text:
Pygostyle
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Pope's nose redirects here. It may also refer to the licence plate light on early Volkswagen Beetles.
Pigeon skeleton with "plowshare"-type pygostyle (number 17)
Confuciusornis sanctus with "rod"-type pygostyle and the two central tail feathers
Pygostyle describes a skeletal condition in which the final few caudal vertebrae are fused into a single ossification, supporting the tail feathers and musculature. In modern birds, the rectrices attach to these. The pygostyle is the main component of the uropygium, a structure colloquially known as the parson's nose, pope's nose, or sultan's nose. This is the fleshy protuberance visible at the posterior end of a bird (most commonly a chicken or turkey) that has been dressed for cooking. It has a swollen appearance because it also contains the uropygial gland that produces preen oil.
Contents
[hide]
1 Evolution
2 Etymology
3 As food
4 Footnotes
5 References
Evolution[edit]
Pygostyles probably began to evolve very early in the Cretaceous period, perhaps 140-130 million years ago. The earliest known species to have evolved a pygostyle were members of the Confuciusornithidae.[citation needed] The structure provided an evolutionary advantage, as a completely mobile tail as found in species such as Archaeopteryx is detrimental to its use for flight control. Modern birds still develop longer caudal vertebrae in their embryonic state, which later fuse to form a pygostyle.
There are two main types of pygostyle:[citation needed] one, found in Confuciusornithidae, Enantiornithes, and some other Mesozoic birds, as well as in some oviraptorosaurs like Nomingia, is long and rod- or dagger blade-like. None of the known fossils with such pygostyles show traces of well-developed rectrices. The tail feathers in these animals consisted of downy fuzz and sometimes 2–4 central "streamers" such as those found in some specimens of Confuciusornis or in Paraprotopteryx.[1]
By contrast, the function of the pygostyle in the terrestrial Nomingia is not known. It is notable however that its older relative Caudipteryx had no pygostyle but a "fan" of symmetrical feathers which were probably used in social display. Perhaps such ornaments were widespread in Caenagnathoidea and their relatives, and ultimately the oviraptorosaurian pygostyle evolved to help support them. The related Similicaudipteryx, described in 2008, also had a rod-like pygostyle, associated with a fan of tail feathers.[2]
Yixianornis grabaui, one of the oldest known species with a pygostyle like that in living birds
The other pygostyle type is plowshare-shaped. It is found in Ornithurae (living birds and their closest relatives), and in almost all flying species is associated with an array of well-developed rectrices used in maneuvering. The central pair of these attach directly to the pygostyle, just as in Confuciusornis. The other rectrices of Ornithurae are held in place and moved by structures called bulbi rectricium (rectricial bulbs), a complex feature of fat and muscles located on either side of the pygostyle. The oldest known species with such a pygostyle is Hongshanornis longicresta.[3]
As evidenced by the oviraptorosaurian cases, the pygostyle evolved at least twice, and rod-shaped pygostyles seem to have evolved several times, in association with shortening of the tail but not necessarily with a retractable fan of tail feathers. In other words, the pygostyles of oviraptorosaurs and Confuciusornis were likely weight-saving measures, and the specialized "true" pygostyles of ornithurans were adapted from these later to improve flight performance.[1]
The bird clade Pygostylia was named in 1996, by Luis Chiappe, for the presence of this feature and roughly corresponds to its appearance in the bird family tree, though the feature itself is not included in its definition.[4] In 2001, Jacques Gauthier and Kevin de Queiroz (2001) re-defined Pygostylia to refer specifically to the apomorphy of a short tail bearing an avian pygostyle.
Etymology[edit]
Look up pygostyle in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"Pygostyle" is of Ancient Greek origin, literally meaning "rump pillar".
The phrase "parson's nose" comes from the notion that an English parson may 'have his nose up in the air', upturned like the chicken's rear end. The term must have been known as early as around 1400 AD, when a carpenter had been contracted to provide new choir stalls for St Mary's Church, Nantwich.[verification needed] The vicar was either slow to pay the artisan, or did not pay at all. In retaliation, on the last misericord in the stalls, the carpenter carved a bird with an image of that Vicar's face with protuberant nose as rump. The carving is still visible today.[5]
A similar derivation applies to the phrase "Pope's nose", which may have originated as a derogatory term meant to demean Catholics in England during the late 17th century.[citation needed]
"Sultan's nose" probably was coined some time during the Early Modern era wars against the Ottoman Empire.[citation needed]
As food[edit]
Turkey tail or turkey butt has an international exportation market in places such as Micronesia, Samoa, and Ghana. The turkey tail is commonly exported from America because it is considered unhealthy and cut off of the normal turkey.[6] After World War II, cheap imported turkey tails became popular in Samoa. Because the cut is so fatty, to combat obesity it was banned from 2007 to 2013, only allowed back when Samoa joined the World Trade Organization. The meat is otherwise used in pet food.[7]
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Clarke et al. (2006)
Jump up ^ Xu, X.; Zheng, X.; You, H. (2010). "Exceptional dinosaur fossils show ontogenetic development of early feathers". Nature. 464 (7293): 1338–1341. doi:10.1038/nature08965. PMID 20428169.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, J.K.; Gao, K.-Q.; Chiappe, L.M. (2010). "A new ornithuromorph (Aves: Ornithothoraces) bird from the Jehol Group indicative of higher-level diversity" (PDF). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (2): 311–321. doi:10.1080/02724631003617498.
Jump up ^ Chiappe, L. (1997). "The Chinese early bird Confuciusornis and the paraphyletic status of Sauriurae". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 17 (3): 37A. doi:10.1080/02724634.1997.10011028.
Jump up ^ "The Building and Contents of St Mary's Nantwich". St Mary's PCC, Nantwich. parsonsnose.jpg. Retrieved 2012-02-29.
Jump up ^ Singer, Merrill (2014). "Following the turkey tails: neoliberal globalization and the political ecology of health" (PDF). Journal of Political Ecology. 21: 436–451.
Jump up ^ Robert Siegel (2013-05-09). "Samoans Await The Return Of The Tasty Turkey Tail". NPR.
References[edit]
Clarke, Julia A.; Zhou, Zhonghe & Zhang, Fucheng (2006): Insight into the evolution of avian flight from a new clade of Early Cretaceous ornithurines from China and the morphology of Yixianornis grabaui. Journal of Anatomy 208 (3):287–308. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00534.x PMID 16533313 PDF fulltext Electronic Appendix
He, T.; Wang, X.-L. & Zhou, Z.-H. (2008): A new genus and species of caudipterid dinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation of western Liaoning, China. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 46(3): 178–189.
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Where the Heart Is (2000 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the 2000 film. For other uses, see Where the Heart Is.
Where The Heart Is
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Matt Williams
Produced by
Susan Cartsonis
David McFadzean
Patricia Whitcher
Matt Williams
Screenplay by
Lowell Ganz
Babaloo Mandel
Based on
Where the Heart Is
by Billie Letts
Starring
Natalie Portman
Ashley Judd
Stockard Channing
Joan Cusack
Music by
Mason Daring
Cinematography
Richard Greatrex
Edited by
Brooke Wilson
Production
company
Kiah rainwater studios
Distributed by
20th Century Fox
Release date
April 28, 2000
Running time
120 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$15 million
Box office
$40 million
Where the Heart Is is a 2000 American romantic drama film directed by Matt Williams in his film directing debut. The film stars Natalie Portman, Stockard Channing, Ashley Judd, and Joan Cusack with supporting roles performed by James Frain, Dylan Bruno, Keith David, and Sally Field. The screenplay, written by Lowell Ganz and Babaloo Mandel, is based on the best-selling novel by Billie Letts. The film follows five years in the life of Novalee Nation, a pregnant 17-year-old, who is abandoned by her boyfriend at a Walmart in a small Oklahoma town. She secretly moves into the store, where she eventually gives birth to her baby, which attracts media attention. With the help of friends, she makes a new life for herself in the town.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Differences between novel and film
4 Music
5 Reception
5.1 Critical response
5.2 Box office
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Novalee Nation (Natalie Portman) is seventeen years old and seven months pregnant. She sets off on a road trip from Tennessee to California with her boyfriend, Willy Jack Pickens (Dylan Bruno) in an old, broken down 1963 Plymouth. When driving through Sequoyah, Oklahoma, Novalee asks Willy Jack to stop at the local Walmart so that she can go to the restroom and buy new shoes. Willy Jack drives off leaving behind her and her new Polaroid camera. Having no other place to go she walks back inside and meets Thelma "Sister" Husband (Stockard Channing). After Sister presents her with a buckeye tree, Novalee also meets Moses Whitecotton (Keith David), a local photographer who advises her to give her baby a strong name. A sickly Novalee is forced to live in the Walmart, undetected. Meanwhile Willy Jack is charged with fraternizing with a minor, and stealing from a convenience store. During his tenure in prison he composes a country song, "Beat of the Heart."
Novalee soon meets Forney Hull (James Frain), the surly librarian who looks after his alcoholic sister Mary Elizabeth (Margaret Hoard). During a thunderstorm Novalee, alone at Walmart, goes into labor. Forney, who is now in awe of Novalee, and had seen her enter the store at closing time, smashes through the window to help deliver her child. Novalee instantly becomes a media darling, and in hospital is befriended by Nurse Lexie Coop (Ashley Judd), who has four children by three different men. Novalee names her daughter Americus. Her estranged mother Mama Lil (Sally Field), visits after hearing of the news on television but Novalee soon realises to her dismay and disgust that money had been Mama Lil's only motive. Sister Husband arrives and offers to take in Novalee and Americus.
Three years later, Novalee begins a career as a photographer with the help of Moses. When a tornado blows through Sequoyah, Sister Husband is killed. In memory of Sister, Novalee shoots a picture of Americus and the still-standing buckeye tree amidst the damage from the storm. After the funeral, Novalee finds out that she is the beneficiary of Sister's estate, totaling around $40,000. Novalee builds a new home for herself and Americus on Sister's land.
Upon being released from prison and making it to Nashville, Willy Jack becomes a one-hit-wonder after a slow start with the song he wrote in jail. He teams with the grizzled and cranky music agent, Ruth Meyers (Joan Cusack), who gives him a makeover and the stage name "Billy Shadow." At the same time, Novalee is also in Las Vegas to accept an award in a photo contest she has won. Novalee and Willy Jack just miss meeting each other. Ruth Meyers, who has gotten in his hotel room, informs Willy Jack that his old cellmate, Tommy Reynolds, is suing him claiming he is the true writer of Beat of a Heart, now a major radio hit, and terminates her connections with Willy Jack. Novalee returns to Sequoyah after the awards event without realizing how close she came to seeing Willy Jack.
One day, Novalee receives a call from Brownie, Lexie's oldest child. She rushes over to find Lexie bruised and battered and learns that Lexie's new love interest started to molest her two eldest children and nearly beat her to death as she attempted to protect them. Lexie's injuries hinder her nursing job and she and her children have to move in with Novalee and Americus. Lexie breaks down feeling guilty and angry. She tearfully tells Novalee that she ignored her kid's dislike for her boyfriend.
Mary Elizabeth later passes away and when Forney does not appear at the funeral, Novalee finds him in a hotel and comforts him. They act on their feelings they have denied for so long and spend the night together. Forney confesses his love for her. Novalee confides in Lexie that she has never considered good enough for Forney and is confused about her own feelings for.
Novalee learns that Lexie is seeing someone new. Lexie is embarrassed to admit "Ernie" is an exterminator and does not have quite the physical attributes that have in the past attracted her interest. Lexie eventually falls in love with Ernie (Bob Coonrod) after learning he gave his ex-wife his restored 1967 Chevy Camaro in exchange for custody of his step-daughter whom he adopted as his own. They get married, and Lexie tells Novalee that she's pregnant.
After Forney returns from his sister's burial on the east coast, Novalee feels deeply that she is not good enough for him, knowing he has a chance of going back to school. Knowing his life would be a dead end staying with her in Sequoyah, she struggles through lying to him saying she does not love him. Heartbroken and rejected by Novalee, Forney returns to school in Maine.
Severely depressed at his ruined career following the lawsuit, Willy Jack becomes an alcoholic and starts popping pills while driving with a woman across country. He wanders off drunk and collapses on a railroad track where he is unable to move as a train approaches. On Americus's 5th birthday, Novalee picks up a newspaper and sees an article about Willy Jack having lost his legs some months before and recently being robbed of his wheelchair. Novalee visits Willy Jack in the hospital and he confesses his whole life would've been different if he hadn't left her. Novalee, realizing he is now a pathetically changed man, is able to finally forgive and let go of Willy Jack.
Novalee realizes that her lies are similar mistakes with Forney. She drives Willy Jack home to Tennessee and then continues to Maine to find Forney at a college. Novalee tells him she really does love him and they return to Oklahoma and marry. The final scene is of their wedding, which takes place in a Walmart.
Cast[edit]
Natalie Portman as Novalee Nation
Ashley Judd as Lexie Coop
Stockard Channing as Thelma "Sister" Husband
Joan Cusack as Ruth Meyers
James Frain as Forney Hull
Dylan Bruno as Willy Jack Pickens
Keith David as Moses Whitecotton
Richard Andrew Jones as Mr. Sprock
Sally Field as Mama Lil
Angee Hughes as Religious woman
Margaret Hoard as Mary Elizabeth Hull
Mackenzie Fitzgerald as Americus Nation
David Alvarado as Tommy Reynolds
Richard Nance as Johnny DeSotto
Bob Coonrod as Ernie
Cody Linley as Brownie Coop
Adrian Garza as Young Brownie (uncredited)
Differences between novel and film[edit]
Novalee finds the number 5 unlucky in the movie, and the number 7 unlucky in the novel.
Sister Husband has brown hair in the movie, and blue hair in the novel.
In the novel, Lexie marries Leon Yoder.
In the film, Forney returns to school. In the novel, Forney instead travels for some time before settling in Chicago.
Novalee's marriage to Forney only occurs in the film.
In the novel, Lexie is obese. She is constantly trying new fad diets and weight loss schemes. This aspect of her character is removed from the film version.
In the novel, Benny Goodluck gives Novalee a buckeye tree for good luck. In the film, the buckeye tree was given to Novalee by Sister Husband.
In the novel, Moses has a wife named Certain whom Novalee also becomes close with. She is entirely omitted from the film, as is Benny Goodluck.
Music[edit]
Original music for the film was produced by Mason Daring. A soundtrack of the original music was released by RCA Records, as well as a music compilation soundtrack featuring songs used in the film by artists such as Emmylou Harris, Lyle Lovett, Martina McBride, and John Hiatt.
The song "That's the Beat of a Heart" was performed by The Warren Brothers and Sara Evans. A music video was made for the song, which is included as a bonus extra on the DVD release, and features a number of scenes from the film.
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
The film received mostly negative reviews. Metacritic gives it a score of 30% based on reviews from 28 critics.[1] Rotten Tomatoes gives it a 35% approval rating, based on reviews from 97 critics, with the sites consensus stating that the film's "poor script and messy plot undermines the decent cast."[2]
Box office[edit]
The film opened in theaters in the United States on April 28, 2000. Where the Heart Is accumulated (USD)$8,292,939 in its opening weekend, opening at number 4.
The film went on to make $33,772,838 at the North American box office, and an additional $7,090,880 internationally for a worldwide total of $40,863,718.[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Metacritic (Where The Heart Is)
Jump up ^ Rotten Tomatoes (Where The Heart Is)
Jump up ^ "Where the Heart Is". boxofficemojo.com. Retrieved 15 April 2006.
External links[edit]
Where the Heart Is on IMDb
Where the Heart Is at Box Office Mojo
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Right to education
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The right to education has been recognized as a human right in a number of international conventions, including the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which recognises a right to free, compulsory primary education for all, an obligation to develop secondary education accessible to all, in particular by the progressive introduction of free secondary education, as well as an obligation to develop equitable access to higher education, ideally by the progressive introduction of free higher education. Today, almost 70 million children across the world are prevented from going to school each day.[1] As of 2015, 164 states were parties to the Covenant.[2]
The right to education also includes a responsibility to provide basic education for individuals who have not completed primary education. In addition to these access to education provisions, the right to education encompasses the obligation to avoid discrimination at all levels of the educational system, to set minimum standards and to improve the quality of education.
Contents
[hide]
1 International legal basis
2 Definition
3 Assessment of fulfilment
4 Historical development
5 Implementation
5.1 Compulsory education
6 Right to education for children
7 The impact of privatization on the right to education
8 See also
8.1 Lawsuits
9 Sources
10 References
11 External links
International legal basis[edit]
The right to education is reflected in international law in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Articles 13 and 14 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.[3][4][5] Article 26 states:
"Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children."[6]
The right to education has been reaffirmed in the 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education, the 1981 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women,[7] the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities,g[8] and the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights.[9]
In Europe, Article 2 of the first Protocol of 20 March 1952 to the European Convention on Human Rights states that the right to education is recognized as a human right and is understood to establish an entitlement to education. According to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the right to education includes the right to free, compulsory primary education for all, an obligation to develop secondary education accessible to all in particular by the progressive introduction of free secondary education, as well as an obligation to develop equitable access to higher education in particular by the progressive introduction of free higher education. The right to education also includes a responsibility to provide basic education for individuals who have not completed primary education. In addition to these access to education provisions, the right to education encompasses also the obligation to eliminate discrimination at all levels of the educational system, to set minimum standards, and to improve quality. The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg has applied this norm for example in the Belgian linguistic case.[7] Article 10 of the European Social Charter guarantees the right to vocational education.[10]
Definition[edit]
Education is formal institutional instructions. Generally, international instruments use the term in this sense and the right to education, as protected by international human rights instruments, refers primarily to education in a narrow sense. The 1960 UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education defines education in Article 1(2) as: "all types and levels of education, (including such) access to education, the standard and quality of education, and the conditions under which it is given."[11]
In a wider sense education may describe "all activities by which a human group transmits to its descendants a body of knowledge and skills and a moral code which enable the group to subsist".[11] In this sense education refers to the transmission to a subsequent generation of those skills needed to perform tasks of daily living, and further passing on the social, cultural, spiritual and philosophical values of the particular community. The wider meaning of education has been recognised in Article 1(a) of UNESCO's 1974 Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.[12]
"the entire process of social life by means of which individuals and social groups learn to develop consciously within, and for the benefit of, the national and international communities, the whole of their personal capabilities, attitudes, aptitudes and knowledge."[11]
The European Court of Human Rights has defined education in a narrow sense as "teaching or instructions... in particular to the transmission of knowledge and to intellectual development" and in a wider sense as "the whole process whereby, in any society, adults endeavour to transmit their beliefs, culture and other values to the young."[11]
Assessment of fulfilment[edit]
The fulfilment of the right to education can be assessed using the 4 As framework, which asserts that for education to be a meaningful right it must be available, accessible, acceptable and adaptable. The 4 As framework was developed by the former UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education, Katarina Tomasevski, but is not necessarily the standard used in every international human rights instrument and hence not a generic guide to how the right to education is treated under national law.[13]
The 4 As framework proposes that governments, as the prime duty-bearers, have to respect, protect and fulfil the right to education by making education available, accessible, acceptable and adaptable. The framework also places duties on other stakeholders in the education process: the child, which as the privileged subject of the right to education has the duty to comply with compulsory education requirements, the parents as the ‘first educators’, and professional educators, namely teachers.[13]
The 4 As have been further elaborated as follows:[14]
Availability – funded by governments, education is universal, free and compulsory. There should be proper infrastructure and facilities in place with adequate books and materials for students. Buildings should meet both safety and sanitation standards, such as having clean drinking water. Active recruitment, proper training and appropriate retention methods should ensure that enough qualified staff is available at each school.[15]
Accessibility – all children should have equal access to school services, regardless of gender, race, religion, ethnicity or socio-economic status. Efforts should be made to ensure the inclusion of marginalized groups including children of refugees, the homeless or those with disabilities in short there should be universal access to education i.e. access to all. Children who fall into[16] poverty should be granted the access of education because it enhances the growth of their mental and social state. There should be no forms of segregation or denial of access to any students. This includes ensuring that proper laws are in place against any child labour or exploitation to prevent children from obtaining primary or secondary education. Schools must be within a reasonable distance for children within the community, otherwise transportation should be provided to students, particularly those that might live in rural areas, to ensure ways to school are safe and convenient. Education should be affordable to all, with textbooks, supplies and uniforms provided to students at no additional costs.[17]
Acceptability – the quality of education provided should be free of discrimination, relevant and culturally appropriate for all students. Students should not be expected to conform to any specific religious or ideological views. Methods of teaching should be objective and unbiased and material available should reflect a wide array of ideas and beliefs. Health and safety should be emphasized within schools including the elimination of any forms of corporal punishment. Professionalism of staff and teachers should be maintained.[18]
Adaptability – educational programs should be flexible and able to adjust according to societal changes and the needs of the community. Observance of religious or cultural holidays should be respected by schools in order to accommodate students, along with providing adequate care to those students with disabilities.[19]
A number of international NGOs and charities work to realise the right to education using a rights-based approach to development.[1]
Historical development[edit]
In Europe, before the Enlightenment of the eighteenth and nineteenth century, education was the responsibility of parents and the church. With the French and American Revolution education was established also as a public function. It was thought that the state, by assuming a more active role in the sphere of education, could help to make education available and accessible to all. Education had thus far been primarily available to the upper social classes and public education was perceived as a means of realising the egalitarian ideals underlining both revolutions.[20]
However, neither the American Declaration of Independence (1776) nor the French Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789) protected the right to education as the liberal concepts of human rights in the nineteenth century envisaged that parents retained the primary duty for providing education to their children. It was the states obligation to ensure that parents complied with this duty, and many states enacted legislation making school attendance compulsory. Furthermore, child labour laws were enacted to limit the number of hours per day children could be employed, to ensure children would attend school. States also became involved in the legal regulation of curricula and established minimum educational standards.[21]
In On Liberty John Stuart Mill wrote that an "education established and controlled by the State should only exist, if it exists at all, as one among many competing experiments, carried on for the purpose of example and stimulus to keep the others up to a certain standard of excellence." Liberal thinkers of the nineteenth century pointed to the dangers to too much state involvement in the sphere of education, but relied on state intervention to reduce the dominance of the church, and to protect the right to education of children against their own parents. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, educational rights were included in domestic bills of rights.[21] The 1849 Paulskirchenverfassung, the constitution of the German Empire, strongly influenced subsequent European constitutions and devoted Article 152 to 158 of its bill of rights to education. The constitution recognised education as a function of the state, independent of the church. Remarkable at the time, the constitution proclaimed the right to free education for the poor, but the constitution did not explicitly require the state to set up educational institutions. Instead the constitution protected the rights of citizens to found and operate schools and to provide home education. The constitution also provided for freedom of science and teaching, and it guaranteed the right of everybody to choose a vocation and train for it.[22]
The nineteenth century also saw the development of socialist theory, which held that the primary task of the state was to ensure the economic and social well-being of the community through government intervention and regulation. Socialist theory recognised that individuals had claims to basic welfare services against the state and education was viewed as one of these welfare entitlements. This was in contrast to liberal theory at the time, which regarded non-state actors as the prime providers of education. Socialist ideals were enshrined in the 1936 Soviet Constitution, which was the first constitution to recognise the right to education with a corresponding obligation of the state to provide such education. The constitution guaranteed free and compulsory education at all levels, a system of state scholarships and vocational training in state enterprises. Subsequently, the right to education featured strongly in the constitutions of socialist states.[22] As a political goal, right to education was declared in F. D. Roosevelt's 1944 speech on the Second Bill of Rights.
Implementation[edit]
International law does not protect the right to pre-primary education and international documents generally omit references to education at this level.[23] The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to education, hence the right applies to all individuals, although children are considered as the main beneficiaries.[24]
The rights to education are separated into three levels:
Primary (Elemental or Fundamental) Education. This shall be compulsory and free for any child regardless of their nationality, gender, place of birth, or any other discrimination. Upon ratifying the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights States must provide free primary education within two years.
Secondary (or Elementary, Technical and Professional in the UDHR) Education must be generally available and accessible.
Higher Education (at the University Level) should be provided according to capacity. That is, anyone who meets the necessary education standards should be able to go to university.
Both secondary and higher education shall be made accessible "by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education".[25]
Compulsory education[edit]
The realisation of the right to education on a national level may be achieved through compulsory education, or more specifically free compulsory primary education, as stated in both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.[3][26]
Right to education for children[edit]
The rights of all children from early childhood stem from the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The declaration proclaimed in article 1: ‘All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights’. The declaration states that human rights begin at birth and that childhood is a period demanding special care and assistance [art. 25 (2)]. The 1959 Declaration of the Rights of the Child affirmed that: ‘mankind owes to the child the best it has to give’, including education. This was amplified by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 which states that: ‘education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. [art. 13 (1)][27]
The World Declaration on Education for All (EFA) adopted in 1990 in Jomtien, Thailand, states in article 5 that: ‘Learning begins at birth [...] This calls for early childhood care and initial education.’ A decade later, the Dakar Framework for Action on EFA established six goals, the first of which was: ‘expanding and improving early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children.’ Protection of children of all ages from exploitation and actions that would jeopardize their health, education and well-being has also been emphasized by the International Labour Organization in Conventions No. 138 on the Minimum Age of Employment (1973) and No. 182 on the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (1999). The United Nations contributed to such endeavours by the Declaration of the Rights of the Child unanimously adopted by the General Assembly in 1959.[27]
The impact of privatization on the right to education[edit]
The privatization of education can have a positive impact for some social groups, in the form of increased availability of learning opportunities, greater parental choice and a wider range of curricula. However, it can also have negative effects resulting from insufficient or inadequate monitoring and regulation by the public authorities (schools without licences, hiring of untrained teachers and absence of quality assurance), with potential risks for social cohesion and solidarity. Of particular concern: "Marginalised groups fail to enjoy the bulk of positive impacts and also bear the disproportionate burden of the negative impacts of privatisation."[28] Furthermore, uncontrolled fees demanded by private providers could undermine universal access to education. More generally, this could have a negative impact on the enjoyment of the right to a good quality education and on the realization of equal educational opportunities.[29]
Supplemental private tutoring, or ‘shadow education’, which represents one specific dimension of the privatization of education, is also growing worldwide.[30] Often a symptom of badly functioning school systems,[31] private tutoring, much like other manifestations of private education, can have both positive and negative effects for learners and their teachers. On one hand, teaching can be tailored to the needs of slower learners and teachers can supplement their school salaries. On the other hand, fees for private tutoring may represent a sizeable share of household income, particularly among the poor, and can therefore create inequalities in learning opportunities. And the fact that some teachers may put more effort into private tutoring and neglect their regular duties can adversely affect the quality of teaching and learning at school.[32] The growth of shadow education, the financial resources mobilized by individuals and families, and the concerns regarding possible teacher misconduct and corruption are leading some ministries of education to attempt to regulate the phenomenon.[29][32]
See also[edit]
Economic, social and cultural rights
Education 2030 Agenda
Educational equity
Female education
Free education
Freedom of education
History of childhood care and education
Literacy
Open educational resources
Philomath
Scholarship
Universal access to education
World Education Forum
Lawsuits[edit]
Mohini Jain v. State of Karnataka (1992 AIR 1858) or (AIR 1992 SC 2100)
Sources[edit]
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 License statement: Rethinking Education: Towards a global common good?, 74-75, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia:Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use. This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 License statement: Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education, 38-39, Marope, P.T.M., Kaga, Y., UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia:Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "What is HRBAP? | Human Rights-based Approach to Programming | UNICEF". UNICEF. Retrieved 2016-09-28.
Jump up ^ "UN Treaty Collection: International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights". UN. 3 January 1976. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Article 26, Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Jump up ^ Article 13, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Archived 2012-03-03 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Article 14, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Archived 2012-03-03 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Article 26". claiminghumanrights.org. Retrieved 2016-10-05.
^ Jump up to: a b A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All (PDF). UNESCO/UNICEF. 2007. p. 7.
Jump up ^ Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Article 24
Jump up ^ "African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights / Legal Instruments". achpr.org. Retrieved 2016-01-12.
Jump up ^ European Social Charter, Article 10
^ Jump up to: a b c d Beiter, Klaus Dieter (2005). The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 19. ISBN 90-04-14704-7.
Jump up ^ Beiter, Klaus Dieter (2005). The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 226–227. ISBN 9789004147041.
^ Jump up to: a b "Right to education – What is it? Education and the 4 As". Right to Education project. Retrieved 2009-02-21.
Jump up ^ "Right to education – What is it? Primer on the right to education". Right to Education project. Archived from the original on 2009-03-02. Retrieved 2009-02-21.
Jump up ^ "Right to education – What is it? Availability". Right to Education project. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Understanding education as a right". Right to Education Project. Retrieved 2017-09-06.
Jump up ^ "Right to education – What is it? Accessibility". Right to Education project. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Right to education – What is it? Acceptability". Right to Education project. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ "Right to education – What is it? Adaptability". Right to Education project. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ Beiter, Klaus Dieter (2005). The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 21–22. ISBN 9789004147041.
^ Jump up to: a b Beiter, Klaus Dieter (2005). The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 22. ISBN 9789004147041.
^ Jump up to: a b Beiter, Klaus Dieter (2005). The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 23. ISBN 9789004147041.
Jump up ^ Beiter, Klaus Dieter (2005). The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 19–20. ISBN 9789004147041.
Jump up ^ Beiter, Klaus Dieter (2005). The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 20. ISBN 9789004147041.
Jump up ^ Article 13 (2) (a) to (c), International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
Jump up ^ Article 14, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
^ Jump up to: a b Marope, P.T.M.; Kaga, Y. (2015). Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education (PDF). Paris, UNESCO. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-92-3-100113-0.
Jump up ^ Right to Education Project (2014). Privatisation of Education: Global Trends of Human Rights Impacts (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b Rethinking Education: Towards a global common good? (PDF). UNESCO. 2015. pp. 74–75. ISBN 978-92-3-100088-1.
Jump up ^ Confronting the shadow education system. What government policies for what private tutoring?. Paris, UNESCO-WEEPIE. 2009.
Jump up ^ UNESCO (2014). "Teaching and Learning: Achieving quality for all". EFA Global Monitoring Report 2013-2014. Paris, UNESCO.
^ Jump up to: a b Bray, M.; Kuo, O. (2014). "Regulating Private Tutoring for Public Good. Policy options for supplementary education in Asia". CERC Monograph Series in Comparative and International Education and Development. Hong Kong, Comparative Education Research Center and UNESCO Bangkok Office. No. 10.
External links[edit]
Right for Education in Africa
Right to Education UNESCO
UN Special Rapporteur on the right to education
Refugee Education in an International Perspective, dossier by Education Worldwide, a portal of the German Education Server
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