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English alphabet
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The modern English alphabet is a Latin alphabet consisting of 26 letters (each having an uppercase and a lowercase form) – exactly the same letters that are found in the ISO basic Latin alphabet:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Majuscule forms (also called uppercase or capital letters)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Minuscule forms (also called lowercase or small letters)
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
The exact shape of printed letters varies depending on the typeface (and font). The shape of handwritten letters can differ significantly from the standard printed form (and between individuals), especially when written in cursive style. See the individual letter articles for information about letter shapes and origins (follow the links on any of the uppercase letters above).
Written English uses 18[1] digraphs, such as ch, sh, th, ph, wh, etc., but they are not considered separate letters of the alphabet. Some traditions[which?] also use two ligatures, æ and œ,[nb 1] or consider the ampersand (&) part of the alphabet.
English alphabet
(Listen to a Received Pronunciation British English speaker recite the English alphabet)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Old English
1.2 Modern English
1.3 Ligatures in recent usage
2 Proposed reforms
3 Diacritics
4 Ampersand
5 Apostrophe
6 Letter names
6.1 Etymology
7 Phonology
8 Letter numbers and frequencies
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
History[edit]
See also: History of the Latin alphabet and English orthography
Old English[edit]
Main article: Old English Latin alphabet
The English language was first written in the Anglo-Saxon futhorc runic alphabet, in use from the 5th century. This alphabet was brought to what is now England, along with the proto-form of the language itself, by Anglo-Saxon settlers. Very few examples of this form of written Old English have survived, these being mostly short inscriptions or fragments.
The Latin script, introduced by Christian missionaries, began to replace the Anglo-Saxon futhorc from about the 7th century, although the two continued in parallel for some time. Futhorc influenced the emerging English alphabet by providing it with the letters thorn (Þ þ) and wynn (Ƿ ƿ). The letter eth (Ð ð) was later devised as a modification of dee (D d), and finally yogh (Ȝ ȝ) was created by Norman scribes from the insular g in Old English and Irish, and used alongside their Carolingian g.
The a-e ligature ash (Æ æ) was adopted as a letter in its own right, named after a futhorc rune æsc. In very early Old English the o-e ligature ethel (Œ œ) also appeared as a distinct letter, likewise named after a rune, œðel[citation needed]. Additionally, the v-v or u-u ligature double-u (W w) was in use.
In the year 1011, a monk named Byrhtferð recorded the traditional order of the Old English alphabet.[2] He listed the 24 letters of the Latin alphabet first (including ampersand), then 5 additional English letters, starting with the Tironian note ond (⁊), an insular symbol for and:
A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z & ⁊ Ƿ Þ Ð Æ
Modern English[edit]
In the orthography of Modern English, thorn (þ), eth (ð), wynn (ƿ), yogh (ȝ), ash (æ), and ethel (œ) are obsolete. Latin borrowings reintroduced homographs of ash and ethel into Middle English and Early Modern English, though they are not considered to be the same letters[citation needed] but rather ligatures, and in any case are somewhat old-fashioned. Thorn and eth were both replaced by th, though thorn continued in existence for some time, its lowercase form gradually becoming graphically indistinguishable from the minuscule y in most handwriting. Y for th can still be seen in pseudo-archaisms such as "Ye Olde Booke Shoppe". The letters þ and ð are still used in present-day Icelandic while ð is still used in present-day Faroese. Wynn disappeared from English around the 14th century when it was supplanted by uu, which ultimately developed into the modern w. Yogh disappeared around the 15th century and was typically replaced by gh.
The letters u and j, as distinct from v and i, were introduced in the 16th century, and w assumed the status of an independent letter, so that the English alphabet is now considered to consist of the following 26 letters:
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
The variant lowercase form long s (ſ) lasted into early modern English, and was used in non-final position up to the early 19th century.
Ligatures in recent usage[edit]
Outside of professional papers on specific subjects that traditionally use ligatures in loanwords, ligatures are seldom used in modern English.
The ligatures æ and œ were until the 19th century (slightly later in American English)[citation needed] used in formal writing for certain words of Greek or Latin origin, such as encyclopædia and cœlom, although such ligatures were not used in either classical Latin or ancient Greek. These are now usually rendered as "ae" and "oe" in all types of writing,[citation needed] although in American English, a lone e has mostly supplanted both (for example, encyclopedia for encyclopaedia, and maneuver for manoeuvre).
Some fonts for typesetting English contain commonly used ligatures, such as for ⟨tt⟩, ⟨fi⟩, ⟨fl⟩, ⟨ffi⟩, and ⟨ffl⟩. These are not independent letters, but rather allographs.
Proposed reforms[edit]
Alternative scripts have been proposed for written English – mostly extending or replacing the basic English alphabet – such as the Deseret alphabet, the Shavian alphabet, Gregg shorthand, etc.
Diacritics[edit]
Main article: English terms with diacritical marks
Diacritic marks mainly appear in loanwords such as naïve and façade. As such words become naturalised in English, there is a tendency to drop the diacritics, as has happened with old borrowings such as hôtel, from French. Informal English writing tends to omit diacritics because of their absence from the keyboard, while professional copywriters and typesetters tend to include them.[3] Words that are still perceived as foreign tend to retain them; for example, the only spelling of soupçon found in English dictionaries (the OED and others) uses the diacritic. Diacritics are also more likely to be retained where there would otherwise be confusion with another word (for example, résumé (or resumé) rather than resume), and, rarely, even added (as in maté, from Spanish yerba mate, but following the pattern of café, from French).
Occasionally, especially in older writing, diacritics are used to indicate the syllables of a word: cursed (verb) is pronounced with one syllable, while cursèd (adjective) is pronounced with two. È is used widely in poetry, e.g. in Shakespeare's sonnets. J.R.R. Tolkien uses ë, as in O wingëd crown. Similarly, while in chicken coop the letters -oo- represent a single vowel sound (a digraph), in obsolete spellings such as zoölogist and coöperation, they represent two. This use of the diaeresis is rarely seen, but persists into the 2000s in some publications, such as MIT Technology Review and The New Yorker.
An acute, grave, or diaeresis may also be placed over an "e" at the end of a word to indicate that it is not silent, as in saké. In general, these devices are often not used even where they would serve to alleviate some degree of confusion.
Ampersand[edit]
The & has sometimes appeared at the end of the English alphabet, as in Byrhtferð's list of letters in 1011.[2] Historically, the figure is a ligature for the letters Et. In English and many other languages it is used to represent the word and and occasionally the Latin word et, as in the abbreviation &c (et cetera).
Apostrophe[edit]
The apostrophe, while not considered part of the English alphabet, is used to contract English words. A few pairs of words, such as its (belonging to it) and it's (it is or it has), were (plural of was) and we're (we are), and shed (to get rid of) and she'd (she would or she had) are distinguished in writing only by the presence or absence of an apostrophe. The apostrophe also distinguishes the possessive endings -'s and -s' from the common plural ending -s, a practice introduced in the 18th century; before, all three endings were written -s, which could lead to confusion (as in, the Apostles words).[4]
Letter names[edit]
The names of the letters are rarely spelled out, except when used in derivations or compound words (for example tee-shirt, deejay, emcee, okay, aitchless, etc.), derived forms (for example exed out, effing, to eff and blind, etc.), and in the names of objects named after letters (for example em (space) in printing and wye (junction) in railroading). The forms listed below are from the Oxford English Dictionary. Vowels stand for themselves, and consonants usually have the form consonant + ee or e + consonant (e.g. bee and ef). The exceptions are the letters aitch, jay, kay, cue, ar, ess (but es- in compounds ), double u, wye, and zed. Plurals of consonants end in -s (bees, efs, ems) or, in the cases of aitch, ess, and ex, in -es (aitches, esses, exes). Plurals of vowels end in -es (aes, ees, ies, oes, ues); these are rare. All letters may stand for themselves, generally in capitalized form (okay or OK, emcee or MC), and plurals may be based on these (aes or As, cees or Cs, etc.)
Letter
Modern English name
Modern English pronunciation
Latin name
Latin pronunciation
Old French
Middle English
A a /eɪ/, /æ/[nb 2] ā /aː/ /aː/ /aː/
B bee /biː/ bē /beː/ /beː/ /beː/
C cee /siː/ cē /keː/ /tʃeː/ > /tseː/ > /seː/ /seː/
D dee /diː/ dē /deː/ /deː/ /deː/
E e /iː/ ē /eː/ /eː/ /eː/
F ef (eff as a verb) /ɛf/ ef /ɛf/ /ɛf/ /ɛf/
G gee /dʒiː/ gē /ɡeː/ /dʒeː/ /dʒeː/
jee
H aitch /eɪtʃ/ hā /haː/ > /ˈaha/ > /ˈakːa/ /ˈaːtʃə/ /aːtʃ/
haitch[nb 3] /heɪtʃ/
I i /aɪ/ ī /iː/ /iː/ /iː/
J jay /dʒeɪ/ – – – /ja:/
jy[nb 4] /dʒaɪ/
K kay /keɪ/ kā /kaː/ /kaː/ /kaː/
L el or ell /ɛl/ el /ɛl/ /ɛl/ /ɛl/
M em /ɛm/ em /ɛm/ /ɛm/ /ɛm/
N en /ɛn/ en /ɛn/ /ɛn/ /ɛn/
O o /oʊ/ ō /oː/ /oː/ /oː/
P pee /piː/ pē /peː/ /peː/ /peː/
Q cue[nb 5] /kjuː/ qū /kuː/ /kyː/ /kiw/
R ar /ɑːr/ er /ɛr/ /ɛr/ /ɛr/ > /ar/
or[nb 6] /ɔːr/
S ess (es-)[nb 7] /ɛs/ es /ɛs/ /ɛs/ /ɛs/
T tee /tiː/ tē /teː/ /teː/ /teː/
U u /juː/ ū /uː/ /yː/ /iw/
V vee /viː/ – – – –
W double-u /ˈdʌbəl.juː/[nb 8] – – – –
X ex /ɛks/ ex /ɛks/ /iks/ /ɛks/
ix /ɪks/
Y wy /waɪ/ hȳ /hyː/ ui, gui ? /wiː/ ?
/iː/
ī graeca /iː ˈɡraɪka/ /iː ɡrɛːk/
Z zed[nb 9] /zɛd/ zēta /ˈzeːta/ /ˈzɛːdə/ /zɛd/
zee[nb 10] /ziː/
izzard[nb 11] /ˈɪzərd/ /e(t) ˈzɛːdə/ /ˈɛzɛd/
Some groups of letters, such as pee and bee, or em and en, are easily confused in speech, especially when heard over the telephone or a radio communications link. Spelling alphabets such as the ICAO spelling alphabet, used by aircraft pilots, police and others, are designed to eliminate this potential confusion by giving each letter a name that sounds quite different from any other.
Etymology[edit]
The names of the letters are for the most part direct descendants, via French, of the Latin (and Etruscan) names. (See Latin alphabet: Origins.)
The regular phonological developments (in rough chronological order) are:
palatalization before front vowels of Latin /k/ successively to /tʃ/, /ts/, and finally to Middle French /s/. Affects C.
palatalization before front vowels of Latin /ɡ/ to Proto-Romance and Middle French /dʒ/. Affects G.
fronting of Latin /uː/ to Middle French /yː/, becoming Middle English /iw/ and then Modern English /juː/. Affects Q, U.
the inconsistent lowering of Middle English /ɛr/ to /ar/. Affects R.
the Great Vowel Shift, shifting all Middle English long vowels. Affects A, B, C, D, E, G, H, I, K, O, P, T, and presumably Y.
The novel forms are aitch, a regular development of Medieval Latin acca; jay, a new letter presumably vocalized like neighboring kay to avoid confusion with established gee (the other name, jy, was taken from French); vee, a new letter named by analogy with the majority; double-u, a new letter, self-explanatory (the name of Latin V was ū); wye, of obscure origin but with an antecedent in Old French wi; zee, an American leveling of zed by analogy with the majority; and izzard, from the Romance phrase i zed or i zeto "and Z" said when reciting the alphabet.
Phonology[edit]
Main article: English phonology
The letters A, E, I, O, and U are considered vowel letters, since (except when silent) they represent vowels; the remaining letters are considered consonant letters, since when not silent they generally represent consonants. However, Y commonly represents vowels as well as a consonant (e.g., "myth"), as very rarely does W (e.g., "cwm"). Conversely, U and I sometimes represent a consonant (e.g., "quiz" and "onion" respectively).
W and Y are sometimes referred as semivowels by linguists.
Letter numbers and frequencies[edit]
Main article: Letter frequency
The letter most commonly used in English is E. The least used letter is Z.
The table below shows the frequency of letter usage in a particular sample of written English,[vague] although the frequencies vary somewhat according to the type of text.[5]
N
Letter
Frequency
1 A 8.17%
2 B 1.49%
3 C 2.78%
4 D 4.25%
5 E 12.70%
6 F 2.23%
7 G 2.02%
8 H 6.09%
9 I 6.97%
10 J 0.15%
11 K 0.77%
12 L 4.03%
13 M 2.41%
14 N 6.75%
15 O 7.51%
16 P 1.93%
17 Q 0.10%
18 R 5.99%
19 S 6.33%
20 T 9.06%
21 U 2.76%
22 V 0.98%
23 W 2.36%
24 X 0.15%
25 Y 1.97%
26 Z 0.07%
See also[edit]
Alphabet song
NATO phonetic alphabet
English orthography
English spelling reform
American manual alphabet
Two-handed manual alphabets
English braille
American braille
New York Point
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See also the section on Ligatures
Jump up ^ often in Hiberno-English, due to the letter's pronunciation in the Irish language
Jump up ^ mostly in Hiberno-English, sometimes in Australian English, usually in Indian English[citation needed] (although often considered incorrect)[citation needed], and also used in Malaysian English
Jump up ^ in Scottish English
Jump up ^ One of the few letter names not spelled with the letter in question. The spelling qu ~ que is obsolete, being attested from the 16th century.
Jump up ^ in Hiberno-English
Jump up ^ in compounds such as es-hook
Jump up ^ Especially in American English, the /l/ is often not pronounced in informal speech. (Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 10th ed). Common colloquial pronunciations are /ˈdʌbəjuː/, /ˈdʌbəjə/, and /ˈdʌbjə/, as in the nickname "Dubya", especially in terms like www.
Jump up ^ in British English, Hiberno-English and Commonwealth English
Jump up ^ in American English
Jump up ^ in Scottish English
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Digraphs (Phonics on the Web)". www.phonicsontheweb.com. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Everson, Evertype, Baldur Sigurðsson, Íslensk Málstöð, On the Status of the Latin Letter Þorn and of its Sorting Order
Jump up ^ "Dictionary.com definition". Retrieved 18 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Apostrophe Definition". dictionary.com. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Beker, Henry; Piper, Fred (1982). Cipher Systems: The Protection of Communications. Wiley-Interscience. p. 397. Table also available from Lewand, Robert (2000). Cryptological Mathematics. The Mathematical Association of America. p. 36. ISBN 978-0883857199. and "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2008-06-25.
Further reading[edit]
Michael Rosen (2015). Alphabetical: How Every Letter Tells a Story. Counterpoint. ISBN 978-1619027022.
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The Way of the World
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Way of the World (disambiguation).
The Way of the World
Facsimile of the original title page for The Way of the World published in 1700
Written by
William Congreve
Date premiered
1700
Place premiered
Lincoln's Inn Fields
Genre
Restoration comedy
Setting
London
The Way of the World is a play written by the English playwright William Congreve. It premiered in early March 1700 in the theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields in London. It is widely regarded as one of the best Restoration comedies and is still occasionally performed. At the time, however, the play struck many audience members as continuing the immorality of the previous decades, and it was not well received.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Characters
2 Plot
3 Epigraph of the 1700 edition
4 Historical context
5 Further points of consideration
6 References
7 External links
Characters[edit]
The play is centred on the two lovers Mirabell and Millamant (originally played by John Verbruggen and Anne Bracegirdle). In order for them to marry and receive Millamant's full dowry, Mirabell must receive the blessing of Millamant's aunt, Lady Wishfort. Unfortunately, Lady Wishfort is a very bitter lady who despises Mirabell and wants her own nephew, Sir Wilfull, to wed Millamant.
Another character, Fainall, is having a secret affair with Mrs. Marwood, a friend of Mrs. Fainall's, who in turn once had an affair with Mirabell.
In the meantime, Mirabell's servant is married to Foible, Lady Wishfort's servant. Waitwell pretends to be Sir Rowland and, on Mirabell's command, tries to trick Lady Wishfort into a false engagement.
Plot[edit]
Act 1 is set in a chocolate house where Mirabell and Fainall have just finished playing cards. A footman comes and tells Mirabell that Waitwell (Mirabell's male servant) and Foible (Lady Wishfort's female servant) were married that morning. Mirabell tells Fainall about his love of Millamant and is encouraged to marry her. Witwoud and Petulant appear and Mirabell is informed that should Lady Wishfort marry, he will lose £6000 of Millamant's inheritance.He will only get this money if he can make Lady Wishfort consent to his and Millamant's marriage.
Act 2 is set in St. James’ Park. Mrs. Fainall and Mrs. Marwood are discussing their hatred of men. Fainall appears and accuses Mrs. Marwood (with whom he is having an affair) of loving Mirabell (which she does). Meanwhile, Mrs. Fainall (Mirabell's former lover) tells Mirabell that she hates her husband, and they begin to plot to deceive Lady Wishfort into giving her consent to the marriage. Millamant appears in the park and, angry about the previous night (when Mirabell was confronted by Lady Wishfort), she tells Mirabell of her displeasure in his plan, which she only has a vague idea about. After she leaves, the newly wed servants appear and Mirabell reminds them of their roles in the plan.
Acts 3, 4 and 5 are all set in the home of Lady Wishfort. We are introduced to Lady Wishfort who is encouraged by Foible to marry the supposed Sir Rowland – Mirabell's supposed uncle – so that Mirabell will lose his inheritance. Sir Rowland is, however, Waitwell in disguise, and the plan is to entangle Lady Wishfort in a marriage which cannot go ahead, because it would be bigamy, not to mention a social disgrace (Waitwell is only a serving man, Lady Wishfort an aristocrat). Mirabell will offer to help her out of the embarrassing situation if she consents to his marriage. Later, Mrs. Fainall discusses this plan with Foible, but this is overheard by Mrs. Marwood. She later tells the plan to Fainall, who decides that he will take his wife's money and go away with Mrs. Marwood.
Mirabell and Millamant, equally strong-willed, discuss in detail the conditions under which they would accept each other in marriage (otherwise known as the "proviso scene"), showing the depth of their feeling for each other. Mirabell finally proposes to Millamant and, with Mrs. Fainall's encouragement (almost consent, as Millamant knows of their previous relations), Millamant accepts. Mirabell leaves as Lady Wishfort arrives, and she lets it be known that she wants Millamant to marry her nephew, Sir Wilfull Witwoud, who has just arrived from the countryside. Lady Wishfort later gets a letter telling her about the Sir Rowland plot. Sir Rowland takes the letter and accuses Mirabell of trying to sabotage their wedding. Lady Wishfort agrees to let Sir Rowland bring a marriage contract that night.
By Act 5, Lady Wishfort has found out the plot, and Fainall has had Waitwell arrested. Mrs. Fainall tells Foible that her previous affair with Mirabell is now public knowledge. Lady Wishfort appears with Mrs. Marwood, whom she thanks for unveiling the plot. Fainall then appears and uses the information of Mrs. Fainall's previous affair with Mirabell and Millamant's contract to marry him to blackmail Lady Wishfort, telling that she should never marry and that she is to transfer her fortune to him. Lady Wishfort offers Mirabell her consent to the marriage if he can save her fortune and honour. Mirabell calls on Waitwell who brings a contract from the time before the marriage of the Fainalls in which Mrs. Fainall gives all her property to Mirabell. This neutralises the blackmail attempts, after which Mirabell restores Mrs. Fainall's property to her possession and then is free to marry Millamant with the full £6000 inheritance.
Epigraph of the 1700 edition[edit]
The epigraph found on the title page of the 1700 edition of The Way of the World contains two Latin quotations from Horace's Satires. In their wider contexts they read in English:
"It is worthwhile, for those of you who wish adulterers no success, to hear how much misfortune they suffer, and how often their pleasure is marred by pain and, though rarely achieved, even then fraught with danger."
"I have no fear in her company that a husband may rush back from the country, the door burst open, the dog bark, the house shake with the din, the woman, deathly pale, leap from her bed, her complicit maid shriek, she fearing for her limbs, her guilty mistress for her dowry and I for myself."
The quotations offer a forewarning of the chaos to ensue from both infidelity and deception.
Historical context[edit]
In 1700, the world of London theatre-going had changed significantly from the days of, for example, The Country Wife. Charles II was no longer on the throne, and the jubilant court that revelled in its licentiousness and opulence had been replaced by the far more dour and utilitarian Dutch-inspired court of William of Orange. His wife, Mary II, was, long before her death, a retiring person who did not appear much in public. William himself was a military king who was reported to be hostile to drama. The political instabilities that had been beneath the surface of many Restoration comedies were still present, but with a different side seeming victorious.
One of the features of a Restoration comedy is the opposition of the witty and courtly (and Cavalier) rake and the dull-witted man of business or the country bumpkin, who is understood to be not only unsophisticated but often (as, for instance, in the very popular plays of Aphra Behn in the 1670s) either Puritan or another form of dissenter. In 1685, the courtly and Cavalier side was in power, and Restoration comedies belittled the bland and foolish losers of the Restoration. However, by 1700, the other side was ascendant. Therefore, The Way of the World's recreation of the older Restoration comedy's patterns is only one of the things that made the play unusual.
The 1688 revolution concerning the overthrow of James II created a new set of social codes primarily amongst the bourgeoisie. The new capitalist system meant an increasing emphasis on property and property law. Thus, the play is packed with legal jargon and financial and marital contracts. These new legal aspects allow characters like Mrs. Fainall to secure her freedom through an equitable trust and for Mirabell and Millamant's marriage to be equal though a prenuptial agreement.
This shift in social perspectives is perhaps best shown in the characters of Fainall and Mirabell, who represent respectively the old form and new form of marital relations: sexual power at first and then developing into material power.
Further points of consideration[edit]
Several aspects of the play give rise to critical discussion:
The love expressed in the play tends to be centred on material gain rather than the love of the partner. This can be seen in the scene where Millamant and Mirabell effectively carry out a pre-nuptial agreement, Millamant insisting on having all manner of liberties and powers, quite unusual for the time.
None of the characters in the play can really be seen as 'good', and as such it is difficult to find a hero or heroine, or indeed anybody whom one would find deserving of sympathy.
It is worth considering that the play itself, while often regarded as a satire on the lives of the idle-classes in 1700, may simply testify non-satirically to the experiences of the idle-classes.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Our Dramatic Heritage: The Eighteenth Century, p.14, edited by Philip George Hill
Congreve, William (2000). The Way of the World. London, England: A & C Black Limited.
Klekar, Cynthia. “Obligation, Coercion, and Economy: The Gift of Deed in Congreve’s The Way of the World.” In The Culture of the Gift in Eighteenth-Century England, ed. Linda Zionkowski and Cynthia Klekar. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2009
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Way of the World
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Way of the World (Congreve play).
The Way of the World at Project Gutenberg.
The Way of the World at the Internet Broadway Database
Oxford Playhouse Review of The Way of the World on the BBC website.
Daily Info review of the play.
The Way of the World public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Some analysis of the play as part of a college writing assignment.
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Massiah v. United States
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Massiah v. United States
Supreme Court of the United States
Argued March 3, 1964
Decided May 18, 1964
Full case name
Winston Massiah v. United States
Citations
377 U.S. 201 (more)
84 S. Ct. 1199; 12 L. Ed. 2d 246; 1964 U.S. LEXIS 1277
Prior history
307 F.2d 62 (2d cir.) reversed
Holding
Once criminal proceedings have begun, the government cannot bypass the defendant's lawyer and try to elicit statements from the defendant.
Court membership
Chief Justice
Earl Warren
Associate Justices
Hugo Black · William O. Douglas
Tom C. Clark · John M. Harlan II
William J. Brennan, Jr. · Potter Stewart
Byron White · Arthur Goldberg
Case opinions
Majority
Stewart, joined by Warren, Black, Douglas, Brennan, Goldberg
Dissent
White, joined by Clark, Harlan
Laws applied
U.S. Const. amend. VI
Massiah v. United States, 377 U.S. 201 (1964),[1] was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the government from eliciting statements from the defendant about themselves after the point that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel attaches.
In Massiah, the defendant had been indicted on a federal narcotics charge. He retained a lawyer, pleaded not guilty, and was released on bail. A co-defendant, after deciding to cooperate with the government, invited Massiah to sit in his car and discuss the crime he was indicted on, during which the government listened in via a radio transmitter. During the conversation, Massiah made several incriminating statements, and those statements were introduced at trial to be used against him.
Massiah appealed his conviction, which was affirmed in part by the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, 307 F.2d 62. The Supreme Court granted certiorari and reversed, holding that the statements made by the defendant outside the presence of his attorney must be suppressed.
The Massiah rule applies to the use of testimonial evidence in criminal proceedings deliberately elicited by the police from a defendant after formal charges have been filed. The events that trigger the Sixth Amendment safeguards under Massiah are (1) the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings and (2) deliberate elicitation of information from the defendant by governmental agents.
The Sixth Amendment guarantees a defendant a right to counsel in all criminal prosecutions. The purposes of the Sixth Amendment right to counsel are to protect a defendant’s right to a fair trial and to assure that our adversarial system of justice functions properly by providing competent counsel as an advocate for the defendant in his contest against the “prosecutorial forces” of the state.
The Sixth Amendment right “attaches” once the government has committed itself to the prosecution of the case by the initiation of adversarial judicial proceedings "by way of formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information or arraignment,".[2] Determining whether a particular event or proceeding constitutes the commencement of adversarial criminal proceedings requires both an examination of the rules of criminal procedure for the jurisdiction in which the crime is charged and the Supreme Courts cases dealing with the issue of when formal prosecution begins.[3] Once adversarial criminal proceedings commence the right to counsel applies to all critical stages of the prosecution and investigation. A critical stage is "any stage of the prosecution, formal or informal, in court or out, where counsel's absence might derogate from the accused's right to a fair trial." [4]
Government attempts to obtain incriminating statement related to the offense charged from the defendant by overt interrogation or surreptitious means is a critical stage and any information thus obtained is subject to suppression unless the government can show that an attorney was present or the defendant knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently waived his right to counsel.[5]
Deliberate elicitation is defined as the intentional creation of circumstances by government agents that are likely to produce incriminating information from the defendant.[6] Clearly express questioning (interrogation) would qualify but the concept also extends to surreptitious attempts to acquire information from the defendant through the use of undercover agents or paid informants.[7]
The definition of "deliberate elicitation" is not the same as the definition of "interrogation" under the Miranda rule. Miranda interrogation includes express questioning and any actions or statements that an officer would reasonably foresee as likely to cause an incriminating response. Massiah applies to express questioning and any attempt to deliberately and intentionally obtain incriminating information from the defendant regarding the crime charged. The difference is purposeful creation of an environment likely to produce incriminating information (Massiah) and action likely to induce an incriminating response even if that was not the officer's purpose or intent (Miranda).
The Sixth Amendment right to counsel is offense specific - the right only applies to post commencement attempts to obtain information relating to the crime charged.[8] The right does not extend to uncharged offenses even those that are factually related to the charged crime.[9]
As noted, information obtained in violation of the defendant's Sixth Amendment right to counsel is subject to suppression unless the government can establish that the defendant waived his right to counsel. The waiver must be knowing, intelligent and voluntary.[10] A valid Miranda waiver operates as a waiver of Sixth Amendment right.
Contents
[hide]
1 Massiah vs. Miranda
2 Massiah and the Voluntariness Standard
3 See also
4 References
Massiah vs. Miranda[edit]
Constitutional Basis -
Miranda is based on the Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination.
Massiah is based on the Sixth Amendment right to counsel.
Attachment -
Miranda: Custody + Interrogation. (Charging status irrelevant)
Massiah: Formally Charged + Deliberate Elicitation. (Custodial status irrelevant)
Scope
Miranda applies to custodial interrogation by known governmental agents. Surreptitious acquisition of incriminating information allowed. Massiah applies to overt and surreptitious interrogation.
Miranda is not offense specific.[11] Massiah is offense specific.[12]
Miranda: interrogation + "functional equivalent." Massiah: interrogation + "deliberate elicitation."
Waiver: Both Miranda and Massiah rights may be waived.
Assertion: In each case, the assertion must be clear and unequivocal. The effects of assertion are not identical. For purposes of Miranda, the police must immediately cease the interrogation and cannot resume interrogating the defendant about any offense charged or uncharged unless counsel is present or defendant initiates contact for purposes of resuming interrogation and valid waiver obtained. Because Massiah is offense-specific, an assertion of the sixth amendment right to counsel requires the police to cease interrogating the defendant about any charged offense. Apparently the police could continue questioning the defendant about uncharged crimes assuming that the defendant was not in custody. The defendant's remedy would be to leave or to refuse to answer questions.[13]
Remedy for violation: The statements and testimonial information are subject to suppression. Derivative evidence is usually not subject to suppression under Miranda pursuant to the "fruit of poisonous tree" doctrine,[14] although it might be suppressed for a Massiah violation.[15] Both Miranda and Massiah defective statements can be used for impeachment purposes.
Exceptions: The primary exceptions to Miranda are (1) the routine booking questions exception (2) the jail house informant exception and (3) the public safety exception. In Moulton v. Maine the Supreme Court refused to recognize a public safety exception to the Massiah rule.[16] Massiah allows for the use of jail house informants provided the informants serve merely as "passive listeners."[17]
Massiah and the Voluntariness Standard[edit]
The Massiah rule is also to be contrasted with the voluntariness standard of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments.[18] The voluntariness standard applies to all police interrogations regardless of the custodial status of the suspect and regardless of whether the suspect has been formally charged. The remedy for a violation of the standard is complete suppression of the statement and any evidence derived from the statement. The statement cannot be used as either substantive evidence of guilt or to impeach the defendant's testimony.[19] The reason for the strictness is the common law's aversion to the use of coerced confessions because of their inherent unreliability. Further the rights to be free from coerced confession cannot be waived nor is it necessary that the victim of coercive police conduct assert his right. In considering the voluntariness standard one must consider the Supreme Court's decision in Colorado v. Connelly.[20] Although federal courts' application of the Connelly rule has been inconsistent and state courts have often failed to appreciate the consequences of the case, Connelly clearly marked a significant change in the application of the voluntariness standard. Before Connelly the test was whether the confession was voluntary considering the totality of the circumstances.[21] "Voluntary" carried its everyday meaning - the confession had to be a product of the exercise of the defendant's free will rather than police coercion.[22] After Connelly the totality of circumstances test is not even triggered unless the defendant can show coercive police conduct.[23] Questions of free will and rational decision making are irrelevant to a due process claim unless police misconduct existed and a causal connection can be shown between the misconduct and the confession.[24]
See also[edit]
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 377
References[edit]
Works related to Massiah v. United States at Wikisource
Jump up ^ 377 U.S. 201 Full text of the opinion courtesy of Findlaw.com.
Jump up ^ United States v. Gouveia, 467 U.S. 180, 187-88, 104 S.Ct. 2292, 2297, 81 L.Ed.2d 146 (1984)."In a line of constitutional cases in this Court stemming back to the Court's landmark opinion in Powell v. Alabama, 287 U. S. 45, it has been firmly established that a person's Sixth and Fourteenth Amendment right to counsel attaches only at or after the time that adversary judicial proceedings have been initiated against him. See Powell v. Alabama, supra; Johnson v. Zerbst,304 U. S. 458; Hamilton v. Alabama, 368 U. S. 52; Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U. S. 335; White v. Maryland, 373 U. S. 59; Massiah v. United States, 377 U. S. 201; United States v. Wade, 388 U. S. 218; Gilbert v. California, 388 U. S. 263; Coleman v. Alabama, 399 U. S. 1." ". . . [W]hile members of the Court have differed as to the existence of the right to counsel in the contexts of some of the above cases, all of those cases have involved points of time at or after the initiation of adversary judicial criminal proceedings -- whether by way of formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment, information, or arraignment."
Jump up ^ Michigan v. Jackson, 475 U.S. 625, 632 (1986); see also Brewer v. Williams, 430 U.S. 387, 398 (1977). In Maine v. Moulton the court stated “By its very terms, it becomes applicable only when the government's role shifts from investigation to accusation. For it is only then that the assistance of one versed in the "intricacies . . . of law," ibid., is needed to assure that the prosecution's case encounters "the crucible of meaningful adversarial testing." The Sixth Amendment right to counsel does not attach until such time as the "government has committed itself to prosecute, and . . . the adverse positions of government and defendant have solidified ...'" Kirby v. Illinois, 406 U. S. 689 (1972).
Jump up ^ United States v. Wade, 388 U.S. 218, 226, 87 S.Ct. 1926, 1932, 18 L.Ed.2d 1149 (1967); see also, United States v. Hidalgo, 7 F.3d 1566 (11th Cir. 1993). Under the critical stage analysis, virtually every phase of the criminal trial is a critical stage. Additionally courts have generally held that pretrial hearings regarding conditions of pretrial release and suppression of evidence are considered critical stages. Smith v. Lockhart, 923 F.2d 1314 (8th Cir. 1991) on the other hand courts have generally held that certain pre-trial post accusation investigative procedures are not critical stages. Analysis of fingerprints, blood samples, clothing, hair, handwriting, and voice samples have all been ruled to be noncritical stages. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, (2001)
Jump up ^ Brewer v. Williams, 97 S. Ct. 1232 (1977) "That the incriminating statements were elicited surreptitiously in the Massiah case, and otherwise here, is constitutionally irrelevant. See ibid.; McLeod v. Ohio, 381 U. S. 356; United States v. Crisp, 435 F.2d 354, 358 (CA7)"
Jump up ^ Illinois v. Perkins, 496 U.S. 292 (1990).
Jump up ^ Massiah does not prohibit the government's use of a cellmate as a "silent listening post" - a person who is simply placed in a position to hear any incriminating statements the defendant might make about the charged offense but who does not do anything to coax or induce the defendant to talk about the charged crime. Kuhlmann v. Wilson, 477 U.S. 436 (1986).
Jump up ^ McNeil v. Wisconsin, 111 S. Ct. 2204 (1991). Lower federal courts has extended the Sixth Amendment right to counsel to factually related offenses. In Texas v. Cobb, the Supreme Court made clear that the right to counsel appled only to the crime charged and did not apply to attempts to gather information about "other offenses 'closely related factually' to the charged offense." Texas v. Cobb, 121 S. Ct. 1335 (2001).
Jump up ^ Texas v. Cobb, 121 S. Ct. 1335 (2001).
Jump up ^ Brewer v. Williams, 430 U.S. 387 (1977)
Jump up ^ Mathis v. United States, 391 U.S. 1 (1968)
Jump up ^ See McNeil v. Wisconsin, 501 U.S. 171 (1991)
Jump up ^ Under Michigan v. Jackson, a defendant's request for counsel at a preliminary hearing constituted an assertion of his sixth amendment right to counsel. However, Michigan v. Jackson was overruled by Montejo v. Louisiana .
Jump up ^ United States v. Patane, 542 U.S. 630 (2004)
Jump up ^ Fellers v. United States,124 S.Ct. 1019 (2004)
Jump up ^ 474 U.S. 159 (1989)
Jump up ^ The due process clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments provide another basis for challenging the admissibility of confessions. The test is whether the statement was "voluntary." A statement is not voluntary if it was the product of police misconduct. That is a due process claim requires that the defendant establish that there was police misconduct and that this misconduct induced the confession. The "voluntariness" test is implicated in any police interrogation - neither Miranda "custody" or Massiah "commencement of formal criminal proceedings" is a necessary conditions (state action is required). Further, there are no issues of waiver or assertion. Finally the remedy is complete - an involuntary statement cannot be used for any purpose.
Jump up ^ The leading case is Brown v. Mississippi, 297 U.S. 278 (1936)
Jump up ^ Originally MIranda was regarded as a “prophylactic” rule - the rule itself was not a constitutional right but a " judicially–created enforcement mechanism" devised to protect the underlying constitutional rights. In Dickerson v. United States, the Court "constitutionalized" the Miranda rule - although the decision did not perforce change the rule concerning the use of a Miranda-defective statement for impeachment purposes.
Jump up ^ Colorado v. Connelly, 479 U.S. 157 (1986)
Jump up ^ See Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385 (1978); Greenwald v. Wisconsin, 390 U. S. 519, 390 U. S. 521 (1968) ("Considering the totality of these circumstances, we do not think it credible that petitioner's statements were the product of his free and rational choice"); Reck v. Pate, 367 U. S. 433, 367 U. S. 440 (1961) ("If [a defendant's will was overborne], the confession cannot be deemed `the product of a rational intellect and a free will"')
Jump up ^ See e.g., Culombe v. Connecticut, 367 U. S. 568, 367 U. S. 583 (1961) ("[A]n extrajudicial confession, if it was to be offered in evidence against a man, must be the product of his own free choice")
Jump up ^ Bloom & Brodin, Criminal Procedure (Aspen 1996) at 247.
Jump up ^ Bloom & Brodin, Criminal Procedure (Aspen 1996)
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180th meridian
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Anti-Meridian" redirects here. For the Brave Saint Saturn album, see Anti-Meridian (album).
For ante meridiem (AM), the time before midday, see 12-hour clock.
180th meridian
[show]Map all coordinates using OSM
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The International Date Line zigzags around the 180th Meridian.
The 180th meridian or antimeridian[1] is the meridian 180° east or west of the Prime Meridian, with which it forms a great circle dividing the earth into the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. It is common to both east longitude and west longitude. It is used as the basis for the International Date Line because it mostly passes through the open waters of the Pacific Ocean. However, the meridian passes through Russia and Fiji as well as Antarctica.
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 180th meridian passes through:
Co-ordinates
(approximate)
Country, territory or sea
Notes
90°0′N 180°0′E / 90.000°N 180.000°E / 90.000; 180.000 (Arctic Ocean) Arctic Ocean
71°32′N 180°0′E / 71.533°N 180.000°E / 71.533; 180.000 (Russia) Russia Chukotka Autonomous Okrug — Wrangel Island
70°58′N 180°0′E / 70.967°N 180.000°E / 70.967; 180.000 (Chukchi Sea) Chukchi Sea
68°59′N 180°0′E / 68.983°N 180.000°E / 68.983; 180.000 (Russia) Russia Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
65°02′N 180°0′E / 65.033°N 180.000°E / 65.033; 180.000 (Bering Sea) Bering Sea
52°0′N 180°0′E / 52.000°N 180.000°E / 52.000; 180.000 (Amchitka Pass) Amchitka Pass Passing just east of Semisopochnoi Island, Alaska, United States (at 51°57′N 179°47′E / 51.950°N 179.783°E / 51.950; 179.783 (Semisopochnoi Island))
51°0′N 180°0′E / 51.000°N 180.000°E / 51.000; 180.000 (Pacific Ocean) Pacific Ocean Passing just east of Nukulaelae atoll, Tuvalu (at 9°25′S 179°52′E / 9.417°S 179.867°E / -9.417; 179.867 (Nukulaelae atoll))
Passing just west of the island of Cikobia, Fiji (at 15°43′S 179°59′W / 15.717°S 179.983°W / -15.717; -179.983 (Cikobia))
16°9′S 180°0′E / 16.150°S 180.000°E / -16.150; 180.000 (Fiji) Fiji Islands of Vanua Levu, Rabi, and Taveuni
16°59′S 180°0′E / 16.983°S 180.000°E / -16.983; 180.000 (Pacific Ocean) Pacific Ocean Passing just east of the island of Moala, Fiji (at 18°33′S 179°57′E / 18.550°S 179.950°E / -18.550; 179.950 (Moala))
Passing just west of the island of Totoya, Fiji (at 19°0′S 179°52′W / 19.000°S 179.867°W / -19.000; -179.867 (Totoya))
Passing just east of the island of Matuku, Fiji (at 19°10′S 179°47′E / 19.167°S 179.783°E / -19.167; 179.783 (Matuku))
60°0′S 180°0′E / 60.000°S 180.000°E / -60.000; 180.000 (Southern Ocean) Southern Ocean
78°13′S 180°0′E / 78.217°S 180.000°E / -78.217; 180.000 (Antarctica) Antarctica Ross Dependency, claimed by New Zealand
180° Meridian, Taveuni, Fiji
The meridian also passes between (but not particularly close to):
the Gilbert Islands and the Phoenix Islands of Kiribati;
between North Island and the Kermadec Islands of New Zealand;
between the Bounty Islands and the Chatham Islands, also of New Zealand.
The only place where roads cross this meridian, and where there are buildings very close to it, is in Fiji.
Software representation problems[edit]
Many geographic software libraries or data formats project the world to a rectangle; very often this rectangle is split exactly at the 180th meridian. This often makes it non-trivial to do simple tasks (like representing an area, or a line) over the 180th meridian. Some examples:
The GeoJSON specification strongly suggests splitting geometries so that neither of their parts cross the antimeridian.[2]
In OpenStreetMap, areas (like the boundary of Russia) are split at the 180th meridian.
See also[edit]
179th meridian east
179th meridian west
Prime meridian
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The word antimeridian can also mean the meridian opposite to any given meridian. E.g. 20° west is the antimeridian of 160° east.
Jump up ^ "RFC 7946 - The GeoJSON Format".
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values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
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values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
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values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
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values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: خط الزوال العكسي – Arabic

values: ১৮০তম মধ্যরেখা – Bangla

values: نصف‌النهار ۱۸۰ درجه – Persian

values: เส้นเมริเดียนที่ 180 องศา – Thai

values: نصف النہار درجہ 180 – Urdu

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suggestions
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