral video'". PC Mag Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lu Jiang, Yajie Miao, Yi Yang, ZhenZhong Lan, Alexander Hauptmann. Viral Video Style: A Closer Look at Viral Videos on YouTube. Retrieved 30 March 2016. Paper: https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~lujiang/camera_ready_papers/ICMR2014-Viral.pdf Slides: https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~lujiang/resources/ViralVideos.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b "How YouTube made superstars out of everyday people". 11 April 2010. The Guardian.
Jump up ^ "Guardian Viral Video Chart". 8 June 2007. The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Murphy, Meagan (22 September 2010). "'Numa Numa Guy' Fronting Band, Still Single". FOX411.
Jump up ^ Tapper, Jake (13 June 2007). "Music Video Has a 'Crush on Obama'". ABC News. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Dancing in the rain: Video of four young street dancers becomes viral internet sensation". 11 October 2010. Daily Mail.
Jump up ^ BBC News states "Almost 9.5m people have already watched the video, dubbed the Battle at Kruger, which was filmed by US tourist Dave Budzinski while he was on a guided safari." Published 9 Aug 2007, retrieved 26 March 2016 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6938516.stm
Jump up ^ Flock, Elizabeth (4 April 2012): "Kony 2012 screening in Uganda met with anger, rocks thrown at screen". Washington Post.
Jump up ^
"Kony 2012: What's the story". The Guardian. 8 March 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
"Kony 2010 Stats breakdown of the viral video". The Telegraph. 9 March 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2016. over 50 million views
Jump up ^ "Kony most viral". Mashable. 12 March 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Editors, The. "How "Gangnam Style" Went Viral [Graphic]". Retrieved 1 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Laird, Sam. "Gangnam Style! The Anatomy of a Viral Sensation [INFOGRAPHIC]". Retrieved 1 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "YouTube's 10 years of hits: Global recognition at last for Rick Astley". Retrieved 1 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Floorwalker, Mike (26 February 2013). "10 Videos That Went Viral Before The Internet". ListVerse. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Long before the viral video or 'breaking the internet', there was the exploding whale". 13 November 2015. 9News.com.au. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Barry, Dave (May 20, 1990). "Thar She Blows". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2017-08-28.
Jump up ^ Exploding Animals. PediaPress. p. 25. GGKEY:Z9T60YE3N4L.
Jump up ^ Harriet Baskas (6 January 2010). "whale of a time"#v=onepage Oregon Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities, and Other Offbeat Stuff Check |url= value (help). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-7627-6201-9.
Jump up ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0056794/
Jump up ^ Wiener-Bronner, Danielle (21 October 2015) "The internet was supposed to kill 'America’s Funniest Home Videos.' Instead, it’s reviving it." Fusion. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Lindenbaum, Sybil (25 November 2015). "America's Funniest Home Videos Content Conquers Social Media With a Landmark 10 Million Subscribers". PR Newswire. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Brown, Damon (13 September 2010). "Celebrating the Web's earliest viral hits". CNN. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Merrill, Brad (17 June 2015). "Here’s How Videos Went Viral Before YouTube And Social Media". Make Use Of. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Tiger Woods Game Pulled." 15 January 1999. IGN. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "The history of viral video". Tuscoloosa News. 6 June 2007. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
Jump up ^ McNamara, Paul (16 June 1997). "Baby talk: This twisting tot is all the rage on the 'Net". Network World. Retrieved 21 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Lefevre, Greg (19 January 1998) "Dancing Baby cha-chas from the Internet to the networks". CNN.
Jump up ^ Lussier, Ron (2005). "Dancing Baby FAQ". Burning Pixel Productions.
Jump up ^ Fine, Jon (16 February 2004). "Pop culture: Veitch's critters hit big in Quiznos spots". Advertising Age. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Grossman, Lev (24 April 2006). "How to get famous in 3500 seconds". Time Magazine.
^ Jump up to: a b Southern, Matt (10 December 2015). "YouTube Introduces a 'Trending' Tab, Surfacing Viral Videos in Real Time". Search Engine Journal. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Cox, Jamieson (9 December 2015). "YouTube is making it easier to find viral videos". The Verge. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c O'Neill, Megan (9 May 2011). "What Makes A Video 'Viral'?" AdWeek. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Nalts (pseudonym) (6 May 2011). "How many views do you need to be viral?" Will Video for Food (blog). Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Characteristics - CMU Viral Videos". Retrieved 1 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Burgess, Jean (2008).'All Your Chocolate Rain Are Belong to Us?' Viral Video, YouTube, and the Dynamics of Participatory Culture "Video Vortex Reader: Responses to YouTube". Institute of Network Cultures, Amsterdam, pp. 101–109.
^ Jump up to: a b Moreau, Elise (30 October 2014). "10 Videos That Went Viral Before YouTube Even Existed". About Tech. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Peters, Lucia. "7 Incredibly Weird Viral Videos From The Early 2000s The Internet Was Inexplicably Obsessed With". Bustle. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kitroeff, Natalie (19 May 2014). "Why That Video Went Viral". New York Times. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ McIntyre, Hugh (16 December 2015). "YouTube's Most Viral Videos Of 2015 Are All About Music". Forbes. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "YouTube names best video winners". BBC News. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Heffernan, Virginia (27 March 2007). "YouTube Awards the Top of Its Heap". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Free Hugs on The Oprah Winfrey Show (30 October 2006): "Thanks to a video on the website YouTube, Juan's movement is spreading worldwide—he is even organizing a global hug day!" Oprah.com
Jump up ^ Katherine Leal Unmuth, Dallasnews.com[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Leopold, Wendy (19 March 2009). "YouTubing 101: Northwestern Offers Course on Viral Videos" (press release). Northwestern University. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Cheryl V. (9 July 2009). "Passenger uses YouTube to get United's attention". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on 15 January 2010. Retrieved 11 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Stross, Randall (2 July 2006). "AOL Said, 'If You Leave Me I'll Do Something Crazy'." The New York Times. Retrieved 27 December 2015. "The technician, in Washington, had arrived at Brian Finkelstein's home to replace a faulty modem and had to call in to Comcast's central office. Placed on hold just like powerless customers, the technician fell asleep after an hour of waiting."
Jump up ^ Suri, Sabena (26 June 2006). "Sleepy Comcast technician gets filmed, then fired". Cnet. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Wei, Will (12 May 2010). "Where Are They Now? The 'Star Wars Kid' Sued The People Who Made Him Famous". Business Insider. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Simon, Marie (22 July 2010). "Jessi Slaughter, nouvelle tête de turc du web américain". L'Express (in French).
Jump up ^ Farquhar, Peter (20 July 2010). "Jessi Slaughter and the 4chan trolls - the case for censoring the internet". News.com.au.
Jump up ^ Kindy, Kimberly, Marc Fisher, Julie Tate and Jennifer Jenkins (26 December 2015). "For police nationwide, a year of reckoning: Officers fatally shoot nearly 1,000". The Washington Post via the Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Hellgren, Mike (23 December 2015). "Baltimore Co. Police Review Officer’s Actions After Viral Video Surfaces". CBS Baltimore. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Viral videos wrongly hurt reputations of vast majority of police". 23 December 2015. Herald-Whig. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Alcindor, Yamiche (24 October 2015). "FBI director links 'viral videos' of police to rise in violence". USA Today. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Fausset, Richard and Ashely Southall (26 October 2015). "Video Shows Officer Flipping Student in South Carolina, Prompting Inquiry". New York Times. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Graham, David A. (1 December 2015). "The Firing of Chicago Police Chief Garry McCarthy". The Atlantic. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Meisner, Jason and Matthew Walberg (2 December 2015). "City wavering on keeping video secret in another fatal Chicago police shooting". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Seelye, Katharine (15 June 2007). "A Hit Shows Big Interest in Racy Material – and Obama" (Web). The New York Times. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Wallsten, Kevin (2010). "Yes We Can": How Online Viewership, Blog Discussion, Campaign Statements, and Mainstream Media Coverage Produced a Viral Video Phenomenon, Journal of Information Technology and Politics.
Jump up ^ Kohut, Andrew (11 January 2008). "The Internet's Broader Role in Campaign 2008" (Web). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
Jump up ^ Rutenberg, Jim (29 June 2008). "Political Freelancers Use Web to Join the Attack". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-25.
Jump up ^ Cain Miller, Claire (26 October 2011). "Cashing In on Your Hit YouTube Video". New York Times. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (13 February 2012). "Paramount inks scribe duo for canine romp: Project based on YouTube 'Dog Tease' video". Variety. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Woollaston, Victoria (5 March 2014). "Making money out of MINECRAFT: Barman gives up job to upload tips on the game - and now his YouTube channel gets more hits than One Direction and Justin Bieber". Daily Mail. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Bahadur, Nina (21 January 2014). "How Dove Tried To Change The Conversation About Female Beauty". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-11-19.
See also: Evolution on YouTube
External links[edit]
CMU Viral Videos A public data set for viral video study.
Viral Video Chart Guardian News, UK.
Photos Gone Viral! — slideshow by Life magazine
YouTube 'Rewind' - YouTube's page covering their top-viewed videos by year and brief information on their spread.
The Worlds of Viral Video Documentary produced by Off Book (web series)
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