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Virtual private network
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"VPN" redirects here. For other uses, see VPN (disambiguation).
This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (November 2016)
VPN connectivity overview
A virtual private network (VPN) extends a private network across a public network, and enables users to send and receive data across shared or public networks as if their computing devices were directly connected to the private network. Applications running across the VPN may therefore benefit from the functionality, security, and management of the private network.[1]
VPNs may allow employees to securely access a corporate intranet while located outside the office. They are used to securely connect geographically separated offices of an organization, creating one cohesive network. Individual Internet users may secure their transactions with a VPN, to circumvent geo-restrictions and censorship, or to connect to proxy servers for the purpose of protecting personal identity and location in order to stay anonymous on the internet. However, some Internet sites block access to known VPN technology to prevent the circumvention of their geo-restrictions. Therefore, many personal use VPN providers have been developing technologies to bypass the blocking of proxies.
A VPN is created by establishing a virtual point-to-point connection through the use of dedicated connections, virtual tunneling protocols, or traffic encryption. A VPN available from the public Internet can provide some of the benefits of a wide area network (WAN). From a user perspective, the resources available within the private network can be accessed remotely.[2]
Traditional VPNs are characterized by a point-to-point topology, and they do not tend to support or connect broadcast domains, so services such as Microsoft Windows NetBIOS may not be fully supported or work as they would on a local area network (LAN). Designers have developed VPN variants, such as Virtual Private LAN Service (VPLS), and Layer 2 Tunneling Protocols (L2TP), to overcome this limitation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
2 Security mechanisms
2.1 Authentication
3 Routing
3.1 Provider-provisioned VPN building-blocks
4 User-visible PPVPN services
4.1 OSI Layer 2 services
4.2 OSI Layer 3 PPVPN architectures
4.3 Unencrypted tunnels
5 Trusted delivery networks
6 VPNs in mobile environments
7 VPN on routers
8 Networking limitations
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
Types[edit]
Early data networks allowed VPN-style remote connections through dial-up modem or through leased line connections utilizing Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) virtual circuits, provided through networks owned and operated by telecommunication carriers. These networks are not considered true VPNs because they passively secure the data being transmitted by the creation of logical data streams.[3] They have been replaced by VPNs based on IP and IP/Multi-protocol Label Switching (MPLS) Networks, due to significant cost-reductions and increased bandwidth[4] provided by new technologies such as Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)[5] and fiber-optic networks.
VPNs can be either remote-access (connecting a computer to a network) or site-to-site (connecting two networks). In a corporate setting, remote-access VPNs allow employees to access their company's intranet from home or while travelling outside the office, and site-to-site VPNs allow employees in geographically disparate offices to share one cohesive virtual network. A VPN can also be used to interconnect two similar networks over a dissimilar middle network; for example, two IPv6 networks over an IPv4 network.[6]
VPN systems may be classified by:
The tunneling protocol used to tunnel the traffic
The tunnel's termination point location, e.g., on the customer edge or network-provider edge
The type of topology of connections, such as site-to-site or network-to-network
The levels of security provided
The OSI layer they present to the connecting network, such as Layer 2 circuits or Layer 3 network connectivity
The number of simultaneous connections
Security mechanisms[edit]
VPNs cannot make online connections completely anonymous, but they can usually increase privacy and security. To prevent disclosure of private information, VPNs typically allow only authenticated remote access using tunneling protocols and encryption techniques.
The VPN security model provides:
Confidentiality such that even if the network traffic is sniffed at the packet level (see network sniffer and deep packet inspection), an attacker would see only encrypted data
Sender authentication to prevent unauthorized users from accessing the VPN
Message integrity to detect any instances of tampering with transmitted messages
Secure VPN protocols include the following:
Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) was initially developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) for IPv6, which was required in all standards-compliant implementations of IPv6 before RFC 6434 made it only a recommendation.[7] This standards-based security protocol is also widely used with IPv4 and the Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol. Its design meets most security goals: authentication, integrity, and confidentiality. IPsec uses encryption, encapsulating an IP packet inside an IPsec packet. De-encapsulation happens at the end of the tunnel, where the original IP packet is decrypted and forwarded to its intended destination.
Transport Layer Security (SSL/TLS) can tunnel an entire network's traffic (as it does in the OpenVPN project and SoftEther VPN project[8]) or secure an individual connection. A number of vendors provide remote-access VPN capabilities through SSL. An SSL VPN can connect from locations where IPsec runs into trouble with Network Address Translation and firewall rules.
Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) – used in Cisco AnyConnect VPN and in OpenConnect VPN[9] to solve the issues SSL/TLS has with tunneling over UDP.
Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE) works with the Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol and in several compatible implementations on other platforms.
Microsoft Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol (SSTP) tunnels Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) or Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol traffic through an SSL 3.0 channel. (SSTP was introduced in Windows Server 2008 and in Windows Vista Service Pack 1.)
Multi Path Virtual Private Network (MPVPN). Ragula Systems Development Company owns the registered trademark "MPVPN".[10]
Secure Shell (SSH) VPN – OpenSSH offers VPN tunneling (distinct from port forwarding) to secure remote connections to a network or to inter-network links. OpenSSH server provides a limited number of concurrent tunnels. The VPN feature itself does not support personal authentication.[11][12][13]
Authentication[edit]
Tunnel endpoints must be authenticated before secure VPN tunnels can be established. User-created remote-access VPNs may use passwords, biometrics, two-factor authentication or other cryptographic methods. Network-to-network tunnels often use passwords or digital certificates. They permanently store the key to allow the tunnel to establish automatically, without intervention from the administrator.
Routing[edit]
Tunneling protocols can operate in a point-to-point network topology that would theoretically not be considered as a VPN, because a VPN by definition is expected to support arbitrary and changing sets of network nodes. But since most router implementations support a software-defined tunnel interface, customer-provisioned VPNs often are simply defined tunnels running conventional routing protocols.
Provider-provisioned VPN building-blocks[edit]
Depending on whether a provider-provisioned VPN (PPVPN)[clarification needed] operates in layer 2 or layer 3, the building blocks described below may be L2 only, L3 only, or combine them both. Multi-protocol label switching (MPLS) functionality blurs the L2-L3 identity.[citation needed][original research?]
RFC 4026 generalized the following terms to cover L2 and L3 VPNs, but they were introduced in RFC 2547.[14] More information on the devices below can also be found in Lewis, Cisco Press.[15]
Customer (C) devices
A device that is within a customer's network and not directly connected to the service provider's network. C devices are not aware of the VPN.
Customer Edge device (CE)
A device at the edge of the customer's network which provides access to the PPVPN. Sometimes it is just a demarcation point between provider and customer responsibility. Other providers allow customers to configure it.
Provider edge device (PE)
A PE is a device, or set of devices, at the edge of the provider network which connects to customer networks through CE devices and presents the provider's view of the customer site. PEs are aware of the VPNs that connect through them, and maintain VPN state.
Provider device (P)
A P device operates inside the provider's core network and does not directly interface to any customer endpoint. It might, for example, provide routing for many provider-operated tunnels that belong to different customers' PPVPNs. While the P device is a key part of implementing PPVPNs, it is not itself VPN-aware and does not maintain VPN state. Its principal role is allowing the service provider to scale its PPVPN offerings, for example, by acting as an aggregation point for multiple PEs. P-to-P connections, in such a role, often are high-capacity optical links between major locations of providers.
User-visible PPVPN services[edit]
OSI Layer 2 services[edit]
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Virtual LAN
Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a Layer 2 technique that allow for the coexistence of multiple local area network (LAN) broadcast domains, interconnected via trunks using the IEEE 802.1Q trunking protocol. Other trunking protocols have been used but have become obsolete, including Inter-Switch Link (ISL), IEEE 802.10 (originally a security protocol but a subset was introduced for trunking), and ATM LAN Emulation (LANE).
Virtual private LAN service (VPLS)
Developed by Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, VLANs allow multiple tagged LANs to share common trunking. VLANs frequently comprise only customer-owned facilities. Whereas VPLS as described in the above section (OSI Layer 1 services) supports emulation of both point-to-point and point-to-multipoint topologies, the method discussed here extends Layer 2 technologies such as 802.1d and 802.1q LAN trunking to run over transports such as Metro Ethernet.
As used in this context, a VPLS is a Layer 2 PPVPN, rather than a private line, emulating the full functionality of a traditional LAN. From a user standpoint, a VPLS makes it possible to interconnect several LAN segments over a packet-switched, or optical, provider core; a core transparent to the user, making the remote LAN segments behave as one single LAN.[16]
In a VPLS, the provider network emulates a learning bridge, which optionally may include VLAN service.
Pseudo wire (PW)
PW is similar to VPLS, but it can provide different L2 protocols at both ends. Typically, its interface is a WAN protocol such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode or Frame Relay. In contrast, when aiming to provide the appearance of a LAN contiguous between two or more locations, the Virtual Private LAN service or IPLS would be appropriate.
Ethernet over IP tunneling
EtherIP (RFC 3378)[17] is an Ethernet over IP tunneling protocol specification. EtherIP has only packet encapsulation mechanism. It has no confidentiality nor message integrity protection. EtherIP was introduced in the FreeBSD network stack[18] and the SoftEther VPN[19] server program.
IP-only LAN-like service (IPLS)
A subset of VPLS, the CE devices must have Layer 3 capabilities; the IPLS presents packets rather than frames. It may support IPv4 or IPv6.
OSI Layer 3 PPVPN architectures[edit]
This section discusses the main architectures for PPVPNs, one where the PE disambiguates duplicate addresses in a single routing instance, and the other, virtual router, in which the PE contains a virtual router instance per VPN. The former approach, and its variants, have gained the most attention.
One of the challenges of PPVPNs involves different customers using the same address space, especially the IPv4 private address space.[20] The provider must be able to disambiguate overlapping addresses in the multiple customers' PPVPNs.
BGP/MPLS PPVPN
In the method defined by RFC 2547, BGP extensions advertise routes in the IPv4 VPN address family, which are of the form of 12-byte strings, beginning with an 8-byte route distinguisher (RD) and ending with a 4-byte IPv4 address. RDs disambiguate otherwise duplicate addresses in the same PE.
PEs understand the topology of each VPN, which are interconnected with MPLS tunnels, either directly or via P routers. In MPLS terminology, the P routers are Label Switch Routers without awareness of VPNs.
Virtual router PPVPN
The virtual router architecture,[21][22] as opposed to BGP/MPLS techniques, requires no modification to existing routing protocols such as BGP. By the provisioning of logically independent routing domains, the customer operating a VPN is completely responsible for the address space. In the various MPLS tunnels, the different PPVPNs are disambiguated by their label, but do not need routing distinguishers.
Unencrypted tunnels[edit]
Some virtual networks use tunneling protocols without encryption for protecting the privacy of data. While VPNs often do provide security, an unencrypted overlay network does not neatly fit within the secure or trusted categorization.[citation needed] For example, a tunnel set up between two hosts with Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) is a virtual private network, but neither secure nor trusted.[23][24]
Native plaintext tunneling protocols include Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) when it is set up without IPsec and Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) or Microsoft Point-to-Point Encryption (MPPE).[25]
Trusted delivery networks[edit]
Trusted VPNs do not use cryptographic tunneling, and instead rely on the security of a single provider's network to protect the traffic.[26]
Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) often overlays VPNs, often with quality-of-service control over a trusted delivery network.
L2TP[27] which is a standards-based replacement, and a compromise taking the good features from each, for two proprietary VPN protocols: Cisco's Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F)[28] (obsolete as of 2009[update]) and Microsoft's Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP).[29]
From the security standpoint, VPNs either trust the underlying delivery network, or must enforce security with mechanisms in the VPN itself. Unless the trusted delivery network runs among physically secure sites only, both trusted and secure models need an authentication mechanism for users to gain access to the VPN.
VPNs in mobile environments[edit]
Mobile virtual private networks are used in settings where an endpoint of the VPN is not fixed to a single IP address, but instead roams across various networks such as data networks from cellular carriers or between multiple Wi-Fi access points.[30] Mobile VPNs have been widely used in public safety, where they give law enforcement officers access to mission-critical applications, such as computer-assisted dispatch and criminal databases, while they travel between different subnets of a mobile network.[31] They are also used in field service management and by healthcare organizations,[32] among other industries.
Increasingly, mobile VPNs are being adopted by mobile professionals who need reliable connections.[32] They are used for roaming seamlessly across networks and in and out of wireless coverage areas without losing application sessions or dropping the secure VPN session. A conventional VPN can not withstand such events because the network tunnel is disrupted, causing applications to disconnect, time out,[30] or fail, or even cause the computing device itself to crash.[32]
Instead of logically tying the endpoint of the network tunnel to the physical IP address, each tunnel is bound to a permanently associated IP address at the device. The mobile VPN software handles the necessary network authentication and maintains the network sessions in a manner transparent to the application and the user.[30] The Host Identity Protocol (HIP), under study by the Internet Engineering Task Force, is designed to support mobility of hosts by separating the role of IP addresses for host identification from their locator functionality in an IP network. With HIP a mobile host maintains its logical connections established via the host identity identifier while associating with different IP addresses when roaming between access networks.
VPN on routers[edit]
With the increasing use of VPNs, many have started deploying VPN connectivity on routers for additional security and encryption of data transmission by using various cryptographic techniques.[33] Home users usually deploy VPNs on their routers to protect devices, such as smart TVs or gaming consoles, which are not supported by native VPN clients. Supported devices are not restricted to those capable of running a VPN client.[34]
Many router manufacturers supply routers with built-in VPN clients. Some use open-source firmware such as DD-WRT, OpenWRT and Tomato, in order to support additional protocols such as OpenVPN.
Setting up VPN services on a router requires a deep knowledge of network security and careful installation. Minor misconfiguration of VPN connections can leave the network vulnerable. Performance will vary depending on the ISP.[citation needed]
Networking limitations[edit]
One major limitation of traditional VPNs is that they are point-to-point, and do not tend to support or connect broadcast domains. Therefore, communication, software, and networking, which are based on layer 2 and broadcast packets, such as NetBIOS used in Windows networking, may not be fully supported or work exactly as they would on a real LAN. Variants on VPN, such as Virtual Private LAN Service (VPLS), and layer 2 tunneling protocols, are designed to overcome this limitation.
See also[edit]
Anonymizer
Comparison of virtual private network services
Dynamic Multipoint Virtual Private Network
Internet privacy
Mediated VPN
Opportunistic encryption
Split tunneling
Tinc (protocol)
UT-VPN
Virtual private server
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mason, Andrew G. (2002). Cisco Secure Virtual Private Network. Cisco Press. p. 7.
Jump up ^ "Virtual Private Networking: An Overview". Microsoft Technet. September 4, 2001.
Jump up ^ Cisco Systems, et al. Internet working Technologies Handbook, Third Edition. Cisco Press, 2000, p. 232.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Mark. Comparing, Designing. And Deploying VPNs. Cisco Press, 2006, p. 5
Jump up ^ International Engineering Consortium. Digital Subscriber Line 2001. Intl. Engineering Consortium, 2001, p. 40.
Jump up ^ Technet Lab. "IPv6 traffic over VPN connections". Archived from the original on 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ RFC 6434, "IPv6 Node Requirements", E. Jankiewicz, J. Loughney, T. Narten (December 2011)
Jump up ^ "1. Ultimate Powerful VPN Connectivity - SoftEther VPN Project". www.softether.org.
Jump up ^ "OpenConnect". Retrieved 2013-04-08. OpenConnect is a client for Cisco's AnyConnect SSL VPN [...] OpenConnect is not officially supported by, or associated in any way with, Cisco Systems. It just happens to interoperate with their equipment.
Jump up ^ "Trademark Status & Document Retrieval". tarr.uspto.gov.
Jump up ^ "ssh(1) - OpenBSD manual pages". man.openbsd.org.
Jump up ^ c@cb.vu, Colin Barschel. "Unix Toolbox". cb.vu.
Jump up ^ "SSH_VPN - Community Help Wiki". help.ubuntu.com.
Jump up ^ E. Rosen & Y. Rekhter (March 1999). "RFC 2547 BGP/MPLS VPNs". Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Jump up ^ Lewis, Mark (2006). Comparing, designing, and deploying VPNs (1st print. ed.). Indianapolis, Ind.: Cisco Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 1587051796.
Jump up ^ Ethernet Bridging (OpenVPN)
Jump up ^ Hollenbeck, Scott; Housley, Russell. "EtherIP: Tunneling Ethernet Frames in IP Datagrams".
Jump up ^ Glyn M Burton: RFC 3378 EtherIP with FreeBSD, 03 February 2011
Jump up ^ net-security.org news: Multi-protocol SoftEther VPN becomes open source, January 2014
Jump up ^ Address Allocation for Private Internets, RFC 1918, Y. Rekhter et al., February 1996
Jump up ^ RFC 2917, A Core MPLS IP VPN Architecture
Jump up ^ RFC 2918, E. Chen (September 2000)
Jump up ^ "Overview of Provider Provisioned Virtual Private Networks (PPVPN)". Secure Thoughts. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
Jump up ^ RFC 1702: Generic Routing Encapsulation over IPv4 networks. October 1994.
Jump up ^ IETF (1999), RFC 2661, Layer Two Tunneling Protocol "L2TP"
Jump up ^ Cisco Systems, Inc. (2004). Internetworking Technologies Handbook. Networking Technology Series (4 ed.). Cisco Press. p. 233. ISBN 9781587051197. Retrieved 2013-02-15. [...] VPNs using dedicated circuits, such as Frame Relay [...] are sometimes called trusted VPNs, because customers trust that the network facilities operated by the service providers will not be compromised.
Jump up ^ Layer Two Tunneling Protocol "L2TP", RFC 2661, W. Townsley et al., August 1999
Jump up ^ IP Based Virtual Private Networks, RFC 2341, A. Valencia et al., May 1998
Jump up ^ Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP), RFC 2637, K. Hamzeh et al., July 1999
^ Jump up to: a b c Phifer, Lisa. "Mobile VPN: Closing the Gap", SearchMobileComputing.com, July 16, 2006.
Jump up ^ Willett, Andy. "Solving the Computing Challenges of Mobile Officers", www.officer.com, May, 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cheng, Roger. "Lost Connections", The Wall Street Journal, December 11, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Encryption and Security Protocols in a VPN". Retrieved 2015-09-23.
Jump up ^ "VPN". Draytek. Retrieved 19 October 2016.
Further reading[edit]
Kelly, Sean (August 2001). "Necessity is the mother of VPN invention". Communication News: 26–28. ISSN 0010-3632. Archived from the original on 2001-12-17.
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Cintrón
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Cintrón or Cintron is a surname of Portuguese and Spanish-French origins. The name migrated as a consequence of the conquest and settlement of the New World, particularly in Puerto Rico. Famous people with the surname Cintron:
Alex Cintrón (born 1978), Major League Baseball infielder
Carlos Juan Cintrón, mayor of Ponce, Puerto Rico from 1957 to 1961
Conchita Cintrón (1922–2009), Chilean torera (female bullfighter)
José Vicente Ferrer de Otero y Cintrón (born 1912), Puerto Rican actor, theater and film director
Juan H. Cintrón García, Puerto Rican politician, Mayor of Ponce 1968–1972
Kermit Cintrón (born 1979), Puerto Rican boxer who is from Carolina, Puerto Rico
Manolo Cintron (born 1963), former Puerto Rican professional basketball player
Manuel Egozcue Cintrón (born 1855), born in Bilbao, Spain
Marty Cintron, American singer, member of the American pop band No Mercy
Nemir Matos-Cintrón, Puerto Rican author who currently resides in Florida
Nitza Margarita Cintron (born 1950), Chief of Space Medicine & Health Care Systems Office at NASA's Johnson Space Center
Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón (1855–1913), lawyer and political leader
Sharon Cintron (born 1945), American model and actress
Surname list
This page lists people with the surname Cintrón. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cintrón&oldid=793577273"
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text:
Deus ex machina
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Deus ex machina (disambiguation).
Deus ex machina in classical theatre: Euripides' Medea, performed in 2009 in Syracuse, Italy
Deus ex machina (Latin: [ˈdeʊs ɛks ˈmaː.kʰɪ.naː]: /ˈdeɪ.əs ɛks ˈmɑːkiːnə/ or /ˈdiːəs ɛks ˈmækɪnə/;[1] plural: dei ex machina) is a Latin calque from Greek ἀπὸ μηχανῆς θεός (apò mēkhanês theós), meaning 'god from the machine'.[2] The term has evolved to mean a plot device whereby a seemingly unsolvable problem is suddenly and abruptly resolved by the inspired and unexpected intervention of some new event, character, ability, or object. Its function can be to resolve an otherwise irresolvable plot situation, to surprise the audience, to bring the tale to a happy ending, or act as a comedic device.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the expression
1.1 Ancient examples
1.2 Modern theatrical examples
2 Plot device
2.1 Examples
3 Criticism
3.1 Ancient criticism
3.2 Modern criticism
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Origin of the expression[edit]
The term was coined from the conventions of Greek tragedy, where a machine is used to bring actors playing gods onto the stage. The machine could be either a crane (mechane) used to lower actors from above or a riser that brought actors up through a trapdoor. Preparation to pick up the actors was done behind the skene. The idea was introduced by Aeschylus and was used often to resolve the conflict and conclude the drama. Although the device is associated mostly with Greek tragedy, it also appeared in comedies.[3]
Ancient examples[edit]
Aeschylus used the device in his Eumenides, but it was with Euripides that it became an established stage machine. More than half of Euripides' extant tragedies employ a deus ex machina in their resolution, and some critics claim that Euripides, not Aeschylus, invented it.[4] A frequently cited example is Euripides' Medea, in which the deus ex machina, a dragon-drawn chariot sent by the sun god, is used to convey his granddaughter Medea, who has just committed murder and infanticide, away from her husband Jason to the safety and civilization of Athens. In Alcestis, the eponymous heroine agrees to give up her own life in order to spare the life of her husband, Admetus. At the end, Heracles shows up and seizes Alcestis from Death, restoring her to life and to Admetus.
Aristophanes' play Thesmophoriazusae parodies Euripides' frequent use of the crane by making Euripides himself a character in the play and bringing him on stage by way of the mechane.
The effect of the device on Greek audiences was a direct and immediate emotional response. Audiences would have a feeling of wonder and astonishment at the appearance of the gods, which would often add to the moral effect of the drama.[5]
Modern theatrical examples[edit]
Shakespeare used the device in As You Like It, Pericles, Prince of Tyre, Cymbeline and The Winter's Tale.[6] It was also used in John Gay's The Beggar's Opera where the author uses a character to break the action and rewrite the ending as a reprieve of the hanging of MacHeath. Both in Shakespeare's and Gay's plays the deus ex machina happens with breaking the dramatic illusion often in the form of an episodic narrator exposing the play itself and laying bare the author. This is different from the use of the deus ex machina in the ancient examples with the ending coming from a participant in the action in the form of a god. It is natural for the gods to be considered participants and not outside sources because of their privileged position and power. It is these attributes that allow the Greek gods to believably wrap up and solve the series of events.[7]
During the politically turbulent 17th and 18th centuries, the deus ex machina was sometimes used to make a controversial thesis more palatable to the powers of the day. For example, in the final scene of Molière's Tartuffe the heroes are saved from a terrible fate by an agent of the compassionate, all-seeing king — the same king that held Molière's career and livelihood in his hands.[8]
Plot device[edit]
Aristotle was the first to use a Greek term equivalent to the Latin phrase deus ex machina as a term to describe the technique as a device to resolve the plot of tragedies.[3] It is generally deemed undesirable in writing and often implies a lack of creativity on the part of the author. The reasons for this are that it does not pay due regard to the story's internal logic (although it is sometimes deliberately used to do this) and is often so unlikely that it challenges suspension of disbelief, allowing the author to conclude the story with an unlikely, though perhaps more palatable, ending.[9]
Examples[edit]
In H. G. Wells's The War of the Worlds, the Martians, who have destroyed everything in their path and apparently triumphed over humanity, are killed by bacteria.[10]
In the novel Lord of the Flies, the rescue of the savage children by a passing navy officer (which author William Golding called a "gimmick") is viewed by some critics as a deus ex machina. The abrupt ending conveys the terrible fate that would have afflicted the children (in particular Ralph) if the officer had not arrived at that moment.[11]
J. R. R. Tolkien referred to the Great Eagles that appear in several places in The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings as "a dangerous 'machine'."[12]. This was in a letter refusing permission to a film adapter to have the Fellowship of the Ring transported by eagles rather than traveling on foot. He felt that the eagles had already been overused as a plot device. For example, in The Hobbit, the eagles save Bilbo Baggins, Gandalf, and the dwarves from the goblins and wolves, then help turn the tide of the Battle of the Five Armies, and in The Return of the King they save Frodo and Sam from certain death on Mount Doom. In the Harvard Lampoon's parody Bored of the Rings, the eagles are referred to as 'Deus ex Machina Airlines.'
Deus ex machina was also used by Charles Dickens in Oliver Twist, when in the very peak of climax, Rose Maylie turns out to be the long-lost sister of Agnes, and therefore Oliver's aunt; and she marries her long-time sweetheart Harry, allowing Oliver to live happily with his saviour, Mr. Brownlow.[13]
Criticism[edit]
The deus ex machina device has many criticisms attached to it, mainly referring to it as inartistic, too convenient, and overly simplistic. On the other hand, champions of the device say that it opens up ideological and artistic possibilities.[14]
Ancient criticism[edit]
Antiphanes was one of the device's earliest critics. Antiphanes believed that the use of the "deus ex machina" was a sign that the playwright was unable to properly manage the complications of his plot.
when they don't know what to say
and have completely given up on the play
just like a finger they lift the machine
and the spectators are satisfied.[15]
Another critical reference to the device can be found in Plato's dialogue Cratylus, 425d, though it is made in the context of an argument unrelated to drama.
Aristotle criticized the device in his Poetics, where he argued that the resolution of a plot must arise internally, following from previous action of the play:[16]
In the characters too, exactly as in the structure of the incidents, [the poet] ought always to seek what is either necessary or probable, so that it is either necessary or probable that a person of such-and-such a sort say or do things of the same sort, and it is either necessary or probable that this [incident] happen after that one. It is obvious that the solutions of plots too should come about as a result of the plot itself, and not from a contrivance, as in the Medea and in the passage about sailing home in the Iliad. A contrivance must be used for matters outside the drama — either previous events which are beyond human knowledge, or later ones that need to be foretold or announced. For we grant that the gods can see everything. There should be nothing improbable in the incidents; otherwise, it should be outside the tragedy, e.g., that in Sophocles' Oedipus.
—  Poetics, (1454a33–1454b9)
Aristotle praised Euripides, however, for generally ending his plays with bad fortune, which he viewed as correct in tragedy, and somewhat excused the intervention of a deity by suggesting that "astonishment" should be sought in tragic drama:[17]
Irrationalities should be referred to what people say: That is one solution, and also sometimes that it is not irrational, since it is probable that improbable things will happen.
Such a device was referred to by Horace in his Ars Poetica (lines 191–2), where he instructs poets that they should never resort to a "god from the machine" to resolve their plots "unless a difficulty worthy of a god's unraveling should happen" [nec deus intersit, nisi dignus uindice nodus inciderit; nec quarta loqui persona laboret].[18]
Modern criticism[edit]
Following Aristotle, Renaissance critics continued to view the deus ex machina as an inept plot device, although it continued to be employed by Renaissance dramatists.
Towards the end of the 19th century, Friedrich Nietzsche criticized Euripides for making tragedy an optimistic genre via use of the device, and was highly skeptical of the "Greek cheerfulness", prompting what he viewed as the plays' "blissful delight in life".[19] The deus ex machina as Nietzsche saw it was symptomatic of Socratic culture, which valued knowledge over Dionysiac music and ultimately caused the death of tragedy:[20]
But the new non-Dionysiac spirit is most clearly apparent in the endings of the new dramas. At the end of the old tragedies there was a sense of metaphysical conciliation without which it is impossible to imagine our taking delight in tragedy; perhaps the conciliatory tones from another world echo most purely in Oedipus at Colonus. Now, once tragedy had lost the genius of music, tragedy in the strictest sense was dead: for where was that metaphysical consolation now to be found? Hence an earthly resolution for tragic dissonance was sought; the hero, having been adequately tormented by fate, won his well-earned reward in a stately marriage and tokens of divine honour. The hero had become a gladiator, granted freedom once he had been satisfactorily flayed and scarred. Metaphysical consolation had been ousted by the deus ex machina.
—  Friedrich Nietzsche
Nietzsche argued that the deus ex machina creates a false sense of consolation that ought not to be sought in phenomena.[21] His denigration of the plot device has prevailed in critical opinion.
In Arthur Woollgar Verrall's publication Euripides the Rationalist (1895), he surveyed and recorded other late 19th century responses to the device. He recorded that some of the critical responses to the term referred to it as 'burlesque', 'coup de théâtre', and 'catastrophe'. Verrall notes that critics have a dismissive response to authors who deploy the device in their writings. He comes to the conclusion that critics feel that the deus ex machina is evidence of the author's attempt to ruin the whole of his work and prevent anyone from putting any importance on his work.[15]
However, other scholars have looked at Euripides' use of deus ex machina and described its use as an integral part of the plot designed for a specific purpose. Often Euripides' plays would begin with gods, so it is argued that it would be natural for the gods to finish the action. The conflict throughout Euripides' plays would be caused by the meddling of the gods and therefore would make sense to both the playwright and the audience of the time that the gods would resolve all conflict that they began.[22] Half of Euripides' eighteen extant plays end with the use of deus ex machina, therefore it was not simply a device to relieve the playwright of the embarrassment of a confusing plot ending. This device enabled him to bring about a natural and more dignified dramatic and tragic ending.[23]
Other champions of the device believe that it can be a spectacular agent of subversion. It can be used to undercut generic conventions and challenge cultural assumptions and the privileged role of tragedy as a literary/theatrical model.[14]
Some 20th-century revisionist criticism suggests that deus ex machina cannot be viewed in these simplified terms, and contends that the device allows mortals to "probe" their relationship with the divine.[24] Rush Rehm in particular cites examples of Greek tragedy in which the deus ex machina complicates the lives and attitudes of characters confronted by the deity, while simultaneously bringing the drama home to its audience.[24] Sometimes, the unlikeliness of the deus ex machina plot device is employed deliberately. For example, comic effect is created in a scene in Monty Python's Life of Brian when Brian, who lives in Judea at the time of Christ, is saved from a high fall by a passing alien space ship.[25]
See also[edit]
Alien space bats
Chekhov's gun
Deathtrap (plot device)
MacGuffin
Miracle
Peripeteia
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Random House Dictionary
Jump up ^ One of the earliest occurrences of the phrase is in fragment 227 of Menander: ἀπὸ μηχανῆϛ θεὸς ἐπεφάνηϛ "You are by your epiphany a veritable god from the machine", as quoted in The Woman Possessed with a Divinity, as translated in Menander: The Principal Fragments (1921) by Francis Greenleaf Allinson.
^ Jump up to: a b Chondros, Thomas G.; Milidonis, Kypros; Vitzilaios, George; Vaitsis, John (September 2013). ""Deus-Ex-Machina" reconstruction in the Athens theater of Dionysus". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 67: 172–191. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2013.04.010.
Jump up ^ Rehm (1992, 72) and Walton (1984, 51).
Jump up ^ Cunningham, Maurice P. (July 1954). "Medea ΑΠΟ ΜΗΧΑΝΗΣ". Classical Philology. 49 (3): 151–160. doi:10.1086/363788. JSTOR 265931.
Jump up ^ Rehm (1992, 70).
Jump up ^ Dunn, Francis M (1996). Tragedy's End : Closure and Innovation in Euripidean Drama: Closure and Innovation in Euripidean Drama. New York, New York: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ "Tartuffe: Novel Guide". 2003. Retrieved 2 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Dr. L. Kip Wheeler. "Literary Terms and Definitions: D". Retrieved 2008-07-26.
Jump up ^ Westfahl, Gary, ed. (2005). The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders, Volume 1. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 195. ISBN 0313329516. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Friedman, Lawrence S. (2008). "Grief, grief, grief: Lord of the Flies". In Bloom, Harold. William Golding's Lord of the Flies. Infobase Publishing. pp. 67–68.
Jump up ^ J. R. R. Tolkien, letter 210 as quoted here
Jump up ^ Abrams, MH, ed. (1993). A Glossary of Literary Terms. Harcourt Brace & Company, USA. pp. 44–45. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
^ Jump up to: a b Breton, Rob (Summer 2005). "Ghosts in the Machina: Plotting in Chartist and Working-Class Fiction". Victorian Studies. 47 (4): 557–575. doi:10.1353/vic.2006.0003.
^ Jump up to: a b Handley, Miriam. "Shaw's response to the deus ex machina: From the Quintessence of Ibsenism to Heartbreak House". Theatre: Ancient & Modern, January 1999 Conference. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Janko (1987, 20)
Jump up ^ Poetics 11.5, Penguin (1996, 45).
Jump up ^ "Ars Poetica by Horace". Poetry Foundation. 21 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Nietzsche (2003, 85).
Jump up ^ Nietzsche (2003, 84–86).
Jump up ^ Nietzsche (2003, 80).
Jump up ^ Abel, D. Herbert (December 1954). "Euripides' Deus ex Machina: Fault or Excellence". The Classical Journal. 50 (3): 127–130. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Flickinger, Roy Caston (1926). The Greek Theatre and its Drama. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Rehm (1992, 71).
Jump up ^ James Berardinelli, James. "Review: Life of Brian". Reelviews Movie Reviews. 2003
References[edit]
Bushnell, Rebecca ed. 2005. A Companion to Tragedy. Malden, MA and Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0735-9.
Heath, Malcolm, trans. 1996. Poetics. By Aristotle. Penguin: London. ISBN 978-0-14-044636-4.
Janko, Richard, trans. 1987. Poetics with Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics II and the Fragments of the On Poets. By Aristotle. Cambridge: Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-033-7.
Mastronarde, Donald, 1990. Actors on High: The Skene roof, the Crane and the Gods in Attic Drama. Classical Antiquity, Vol 9, October 1990, pp 247–294. University of California.
Rehm, Rush, 1992. Greek Tragic Theatre. Routledge, London. ISBN 0-415-04831-1.
Tanner, Michael ed. 2003. The Birth of Tragedy. By Nietzsche, Friedrich. Penguin: London. ISBN 978-0-14-043339-5.
Taplin, Oliver, 1978. Greek Tragedy in Action. Methuen, London. ISBN 0-416-71700-4.
Walton, J Michael, trans. 2000. Euripides: Medea. Methuen, London. ISBN 0-413-75280-1.
External links[edit]
The dictionary definition of deus ex machina at Wiktionary
"Deus ex Machina". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
TV Tropes Deus ex Machina
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Heart of the Ocean
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Heart of the Ocean (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Original Heart of the Ocean Necklace on Display in James Cameron's office.
The Heart of the Ocean (also known as Le Cœur de la Mer) is the name of a fictional blue diamond featured prominently in the 1997 film Titanic. In the story, the diamond was originally owned by Louis XVI and cut into a heart shape after the French Revolution. In the film the necklace was purchased by Caledon Hockley, played by Billy Zane, a week before he sailed on the ill-fated ocean liner Titanic. The necklace was meant to be given as an engagement present to his fiancée Rose, played by Kate Winslet and Gloria Stuart. It is believed that both Rose and the necklace went down with the ship, leading some of the main characters to believe the necklace lies somewhere within the wreckage of the Titanic.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin
2 1997 film
3 Design
3.1 The Original Necklace
3.2 The J. Peterman Necklace
3.3 The Asprey & Garrard Necklace
4 Reproductions
5 References
Origin[edit]
The story of the Hope Diamond bears many similarities to the story of the Heart of the Ocean with the obvious exception of the Hope Diamond not actually having been on board the Titanic. In the 1943 film Titanic, a blue diamond plays an important role in a love affair as well. A primary plot point in this earlier film is the theft of the diamond, which creates a dramatic break in a romantic relationship which is similar to the 1997 film.
1997 film[edit]
The drawing of Rose wearing the Heart of the Ocean.
In the 1997 film a fictional treasure hunter, Brock Lovett (Bill Paxton), searches for a priceless blue diamond necklace which he believes lies within the wreck of the RMS Titanic. Lovett explains that the necklace was fashioned from a large blue diamond worn by Louis XVI in his royal crown. Shortly after the King's execution in 1793, the diamond was cut into a heart shape and became known as the Heart of the Ocean. The story of the Heart of the Ocean is similar to the story of the Hope Diamond, except the Hope Diamond was worn by Louis XIV in a royal necklace. Lovett's hunch about the diamond's whereabouts seems to be confirmed when his team salvages a drawing in which a nude woman is wearing the necklace. The drawing is dated April 14, 1912, the day the Titanic sank.
Later on an elderly woman (Gloria Stuart) watches Lovett's discovery on the news and immediately contacts the salvage team. Claiming to be both the woman in the picture and Rose Dewitt Bukater she is immediately flown out to Lovett's salvage ship. Rose requests to view the recovered drawing and Lovett shows her some artifacts salvaged from the wreck, specifically those recovered from her stateroom on Titanic. During this scene Lovett reveals the origins of the diamond and that if it is recovered the Heart of the Ocean would be worth more than the Hope Diamond. While examining an ornate butterfly comb, Rose becomes emotional and begins detailing her time aboard the Titanic. During the film the audience's perspective alternates between the past and present as Rose shares her memories. Rose divulges the intimate details of her relationship with the artist of the drawing, Jack Dawson (Leonardo DiCaprio), which leads up to the night of the sinking.
On the night of the sinking the diamond changes hands a few times between Rose and Jack, resulting in Jack being framed of its theft by Rose's fiancé Cal. As the ship starts to lean dramatically it becomes quite clear that the unsinkable Titanic will indeed sink. With this in mind Rose's fiancé, Cal, returns to the suite and empties the safe placing the precious gem in his overcoat. Later on Cal puts this same coat on Rose as she enters a lifeboat, forgetting about the diamond in its pocket. It is not thoroughly stated whether or not Rose (Gloria Stuart) tells Brock Lovett about Cal emptying his safe along with the diamond, it is assumed she doesn't as Lovett doesn't have any follow up questions. At the end of the film, Rose walks alone to the stern of the salvage ship and opens her hands revealing both the necklace and Rose's identity as Rose Dewitt Bukater. While examining the necklace, Rose has a flashback to 1912 on her arrival in New York and discovers the necklace in the overcoat. Returning to the present, Rose, with a smile, drops the necklace from her hand into the water presumably above the Titanic wreck site.[1]
Design[edit]
London-based jewelers Asprey & Garrard used cubic zirconias set in white gold[2] to create an Edwardian-style necklace to be used as a prop in the film. Asprey & Garrard produced and designed the necklaces: the result was three different and unique designs. Two of their designs were used in the film while the other went unused until after the film had been released. The three necklaces are commonly known as the original prop, the J. Peterman necklace, and the Asprey necklace. The three necklaces are all very similar but have distinguishable differences.
A replica inspired by the original prop.
The Original Necklace[edit]
The original necklace was the necklace seen throughout the film. This necklace has a large London-blue stone cut into a trillion/cleftless heart surrounded by white round cut cubic zirconias set in white gold. The chain is composed of a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white cubic zirconias. The bail on this necklace was a heart cut white cubic zirconia attached to a white round cut stone which was attached to the cage on the main stone. The necklace is owned today by a private collector, and is currently being lent to James Cameron to display next to props from his other films. The necklace is available to view during tours of his office in California.[3]
The J. Peterman Necklace[edit]
Due to The J. Peterman Company's acquisition of this particular necklace through the sale of props from the film, this design is often referred to as the J. Peterman design, though officially the necklace does not hold this designation. This particular design is another blue cubic zirconia; however, it is cut into the shape of a heart rather than a trillion cut. The main stone is surrounded by round cut cubic zirconias and features a white round cut stone at the top where it attaches to the chain. The chain is composed of white round cut cubic zirconias, with a larger inverted pear cut cubic zirconia as the bail. This particular design is featured in the film for a brief moment when Caledon retrieves the necklace from his safe during the sinking, this is the only time the necklace is seen on screen. This particular necklace is believed to still be in the possession of the J. Peterman Company.
The Asprey & Garrard Necklace[edit]
The third and final design was not used in the film. After the film's success, Asprey & Garrard were commissioned to create an authentic Heart of the Ocean necklace using the original design. The result was a platinum-set, 171-carat (34.2 g) heart-shaped Ceylon sapphire surrounded by 103 diamonds.[2] This design featured a much larger inverted pear shaped Ceylon sapphire with a subtle cleft to resemble a heart. The chain for this necklace also featured a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white diamonds. The bail also featured a heart cut white diamond with another round cut diamond attached to an inverted pear shape diamond which was then attached to the cage of the main stone. The necklace was donated to Sotheby's auction house in Beverly Hills for an auction benefiting the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund and Southern California's Aid For AIDS. It was sold to an unidentified Asprey client[4] for $1.4 million, under the agreement that Celine Dion would wear it two nights later at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony. This necklace has since not been made available for public viewing.
Reproductions[edit]
An example of one of the many replicas made by the J. Peterman Company back in 1998.
After the release of the film in 1998, The J. Peterman Company sold less expensive reproductions. Their necklace consisted of 137 Austrian crystals and a detachable, inauthentic "blue diamond" pendant packaged in a navy blue, hinged presentation box.[5] This is the only officially licensed reproduction of the necklace. This particular replica can still be found on the secondary market, although likely in used condition. There are many other unofficial inspired reproductions available on the secondary market ranging from as little as five dollars to thousands of dollars.
Replicas
An example of an unofficial inspired replica.
An unofficial inspired replica made by an American Jeweler.
An example of the replicas made by the J. Peterman Company in 1998. These remain the only official replicas licensed by 20th Century Fox.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Clarke, James (14 May 2014). The Cinema of James Cameron: Bodies in Heroic Motion. Columbia University Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-231-85062-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Davidson, Terry (March 11, 1998). "Real 'Titanic' Necklace to Benefit Diana’s Trust: Movie’s Paste Necklace Recreated with Real Jewels" (Interview). Interview with Diane Sawyer.
Jump up ^ costumes, yourprops.com, movie props and. "Titanic Heart of the Ocean original movie prop". www.yourprops.com. Retrieved 2017-07-05.
Jump up ^ Van Der Voort, Jane (February 11, 2001). "Heart Of The Matter". The Toronto Sun. [page needed]
Jump up ^ "J. Peterman Co. Finds Merchandising 'Jewel' in 'Titanic'; 'Heart of the Ocean' Necklace To Be Sold Through Company's Catalog". Business Wire. March 23, 1998. [page needed]
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Merderet
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Merderet
Country
France
Physical characteristics
Main source
Normandy
River mouth
Douve
49°21′48″N 1°21′16″W / 49.36333°N 1.35444°W / 49.36333; -1.35444 (Douve-Merderet)Coordinates: 49°21′48″N 1°21′16″W / 49.36333°N 1.35444°W / 49.36333; -1.35444 (Douve-Merderet)
Length
36 km (22 mi)
US Army map of the Cotentin peninsula in 1944, showing the Merderet
The Merderet is a 36 km long river in Normandy, France which is tributary to the Douve River.[1] It runs roughly north-south down the middle of the Cotentin peninsula from Valognes to the junction with the Douve at Beuzeville la Bastille.

Hydrology[edit]
The river has relatively high turbidity and its brownish water is somewhat low in velocity due to the slight gradient of the watercourse; pH levels have been measured at 8.31[2] near the Chateau d'Isle Marie and electrical conductivity of the waters have tested at 61 micro-siemens per centimetre. At this reference location, summer flows are typically in the range of 250 cubic feet per second (7.1 m3/s).
Airborne landings on D-Day[edit]
Main article: Mission Boston
Running parallel to the shoreline about 5 miles (8.0 km) from Utah Beach, the marshes of the Merderet and Douve formed a natural defensive line protecting the western end of the Allied landing zone and at the same time limiting the Allies' potential to break out of the beachhead. Thus control of the bridges at Manoir de la Fière and Chef-du-Pont was seen as vital. The Merderet was assigned to the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division as Mission Boston, scheduled for 5 hours before the amphibious landings on D-Day. Cloud cover and German fire caused the landings to be dispersed; the paratroopers took the strategic town of Sainte-Mère-Église but failed in their original mission to clear the west bank of the Merderet on D-Day and blow the bridge over the Douze at Pont l'Abbé (now Étienville). The extent of their control of the bridges over the Merderet is disputed, but it was sufficient to hold off German counterattacks. These included an attack over the causeway at La Fiere by the 1057th Grenadier Regiment and light tanks of the 100th Panzer Replacement Battalion. This appears to have been the inspiration for the climactic battle in the film Saving Private Ryan, which is set around a bridge over the Merderet in the fictional town of Ramelle.
After the Battle of Carentan on 9 June, Allied forces moved up the Cotentin Peninsula on either side of the Merderet. This advance culminated in the Battle of Cherbourg which saw the port captured by the end of the month.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Atlas des Routes de France, Solar Press: Donnees IGN (2007)
Jump up ^ Hogan, C. Michael, Water quality of freshwater bodies in France, Lumina Tech Press, Aberdeen (2006)
External links[edit]
Merderet River Bridge at La Fière
Geoportail.fr
The Merderet at the Sandre database
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merderet&oldid=828366264"
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Coastal basins of the English Channel in France
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