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Meteoroid
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Not to be confused with Meteorite.
From a meteoroid to a meteor and meteorite: how a meteoroid enters the atmosphere to become visible as a meteor and impact the Earth's surface as a meteorite
A meteoroid (/ˈmiːtiərɔɪd/)[1] is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space.
Meteoroids are significantly smaller than asteroids, and range in size from small grains to one-meter-wide objects.[2] Objects smaller than this are classified as micrometeoroids or space dust.[2][3][4] Most are fragments from comets or asteroids, whereas others are collision impact debris ejected from bodies such as the Moon or Mars.[5][6][7]
When a meteoroid, comet, or asteroid enters Earth's atmosphere at a speed typically in excess of 20 km/s (72,000 km/h; 45,000 mph), aerodynamic heating of that object produces a streak of light, both from the glowing object and the trail of glowing particles that it leaves in its wake. This phenomenon is called a meteor or "shooting star". A series of many meteors appearing seconds or minutes apart and appearing to originate from the same fixed point in the sky is called a meteor shower. If that object withstands ablation from its passage through the atmosphere as a meteor and impacts with the ground, it is then called a meteorite.
An estimated 15,000 tonnes of meteoroids, micrometeoroids and different forms of space dust enter Earth's atmosphere each year.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Meteoroids
1.1 Composition
1.2 In the Solar System
1.3 Collision with Earth's atmosphere
2 Meteors
2.1 History
2.2 Fireball
2.3 Effect on atmosphere
2.3.1 Colours
2.3.2 Acoustic manifestations
2.4 Meteor shower
2.5 Notable meteors
2.6 Gallery of meteors
3 Meteorites
3.1 Frequency of impacts
3.2 Impact craters
3.3 Gallery of meteorites
4 See also
4.1 Relating to meteoroids
4.2 Relating to meteors
4.3 Relating to meteorites
5 References
6 External links
Meteoroids[edit]
See also: Micrometeoroid
Meteoroid embedded in aerogel; the meteoroid is 10 µm in diameter and its track is 1.5 mm long
2008 TC3 meteorite fragments found on February 28, 2009, in the Nubian Desert, Sudan
In 1961, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) defined a meteoroid as "a solid object moving in interplanetary space, of a size considerably smaller than an asteroid and considerably larger than an atom".[9][10] In 1995, Beech and Steel, writing in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, proposed a new definition where a meteoroid would be between 100 µm and 10 meters across.[11] In 2010, following the discovery of asteroids below 10 m in size, Rubin and Grossman proposed a revision of the previous definition of meteoroid to objects between 10 µm and 1 m in diameter in order to maintain the distinction.[2] According to Rubin and Grossman, the minimum size of an asteroid is given by what can be discovered from Earth-bound telescopes, so the distinction between meteoroid and asteroid is fuzzy. Some of the smallest asteroids discovered (based on absolute magnitude H) are 2008 TS26 with H = 33.2[12] and 2011 CQ1 with H = 32.1[13] both with an estimated size of 1 meter.[14] In April 2017, the IAU adopted an official revision of its definition, limiting size to between 30 µm and 1 m in diameter, but allowing for a deviation for any object causing a meteor.[15]
Objects smaller than meteoroids are classified as micrometeoroids and interplanetary dust. The Minor Planet Center does not use the term "meteoroid".
Composition[edit]
Almost all meteoroids contain extraterrestrial nickel and iron. They have three main classifications: iron, stone, and stony-iron. Some stone meteoroids contain grain-like inclusions known as chondrules and are called chondrites. Stony meteoroids without these features are called "achondrites", which are typically formed from extraterrestrial igneous activity; they contain little or no extraterrestrial iron.[16] The composition of meteoroids can be inferred as they pass through Earth's atmosphere from their trajectories and the light spectra of the resulting meteor. Their effects on radio signals also give information, especially useful for daytime meteors, which are otherwise very difficult to observe. From these trajectory measurements, meteoroids have been found to have many different orbits, some clustering in streams (see meteor showers) often associated with a parent comet, others apparently sporadic. Debris from meteoroid streams may eventually be scattered into other orbits. The light spectra, combined with trajectory and light curve measurements, have yielded various compositions and densities, ranging from fragile snowball-like objects with density about a quarter that of ice,[17] to nickel-iron rich dense rocks. The study of meteorites also gives insights into the composition of non-ephemeral meteoroids.
In the Solar System[edit]
Most meteoroids come from the asteroid belt, having been perturbed by the gravitational influences of planets, but others are particles from comets, giving rise to meteor showers. Some meteoroids are fragments from bodies such as Mars or our moon, that have been thrown into space by an impact.
Meteoroids travel around the Sun in a variety of orbits and at various velocities. The fastest move at about 42 kilometers per second through space in the vicinity of Earth's orbit. This is escape velocity from the sun, equal to the square root of 2 times Earth's speed, and is the upper speed limit of objects in the vicinity of Earth, unless they come from interstellar space. Earth travels at about 29.6 kilometers per second, so when meteoroids meet the atmosphere head-on (which only occurs when meteors are in a retrograde orbit such as the Eta Aquarids, which are associated with the retrograde Halley's Comet) the combined speed may reach about 71 kilometers per second (see Specific energy#Astrodynamics). Meteoroids moving through Earth's orbital space average about 20 km/s.[18]
On January 17, 2013 at 05:21 PST, a 1 meter-sized comet from the Oort cloud entered Earth atmosphere over California and Nevada.[19] The object had a retrograde orbit with perihelion at 0.98 ± 0.03 AU. It approached from the direction of the constellation Virgo (which was in the south about 50° above the horizon at the time), and collided head-on with Earth's atmosphere at 72 ± 6 km/s[19] vapourising more than 100 km above ground over a period of several seconds.
Collision with Earth's atmosphere[edit]
When meteoroids intersect with Earth's atmosphere at night, they are likely to become visible as meteors. If meteoroids survive the entry through the atmosphere and reach Earth's surface, they are called meteorites. Meteorites are transformed in structure and chemistry by the heat of entry and force of impact. A noted 4-meter asteroid, 2008 TC3, was observed in space on a collision course with Earth on 6 October 2008 and entered Earth's atmosphere the next day, striking a remote area of northern Sudan. It was the first time that a meteoroid had been observed in space and tracked prior to impacting Earth.[9] NASA has produced a map showing the most notable asteroid collisions with Earth and its atmosphere from 1994 to 2013 from data gathered by U.S. government sensors (see below).
Meteors[edit]
"Meteor" redirects here. For other uses, see Meteor (disambiguation).
Meteor seen from the site of the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA)[20]
World map of large meteoric events (also see Fireball below) [21]
A meteor, known colloquially as a "shooting star" or "falling star", is the visible passage of a glowing meteoroid, micrometeoroid, comet or asteroid through Earth's atmosphere, after being heated to incandescence by collisions with air molecules in the upper atmosphere,[9][22][23] creating a streak of light via its rapid motion and sometimes also by shedding glowing material in its wake. Although a meteor may seem to be a few thousand feet from the Earth,[24] meteors typically occur in the mesosphere at altitudes from 76 to 100 km (47 to 62 mi).[25] The root word meteor comes from the Greek meteōros, meaning "high in the air".[22]
Millions of meteors occur in Earth's atmosphere daily. Most meteoroids that cause meteors are about the size of a grain of sand.[citation needed] Meteors may occur in showers, which arise when Earth passes through a stream of debris left by a comet, or as "random" or "sporadic" meteors, not associated with a specific stream of space debris. A number of specific meteors have been observed, largely by members of the public and largely by accident, but with enough detail that orbits of the meteoroids producing the meteors have been calculated. All of the orbits passed through the asteroid belt.[26] The atmospheric velocities of meteors result from the movement of Earth around the Sun at about 30 km/s (18 miles/second),[27] the orbital speeds of meteoroids, and the gravity well of Earth.
Meteors become visible between about 75 to 120 km (47 to 75 mi) above Earth. They usually disintegrate at altitudes of 50 to 95 km (31 to 59 mi).[28] Meteors have roughly a fifty percent chance of a daylight (or near daylight) collision with Earth. Most meteors are, however, observed at night, when darkness allows fainter objects to be recognized. For bodies with a size scale larger than 10 cm to several meters meteor visibility is due to the atmospheric ram pressure (not friction) that heats the meteoroid so that it glows and creates a shining trail of gases and melted meteoroid particles. The gases include vaporised meteoroid material and atmospheric gases that heat up when the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere. Most meteors glow for about a second.
History[edit]
Although meteors have been known since ancient times, they were not known to be an astronomical phenomenon until early in the nineteenth century. Prior to that, they were seen in the West as an atmospheric phenomenon, like lightning, and were not connected with strange stories of rocks falling from the sky. In 1807, Yale University chemistry professor Benjamin Silliman investigated a meteorite that fell in Weston, Connecticut.[29] Silliman believed the meteor had a cosmic origin, but meteors did not attract much attention from astronomers until the spectacular meteor storm of November 1833.[30] People all across the eastern United States saw thousands of meteors, radiating from a single point in the sky. Astute observers noticed that the radiant, as the point is now called, moved with the stars, staying in the constellation Leo.[31]
The astronomer Denison Olmsted made an extensive study of this storm, and concluded that it had a cosmic origin. After reviewing historical records, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers predicted the storm's return in 1867, which drew the attention of other astronomers to the phenomenon. Hubert A. Newton's more thorough historical work led to a refined prediction of 1866, which proved to be correct.[30] With Giovanni Schiaparelli's success in connecting the Leonids (as they are now called) with comet Tempel-Tuttle, the cosmic origin of meteors was now firmly established. Still, they remain an atmospheric phenomenon, and retain their name "meteor" from the Greek word for "atmospheric".[32]
Fireball[edit]
Main article: List of bolides
Play media
Footage of a superbolide, a very bright fireball that exploded over Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia in 2013
A fireball is a brighter-than-usual meteor. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) defines a fireball as "a meteor brighter than any of the planets" (apparent magnitude −4 or greater).[33] The International Meteor Organization (an amateur organization that studies meteors) has a more rigid definition. It defines a fireball as a meteor that would have a magnitude of −3 or brighter if seen at zenith. This definition corrects for the greater distance between an observer and a meteor near the horizon. For example, a meteor of magnitude −1 at 5 degrees above the horizon would be classified as a fireball because, if the observer had been directly below the meteor, it would have appeared as magnitude −6.[34]
Fireballs reaching apparent magnitude −14 or brighter are called bolides.[35] The IAU has no official definition of "bolide", and generally considers the term synonymous with "fireball". Astronomers often use "bolide" to identify an exceptionally bright fireball, particularly one that explodes. They are sometimes called detonating fireballs (also see List of meteor air bursts). It may also be used to mean a fireball which creates audible sounds. In the late twentieth century, bolide has also come to mean any object that hits Earth and explodes, with no regard to its composition (asteroid or comet).[36] The word bolide comes from the Greek βολίς (bolis) [37] which can mean a missile or to flash. If the magnitude of a bolide reaches −17 or brighter it is known as a superbolide.[35][38] A relatively small percentage of fireballs hit Earth's atmosphere and then pass out again: these are termed Earth-grazing fireballs. Such an event happened in broad daylight over North America in 1972. Another rare phenomena is a meteor procession, where the meteor breaks up into several fireballs traveling nearly parallel to the surface of Earth.
A steadily growing number of fireballs are recorded at the American Meteor Society every year.[39] There are probably more than 500,000 fireballs a year,[40] but most will go unnoticed because most will occur over the ocean and half will occur during daytime.
Fireball Sightings reported to the American Meteor Society [39]
Year
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Number 726 692 948 1,629 2,326 3,556 3,751 4,210 3,577[41]
Effect on atmosphere[edit]
"Ionization trail" and "Dark flight (astronomy)" redirect here. For the movie, see Dark Flight.
Ionization trail of a Perseid meteor seen against the constellation Corona Borealis with its ring of stars
The entry of meteoroids into Earth's atmosphere produces three main effects: ionization of atmospheric molecules, dust that the meteoroid sheds, and the sound of passage. During the entry of a meteoroid or asteroid into the upper atmosphere, an ionization trail is created, where the air molecules are ionized by the passage of the meteor. Such ionization trails can last up to 45 minutes at a time.
Small, sand-grain sized meteoroids are entering the atmosphere constantly, essentially every few seconds in any given region of the atmosphere, and thus ionization trails can be found in the upper atmosphere more or less continuously. When radio waves are bounced off these trails, it is called meteor burst communications. Meteor radars can measure atmospheric density and winds by measuring the decay rate and Doppler shift of a meteor trail. Most meteoroids burn up when they enter the atmosphere. The left-over debris is called meteoric dust or just meteor dust. Meteor dust particles can persist in the atmosphere for up to several months. These particles might affect climate, both by scattering electromagnetic radiation and by catalyzing chemical reactions in the upper atmosphere.[42] Meteoroids or their fragments may achieve dark flight after deceleration to terminal velocity.[43] Dark flight starts when they decelerate to about 2–4 km/s (4,500–8,900 mph).[44] Larger fragments will fall further down the strewn field.
Colours[edit]
A meteor of the Leonid meteor shower, the photograph shows the meteor, afterglow, and wake as distinct components
The visible light produced by a meteor may take on various hues, depending on the chemical composition of the meteoroid, and the speed of its movement through the atmosphere. As layers of the meteoroid abrade and ionize, the colour of the light emitted may change according to the layering of minerals. Colours of meteors depend on the relative influence of the metallic content of the meteoroid versus the superheated air plasma, which its passage engenders:[45]
Orange-yellow (sodium)
Yellow (iron)
Blue-green (magnesium)
Violet (calcium)
Red (atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen)
Acoustic manifestations[edit]
Sound generated by a meteor in the upper atmosphere, such as a sonic boom, typically arrives many seconds after the visual light from a meteor disappears. Occasionally, as with the Leonid meteor shower of 2001,"crackling", "swishing", or "hissing" sounds have been reported,[46] occurring at the same instant as a meteor flare. Similar sounds have also been reported during intense displays of Earth's auroras.[47][48][49][50]
Theories on the generation of these sounds may partially explain them. For example, scientists at NASA suggested that the turbulent ionized wake of a meteor interacts with Earth's magnetic field, generating pulses of radio waves. As the trail dissipates, megawatts of electromagnetic power could be released, with a peak in the power spectrum at audio frequencies. Physical vibrations induced by the electromagnetic impulses would then be heard if they are powerful enough to make grasses, plants, eyeglass frames, and other conductive materials vibrate.[51][52][53][54] This proposed mechanism, although proven to be plausible by laboratory work, remains unsupported by corresponding measurements in the field. Sound recordings made under controlled conditions in Mongolia in 1998 support the contention that the sounds are real.[55] (Also see Bolide.)
Meteor shower[edit]
Main articles: Meteor shower and List of meteor showers
Multiple meteors photographed over an extended exposure time during a meteor shower
Meteor shower on chart
A meteor shower is the result of an interaction between a planet, such as Earth, and streams of debris from a comet or other source. The passage of Earth through cosmic debris from comets and other sources is a recurring event in many cases. Comets can produce debris by water vapor drag, as demonstrated by Fred Whipple in 1951,[56] and by breakup. Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes and a certain amount of meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire orbit of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet's "dust tail" caused by the very small particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).
The frequency of fireball sightings increases by about 10-30% during the weeks of vernal equinox.[57] Even meteorite falls are more common during the northern hemisphere's spring season. Although this phenomenon has been known for quite some time, the reason behind the anomaly is not fully understood by scientists. Some researchers attribute this to an intrinsic variation in the meteoroid population along Earth's orbit, with a peak in big fireball-producing debris around spring and early summer. Others have pointed out that during this period the ecliptic is (in the northern hemisphere) high in the sky in the late afternoon and early evening. This means that fireball radiants with an asteroidal source are high in the sky (facilitating relatively high rates) at the moment the meteoroids "catch up" with Earth, coming from behind going in the same direction as Earth. This causes relatively low relative speeds and from this low entry speeds, which facilitates survival of meteorites.[58] It also generates high fireball rates in the early evening, increasing chances of eye witness reports. This explains a part, but perhaps not all of the seasonal variation. Research is in progress for mapping the orbits of the meteors to gain a better understanding of the phenomenon.[59]
Notable meteors[edit]
See also: Near-Earth object § Notable objects
1992—Peekskill, New York
The Peekskill Meteorite was filmed on October 9, 1992 by at least 16 independent videographers.[60] Eyewitness accounts indicate the fireball entry of the Peekskill meteorite started over West Virginia at 23:48 UT (±1 min). The fireball, which traveled in a northeasterly direction, had a pronounced greenish colour, and attained an estimated peak visual magnitude of −13. During a luminous flight time that exceeded 40 seconds the fireball covered a ground path of some 700 to 800 km.[61] One meteorite recovered at Peekskill, New York, for which the event and object gained their name, had a mass of 12.4 kg (27 lb) and was subsequently identified as an H6 monomict breccia meteorite.[62] The video record suggests that the Peekskill meteorite had several companions over a wide area. The companions are unlikely to be recovered in the hilly, wooded terrain in the vicinity of Peekskill.
2009—Bone, Indonesia
A large fireball was observed in the skies near Bone, Indonesia on October 8, 2009. This was thought to be caused by an asteroid approximately 10 meters in diameter. The fireball contained an estimated energy of 50 kilotons of TNT, or about twice the Nagasaki atomic bomb. No injuries were reported.[63]
2009—Southwestern US
A large bolide was reported on 18 November 2009 over southeastern California, northern Arizona, Utah, Wyoming, Idaho and Colorado. At 00:07 local time a security camera at the high altitude W. L. Eccles Observatory (2930 m above sea level) recorded a movie of the passage of the object to the north.[64][65] Of particular note in this video is the spherical "ghost" image slightly trailing the main object (this is likely a lens reflection of the intense fireball), and the bright fireball explosion associated with the breakup of a substantial fraction of the object. An object trail can be seen to continue northward after the bright fireball event. The shock from the final breakup triggered seven seismological stations in northern Utah; a timing fit to the seismic data yielded a terminal location of the object at 40.286 N, -113.191 W, altitude 27 km.[citation needed] This is above the Dugway Proving Grounds, a closed Army testing base.
2013—Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia
The Chelyabinsk meteor was an extremely bright, exploding fireball, known as superbolide, measuring about 17 to 20 meters across, with an estimated initial mass of 11,000 tonnes, as the relatively small asteroid entered Earth's atmosphere.[66][67] It was the largest known natural object to have entered Earth's atmosphere since the Tunguska event in 1908. Over 1,500 people were injured mostly by glass from shattered windows caused by the air burst approximately 25 to 30 km above the environs of Chelyabinsk, Russia on 15 February 2013. An increasingly bright streak was observed during morning daylight with a large contrail lingering behind. At no less than 1 minute and up to at least 3 minutes after the object peaked in intensity (depending on distance from trail), a large concussive blast was heard that shattered windows and set-off car alarms, which was followed by a number of smaller explosions.[68]
Gallery of meteors[edit]
Orionid meteor
Sporadic bolide over the desert of Central Australia and a Lyrid (top edge)
Meteor (center) seen from the International Space Station
Possible meteor (center) photographed from Mars, March 7, 2004, by MER Spirit
Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 colliding with Jupiter: The sequence shows fragment W turning into a fireball on the planet's dark side
Meteorites[edit]
Main article: Meteorite
Murnpeowie meteorite, an iron meteorite with regmaglypts resembling thumbprints (Australia, 1910)
A meteorite is a portion of a meteoroid or asteroid that survives its passage through the atmosphere and hits the ground without being destroyed.[69] Meteorites are sometimes, but not always, found in association with hypervelocity impact craters; during energetic collisions, the entire impactor may be vaporized, leaving no meteorites. Geologists use the term, "bolide", in a different sense from astronomers to indicate a very large impactor. For example, the USGS uses the term to mean a generic large crater-forming projectile in a manner "to imply that we do not know the precise nature of the impacting body ... whether it is a rocky or metallic asteroid, or an icy comet for example".[70]
Meteoroids also hit other bodies in the solar system. On such stony bodies as the Moon or Mars that have little or no atmosphere, they leave enduring craters.
Frequency of impacts[edit]
See also: Planet Earth collision probability with near-Earth objects
The diameter of the largest impactor to hit Earth on any given day is likely to be about 40 centimeters (16 inches), in a given year about 4 meters, and in a given century about 20 meters. These statistics are obtained by the following:
Over at least the range from 5 centimeters (2.0 inches) to roughly 300 meters (980 feet), the rate at which Earth receives meteors obeys a power-law distribution as follows:
N ( > D ) = 37 D − 2.7 {\displaystyle N(>D)=37D^{-2.7}\ }
where N (>D) is the expected number of objects larger than a diameter of D meters to hit Earth in a year.[71] This is based on observations of bright meteors seen from the ground and space, combined with surveys of near-Earth asteroids. Above 300 meters in diameter, the predicted rate is somewhat higher, with a two-kilometer asteroid (one million-megaton TNT equivalent) every couple of million years — about 10 times as often as the power-law extrapolation would predict.
Impact craters[edit]
Main article: Impact crater
Meteoroid collisions with solid Solar System objects, including the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede, and most small moons and asteroids, create impact craters, which are the dominant geographic features of many of those objects. On other planets and moons with active surface geological processes, such as Earth, Venus, Mars, Europa, Io, and Titan, visible impact craters may become eroded, buried, or transformed by tectonics over time. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was widely recognised, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to describe what are now recognised as impact-related features on Earth.[72] Molten terrestrial material ejected from a meteorite impact crater can cool and solidify into an object known as a tektite. These are often mistaken for meteorites.
Gallery of meteorites[edit]
Two tektites, molten terrestrial ejecta from a meteorite impact
A partial slice of the Esquel pallasite
Willamette Meteorite, from Oregon, USA
Meteorite, which fell in Wisconsin in 1868
Marília Meteorite, a chondrite H4, which fell in Marília, Brazil (1971)
Children posing behind the Tucson Meteorite at the Arizona Museum of Natural History
Meteorite with brecciation and carbon inclusions from Tindouf, Algeria[73]
See also[edit]
Glossary of meteoritics
Relating to meteoroids[edit]
Interplanetary dust
Micrometeoroid
Near-Earth object
Relating to meteors[edit]
American Meteor Society
Bolide
Desert Fireball Network
Green fireballs
Hydrometeor
International Meteor Organization
Leonids
List of meteor air bursts
List of meteor showers
Lyrids
North American Meteor Network
Orionids
Perseids
Tollmann's hypothetical bolide
Relating to meteorites[edit]
Baetylus—Sacred stones made from meteorites
Impact crater
Impact event
Interplanetary dust cloud § Collecting interplanetary dust on Earth
Meteorite
Micrometeorite
Tektite
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Jump up ^ Keay, Colin S. L. (1990). "C. A. Chant and the Mystery of Auroral Sounds". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. 84: 373–382. Bibcode:1990JRASC..84..373K.
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Jump up ^ Sommer, H. C.; Von Gierke, H. E. (September 1964). "Hearing sensations in electric fields". Aerospace Medicine. 35: 834–839. PMID 14175790. Extract text archive.
Jump up ^ Frey, Allan H. (1 July 1962). "Human auditory system response to modulated electromagnetic energy". Journal of Applied Physiology. American Physiological Society. 17 (4): 689–692. Retrieved 7 February 2016. Full text archive.
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Jump up ^ Whipple, Fred (1951). "A Comet Model. II. Physical Relations for Comets and Meteors" (PDF). Astrophysical Journal. pp. 464–474. Bibcode:1951ApJ...113..464W. doi:10.1086/145416.
Jump up ^ Phillips, Tony. "Spring is Fireball Season". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2011-09-16.
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Jump up ^ "The Peekskill Meteorite 9 October 1992 Videos".
Jump up ^ Brown, Peter; Ceplecha, Zedenek; Hawkes, Robert L.; Wetherill, George W.; Beech, Martin; Mossman, Kaspar (1994). "The orbit and atmospheric trajectory of the Peekskill meteorite from video records". Nature. 367 (6464): 624–626. Bibcode:1994Natur.367..624B. doi:10.1038/367624a0.
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Jump up ^ "Northwest Africa 869". Meteoritical Bulletin Database. The Meteoritical Society.
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GND: 4202315-4
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Trachea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the genus of moth, see Trachea (moth). For the cup-shaped Byzantine coins, see Trachy (currency).
Trachea
Conducting passages.
Details
Artery
tracheal branches of inferior thyroid artery
Vein
brachiocephalic vein, azygos vein accessory hemiazygos vein
Identifiers
Latin
Trachea
MeSH
A04.889
FMA
7394
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The trachea, colloquially called the windpipe, is a cartilaginous tube that connects the pharynx and larynx to the lungs, allowing the passage of air, and so is present in almost all air-breathing animals with lungs. The trachea extends from the larynx and branches into the two primary bronchi. At the top of the trachea the cricoid cartilage attaches it to the larynx. This is the only complete tracheal ring, the others being incomplete rings of reinforcing cartilage. The trachealis muscle joins the ends of the rings and these are joined vertically by bands of fibrous connective tissue – the annular ligaments of trachea. The epiglottis closes the opening to the larynx during swallowing.
The trachea develops in the second month of development. It is lined with an epithelium that has goblet cells which produce protective mucins. An inflammatory condition, also involving the larynx and bronchi, called croup can result in a barking cough. A tracheotomy is often performed for ventilation in surgical operations where needed. Intubation is also carried out for the same reason by the inserting of a tube into the trachea. From 2008, operations have experimentally transplanted a windpipe grown by stem cells, and synthetic windpipes; their success is, however, doubtful.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Development
1.2 Histology
2 Clinical significance
2.1 Inflammation
2.2 Intubation
2.3 Congenital disorders
2.4 Other
3 Other animals
3.1 Vertebrates
3.2 Invertebrates
4 Prosthesis
5 Society and culture
6 Additional images
7 External links
8 References
Structure[edit]
The trachea of an adult has an inner diameter of about 1.5 to 2 centimetres (0.6 to 0.8 in) and a length of about 10 to 11 centimetres (4 in.).[2] It begins at the bottom of the larynx, and ends at the carina, the point where the trachea branches into left and right main bronchi.[2] The trachea begins level with the sixth cervical vertebra and the carina is found at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra (T5),[2] opposite the sternal angle and can be positioned up to two vertebrae lower or higher, depending on breathing.
The trachea is surrounded by rings of hyaline cartilage; these rings are incomplete and C-shaped. The cricoid cartilage is attached to the first tracheal ring at top of the trachea and acts as the bottom of the larynx. There are fifteen to twenty rings in total, separated by narrow intervals. These reinforce the front and sides of the trachea to protect and maintain the airway.[citation needed]
In front of the rings lies connective tissue and skin. Several other structures pass or sit over it; the jugular arch, which joins the two anterior jugular veins, sits in front of the upper part of the trachea. The sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles stretch along its length, and the thyroid gland sits below this; with the isthmus of the gland overlying the second to fourth rings.[2]
The first tracheal ring is broader than the rest, and often divided at one end; it is connected by the cricotracheal ligament with the lower border of the cricoid cartilage, and is sometimes blended with the next cartilage down. The last cartilage is thick and broad in the middle, due to its lower border being prolonged into a triangular hook-shaped (uncinate) process, which curves downward and backward between the two bronchi. It ends on each side in an imperfect ring, which encloses the commencement of the bronchus. The cartilage above the last is somewhat broader than the others at its center.[citation needed]
Two or more of the cartilages often unite, partially or completely, and they are sometimes bifurcated at their extremities. The rings are generally highly elastic but they may calcify with age.
The trachealis muscle connects the ends of the incomplete rings and contracts during coughing, reducing the size of the lumen of the trachea to increase the rate of air flow.[3] The esophagus lies posteriorly to the trachea, adjoining along the tracheoesophageal stripe. Circular horizontal bands of fibrous tissue called the annular ligaments of trachea join the tracheal rings together. The cartilaginous rings are incomplete to allow the trachea to collapse slightly so that food can pass down the esophagus. A flap-like epiglottis closes the opening to the larynx during swallowing to prevent swallowed matter from entering the trachea.
The sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles lie on top of the upper part of the trachea
The thyroid gland also lies on top of the trachea, and lies below the cricoid cartilage. The isthmus of the thyroid, which connects both wings, lies directly in front, whereas the wings lie on the front and stretch to the side.
Development[edit]
In the fourth week of development of the human embryo as the respiratory bud grows, the trachea separates from the foregut through the formation of tracheoesophageal ridges which fuse to form the tracheoesophageal septum and this separates the future trachea from the oesophagus and divides the foregut tube into the laryngotracheal tube. Before the end of the fifth week, the trachea begins to develop from the laryngotracheal tube which develops from the laryngotracheal groove. The first part of the cephalic region of the tube forms the larynx, and the next part forms the trachea.
The trachea is no more than 4mm diameter during the first year of life, expanding to its adult diameter by late childhood. The trachea is more mobile and of more variable length, deeper, and smaller in children.[2]
Histology[edit]
10 X Photograph of a histological sample of a human trachea coloured with H&E stain
Cross-section
The trachea is lined with a layer of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. The epithelium contains goblet cells, which are glandular, modified simple columnar epithelial cells that produce mucins, the main component of mucus. Mucus helps to moisten and protect the airways.[4] Mucus lines the ciliated cells of the trachea to trap inhaled foreign particles that the cilia then waft upward toward the larynx and then the pharynx where it can be either swallowed into the stomach or expelled as phlegm. This self-clearing mechanism is termed mucociliary clearance.[5]
Clinical significance[edit]
Inflammation[edit]
Inflammation of the trachea is known as tracheitis. When the trachea is inflamed as well as the larynx and bronchi, this is known as croup, which often causes a distinct, barking cough.
Intubation[edit]
Main articles: Tracheal intubation and Airway management
Tracheal intubation refers to the insertion of a catheter down the trachea. This procedure is commonly performed during surgery, in order to ensure a person receives enough oxygen when sedated. The catheter is connected to a machine that monitors the airflow, oxygenation and several other metrics. This is often one of the responsibilities of an anesthetist during surgery. The epiglottic vallecula is an important anatomical landmark for carrying out this procedure.
In an emergency, or when tracheal intubation is deemed impossible, a tracheotomy is often performed to insert a tube for ventilation, usually when needed for particular types of surgery to be carried out so that the airway can be kept open. The provision of the opening via a tracheotomy is called a tracheostomy.[6] Another less invasive method is used when a procedure can be carried out more quickly, or in an emergency situation, and this is a cricothyrotomy.
Congenital disorders[edit]
Tracheal agenesis,[7] is a rare birth defect in which the trachea fails to develop. The defect is usually fatal though sometimes surgical intervention has been successful.
A tracheoesophageal fistula is a congenital defect in which the trachea and esophagus are abnormally connected.
Sometimes as an anatomical variation one or more of the tracheal rings are completely formed. These O rings are smaller than the normal C-shaped and can cause narrowing of the trachea resulting in breathing difficulties. An operation called a slide tracheoplasty can be performed which opens up the rings and rejoins them as wider rings shortening the length of the trachea.[8] Slide tracheoplasty is said to be the best option in treating tracheal stenosis.[9]
Mounier-Kuhn syndrome is a very rare congenital disorder of an abnormally enlarged trachea.
Other[edit]
A tracheo-oesophageal puncture is a surgically created hole between the trachea and the esophagus in a person who has had a total laryngectomy, (removal of larynx). The purpose of the puncture is to restore a person’s ability to speak after the vocal cords have been removed.
Tracheomalacia (weakening of the tracheal cartilage)
Tracheal collapse (in dogs)
Tracheobronchial injury (perforation of the trachea or bronchi)
A chondrolaryngoplasty commonly called a tracheal shave is the shaving of the cricoid cartilage in order to reduce it to lessen the prominence of the Adam's apple. It is often carried out in transgender surgery.
Other animals[edit]
Allowing for variations in the length of the neck, the trachea in other mammals is, in general, similar to that in humans. Generally, it is also similar to the reptilian trachea.[10]
Vertebrates[edit]
In birds, the trachea runs from the pharynx to the syrinx, from which the primary bronchi diverge. Swans have an unusually elongated trachea, part of which is coiled beneath the sternum; this may act as a resonator to amplify sound. In some birds, the tracheal rings are complete, and may even be ossified.[10]
In amphibians, the trachea is normally extremely short, and leads directly into the lungs, without clear primary bronchi. A longer trachea is, however, found in some long-necked salamanders, and in caecilians. While there are irregular cartilagenous nodules on the amphibian trachea, these do not form the rings found in amniotes.[10]
The only vertebrates to have lungs, but no trachea, are the lungfish and the Polypterus, in which the lungs arise directly from the pharynx.[10]
Invertebrates[edit]
Tracheal system of dissected cockroach. The largest tracheae run across the width of the body of the cockroach and are horizontal in this image. Scale bar, 2 mm.
The tracheal system branches into progressively smaller tubes, here supplying the crop of the cockroach. Scale bar, 2 mm.
In invertebrates the open respiratory system is made up of spiracles, tracheae, and tracheoles that terrestrial arthropods have to transport metabolic gases to and from tissues.[11] The distribution of spiracles can vary greatly among the many orders of insects, but in general each segment of the body can have only one pair of spiracles, each of which connects to an atrium and has a relatively large tracheal tube behind it. The tracheae are invaginations of the cuticular exoskeleton that branch (anastomose) throughout the body with diameters from only a few micrometres up to 0.8 mm. The smallest tubes, tracheoles, penetrate cells[citation needed] and serve as sites of diffusion for water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Gas may be conducted through the respiratory system by means of active ventilation or passive diffusion. Unlike vertebrates, insects do not generally carry oxygen in their haemolymph.[12] This is one of the factors that may limit their size.
A tracheal tube may contain ridge-like circumferential rings of taenidia in various geometries such as loops or helices. In the head, thorax, or abdomen, tracheae may also be connected to air sacs. Many insects, such as grasshoppers and bees, which actively pump the air sacs in their abdomen, are able to control the flow of air through their body. In some aquatic insects, the tracheae exchange gas through the body wall directly, in the form of a gill, or function essentially as normal, via a plastron. Note that despite being internal, the tracheae of arthropods are shed during moulting (ecdysis).[citation needed]
Prosthesis[edit]
Several bioengineering approaches have been tested to repair and replace the trachea, indicating replacement is impossible and regeneration is unrealistic.[13]
Society and culture[edit]
In 2008, a Colombian woman, Claudia Castillo (30), received a trachea transplant using her own stem cells.[14]
Between 2011 and 2014 Paolo Macchiarini of the Karolinska University Hospital performed eight operations in which he generated an artificial trachea from a person's stem cells; four of them at Karolinska, three in Russia, and one in Illinois.[1] In January 2016 the Swedish television station Sveriges Television broadcast a three part documentary about Macchiarini that suggested that Macchiarini did not obtain informed consent from these people, six of whom died.[1] Macchiraini had been a "media darling" and had been seen as a pioneer in the field.[1] In February 2016 Karolinska announced it would not renew his contract when it expired in November 2016 and that it would open an investigation of Macchiarini's work and publications.[1]
Additional images[edit]
Trachea.
The tracheobronchial lymph glands.
Coronal section of larynx and upper part of trachea.
Microscopic cross section of human trachea.
Larynx helps in the passage of air.
External links[edit]
Histology at vetmed.wsu.edu
Atlas image: rsa3p2 at the University of Michigan Health System – "Larynx and trachea, lateral view"
"Cat Respiratory System " at kent.edu
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Karolinska Institute has 'lost confidence' in Paolo Macchiarini, says it won't renew his contract". KI. 2016-02-04. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Gray's Anatomy 2008, p. 1000.
Jump up ^ Ross, Michael. Histology a text and atlas (5th ed.). Wojciech Pawlina. p. 617.
Jump up ^ Mescher AL, "Chapter 17. The Respiratory System" (Chapter). Mescher AL: Junqueira's Basic Histology: Text & Atlas, 12e: http://www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx?aID=6182422.
Jump up ^ Antunes, MB; Cohen, NA (February 2007). "Mucociliary clearance—a critical upper airway host defense mechanism and methods of assessment". Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 7 (1): 5–10. doi:10.1097/aci.0b013e3280114eef. PMID 17218804.
Jump up ^ Molnar, Heather. "Types of Tracheostomy Tubes".
Jump up ^ Chiu, T.; Cuevas, D.; Cuevas, L.; Monteiro, C. (1990). "Tracheal agenesis". Southern Medical Journal. 83 (8): 925–930. doi:10.1097/00007611-199008000-00018. PMID 2200137.
Jump up ^ "Slide tracheoplasty". Retrieved 2 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Xue, B; Liang, B; Wang, S; Zhu, L; Lu, Z; Xu, Z (January 2015). "One-stage surgical correction of congenital tracheal stenosis complicated with congenital heart disease in infants and young children". Journal of Cardiac Surgery. 30 (1): 97–103. doi:10.1111/jocs.12418. PMID 25109422.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 336–337. ISBN 0-03-910284-X.
Jump up ^ Wasserthal, Lutz T. (1998). Chapter 25: The Open Hemolymph System of Holometabola and Its Relation to the Tracheal Space. In "Microscopic Anatomy of Invertebrates". Wiley-Liss, Inc. ISBN 0-471-15955-7.
Jump up ^ Westneat, Mark W.; Betz, Oliver; Blob, Richard W.; Fezzaa, Kamel; Cooper, James W.; Lee, Wah-Keat (January 2003). "Tracheal Respiration in Insects Visualized with Synchrotron X-ray Imaging". Science. 299 (5606): 558–560. doi:10.1126/science.1078008. PMID 12543973.
Jump up ^ Delaere, P; Van Raemdonck, D (March 2016). "Tracheal replacement". Journal of thoracic disease. 8 (Suppl 2): S186–96. PMC 4775267  . PMID 26981270.
Jump up ^ "The top health stories of 2008 - CNN.com". CNN. 2008-12-26. Retrieved 2010-05-27.
Books
editor-in-chief, Susan Standring ; section editors, Neil R. Borley; et al. (2008). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Britton, the editors Nicki R. Colledge, Brian R. Walker, Stuart H. Ralston ; illustrated by Robert (2010). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7.
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Organ transplant

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Cervical vertebra 6

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Hematoxylin and eosin stain

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Columnar epithelium

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Mounier-Kuhn syndrome

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Main bronchus

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Hilum of lung

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Horizontal fissure of right lung

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Oblique fissure

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Superior lobe

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Lingula of left lung

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Middle lobe of right lung

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Left lung

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Conducting zone

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Terminal bronchiole

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Respiratory zone

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Respiratory bronchiole

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Trakea – Indonesian
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Trachea – Latin
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Traheja – Latvian
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Trahee – Romanian
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Trachea – Scots
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