text:
Fuel cell
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Fuel cell (disambiguation).
Demonstration model of a direct-methanol fuel cell. The actual fuel cell stack is the layered cube shape in the center of the image
Scheme of a proton-conducting fuel cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through an electrochemical reaction of hydrogen fuel with oxygen or another oxidizing agent.[1] Fuel cells are different from batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy comes from chemicals already present in the battery. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.
The first fuel cells were invented in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came more than a century later in NASA space programs to generate power for satellites and space capsules. Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas. They are also used to power fuel cell vehicles, including forklifts, automobiles, buses, boats, motorcycles and submarines.
There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte that allows positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate protons (positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The protons flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte after the reaction. At the same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water. Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in startup time ranging from 1 second for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements.[2] In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40–60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies up to 85% can be obtained.
A related technology is flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging.
The fuel cell market is growing, and in 2013 Pike Research estimated that the stationary fuel cell market will reach 50 GW by 2020.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Types of fuel cells; design
2.1 Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
2.1.1 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues
2.2 Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)
2.3 Solid acid fuel cell (SAFC)
2.4 Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)
2.5 High-temperature fuel cells
2.5.1 SOFC
2.5.2 MCFC
2.6 Electric storage fuel cell
2.7 Comparison of fuel cell types
2.8 Efficiency of leading fuel cell types
2.9 Theoretical maximum efficiency
2.10 In practice
3 Applications
3.1 Power
3.2 Cogeneration
3.3 Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)
3.3.1 Automobiles
3.3.1.1 Criticism
3.3.2 Buses
3.3.3 Forklifts
3.3.4 Motorcycles and bicycles
3.3.5 Airplanes
3.3.6 Boats
3.3.7 Submarines
3.4 Portable power systems
3.5 Other applications
3.6 Fueling stations
4 Markets and economics
5 Research and development
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
History[edit]
Main article: Timeline of hydrogen technologies
Sketch of William Grove's 1839 fuel cell
The first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838. In a letter dated October 1838 but published in the December 1838 edition of The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Welsh physicist and barrister William Grove wrote about the development of his first crude fuel cells. He used a combination of sheet iron, copper and porcelain plates, and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid.[4][5] In a letter to the same publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839, German physicist Christian Friedrich Schönbein discussed the first crude fuel cell that he had invented. His letter discussed current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water.[6] Grove later sketched his design, in 1842, in the same journal. The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's phosphoric-acid fuel cell.[7][8]
In 1939, British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company (GE), further modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane, which served as catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions. This became known as the "Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell".[9][10] GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project Gemini. This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers, which was demonstrated across the U.S. at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt and Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). In 1991, the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile was developed by Roger Billings.[11][12]
UTC Power was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a co-generation power plant in hospitals, universities and large office buildings.[13]
In recognition of the fuel cell industry and America’s role in fuel cell development, the US Senate recognized 8 October 2015 as National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Day, passing S. RES 217. The date was chosen in recognition of the atomic weight of hydrogen (1.008).[14]
Types of fuel cells; design[edit]
Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.
At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel through a wire creating the electric current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide.
A block diagram of a fuel cell
The most important design features in a fuel cell are[citation needed]:
The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel cell.
The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.
The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst is usually made up of very fine platinum powder.
The cathode catalyst turns the ions into the products like water or carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst is often made up of platinum or platinum-group metals and it can also be made of non-platinum metals such as iron.
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors:
Activation loss
Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections)
Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).[15]
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series to yield higher voltage, and in parallel to allow a higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can also be increased, to allow higher current from each cell. Within the stack, reactant gases must be distributed uniformly over each of the cells to maximize the power output.[16][17][18]
Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)[edit]
Main article: Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton exchange membrane fuel cell design, a proton-conducting polymer membrane (typically nafion) contains the electrolyte solution that separates the anode and cathode sides.[19][20] This was called a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton exchange mechanism was well understood. (Notice that the synonyms "polymer electrolyte membrane" and "proton exchange mechanism" result in the same acronym.)
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what are commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water.
In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water. When hydrogen is used, the CO2 is released when methane from natural gas is combined with steam, in a process called steam methane reforming, to produce the hydrogen. This can take place in a different location to the fuel cell, potentially allowing the hydrogen fuel cell to be used indoors—for example, in fork lifts.
Construction of a high-temperature PEMFC: Bipolar plate as electrode with in-milled gas channel structure, fabricated from conductive composites (enhanced with graphite, carbon black, carbon fiber, and/or carbon nanotubes for more conductivity);[21] Porous carbon papers; reactive layer, usually on the polymer membrane applied; polymer membrane.
Condensation of water produced by a PEMFC on the air channel wall. The gold wire around the cell ensures the collection of electric current.[22]
The different components of a PEMFC are
bipolar plates,
electrodes,
catalyst,
membrane, and
the necessary hardware such as current collectors and gaskets.[23]
The materials used for different parts of the fuel cells differ by type. The bipolar plates may be made of different types of materials, such as, metal, coated metal, graphite, flexible graphite, C–C composite, carbon–polymer composites etc.[24] The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is referred as the heart of the PEMFC and is usually made of a proton exchange membrane sandwiched between two catalyst-coated carbon papers. Platinum and/or similar type of noble metals are usually used as the catalyst for PEMFC. The electrolyte could be a polymer membrane.
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues[edit]
Cost. In 2013, the Department of Energy estimated that 80-kW automotive fuel cell system costs of US$67 per kilowatt could be achieved, assuming volume production of 100,000 automotive units per year and US$55 per kilowatt could be achieved, assuming volume production of 500,000 units per year.[25] Many companies are working on techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways including reducing the amount of platinum needed in each individual cell. Ballard Power Systems has experimented with a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk, which allows a 30% reduction (1 mg/cm² to 0.7 mg/cm²) in platinum usage without reduction in performance.[26] Monash University, Melbourne uses PEDOT as a cathode.[27] A 2011 published study doi: 10.1021/ja1112904[28] documented the first metal-free electrocatalyst using relatively inexpensive doped carbon nanotubes, which are less than 1% the cost of platinum and are of equal or superior performance. A recently published article demonstrated how the environmental burdens change when using carbon nanotubes as carbon substrate for platinum.[29]
Water and air management[30][31] (in PEMFCs). In this type of fuel cell, the membrane must be hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction. Methods to manage water in cells are being developed like electroosmotic pumps focusing on flow control. Just as in a combustion engine, a steady ratio between the reactant and oxygen is necessary to keep the fuel cell operating efficiently.
Temperature management. The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in order to prevent destruction of the cell through thermal loading. This is particularly challenging as the 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O reaction is highly exothermic, so a large quantity of heat is generated within the fuel cell.
Durability, service life, and special requirements for some type of cells. Stationary fuel cell applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of −35 °C to 40 °C (−31 °F to 104 °F), while automotive fuel cells require a 5,000-hour lifespan (the equivalent of 240,000 km (150,000 mi)) under extreme temperatures. Current service life is 2,500 hours (about 75,000 miles).[32] Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at −30 °C (−22 °F) and have a high power-to-volume ratio (typically 2.5 kW per liter).
Limited carbon monoxide tolerance of some (non-PEDOT) cathodes.
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)[edit]
Main article: Phosphoric acid fuel cell
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) were first designed and introduced in 1961 by G. V. Elmore and H. A. Tanner. In these cells phosphoric acid is used as a non-conductive electrolyte to pass positive hydrogen ions from the anode to the cathode. These cells commonly work in temperatures of 150 to 200 degrees Celsius. This high temperature will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed and used properly. This heat can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or any other thermal energy consuming system.[33] Using this heat in cogeneration can enhance the efficiency of phosphoric acid fuel cells from 40–50% to about 80%.[33] Phosphoric acid, the electrolyte used in PAFCs, is a non-conductive liquid acid which forces electrons to travel from anode to cathode through an external electrical circuit. Since the hydrogen ion production rate on the anode is small, platinum is used as catalyst to increase this ionization rate. A key disadvantage of these cells is the use of an acidic electrolyte. This increases the corrosion or oxidation of components exposed to phosphoric acid.[34]
Solid acid fuel cell (SAFC)[edit]
Main article: Solid acid fuel cell
Solid acid fuel cells (SAFCs) are characterized by the use of a solid acid material as the electrolyte. At low temperatures, solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts. At warmer temperatures (between 140 and 150 degrees Celsius for CsHSO4), some solid acids undergo a phase transition to become highly disordered "superprotonic" structures, which increases conductivity by several orders of magnitude. The first proof-of-concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium hydrogen sulfate (CsHSO4).[35] Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH2PO4) and have demonstrated lifetimes in the thousands of hours.[36]
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)[edit]
Main articles: Alkaline fuel cell and Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cells
The alkaline fuel cell or hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was designed and first demonstrated publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959. It was used as a primary source of electrical energy in the Apollo space program.[37] The cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes impregnated with a suitable catalyst such as Pt, Ag, CoO, etc. The space between the two electrodes is filled with a concentrated solution of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte. H2 gas and O2 gas are bubbled into the electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes. Thus the overall reaction involves the combination of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water. The cell runs continuously until the reactant's supply is exhausted. This type of cell operates efficiently in the temperature range 343 K to 413 K and provides a potential of about 0.9 V.[38] AAEMFC is a type of AFC which employs a solid polymer electrolyte instead of aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) and it is superior to aqueous AFC.
High-temperature fuel cells[edit]
SOFC[edit]
Main article: Solid oxide fuel cell
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid material, most commonly a ceramic material called yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), as the electrolyte. Because SOFCs are made entirely of solid materials, they are not limited to the flat plane configuration of other types of fuel cells and are often designed as rolled tubes. They require high operating temperatures (800–1000 °C) and can be run on a variety of fuels including natural gas.[39]
SOFCs are unique since in those, negatively charged oxygen ions travel from the cathode (positive side of the fuel cell) to the anode (negative side of the fuel cell) instead of positively charged hydrogen ions travelling from the anode to the cathode, as is the case in all other types of fuel cells. Oxygen gas is fed through the cathode, where it absorbs electrons to create oxygen ions. The oxygen ions then travel through the electrolyte to react with hydrogen gas at the anode. The reaction at the anode produces electricity and water as by-products. Carbon dioxide may also be a by-product depending on the fuel, but the carbon emissions from an SOFC system are less than those from a fossil fuel combustion plant.[40] The chemical reactions for the SOFC system can be expressed as follows:[41]
Anode Reaction: 2H2 + 2O2− → 2H2O + 4e−
Cathode Reaction: O2 + 4e− → 2O2−
Overall Cell Reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
SOFC systems can run on fuels other than pure hydrogen gas. However, since hydrogen is necessary for the reactions listed above, the fuel selected must contain hydrogen atoms. For the fuel cell to operate, the fuel must be converted into pure hydrogen gas. SOFCs are capable of internally reforming light hydrocarbons such as methane (natural gas),[42] propane and butane.[43] These fuel cells are at an early stage of development.[44]
Challenges exist in SOFC systems due to their high operating temperatures. One such challenge is the potential for carbon dust to build up on the anode, which slows down the internal reforming process. Research to address this "carbon coking" issue at the University of Pennsylvania has shown that the use of copper-based cermet (heat-resistant materials made of ceramic and metal) can reduce coking and the loss of performance.[45] Another disadvantage of SOFC systems is slow start-up time, making SOFCs less useful for mobile applications. Despite these disadvantages, a high operating temperature provides an advantage by removing the need for a precious metal catalyst like platinum, thereby reducing cost. Additionally, waste heat from SOFC systems may be captured and reused, increasing the theoretical overall efficiency to as high as 80%–85%.[39]
The high operating temperature is largely due to the physical properties of the YSZ electrolyte. As temperature decreases, so does the ionic conductivity of YSZ. Therefore, to obtain optimum performance of the fuel cell, a high operating temperature is required. According to their website, Ceres Power, a UK SOFC fuel cell manufacturer, has developed a method of reducing the operating temperature of their SOFC system to 500–600 degrees Celsius. They replaced the commonly used YSZ electrolyte with a CGO (cerium gadolinium oxide) electrolyte. The lower operating temperature allows them to use stainless steel instead of ceramic as the cell substrate, which reduces cost and start-up time of the system.[46]
MCFC[edit]
Main article: Molten carbonate fuel cell
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) require a high operating temperature, 650 °C (1,200 °F), similar to SOFCs. MCFCs use lithium potassium carbonate salt as an electrolyte, and this salt liquefies at high temperatures, allowing for the movement of charge within the cell – in this case, negative carbonate ions.[47]
Like SOFCs, MCFCs are capable of converting fossil fuel to a hydrogen-rich gas in the anode, eliminating the need to produce hydrogen externally. The reforming process creates CO2 emissions. MCFC-compatible fuels include natural gas, biogas and gas produced from coal. The hydrogen in the gas reacts with carbonate ions from the electrolyte to produce water, carbon dioxide, electrons and small amounts of other chemicals. The electrons travel through an external circuit creating electricity and return to the cathode. There, oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from the anode react with the electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the electrolyte, completing the circuit.[47] The chemical reactions for an MCFC system can be expressed as follows:[48]
Anode Reaction: CO32− + H2 → H2O + CO2 + 2e−
Cathode Reaction: CO2 + ½O2 + 2e− → CO32−
Overall Cell Reaction: H2 + ½O2 → H2O
As with SOFCs, MCFC disadvantages include slow start-up times because of their high operating temperature. This makes MCFC systems not suitable for mobile applications, and this technology will most likely be used for stationary fuel cell purposes. The main challenge of MCFC technology is the cells' short life span. The high-temperature and carbonate electrolyte lead to corrosion of the anode and cathode. These factors accelerate the degradation of MCFC components, decreasing the durability and cell life. Researchers are addressing this problem by exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that may increase cell life without decreasing performance.[39]
MCFCs hold several advantages over other fuel cell technologies, including their resistance to impurities. They are not prone to "carbon coking", which refers to carbon build-up on the anode that results in reduced performance by slowing down the internal fuel reforming process. Therefore, carbon-rich fuels like gases made from coal are compatible with the system. The Department of Energy claims that coal, itself, might even be a fuel option in the future, assuming the system can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal into hydrogen.[39] MCFCs also have relatively high efficiencies. They can reach a fuel-to-electricity efficiency of 50%, considerably higher than the 37–42% efficiency of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. Efficiencies can be as high as 65% when the fuel cell is paired with a turbine, and 85% if heat is captured and used in a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) system.[47]
FuelCell Energy, a Connecticut-based fuel cell manufacturer, develops and sells MCFC fuel cells. The company says that their MCFC products range from 300 kW to 2.8 MW systems that achieve 47% electrical efficiency and can utilize CHP technology to obtain higher overall efficiencies. One product, the DFC-ERG, is combined with a gas turbine and, according to the company, it achieves an electrical efficiency of 65%.[49]
Electric storage fuel cell[edit]
The electric storage fuel cell is a conventional battery chargeable by electric power input, using the conventional electro-chemical effect. However, the battery further includes hydrogen (and oxygen) inputs for alternatively charging the battery chemically.[50]
Comparison of fuel cell types[edit]
Fuel cell name
Electrolyte
Qualified power (W)
Working temperature (°C)
Efficiency (cell)
Efficiency (system)
Status
Cost (USD/W)
Metal hydride fuel cell
Aqueous alkaline solution 0 !> -20
(50% Ppeak @ 0 °C) Commercial / Research
Electro-galvanic fuel cell
Aqueous alkaline solution 39 !< 40 Commercial / Research
Direct formic acid fuel cell (DFAFC)
Polymer membrane (ionomer) 49 !< 50 W 39 !< 40 Commercial / Research
Zinc–air battery
Aqueous alkaline solution 39 !< 40 Mass production
Microbial fuel cell
Polymer membrane or humic acid 39 !< 40 Research
Upflow microbial fuel cell (UMFC)
39 !< 40 Research
Regenerative fuel cell
Polymer membrane (ionomer) 49 !< 50 Commercial / Research
Direct borohydride fuel cell
Aqueous alkaline solution 70 Commercial
Alkaline fuel cell
Aqueous alkaline solution 10000 !10 – 200 kW 79 !< 80 65% !60–70% 62% Commercial / Research
Direct methanol fuel cell
Polymer membrane (ionomer) 0.1 !100 mW – 1 kW 105 !90–120 25% !20–30% 15% !10–25%[51] Commercial / Research 125
Reformed methanol fuel cell
Polymer membrane (ionomer) 5 !5 W – 100 kW 200 !250–300 (Reformer)
125–200 (PBI) 55% !50–60% 33% !25–40% Commercial / Research
Direct-ethanol fuel cell
Polymer membrane (ionomer) 0 !< 140 mW/cm² 26 !> 25
? 90–120 Research
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
Polymer membrane (ionomer) 100 !1 W – 500 kW 125 !50–100 (Nafion)[52]
120–200 (PBI)[53] 60% !50–70% 40% !30–50%[51] Commercial / Research 50–100
RFC – Redox
Liquid electrolytes with redox shuttle and polymer membrane (Ionomer) 1000 !1 kW – 10 MW Research
Phosphoric acid fuel cell
Molten phosphoric acid (H3PO4) 999999 !< 10 MW 175 !150-200 55% 40% !40%[51]
Co-Gen: 90% Commercial / Research 4–4.50
Solid acid fuel cell
H+-conducting oxyanion salt (solid acid) 505 !10 W - 1 kW 250 !200-300 58 !55-60% 42 !40-45% Commercial / Research
Molten carbonate fuel cell
Molten alkaline carbonate 100000000 !100 MW 625 !600–650 55% 45-55%[51] Commercial / Research
Tubular solid oxide fuel cell (TSOFC)
O2−-conducting ceramic oxide 99999999 !< 100 MW 975 !850–1100 63% !60–65% 57% !55–60% Commercial / Research
Protonic ceramic fuel cell
H+-conducting ceramic oxide 700 Research
Direct carbon fuel cell
Several different 775 !700–850 80% 70% Commercial / Research
Planar Solid oxide fuel cell
O2−-conducting ceramic oxide 99999999 !< 100 MW 975 !500–1100 63% !60–65% 57% !55–60%[51] Commercial / Research
Enzymatic Biofuel Cells
Any that will not denature the enzyme 39 !< 40 Research
Magnesium-Air Fuel Cell
Salt water -20 !−20 to 55 90% !90% Commercial / Research
Efficiency of leading fuel cell types[edit]
Glossary of Terms in table:
Anode: The electrode at which oxidation (a loss of electrons) takes place. For fuel cells and other galvanic cells, the anode is the negative terminal; for electrolytic cells (where electrolysis occurs), the anode is the positive terminal.[54]
Aqueous solution: a: of, relating to, or resembling water b : made from, with, or by water.[55]
Catalyst: A chemical substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed; after the reaction, it can potentially be recovered from the reaction mixture and is chemically unchanged. The catalyst lowers the activation energy required, allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly or at a lower temperature. In a fuel cell, the catalyst facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the membrane in the fuel cell.[54]
Cathode: The electrode at which reduction (a gain of electrons) occurs. For fuel cells and other galvanic cells, the cathode is the positive terminal; for electrolytic cells (where electrolysis occurs), the cathode is the negative terminal.[54]
Electrolyte: A substance that conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in a fuel cell, battery, or electrolyzer.[54]
Fuel Cell Stack: Individual fuel cells connected in a series. Fuel cells are stacked to increase voltage.[54]
Matrix: something within or from which something else originates, develops, or takes form.[56]
Membrane: The separating layer in a fuel cell that acts as electrolyte (an ion-exchanger) as well as a barrier film separating the gases in the anode and cathode compartments of the fuel cell.[54]
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC): A type of fuel cell that contains a molten carbonate electrolyte. Carbonate ions (CO32−) are transported from the cathode to the anode. Operating temperatures are typically near 650 °C.[54]
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC): A type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte consists of concentrated phosphoric acid (H3PO4). Protons (H+) are transported from the anode to the cathode. The operating temperature range is generally 160–220 °C.[54]
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM): A fuel cell incorporating a solid polymer membrane used as its electrolyte. Protons (H+) are transported from the anode to the cathode. The operating temperature range is generally 60–100 °C.[54]
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC): A type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte is a solid, nonporous metal oxide, typically zirconium oxide (ZrO2) treated with Y2O3, and O2− is transported from the cathode to the anode. Any CO in the reformate gas is oxidized to CO2 at the anode. Temperatures of operation are typically 800–1,000 °C.[54]
Solution: a: an act or the process by which a solid, liquid, or gaseous substance is homogeneously mixed with a liquid or sometimes a gas or solid, b : a homogeneous mixture formed by this process; especially : a single-phase liquid system, c : the condition of being dissolved[57]
For more information see Glossary of fuel cell terms
Theoretical maximum efficiency[edit]
The energy efficiency of a system or device that converts energy is measured by the ratio of the amount of useful energy put out by the system ("output energy") to the total amount of energy that is put in ("input energy") or by useful output energy as a percentage of the total input energy. In the case of fuel cells, useful output energy is measured in electrical energy produced by the system. Input energy is the energy stored in the fuel. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, fuel cells are generally between 40–60% energy efficient.[58] This is higher than some other systems for energy generation. For example, the typical internal combustion engine of a car is about 25% energy efficient.[59] In combined heat and power (CHP) systems, the heat produced by the fuel cell is captured and put to use, increasing the efficiency of the system to up to 85–90%.[39]
The theoretical maximum efficiency of any type of power generation system is never reached in practice, and it does not consider other steps in power generation, such as production, transportation and storage of fuel and conversion of the electricity into mechanical power. However, this calculation allows the comparison of different types of power generation. The maximum theoretical energy efficiency of a fuel cell is 83%, operating at low power density and using pure hydrogen and oxygen as reactants (assuming no heat recapture)[60] According to the World Energy Council, this compares with a maximum theoretical efficiency of 58% for internal combustion engines.[60]
In practice[edit]
In a fuel-cell vehicle the tank-to-wheel efficiency is greater than 45% at low loads[61] and shows average values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as test procedure.[62] The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008 Honda released a demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle (the Honda FCX Clarity) with fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency.[63]
It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen.[64] Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery,[65] except as hydrogen, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system. Most hydrogen, however, is produced by steam methane reforming, and so most hydrogen production emits carbon dioxide.[66] The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as round-trip efficiency), using pure hydrogen and pure oxygen can be "from 35 up to 50 percent", depending on gas density and other conditions.[67] While a much cheaper lead–acid battery might return about 90%, the electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore better suited for long-term storage.
Solid-oxide fuel cells produce heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen. The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) application. When the heat is captured, total efficiency can reach 80–90% at the unit, but does not consider production and distribution losses. CHP units are being developed today for the European home market.
Professor Jeremy P. Meyers, in the Electrochemical Society journal Interface in 2008, wrote, "While fuel cells are efficient relative to combustion engines, they are not as efficient as batteries, due primarily to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction (and ... the oxygen evolution reaction, should the hydrogen be formed by electrolysis of water).... [T]hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid, or when fuel can be provided continuously. For applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start-ups ... where zero emissions are a requirement, as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses, and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant, a [PEM fuel cell] is becoming an increasingly attractive choice [if exchanging batteries is inconvenient]".[68] In 2013 military organisations are evaluating fuel cells to significantly reduce the battery weight carried by soldiers.[69]
Applications[edit]
Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion of the German Navy in dry dock
Power[edit]
Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and backup power generation. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural locations including research stations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.[70] This equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six-year period.[70]
Since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example.[71] There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary, but most are between 40% and 60% energy efficient.[39] However, when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%.[39] This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient.[72] Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20–40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems.[73] Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than CO2) for every 1,000 kW·h produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems.[74] Fuel Cells also produce 97% less nitrogen oxide emissions than conventional coal-fired power plants.
One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative[75] has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer, which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500-U.S.-gallon (1,900 L) tank at 200 pounds per square inch (1,400 kPa), and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. Another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in Hempstead, NY.[76]
Fuel cells can be used with low-quality gas from landfills or waste-water treatment plants to generate power and lower methane emissions. A 2.8 MW fuel cell plant in California is said to be the largest of the type.[77]
Cogeneration[edit]
Combined heat and power (CHP) fuel cell systems, including Micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP) systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes (see home fuel cell), office building and factories. The system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat. As the result CHP systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems.[78] A typical capacity range of home fuel cell is 1–3 kWel / 4–8 kWth.[79][80] CHP systems linked to absorption chillers use their waste heat for refrigeration.[81]
The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building. The University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system[82][83]
Co-generation systems can reach 85% efficiency (40–60% electric + remainder as thermal).[39] Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%.[84][85] Molten Carbonate (MCFC) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) are also used for combined heat and power generation and have electrical energy efficiences around 60%.[86] Disadvantages of co-generation systems include slow ramping up and down rates, high cost and short lifetime.[87][88] Also their need to have a hot water storage tank to smooth out the thermal heat production was a serious disadvantage in the domestic market place where space in domestic properties is at a great premium.[89]
Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.[69] The Japanese ENE FARM project will pass 100,000 FC mCHP systems in 2014, 34.213 PEMFC and 2.224 SOFC were installed in the period 2012-2014, 30,000 units on LNG and 6,000 on LPG.[90]
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)[edit]
Main articles: Fuel cell vehicle, Hydrogen vehicle, and List of fuel cell vehicles
Configuration of components in a fuel cell car
Toyota Mirai
Element One fuel cell vehicle
Automobiles[edit]
As of 2015, two fuel cell vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale in limited quantities: the Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai ix35 FCEV. Additional demonstration models include the Honda FCX Clarity, and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell.[91] As of June 2011 demonstration FCEVs had driven more than 4,800,000 km (3,000,000 mi), with more than 27,000 refuelings.[92] Demonstration fuel cell vehicles have been produced with "a driving range of more than 400 km (250 mi) between refueling".[93] They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes.[94] The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell Technology Program claims that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved 53–59% efficiency at one-quarter power and 42–53% vehicle efficiency at full power,[95] and a durability of over 120,000 km (75,000 mi) with less than 10% degradation.[93] In a Well-to-Wheels simulation analysis that "did not address the economics and market constraints", General Motors and its partners estimated that per mile traveled, a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40% less energy and emit 45% less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle.[96][97] A lead engineer from the Department of Energy whose team is testing fuel cell cars said in 2011 that the potential appeal is that "these are full-function vehicles with no limitations on range or refueling rate so they are a direct replacement for any vehicle. For instance, if you drive a full sized SUV and pull a boat up into the mountains, you can do that with this technology and you can't with current battery-only vehicles, which are more geared toward city driving."[98]
In 2014, Toyota introduced its first fuel cell vehicle in Japan, the Mirai, at a price of less than US$100,000,[99] although former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimates that Toyota will initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.[100] Hyundai introduced the limited production Hyundai ix35 FCEV.[101] Other manufacturers that announced intentions to sell fuel cell electric vehicles commercially by 2016 included General Motors,[102] Honda,[103] Mercedes-Benz,[104] and Nissan,[105] but by 2017, most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles.[106]
Criticism[edit]
Some experts believe that hydrogen fuel cell cars will never become economically competitive with other technologies[107][108][109][110] or that it will take decades for them to become profitable.[68][111] Elon Musk stated in 2015 that fuel cells for use in cars will never be commercially viable because of the inefficiency of producing, transporting and storing hydrogen and the flammability of the gas, among other reasons.[107] Professor Jeremy P. Meyers estimated in 2008 that cost reductions over a production ramp-up period will take about 20 years after fuel-cell cars are introduced before they will be able to compete commercially with current market technologies, including gasoline internal combustion engines.[68] In 2011, the chairman and CEO of General Motors, Daniel Akerson, stated that while the cost of hydrogen fuel cell cars is decreasing: "The car is still too expensive and probably won't be practical until the 2020-plus period, I don't know."[112]
In 2012, Lux Research, Inc. issued a report that stated: "The dream of a hydrogen economy ... is no nearer". It concluded that "Capital cost ... will limit adoption to a mere 5.9 GW" by 2030, providing "a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption, except in niche applications". The analysis concluded that, by 2030, PEM stationary market will reach $1 billion, while the vehicle market, including forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion.[111] Other analyses cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure in the U.S. as an ongoing challenge to Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle commercialization. In 2006, a study for the IEEE showed that for hydrogen produced via electrolysis of water: "Only about 25% of the power generated from wind, water, or sun is converted to practical use." The study further noted that "Electricity obtained from hydrogen fuel cells appears to be four times as expensive as electricity drawn from the electrical transmission grid. ... Because of the high energy losses [hydrogen] cannot compete with electricity."[113] Furthermore, the study found: "Natural gas reforming is not a sustainable solution".[113] "The large amount of energy required to isolate hydrogen from natural compounds (water, natural gas, biomass), package the light gas by compression or liquefaction, transfer the energy carrier to the user, plus the energy lost when it is converted to useful electricity with fuel cells, leaves around 25% for practical use."[61][68][114]
Joseph Romm, the author of The Hype About Hydrogen (2005), devoted two articles in 2014 to updating his critique of the use of fuel cells in cars. He stated that FCVs still had not overcome the following issues: high cost of the vehicles, high fueling cost, and a lack of fuel-delivery infrastructure. "It would take several miracles to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades."[115] Most importantly, he said, "FCVs aren't green" because of escaping methane during natural gas extraction and when hydrogen is produced, as 95% of it is, using the steam reforming process. He concluded that renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet "either now or in the future."[108] Greentech Media's analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014.[116] In 2015, Clean Technica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.[117] So did Car Throttle.[118] Another Clean Technica writer concluded, "while hydrogen may have a part to play in the world of energy storage (especially seasonal storage), it looks like a dead end when it comes to mainstream vehicles."[119]
Buses[edit]
Toyota FCHV-BUS at the Expo 2005.
As of August 2011[update], there were a total of approximately 100 fuel cell buses deployed around the world. Most buses are produced by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard, Hydrogenics, and Proton Motor. UTC buses had accumulated over 970,000 km (600,000 mi) of driving by 2011.[120] Fuel cell buses have a 39–141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses.[96][121] Fuel cell buses have been deployed around the world including in Whistler, Canada; San Francisco, United States; Hamburg, Germany; Shanghai, China; London, England; and São Paulo, Brazil.[122]
The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global cooperative effort in trial fuel cell buses. Notable projects include:
12 fuel cell buses are being deployed in the Oakland and San Francisco Bay area of California.[122]
Daimler AG, with 36 experimental buses powered by Ballard Power Systems fuel cells, completed a successful three-year trial in eleven cities, in January 2007.[123][124]
A fleet of Thor buses with UTC Power fuel cells was deployed in California, operated by SunLine Transit Agency.[125]
The first Brazilian hydrogen fuel cell bus prototype in Brazil was deployed in São Paulo. The bus was manufactured in Caxias do Sul and the hydrogen fuel will be produced in São Bernardo do Campo from water through electrolysis. The program, called "Ônibus Brasileiro a Hidrogênio" (Brazilian Hydrogen Autobus), includes three additional buses.[126][127]
Forklifts[edit]
A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck) is a fuel cell-powered industrial forklift truck used to lift and transport materials. In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US,[128] of which only 500 received funding from DOE (2012).[129][130] The global market is 1 million fork lifts per year.[131] Fuel cell fleets are operated by various companies, including Sysco Foods, FedEx Freight, GENCO (at Wegmans, Coca-Cola, Kimberly Clark, and Whole Foods), and H-E-B Grocers.[132] Europe demonstrated 30 fuel cell forklifts with Hylift and extended it with HyLIFT-EUROPE to 200 units,[133] with other projects in France [134][135] and Austria.[136] Pike Research stated in 2011 that fuel cell-powered forklifts will be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by 2020.[137]
Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum-powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.[131][138] Fuel cell-powered forklifts can provide benefits over battery-powered forklifts as they can work for a full 8-hour shift on a single tank of hydrogen and can be refueled in 3 minutes. Fuel cell-powered forklifts can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The FC units are often designed as drop-in replacements.[139][140]
Motorcycles and bicycles[edit]
In 2005 a British manufacturer of hydrogen-powered fuel cells, Intelligent Energy (IE), produced the first working hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 160 km (100 mi) in an urban area, at a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph).[141] In 2004 Honda developed a fuel-cell motorcycle that utilized the Honda FC Stack.[142][143]
Other examples of motorbikes[144] and bicycles[145] that use hydrogen fuel cells include the Taiwanese company APFCT's scooter[146] using the fueling system from Italy's Acta SpA[147] and the Suzuki Burgman scooter with an IE fuel cell that received EU Whole Vehicle Type Approval in 2011.[148] Suzuki Motor Corp. and IE have announced a joint venture to accelerate the commercialization of zero-emission vehicles.[149]
Airplanes[edit]
Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The fuel cell demonstrator airplane, as it was called, used a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller.[150] In 2003, the world's first propeller-driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown. The fuel cell was a stack design that allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the plane's aerodynamic surfaces.[151]
Fuel cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) include a Horizon fuel cell UAV that set the record distance flown for a small UAV in 2007.[152] The military is interested in this application because of its low noise, low thermal signature and ability to attain high altitude. In 2009 the Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes.[153] Fuel cells are also in use to provide auxiliary power in aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs.[154][not in citation given]
In January 2016 a Raptor E1 drone made a successful test flight using a fuel cell that was lighter than the lithium-ion battery it replaced. The flight lasted 10 minutes at an altitude of 80 metres (260 ft), although the fuel cell reportedly had enough fuel to fly for two hours. The fuel was contained in approximately 100 solid 1 square centimetre (0.16 sq in) pellets composed of a proprietary chemical within an unpressurized cartridge. The pellets are physically robust and operate at temperatures as warm as 50 °C (122 °F). The cell was from Arcola Energy.[155]
Boats[edit]
The world's first certified fuel cell boat (HYDRA), in Leipzig/Germany
The world's first fuel-cell boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output. Iceland has committed to converting its vast fishing fleet to use fuel cells to provide auxiliary power by 2015 and, eventually, to provide primary power in its boats. Amsterdam recently introduced its first fuel cell-powered boat that ferries people around the city's canals.[156]
Submarines[edit]
The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.
The U212A is a non-nuclear submarine developed by German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft.[157] The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each. The ship is silent, giving it an advantage in the detection of other submarines.[158] A naval paper has theorized about the possibility of a nuclear-fuel cell hybrid whereby the fuel cell is used when silent operations are required and then replenished from the Nuclear reactor (and water).[159]
Portable power systems[edit]
Portable power systems that use fuel cells can be used in the leisure sector (i.e. RVs, cabins, marine), the industrial sector (i.e. power for remote locations including gas/oil wellsites, communication towers, security, weather stations), and in the military sector. SFC Energy is a German manufacturer of direct methanol fuel cells for a variety of portable power systems.[160] Ensol Systems Inc. is an integrator of portable power systems, using the SFC Energy DMFC.[161]
Other applications[edit]
Providing power for base stations or cell sites[162][163]
Distributed generation
Emergency power systems are a type of fuel cell system, which may include lighting, generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular systems fail. They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals, scientific laboratories, data centers,[164]
telecommunication[165] equipment and modern naval ships.
An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) provides emergency power and, depending on the topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available. Unlike a standby generator, it can provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption.
Base load power plants
Solar Hydrogen Fuel Cell Water Heating
Hybrid vehicles, pairing the fuel cell with either an ICE or a battery.
Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be readily available.
Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges a cell phone or PDA).
Smartphones, laptops and tablets.
Small heating appliances[166]
Food preservation, achieved by exhausting the oxygen and automatically maintaining oxygen exhaustion in a shipping container, containing, for example, fresh fish.[167]
Breathalyzers, where the amount of voltage generated by a fuel cell is used to determine the concentration of fuel (alcohol) in the sample.[168]
Carbon monoxide detector, electrochemical sensor.
Fueling stations[edit]
Main articles: Hydrogen station and Hydrogen highway
Hydrogen fueling station.
In 2013, The New York Times reported that there were "10 hydrogen stations available to the public in the entire United States: one in Columbia, S.C., eight in Southern California and the one in Emeryville".[169] As of December 2016[update], there were 31 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 28 of which were located in California.[170]
A public hydrogen refueling station in Iceland operated from 2003 to 2007. It served three buses in the public transport net of Reykjavík. The station produced its own hydrogen with an electrolyzing unit.[171] The 14 stations in Germany were planned to be expanded to 50 by 2015[172] through its public–private partnership Now GMBH.[173]
By May 2017, there were 91 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan.[174] As of 2016, Norway planned to build a network of hydrogen stations between the major cities, starting in 2017.[175]
Markets and economics[edit]
Main articles: Hydrogen economy and Methanol economy
In 2012, fuel cell industry revenues exceeded $1 billion market value worldwide, with Asian pacific countries shipping more than 3/4 of the fuel cell systems worldwide.[176] However, as of January 2014, no public company in the industry had yet become profitable.[177] There were 140,000 fuel cell stacks shipped globally in 2010, up from 11,000 shipments in 2007, and from 2011 to 2012 worldwide fuel cell shipments had an annual growth rate of 85%.[178] Tanaka Kikinzoku expanded its manufacturing facilities in 2011.[179] Approximately 50% of fuel cell shipments in 2010 were stationary fuel cells, up from about a third in 2009, and the four dominant producers in the Fuel Cell Industry were the United States, Germany, Japan and South Korea.[180] The Department of Energy Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance found that, as of January 2011, stationary fuel cells generated power at approximately $724 to $775 per kilowatt installed.[181] In 2011, Bloom Energy, a major fuel cell supplier, said that its fuel cells generated power at 9–11 cents per kilowatt-hour, including the price of fuel, maintenance, and hardware.[182][183]
Industry groups predict that there are sufficient platinum resources for future demand,[184] and in 2007, research at Brookhaven National Laboratory suggested that platinum could be replaced by a gold-palladium coating, which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime.[185] Another method would use iron and sulphur instead of platinum. This would lower the cost of a fuel cell (as the platinum in a regular fuel cell costs around US$1,500, and the same amount of iron costs only around US$1.50). The concept was being developed by a coalition of the John Innes Centre and the University of Milan-Bicocca.[186] PEDOT cathodes are immune to monoxide poisoning.[187]
In 2016, Samsung "decided to drop fuel cell-related business projects, as the outlook of the market isn't good".[188]
Research and development[edit]
2005: Georgia Institute of Technology researchers used triazole to raise the operating temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 125 °C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel.[189]
2008: Monash University, Melbourne used PEDOT as a cathode.[27]
2009: Researchers at the University of Dayton, in Ohio, showed that arrays of vertically grown carbon nanotubes could be used as the catalyst in fuel cells.[190] The same year, a nickel bisdiphosphine-based catalyst for fuel cells was demonstrated.[191]
2013: British firm ACAL Energy developed a fuel cell that it said can run for 10,000 hours in simulated driving conditions.[192] It asserted that the cost of fuel cell construction can be reduced to $40/kW (roughly $9,000 for 300 HP).[193]
2014: Researchers in Imperial College London developed a new method for regeneration of hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFCs.[194] They recovered 95–100% of the original performance of a hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFC. They were successful in rejuvenating a SO2 contaminated PEFC too.[195] This regeneration method is applicable to multiple cell stacks.[196]
See also[edit]
Electronics portal
Energy portal
Renewable energy portal
Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cells
Bio-nano generator
Cryptophane
Energy development
Electrochemical engineering
Fuel Cell Development Information Center
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative (in Europe)
Glossary of fuel cell terms
Grid energy storage
Hydrogen reformer
Hydrogen storage
Hydrogen technologies
Microgeneration
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
Water splitting
PEM electrolysis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Khurmi, R. S. Material Science.
Jump up ^ Nice, Karim and Strickland, Jonathan. "How Fuel Cells Work: Polymer Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells". How Stuff Works, accessed 4 August 2011
Jump up ^ Prabhu, Rahul R. (13 January 2013). "Stationary Fuel Cells Market size to reach 350,000 Shipments by 2022". Renew India Campaign. Retrieved 2013-01-14.
Jump up ^ "Mr. W. R. Grove on a new Voltaic Combination". The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 1838. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Grove, William Robert (1839). "On Voltaic Series and the Combination of Gases by Platinum". Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. XIV (86–87): 127–130. doi:10.1080/14786443908649684.
Jump up ^ "On the Voltaic Polarization of Certain Solid and Fluid Substances" (PDF). The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. 1839. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Grove, William Robert (1842). "On a Gaseous Voltaic Battery". Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science. XXI (140): 417–420. doi:10.1080/14786444208621600.
Jump up ^ Larminie, James; Dicks, Andrew. Fuel Cell Systems Explained (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Fuel Cell Project: PEM Fuel Cells photo #2".
Jump up ^ "Collecting the History of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells".
Jump up ^ "Roger Billings Biography". International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
Jump up ^ "Spotlight on Dr. Roger Billings". Computer Technology Review. Retrieved 2015-09-21.
Jump up ^ "The PureCell Model 400 – Product Overview". UTC Power. Archived from the original on 11 December 2011. Retrieved 2011-12-22.
Jump up ^ "S.Res.217 – A resolution designating October 8, 2015, as "National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Day"". Congress.gov. 29 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Larminie, James (1 May 2003). Fuel Cell Systems Explained, Second Edition. SAE International. ISBN 0-7680-1259-7.
Jump up ^ Wang, J.Y. (2008). "Pressure drop and flow distribution in parallel-channel of configurations of fuel cell stacks: U-type arrangement". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 33 (21): 6339–6350. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.08.020.
Jump up ^ Wang, J.Y.; Wang, H.L. (2012). "Flow field designs of bipolar plates in PEM fuel cells: theory and applications". Fuel Cells. 12 (6): 989–1003. doi:10.1002/fuce.201200074.
Jump up ^ Wang, J.Y.; Wang, H.L. (2012). "Discrete approach for flow-field designs of parallel channel configurations in fuel cells". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 37 (14): 10881–10897. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.04.034.
Jump up ^ Anne-Claire Dupuis, Progress in Materials Science, Volume 56, Issue 3, March 2011, pp. 289–327
Jump up ^ Measuring the relative efficiency of hydrogen energy technologies for implementing the hydrogen economy 2010 Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Kakati, B. K.; Deka, D. (2007). "Effect of resin matrix precursor on the properties of graphite composite bipolar plate for PEM fuel cell". Energy & Fuels. 21 (3): 1681–1687. doi:10.1021/ef0603582.
Jump up ^ "LEMTA – Our fuel cells". Perso.ensem.inpl-nancy.fr. Archived from the original on 21 June 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ Kakati, B. K.; Mohan, V. (2008). "Development of low cost advanced composite bipolar plate for P.E.M. fuel cell". Fuel Cells. 08 (1): 45–51. doi:10.1002/fuce.200700008.
Jump up ^ Kakati, B. K.; Deka, D. (2007). "Differences in physico-mechanical behaviors of resol and novolac type phenolic resin based composite bipolar plate for proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell". Electrochimica Acta. 52 (25): 7330–7336. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2007.06.021.
Jump up ^ Spendelow, Jacob and Jason Marcinkoski. "Fuel Cell System Cost – 2013" Archived 2 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine., DOE Fuel Cell Technologies Office, 16 October 2013 (archived version)
Jump up ^ "Ballard Power Systems: Commercially Viable Fuel Cell Stack Technology Ready by 2010". 29 March 2005. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Online, Science (2 August 2008). "2008 – Cathodes in fuel cells". Abc.net.au. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ Wang, Shuangyin. "Polyelectrolyte Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes as Efficient Metal-free Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 133: 5182–5185. doi:10.1021/ja1112904.
Jump up ^ Notter, Dominic A.; Kouravelou, Katerina; Karachalios, Theodoros; Daletou, Maria K.; Haberland, Nara Tudela (2015). "Life cycle assessment of PEM FC applications: electric mobility and μ-CHP". Energy Environ. Sci. 8 (7): 1969–1985. doi:10.1039/C5EE01082A.
Jump up ^ "Water_and_Air_Management". Ika.rwth-aachen.de. Archived from the original on 14 January 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ Andersson, M.; Beale, S. B.; Espinoza, M.; Wu, Z.; Lehnert, W. (2016-10-15). "A review of cell-scale multiphase flow modeling, including water management, in polymer electrolyte fuel cells". Applied Energy. 180: 757–778. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.08.010.
Jump up ^ "Progress and Accomplishments in Hydrogen and Fuel Cells" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Collecting the History of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells".
Jump up ^ "Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells". scopeWe - a Virtual Engineer.
Jump up ^ Haile, Sossina M.; Boysen, Dane A.; Chisholm, Calum R. I.; Merle, Ryan B. (2001-04-19). "Solid acids as fuel cell electrolytes". Nature. 410 (6831): 910–913. Bibcode:2001Natur.410..910H. doi:10.1038/35073536. ISSN 0028-0836.
Jump up ^ Haile, Sossina M.; Chisholm, Calum R. I.; Sasaki, Kenji; Boysen, Dane A.; Uda, Tetsuya (2006-12-11). "Solid acid proton conductors: from laboratory curiosities to fuel cell electrolytes". Faraday Discussions. 134: 17–39. Bibcode:2007FaDi..134...17H. doi:10.1039/B604311A. ISSN 1364-5498.
Jump up ^ Williams, K.R. (1 February 1994). "Francis Thomas Bacon. 21 December 1904-24 May 1992" (PDF). Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 39: 2–9. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1994.0001. Retrieved 5 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Srivastava, H. C. Nootan ISC Chemistry (12th) Edition 18, pp. 458–459, Nageen Prakashan (2014) ISBN 9789382319399
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Types of Fuel Cells" Archived 9 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine.. Department of Energy EERE website, accessed 4 August 2011
Jump up ^ Stambouli, A. Boudghene (2002). "Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs): a review of an environmentally clean and efficient source of energy". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 6 (5): 433–455. doi:10.1016/S1364-0321(02)00014-X.
Jump up ^ "Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)". FCTec website', accessed 4 August 2011 Archived 8 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Methane Fuel Cell Subgroup". University of Virginia. 2012. Retrieved 2014-02-13.
Jump up ^ A Kulkarni; FT Ciacchi; S Giddey; C Munnings; SPS Badwal; JA Kimpton; D Fini (2012). "International Journal of Hydrogen Energy". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 37 (24): 19092–19102. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2012.09.141.
Jump up ^ S. Giddey; S.P.S. Badwal; A. Kulkarni; C. Munnings (2012). "A comprehensive review of direct carbon fuel cell technology". Progress in Energy and Combustion Science. 38 (3): 360–399. doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2012.01.003.
Jump up ^ Hill, Michael. "Ceramic Energy: Material Trends in SOFC Systems". Ceramic Industry, 1 September 2005.
Jump up ^ "The Ceres Cell" Archived 13 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. Ceres Power website, accessed 4 August 2011
^ Jump up to: a b c "Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Technology". U.S. Department of Energy, accessed 9 August 2011
Jump up ^ "Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)". FCTec.com, accessed 9 August 2011 Archived 3 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Products". FuelCell Energy, accessed 9 August 2011 Archived 11 January 2013 at Archive.is
Jump up ^ U.S. Patent 8,354,195
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Badwal, Sukhvinder P. S.; Giddey, Sarbjit S.; Munnings, Christopher; Bhatt, Anand I.; Hollenkamp, Anthony F. (24 September 2014). "Emerging electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies". Frontiers in Chemistry. 2. Bibcode:2014FrCh....2...79B. doi:10.3389/fchem.2014.00079. PMC 4174133  . PMID 25309898.
Jump up ^ "Fuel Cell Comparison Chart" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
Jump up ^ E. Harikishan Reddy; Jayanti, S (15 December 2012). "Thermal management strategies for a 1 kWe stack of a high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell". Applied Thermal Engineering. 48: 465–475. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2012.04.041.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j "Fuel Cell Technologies Program: Glossary" Archived 23 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine.. Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fuel Cell Technologies Program. 7 July 2011. Accessed 3 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Aqueous Solution". Merriam-Webster Free Online Dictionary
Jump up ^ "Matrix". Merriam-Webster Free Online Dictionary
Jump up ^ "Solution". Merriam-Webster Free Online Dictionary
Jump up ^ "Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies" Archived 1 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Fuel Cell Technologies Program, February 2011, accessed 4 August 2011
Jump up ^ "Fuel Economy: Where The Energy Goes". U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Effciency and Renewable Energy, accessed 3 August 2011
^ Jump up to: a b "Fuel Cell Efficiency" Archived 9 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine.. World Energy Council, 17 July 2007, accessed 4 August 2011
^ Jump up to: a b Eberle, Ulrich and Rittmar von Helmolt. "Sustainable transportation based on electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview". Energy & Environmental Science, Royal Society of Chemistry, 14 May 2010, accessed 2 August 2011
Jump up ^ Von Helmolt, R.; Eberle, U (20 March 2007). "Fuel Cell Vehicles:Status 2007". Journal of Power Sources. 165 (2): 833–843. Bibcode:2007JPS...165..833V. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.12.073.
Jump up ^ "Honda FCX Clarity – Fuel cell comparison". Honda. Retrieved 2009-01-02.
Jump up ^ "Efficiency of Hydrogen PEFC, Diesel-SOFC-Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles" (PDF). 15 July 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2006. Retrieved 2007-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Batteries, Supercapacitors, and Fuel Cells: Scope". Science Reference Services. 20 August 2007. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
Jump up ^ Nice, Karim. "How Fuel Processors Work". HowStuffWorks, accessed 3 August 2011
Jump up ^ Garcia, Christopher P.; et al. (January 2006). "Round Trip Energy Efficiency of NASA Glenn Regenerative Fuel Cell System". Preprint: 5. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Meyers, Jeremy P. "Getting Back Into Gear: Fuel Cell Development After the Hype". The Electrochemical Society Interface, Winter 2008, pp. 36–39, accessed 7 August 2011
^ Jump up to: a b The fuel cell industry review 2013
^ Jump up to: a b "Fuel Cell Basics: Benefits". Fuel Cells 2000. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
Jump up ^ "Fuel Cell Basics: Applications" Archived 15 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Fuel Cells 2000. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Energy Sources: Electric Power". U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "2008 Fuel Cell Technologies Market Report" Archived 4 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. Bill Vincent of the Breakthrough Technologies Institute, Jennifer Gangi, Sandra Curtin, and Elizabeth Delmont. Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. June 2010.
Jump up ^ U.S. Fuel Cell Council Industry Overview 2010, p. 12. U.S. Fuel Cell Council. 2010.
Jump up ^ "Stuart Island Energy Initiative". Siei.org. Retrieved 2009-09-21. – gives extensive technical details
Jump up ^ "Town's Answer to Clean Energy is Blowin' in the Wind: New Wind Turbine Powers Hydrogen Car Fuel Station". Town of Hempstead. Archived from the original on 28 January 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2012.
Jump up ^ World's Largest Carbon Neutral Fuel Cell Power Plant, 16 October 2012
Jump up ^ "Reduction of residential carbon dioxide emissions through the use of small cogeneration fuel cell systems – Combined heat and power systems". IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEAGHG). 11 November 2008. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
Jump up ^ "Reduction of residential carbon dioxide emissions through the use of small cogeneration fuel cell systems – Scenario calculations". IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEAGHG). 11 November 2008. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
Jump up ^ "Cogen".
Jump up ^ Fuel Cells and CHP Archived 18 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Patent 7,334,406". Retrieved 25 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Geothermal Heat, Hybrid Energy Storage System". Retrieved 25 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Reduction of residential carbon dioxide emissions through the use of small cogeneration fuel cell systems – Commercial sector". IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEAGHG). 11 November 2008. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
Jump up ^ "PureCell Model 400: Overview" Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. UTC Power. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies" Archived 1 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. Departement of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fuel Cell Technologies Program. February 2011.
Jump up ^ Onovwiona, H.I.; Ugursal, V.I. (2006). "Residential cogeneration systems: review of the current technology". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 10 (5): 389–431. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2004.07.005.
Jump up ^ AD. Hawkes, L. Exarchakos, D. Hart, MA. Leach, D. Haeseldonckx, L. Cosijns and W. D’haeseleer. EUSUSTEL work package 3: Fuell cells, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Reduction of residential carbon dioxide emissions through the use of small cogeneration fuel cell systems". IEA Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme (IEAGHG). 11 November 2008. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
Jump up ^ "HyER » Enfarm, enefield, eneware!". Archived from the original on 15 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Vehicles Worldwide". TÜV SÜD Industrie Service GmbH, accessed on 2 August 2011
Jump up ^ Wipke, Keith, Sam Sprik, Jennifer Kurtz and Todd Ramsden. "Controlled Hydrogen Fleet and Infrastructure Demonstration and Validation Project". National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 11 September 2009, accessed on 2 August 2011
^ Jump up to: a b "Accomplishments and Progress" Archived 21 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Fuel Cell Technology Program, U.S. Dept. of Energy, 24 June 2011
Jump up ^ Wipke, Keith, Sam Sprik, Jennifer Kurtz and Todd Ramsden. "National FCEV Learning Demonstration" Archived 19 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, April 2011, accessed 2 August 2011
Jump up ^ Garbak, John. "VIII.0 Technology Validation Sub-Program Overview". DOE Fuel Cell Technologies Program, FY 2010 Annual Progress Report, accessed 2 August 2011
^ Jump up to: a b Lathia, Rutvik Vasudev; Dobariya, Kevin S.; Patel, Ankit (January 10, 2017). "Hydrogen Fuel Cells for Road Vehicles". Journal of Cleaner Production. 141: 462. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.150.
Jump up ^ Brinkman, Norma, Michael Wang, Trudy Weber and Thomas Darlington. "Well-To-Wheels Analysis of Advanced Fuel/Vehicle Systems – A North American Study of Energy Use, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, and Criteria Pollutant Emissions". General Motors Corporation, Argonne National Laboratory and Air Improvement Resource, Inc., May 2005, accessed 9 August 2011
Jump up ^ Lammers, Heather (17 August 2011). "Low Emission Cars Under NREL's Microscope". NREL Newsroom. Retrieved 2011-08-21.
Jump up ^ Kubota, Yoko. "Toyota says slashes fuel cell costs by nearly $1 million for new hydrogen car". Reuters, 10 October 2013
Jump up ^ Ayre, James. "Toyota To Lose $100,000 on Every Hydrogen FCV Sold?", CleanTechnica.com, 19 November 2014; and Blanco, Sebastian. "Bibendum 2014: Former EU President says Toyota could lose 100,000 euros per hydrogen FCV sedan", GreenAutoblog.com, 12 November 2014
Jump up ^ Korzeniewski, Jeremy (27 September 2012). "Hyundai ix35 lays claim to world's first production fuel cell vehicle title". autoblog.com. Retrieved 2012-10-07.
Jump up ^ "GM's Fuel Cell System Shrinks in Size, Weight, Cost". General Motors. 16 March 2010. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Honda unveils FCX Clarity advanced fuel cell electric vehicle at motor show in US". Honda Worldwide. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Lienert, Anita. "Mercedes-Benz Fuel-Cell Car Ready for Market in 2014". Edmunds Inside Line, 21 June 2011
Jump up ^ "Environmental Activities: Nissan Green Program 2016". Nissan. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Williams, Keith. "The Switch from Hydrogen to Electric Vehicles Continues, Now Hyundai Makes the Move", Seeking Alpha, September 1, 2017
^ Jump up to: a b "Elon Musk on why Hydrogen fuel cell is dumb (2015)", YouTube, 14 January 2015, at 10:20 of the clip
^ Jump up to: a b Romm, Joseph. "Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can’t Compete With Pure Electric Cars", CleanProgress.com, 5 August 2014
Jump up ^ "From TechnologyReview.com "Hell and Hydrogen", March 2007". Technologyreview.com. Retrieved 2011-01-31.
Jump up ^ White, Charlie (2008-07-31). "Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are a fraud". DVICE. Archived from the original on 2014-06-19. Retrieved 2015-09-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Brian Warshay, Brian. "The Great Compression: the Future of the Hydrogen Economy", Lux Research, Inc. January 2013
Jump up ^ "GM CEO: Fuel cell vehicles not yet practical", The Detroit News, 30 July 2011; and Chin, Chris. "GM's Dan Akerson: Fuel-cell vehicles aren't practical… yet". egmCarTech, 1 August 2011, accessed 27 February 2012
^ Jump up to: a b Bossel, Ulf. "Does a Hydrogen Economy Make Sense?", 'Proceedings of the IEEE Vol. 94, No. 10, October 2006
Jump up ^ Zyga, Lisa. "Why a hydrogen economy doesn't make sense". physorg.com, 11 December 2006, accessed 2 August 2011, citing Bossel, Ulf. "Does a Hydrogen Economy Make Sense?" Proceedings of the IEEE. Vol. 94, No. 10, October 2006
Jump up ^ Romm, Joseph. "Tesla Trumps Toyota Part II: The Big Problem With Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles", CleanProgress.com, 13 August 2014
Jump up ^ Hunt, Tam. "Should California Reconsider Its Policy Support for Fuel-Cell Vehicles?", GreenTech Media, 10 July 2014
Jump up ^ Brown, Nicholas. "Hydrogen Cars Lost Much of Their Support, But Why?", Clean Technica, 26 June 2015
Jump up ^ "Engineering Explained: 5 Reasons Why Hydrogen Cars Are Stupid", Car Throttle, 8 October 2015
Jump up ^ Meyers, Glenn. "Hydrogen Economy: Boom or Bust?", Clean Technica, 19 March 2015
Jump up ^ "Transportation Fleet Vehicles: Overview" Archived 17 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. UTC Power. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "FY 2010 annual progress report: VIII.0 Technology Validation Sub-Program Overview".John Garbak. Department of Energy Hydrogen Program.
^ Jump up to: a b "National Fuel Cell Bus Program Awards". Calstart. Accessed 12 August 2011 Archived 31 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "European Fuel Cell Bus Project Extended by One Year". DaimlerChrysler. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-31.
Jump up ^ "Fuel cell buses". Transport for London. Archived from the original on 13 May 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-01.
Jump up ^ "UTC Power – Fuel Cell Fleet Vehicles". Archived from the original on 9 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Ônibus brasileiro movido a hidrogênio começa a rodar em São Paulo" (in Portuguese). Inovação Tecnológica. 8 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-03.
Jump up ^ "Ônibus a Hidrogênio vira realidade no Brasil" (in Portuguese). Inovação Tecnológica. April 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-03. [dead link]
Jump up ^ Fuel Cell Forklifts Gain Ground
Jump up ^ Fuel cell technologies program overview Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Economic Impact of Fuel Cell Deployment in Forklifts and for Backup Power under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b "Global and Chinese Forklift Industry Report, 2014-2016", Research and Markets, 6 November 2014
Jump up ^ "Fact Sheet: Materials Handling and Fuel Cells" Archived 13 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "HyLIFT - Clean Efficient Power for Materials Handling".
Jump up ^ "First Hydrogen Station for Fuel Cell Forklift Trucks in France, for IKEA".
Jump up ^ "Technologie HyPulsion : des piles pour véhicules de manutention - Horizon Hydrogène Énergie".
Jump up ^ "HyGear Delivers Hydrogen System for Fuel Cell Based Forklift Trucks".
Jump up ^ "Hydrogen Fueling Stations Could Reach 5,200 by 2020". Environmental Leader: Environmental & Energy Management News,20 July 2011, accessed 2 August 2011
Jump up ^ Full Fuel-Cycle Comparison of Forklift Propulsion Systems Archived 17 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Fuel cell technology".
Jump up ^ "Creating Innovative Graphite Solutions for Over 125 Years". GrafTech International.
Jump up ^ "The ENV Bike". Intelligent Energy. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
Jump up ^ "Honda Develops Fuel Cell Scooter Equipped with Honda FC Stack". Honda Motor Co. 24 August 2004. Archived from the original on 2 April 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
Jump up ^ Bryant, Eric (21 July 2005). "Honda to offer fuel-cell motorcycle". autoblog.com. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2007.
Jump up ^ 15. Dezember 2007. "Hydrogen Fuel Cell electric bike". Youtube.com. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
Jump up ^ "Horizon fuel cell vehicles: Transportation: Light Mobility" Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. 2010. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ APFCT won Taiwan BOE project contract for 80 FC scooters fleet demonstration
Jump up ^ The fuel cell industry review 2012
Jump up ^ Burgman_Fuel-Cell_Scooter; "Products History 2000s". Global Suzuki. Suzuki Motor Corporation. Archived from the original on 24 October 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Eco energy firm in Suzuki deal". Leicester Mercury. 6 February 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2013. ; "Suzuki and IE to commercialize FC cars and bikes". Gizmag. 8 February 2012. Retrieved 26 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Boeing Successfully Flies Fuel Cell-Powered Airplane". Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. . Boeing. 3 April 2008. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "First Fuel Cell Microaircraft" Archived 6 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Horizon Fuel Cell Powers New World Record in UAV Flight" Archived 14 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies. 1 November 2007.
Jump up ^ "Fuel Cell Powered UAV Completes 23-hour Flight". Alternative Energy: News. 22 October 2009. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hydrogen-powered unmanned aircraft completes set of tests".www.theengineer.co.uk. 20 June 2011. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Coxworth, Ben (2016-02-08). "Drone flight powered by lightweight hydrogen-producing pellets". www.gizmag.com. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
Jump up ^ "Lovers introduces zero-emission boat" (in Dutch). NemoH2. 28 March 2011. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "Super-stealth sub powered by fuel cell" Archived 4 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Frederik Pleitgen. CNN Tech: Nuclear Weapons. 22 February 2011. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ "U212 / U214 Attack Submarines, Germany". Naval-Technology.com. Accessed 2 August 2011. Archived 3 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Goodenough, RH; Greig, A (2008). "Hybrid nuclear/fuel-cell submarine". Journal of Naval Engineering. 44 (3): 455–471.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to SFC".
Jump up ^ "Ensol Systems Inc. - Remote Power Systems, EFOY Pro Fuel Cells, Electrical Control Panels".
Jump up ^ "Ballard fuel cells to power telecom backup power units for motorola" Archived 6 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Association Canadienne de l'hydrogene et des piles a combustible. 13 July 2009. Accessed 2 August 2011.
Jump up ^ India telecoms to get fuel cell power Archived 26 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Cottbus receives new local data center" Archived 30 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. T Systems. 21 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fuel Cell Applications" Archived 15 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Fuel Cells 2000. Accessed 2 August 2011
Jump up ^ DVGW VP 119 Brennstoffzellen-Gasgeräte bis 70 kW. DVGW. (German)
Jump up ^ Laine Welch (18 May 2013). "Laine Welch: Fuel cell technology boosts long-distance fish shipping". Anchorage Daily News. Archived from the original on 9 June 2013. Retrieved 19 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Fuel Cell Technology Applied to Alcohol Breath Testing". Intoximeters, Inc. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Berman, Bradley. "Fuel Cells at Center Stage", New York Times, 24 November 2013, p. AU1
Jump up ^ Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State, Alternative Fuels Data Center, accessed December 2, 2016
Jump up ^ "ECTOS 2003-7", Icelandic New Energy, accessed August 25, 2015
Jump up ^ "EHA » German Government announces support for 50 urban hydrogen refuelling stations".
Jump up ^ "NOW: now-gmbh.de - Startseite".
Jump up ^ Voelcker, John. "Energy use for hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles: higher than electrics, even hybrids (analysis)", Green Car Reports, May 4, 2017
Jump up ^ Møte mandag den 13. juni 2016 kl. 10, (Norwegian parliament meeting report)
Jump up ^ "Navigant: fuel cell industry passed $1-billion revenue mark in 2012", Green Car Congress, 12 August 2013
Jump up ^ Martin, Christopher (March 10, 2014). "Plug, FuelCell Climb as 'Experiments' Seen as Profitable". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved December 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Fuel cell report highlights continued growth in material handling applications". 20 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Tanaka precious metals constructs dedicated plant for the development and manufacture of fuel cell catalysts", FuelCellToday.com, February 26, 2013, accessed November 16, 2013
Jump up ^ Adamson, Karry-Ann and Clint Wheelock. "Fuel Cell Annual Report 2011" Archived 17 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. 2Q 2011, Pike Research, accessed 1 August 2011
Jump up ^ "Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance SECA Cost Reduction". U.S. Dept. of Energy, 31 January 2011, accessed 1 August 2011
Jump up ^ "Lower & Lock-In Energy Costs", Bloom Energy, accessed 3 August 2011
Jump up ^ Wesoff, Eric. "Bloom Energy Plays the Subsidy Game Like a Pro", April 13, 2011, accessed August 1, 2011 Archived 11 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ International Platinum Group Metals Association-FAQ Archived 19 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Johnson, R. Colin (22 January 2007). "Gold is key to ending platinum dissolution in fuel cells". EETimes.com. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
Jump up ^ "C&EN: Latest News - Iron-Sulfur Core Assembled".
Jump up ^ "Fuel cell improvements raise hopes for clean, cheap energy". Ars Technica.
Jump up ^ Yoo-chul, Kim. "Samsung to drop fuel cell business", Korea Times, 12 April 2016
Jump up ^ "Chemical Could Revolutionize Polymer Fuel Cells" (PDF). Georgia Institute of Technology. 24 August 2005. Retrieved 2014-11-21.
Jump up ^ Cheaper fuel cells
Jump up ^ "Bio-inspired catalyst design could rival platinum".
Jump up ^ "Hydrogen Fuel Cell That's As Durable As A Conventional Engine". Archived from the original on 16 October 2013.
Jump up ^ ACAL poster on Fuel Cell costs and efficiency Archived 16 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Kakati, Biraj Kumar; Kucernak, Anthony RJ (15 March 2014). "Gas phase recovery of hydrogen sulfide contaminated polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells". Journal of Power Sources. 252: 317–326. Bibcode:2014JPS...252..317K. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2013.11.077.
Jump up ^ Kakati, Biraj Kumar; Unnikrishnan, Anusree; Rajalakshmi, Natarajan; Jafri, RI; Dhathathreyan, KS. "Kucernak". Anthony RJ. 41 (12): 5598–5604. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.01.077. Retrieved 22 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Kakati, BK. "In-situ O3 rejuvenation of SO2 contaminated Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell: Electrochemistry, single cell and 5-cells stack studies" (PDF). 5th European PEFC & H2 Forum. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
Further reading[edit]
Vielstich, W., et al, eds. (2009). Handbook of fuel cells: advances in electrocatalysis, materials, diagnostics and durability. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Gregor Hoogers (2003). Fuel Cell Technology – Handbook. CRC Press.
James Larminie; Andrew Dicks (2003). Fuel Cell Systems Explained (Second ed.). Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons.
Subash C. Singhal; Kevin Kendall (2003). High Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells-Fundamentals, Design and Applications. Elsevier Academic Press.
Frano Barbir (2005). PEM Fuel Cells-Theory and Practice. Elsevier Academic Press.
EG&G Technical Services, Inc. (2004). Fuel Cell Technology-Handbook, 7th Edition. U.S. Department of Energy.
Matthew M. Mench (2008). Fuel Cell Engines. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Noriko Hikosaka Behling (2012). Fuel Cells: Current Technology Challenges and Future Research Needs (First ed.). Elsevier Academic Press.
External links[edit]
H2-international – e-journal on hydrogen and fuel cells
Fuel Cell Today – Market-based intelligence on the fuel cell industry
Fuel starvation in a hydrogen fuel cell animation
Animation how a fuel cell works and applications
Fuel Cell Origins: 1840–1890
EERE: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program
Thermodynamics of electrolysis of water and hydrogen fuel cells
2002-Portable Power Applications of Fuel Cells
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Fuel Cells"
Solar Hydrogen Fuel Cell Water Heating
Fuel Cell Technology – One for the Future
[show]
v
t
e
Fuel cells
By electrolyte
Alkaline fuel cell
Molten carbonate fuel cell
Phosphoric acid fuel cell
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell
Solid oxide fuel cell
By fuel
Direct-ethanol fuel cell
Direct methanol fuel cell
Formic acid fuel cell
Reformed methanol fuel cell
Zinc-air battery
Biofuel cells
Enzymatic biofuel cell
Microbial fuel cell
Others
Blue energy
Direct borohydride fuel cell
Direct carbon fuel cell
Electro-galvanic fuel cell
Flow battery
Membraneless Fuel Cells
Metal hydride fuel cell
Photoelectrochemical cell
Protonic ceramic fuel cell
Regenerative fuel cell
Solid oxide electrolyser cell
Unitized regenerative fuel cell
Hydrogen
Economy
Storage
Station
Vehicle
Glossary
[show]
v
t
e
Galvanic cells
Types
Voltaic pile
Battery
Flow battery
Trough battery
Concentration cell
Fuel cell
Thermogalvanic cell
Primary cell
(non-rechargeable)
Alkaline
Aluminium–air
Bunsen
Chromic acid
Clark
Daniell
Dry
Edison-Lalande
Grove
Leclanché
Lithium
Mercury
Nickel oxyhydroxide
Silicon–air
Silver oxide
Weston
Zamboni
Zinc–air
Zinc–carbon
Secondary cell
(rechargeable)
Automotive
Lead–acid
gel / VRLA
Lithium–air
Lithium–ion
Lithium polymer
Lithium iron phosphate
Lithium titanate
Lithium–sulfur
Dual carbon battery
Molten salt
Nanopore
Nanowire
Nickel–cadmium
Nickel–hydrogen
Nickel–iron
Nickel–lithium
Nickel–metal hydride
Nickel–zinc
Polysulfide bromide
Potassium-ion
Rechargeable alkaline
Sodium-ion
Sodium–sulfur
Vanadium redox
Zinc–bromine
Zinc–cerium
Cell parts
Anode
Binder
Catalyst
Cathode
Electrode
Electrolyte
Half-cell
Ions
Salt bridge
Semipermeable membrane
[show]
v
t
e
Car design
Car classification
By size
Microcar
City car
Kei
Subcompact
Supermini
Family car
Compact
Mid-size
Full-size
Custom
Hot rod
Lead sled
Lowrider
Street rod
T-bucket
Luxury
Compact executive
Executive
Personal luxury car
Minivan / Multi-purpose vehicle (MPV)
Compact MPV
Mini MPV
Sport utility vehicle (SUV)
Compact SUV
Crossover SUV
Mini SUV
Sports car
Grand tourer
Hot hatch
Muscle
Pony
Sport compact
Supercar
Antique
Classic
Economy
Leisure activity vehicle
Ute
Van
Voiturette
Body styles
2+2
Baquet
Barchetta
Berlinetta
Brougham
Cabrio coach
Cabriolet / Convertible
Coupé
Coupé de Ville
Coupé utility
Drophead coupe (Convertible)
Fastback
Hardtop
Hatchback
Landaulet
Liftback
Limousine
Multi-stop truck
Notchback
Panel van
Phaeton
Pickup truck
Quad coupé
Retractable hardtop
Roadster
Runabout
Saloon / Sedan
Sedan delivery
Sedanca de Ville (Coupé de Ville)
Shooting-brake
Spider / Spyder (Roadster)
Station wagon
Targa top
Torpedo
Touring car
Town car (Coupé de Ville)
T-top
Vis-à-vis
Specialized vehicles
Amphibious
Driverless (autonomous)
Hearse
Gyrocar
Roadable aircraft
Taxicab
Tow truck
Propulsion
Alternative fuel
Autogas
Biodiesel
Diesel
Electric (battery
NEV)
Ethanol (E85)
Fuel cell
Gasoline / petrol (direct injection)
Homogeneous charge compression ignition
Hybrid (plug-in)
Hydrogen
Internal combustion
Liquid nitrogen
Steam
Drive wheels
Front-wheel
Rear-wheel
Two-wheel
Four-wheel
Six-wheel
Eight-wheel
Twelve-wheel
Engine position
Front
Mid
Rear
Layout (engine / drive)
Front / front
Front mid / front
Rear / front
Front / rear
Rear mid / rear
Rear / rear
Front / four-wheel
Mid / four-wheel
Rear / four-wheel
Engine configuration
(internal combustion)
Boxer
Flat
Four-stroke
H-block
Reciprocating
Single-cylinder
Straight
Two-stroke
V (Vee)
W engine
Wankel
Portal
Category
Authority control
GND: 4008195-3
NDL: 00568097
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fuel_cell&oldid=818712336"
Categories:
English inventions
Fuel cells
Energy conversion
Hydrogen economy
Hydrogen technologies
Energy storage
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Webarchive template archiveis links
CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from September 2010
Use dmy dates from August 2013
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from December 2011
Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2011
All articles containing potentially dated statements
All articles with failed verification
Articles with failed verification from February 2012
Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2016
CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
বাংলা
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
עברית
ಕನ್ನಡ
Kreyòl ayisyen
Magyar
മലയാളം
Монгол
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
తెలుగు
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
Winaray
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 5 January 2018, at 04:04.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Fuel_cell_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Fuel cell (disambiguation)

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: class style

values:
/wiki/Roger_Billings
mw-redirect
Roger Billings

values: Edit section: Types of fuel cells; design

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2011)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)

values:
/wiki/Direct-methanol_fuel_cell
mw-redirect
Direct-methanol fuel cell

values:
/wiki/Indirect_methanol_fuel_cell
mw-redirect
Indirect methanol fuel cell

values:
/wiki/Carbon_fiber
mw-redirect
Carbon fiber

values:
/wiki/Artificial_membrane
mw-redirect
Artificial membrane

values: Edit section: Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues

values:
/wiki/Thermal_loading
mw-redirect
Thermal loading

values:
/wiki/Stationary_fuel_cell_applications
mw-redirect
Stationary fuel cell applications

values: Edit section: Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)

values:
/wiki/Phosphoric_acid_fuel_cell
mw-redirect
Phosphoric acid fuel cell

values: Edit section: Solid acid fuel cell (SAFC)

values: Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cells

values: Edit section: High-temperature fuel cells

values:
/wiki/Fossil_fuel_reforming
mw-redirect
Fossil fuel reforming

values:
/wiki/Ionic_conductivity
mw-redirect
Ionic conductivity

values: Edit section: Electric storage fuel cell

values: Edit section: Comparison of fuel cell types

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values: background: #FFD; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: background: #bfd; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: background:#bfd; color:black; vertical-align:middle; text-align:center;

values: background: #DFDFFF; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values: background: #faa; color: black; vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;

values:
/wiki/Tubular_solid_oxide_fuel_cell
mw-redirect
Tubular solid oxide fuel cell

values:
/wiki/Enzymatic_Biofuel_Cells
mw-redirect
Enzymatic Biofuel Cells

values:
/wiki/Magnesium-Air_Fuel_Cell
mw-redirect
Magnesium-Air Fuel Cell

values: wikitable sortable plainrowheaders jquery-tablesorter

values: Edit section: Efficiency of leading fuel cell types

values:
/wiki/Membrane_(selective_barrier)
mw-redirect
Membrane (selective barrier)

values:
/wiki/Molten_Carbonate_Fuel_Cell
mw-redirect
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

values:
/wiki/Solid_Oxide_Fuel_Cell
mw-redirect
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

values: Edit section: Theoretical maximum efficiency

values:
/wiki/Fuel-cell_vehicle
mw-redirect
Fuel-cell vehicle

values:
/wiki/Honda_FCX_Clarity
mw-redirect
Honda FCX Clarity

values:
/wiki/Steam_methane_reforming
mw-redirect
Steam methane reforming

values:
/wiki/Absorption_chiller
mw-redirect
Absorption chiller

values: Edit section: Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)

values:
/wiki/Joseph_Romm
mw-redirect
Joseph Romm

values:
/wiki/The_Hype_About_Hydrogen
mw-redirect
The Hype About Hydrogen

values:
/wiki/Toyota_FCHV-BUS
mw-redirect
Toyota FCHV-BUS

values: plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update

values:
/wiki/United_Technologies_Corporation
mw-redirect
United Technologies Corporation

values:
/wiki/Forklift_truck
mw-redirect
Forklift truck

values:
/wiki/Fuel-cell_motorcycle
mw-redirect
Fuel-cell motorcycle

values: The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (February 2012)

values:
/wiki/Emergency_power_systems
mw-redirect
Emergency power systems

values:
/wiki/Uninterrupted_power_supply
mw-redirect
Uninterrupted power supply

values:
/wiki/Base_load_power_plant
mw-redirect
Base load power plant

values:
/wiki/Notebook_computers
mw-redirect
Notebook computers

attrs: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/University_of_Milan-Bicocca
mw-redirect
University of Milan-Bicocca

values:
/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes
mw-redirect
Carbon nanotubes

values:
nofollow
http://www.acalenergy.co.uk/
external text

values: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

values: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

values:
/wiki/Bio-nano_generator
mw-redirect
Bio-nano generator

values: Fuel Cell Development Information Center

values: Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative

values:
/wiki/Hydrogen_reformer
mw-redirect
Hydrogen reformer

values:
/wiki/PEM_electrolysis
mw-redirect
PEM electrolysis

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-3

values: -moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.iahe.org/advisory.asp?did=2

values:
/wiki/Society_of_Automotive_Engineers
mw-redirect
Society of Automotive Engineers

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Ffuce.201200074

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fef0603582

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Ffuce.200700008

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1021%2Fja1112904

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1039%2FC5EE01082A

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F35073536

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1039%2FB604311A

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1364-5498

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.1994.0001

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pecs.2012.01.003

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.google.com/patents/US8354195

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.3389%2Ffchem.2014.00079

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25309898

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.efcf.com/reports/E04.pdf

values:
nofollow
external text
http://hdl.handle.net/2060/20060008706

values:
nofollow
http://www.siei.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.cogen.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.rser.2004.07.005

values:
nofollow
http://www.hylift-projects.eu/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.envbike.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.lovers.nl/co2zero/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.sfc.com/en/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.ensolsystems.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.now-gmbh.de/
external text

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter

values:
nofollow
http://www.h2-international.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
http://vimeo.com/25279206

values:
nofollow
http://www.fchea.org/
external text

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/File:Galvanic_Cell.svg
image
Galvanic cell

values:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Edison-Lalande_cell
mw-redirect
Edison-Lalande cell

values:
/wiki/Molten_salt_battery
mw-redirect
Molten salt battery

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Front mid-engine, front-wheel-drive layout

values: Rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout

values:
navbox-abovebelow hlist
2
font-weight:bold;

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4008195-3

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Webarchive template archiveis links

values: Category:CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt)

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from September 2010

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2011

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from August 2011

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:All articles with failed verification

values: Category:Articles with failed verification from February 2012

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2016

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Fuel_cell
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: خلية وقود – Arabic

values: জ্বালানি কোষ – Bangla

values: Горивна клетка – Bulgarian

values: Κυψέλη καυσίμου – Greek

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuelpilo
Fuelpilo – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values: پیل سوختی – Persian

values: Վառելիքային էլեմենտ – Armenian

values: ईंधन सेल – Hindi

values: תא דלק – Hebrew

values: ಇಂಧನಕೋಶ – Kannada

values: ഫ്യുവൽ സെൽ – Malayalam

values: Түлшний элемент – Mongolian

values: Топливный элемент – Russian

values: எரிபொருள் மின்கலம் – Tamil

values: ఇంధన కోష్ఠికలు – Telugu

values: เซลล์เชื้อเพลิง – Thai

values: Паливна комірка – Ukrainian

values: ایندھنی خلیہ – Urdu

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Fuel_cell rootpage-Fuel_cell skin-vector action-view