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Hail Mary pass
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Roger Staubach, the thrower of the game-winning touchdown pass to wide receiver Drew Pearson during a December 28, 1975 NFL playoff game between the Dallas Cowboys and the Minnesota Vikings.
A Hail Mary pass, also known as a shot play, is a very long forward pass in American football, made in desperation, with only a small chance of success and time running out on the clock. The term became widespread after a December 28, 1975 NFL playoff game between the Dallas Cowboys and the Minnesota Vikings, when Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach (a Roman Catholic and fan of The Godfather Part II (1974), whose character Fredo had popularized the phrase) said about his game-winning touchdown pass to wide receiver Drew Pearson, "I closed my eyes and said a Hail Mary."[1]
The expression goes back at least to the 1930s, in which decade it was widely used publicly by two former members of Notre Dame's Four Horsemen, Elmer Layden and Jim Crowley. Originally meaning any sort of desperation play, a "Hail Mary" gradually came to denote a long, low-probability pass, typically of the "alley-oop" variety, attempted at the end of a half when a team is too far from the end zone to execute a more conventional play, implying that it would take divine intervention for the play to succeed. For more than 40 years, use of the term was largely confined to Notre Dame and other Catholic universities.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Examples
3 In other fields
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Origins[edit]
Crowley often told the story of an October 28, 1922, game between Notre Dame and Georgia Tech in which the Fighting Irish players said Hail Mary prayers together before scoring each of the touchdowns, before winning the game 13-3. According to Crowley, it was one of the team’s linemen, Noble Kizer (a Presbyterian), who suggested praying before the first touchdown, which occurred on a fourth and goal play at the Tech 6-yard line during the second quarter. Quarterback Harry Stuhldreher, another of the Horsemen, threw a quick pass over the middle to Paul Castner for the score. The ritual was repeated before a third and goal play, again at Tech’s six, in the fourth quarter. This time Stuhldreher ran for a touchdown, which sealed the win for Notre Dame. After the game, Kizer exclaimed to Crowley, "Say, that Hail Mary is the best play we've got." Crowley related this story many times in public speeches beginning in the 1930s.[2]
On November 2, 1935, with 32 seconds left in the so-called "Game of the Century" between Ohio State and Notre Dame, Irish halfback Bill Shakespeare found receiver Wayne Millner for a 19-yard, game-winning touchdown. Notre Dame head coach Elmer Layden (who had played in the 1922 Georgia Tech game) afterwards called it a "Hail Mary" play.[2]
An early appearance of the term was in an Associated Press story about the upcoming 1941 Orange Bowl between the Mississippi State Bulldogs and the Georgetown Hoyas. The piece appeared in several newspapers including the December 31, 1940 Daytona Beach Morning Journal under the headline, "Orange Bowl: [Georgetown] Hoyas Put Faith in 'Hail Mary' Pass"). As the article explained, "A 'hail Mary' pass, in the talk of the Washington eleven, is one that is thrown with a prayer because the odds against completion are big."
During an NBC broadcast in 1963, Staubach, then a Navy quarterback, described a pass play during his team's victory over Michigan that year as a "Hail Mary play". He scrambled to escape a pass rush, nearly getting sacked 20 yards behind the line of scrimmage before completing a desperation pass for a one-yard gain.[2]
Examples[edit]
See also: List of Hail Marys in American football
Arguably the most memorable and replayed Hail Mary pass came on November 23, 1984 in a game now known as "Hail Flutie".[3] Boston College was losing to Miami (FL) with six seconds left on the clock when their quarterback Doug Flutie threw a 52-yard touchdown pass to Gerard Phelan, succeeding primarily because Miami's secondary stood on the goal line to keep the receivers in front of them without covering a post route behind them. Miami's defense was based on the assumption that Flutie couldn't throw the ball as far as the end zone, but Flutie hit Phelan in stride against a flatfooted defense a yard deep in the end zone.[4] To commemorate the play, a statue of Flutie in his Hail Mary passing pose was unveiled outside Alumni Stadium at Boston College on November 7, 2008.[5]
Other noteworthy examples include:
December 19, 1980: Known as "The Miracle Bowl", BYU quarterback Jim McMahon threw a 41-yard touchdown pass to tight end Clay Brown to defeat SMU in the 1980 Holiday Bowl 46–45, which completed BYU's comeback from a 45–25 deficit which the Cougars faced with four minutes remaining.[6]
September 24, 1994: Known as the "Miracle at Michigan", Colorado quarterback Kordell Stewart threw a 64-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Michael Westbrook to beat Michigan 27–26 (Stewart's pass traveled 73 yards in the air from the Colorado 26 to the opposite 1 yard line, was tipped by Blake Anderson, then caught by Westbrook 4 yards deep in the end zone).[7]
October 31, 1999: The Cleveland Browns's first win after returning as an expansion team came on a Hail Mary against the New Orleans Saints, when Browns quarterback Tim Couch avoided the Saints pass rush and launched a 56 yard pass that was tipped up in the air and caught by receiver Kevin Johnson near the pylon for a 21-16 Browns victory.
November 9, 2002: Known as the "Bluegrass Miracle", LSU quarterback Marcus Randall threw a 74-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Devery Henderson in the game to defeat Kentucky 33–30.[8]
December 8, 2002: Three years after his first Hail Mary, Tim Couch won another game with a game-ender against the Jacksonville Jaguars. Couch launched a 50 yard Hail Mary that was caught by Quincy Morgan, and the ensuing extra point gave the Browns a 21-20 win. Although he remains a hotly debated player due to being picked #1 overall in the 1999 NFL Draft and his injury-plagued career, Tim Couch remains the only NFL player to win two games on a game-ending Hail Mary.
October 22, 2011: Known as "Rocket", Michigan State quarterback Kirk Cousins threw a 44-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Keith Nichol to beat Wisconsin 37–31.[9]
November 16, 2013: Known as the "Prayer at Jordan–Hare", Auburn quarterback Nick Marshall threw a 73-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Ricardo Louis on fourth-and-18 with 36 seconds left to beat Georgia 43–38.[10]
November 10, 2013: Sometimes a Hail Mary doesn't give a team a win. With the Baltimore Ravens leading 17-10 on the last play of their game against the Cincinnati Bengals, Bengals quarterback Andy Dalton launched a 51 yard Hail Mary to the end zone, where a Ravens player tipped the ball in the air directly to A.J. Green for a touchdown. Despite the wild game-tying score, the Ravens would win the game in overtime, 20-17.
September 5, 2015: Known as the "Miracle at Memorial", BYU quarterback Tanner Mangum threw a 42-yard desperation pass to wide receiver Mitch Mathews as time expired to defeat Nebraska 33-28. This play snapped a string of 29 consecutive home opener victories for the Cornhuskers. Mangum, a freshman just two months removed from a mission for The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, was the backup to senior Taysom Hill, who had left the game earlier with a season-ending Lisfranc injury. This game was Mangum's first organized football game in nearly four years.[11]
December 3, 2015: Known as the "Miracle in Motown", due to a defensive penalty on the Detroit Lions as the game clock ran out, the Green Bay Packers — who had been trailing the entire game — were given one additional play with no time left. Green Bay quarterback Aaron Rodgers threw a 61-yard touchdown pass, which was caught in the end zone by tight end Richard Rodgers to win the game 27–23. The ball left Aaron Rodgers' hand at Green Bay's 35-yard line and was caught a few yards into the end zone, making it the longest game-ending game-winning "Hail Mary pass" in NFL history.[12]
January 16, 2016: In the postseason after the Miracle in Motown, Aaron Rodgers completed a second Hail Mary pass. Faced with 4th and 20 on his own 4-yard line and a 20-13 deficit against the Arizona Cardinals in the final minute of the game, Rodgers threw a 60-yard completion to Jeff Janis. Then, on the final play of regulation, he completed a 41-yard touchdown pass to Janis, making Green Bay the first postseason team ever to score a game-tying touchdown on the final play of the 4th quarter. Arizona, however, won the game in overtime.[13]
September 10, 2016: After Oklahoma State football QB Mason Rudolph threw the ball up into the air as the clock ran out, it was ruled intentional grounding. Under college football rules, the game should have ended and Oklahoma State should have won the game. However, the officials (including Referee Tim O'Dey of the Mid-America Conference) gave Central Michigan an untimed down. Losing 24-27, Chippewas quarterback Cooper Rush threw a 49-yard hail mary to receiver Jesse Kroll who lateraled to Malik Fountain to run it into end zone winning the game 30-24. [14]
October 1, 2016: After a 47-yard touchdown pass with 10 seconds remaining on the clock, a Georgia player took off his helmet, resulting in a 15-yard celebration penalty. The kickoff was returned to the Georgia 43-yard line, and on the final play, Tennessee QB Joshua Dobbs threw a game-winning touchdown as time expired, to win 34-31.[15]
January 8, 2017: In a wildcard playoff game between the Green Bay Packers and the New York Giants, Aaron Rodgers completed a 42-yard pass to Randall Cobb over the heads of a crowd of players from both teams on the last play before halftime. This gave Green Bay a 14-6 halftime lead and they went on to win 38-13.[citation needed]
September 16, 2017: In a key Southeastern Conference matchup between the Florida Gators and the Tennessee Volunteers, Florida quarterback Feleipe Franks completed a 63-yard pass to Tyrie Cleveland to earn the University of Florida a victory at the end of the game as time expired.[16][17]
In other fields[edit]
The term "Hail Mary pass" has become generalized to refer to any last-ditch effort with little chance of success.
In basketball, a "Hail Mary shot" or "Hail Mary throw" is a shot thrown from a place far away from the basket (e.g., behind the half court line).[18] It is typically attempted when there is not enough time left in the period to execute a more traditional play, and (in a case where the team attempting the shot is in the final regulation period or overtime) when they are either tied or behind by no more than three points. In basketball, successful shots at the basket will count as long as the ball is released prior to the expiration of time. A scoring shot that enters the basket after time expires is called a buzzer beater (in reference to the "buzzer" that sounds to signal the end of the period).
There are similar usages in other fields, such as a "Hail Mary shot" in photography where the photographer holds the view finder of an SLR camera far from his eye (so unable to compose the picture), usually high above his head, and takes a shot. This is often used in crowded situations.[19]
In computer security, a "Hail Mary attack" will throw every exploit it has against a system to see whether any of them work.[20]
See also[edit]
Hail Mary – Wiktionary definition
Hospital pass
List of Hail Mary passes in American football
National Football League lore
NFL playoffs, 1975–76
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "History Release » Chat transcript with Roger Staubach". Pro Football Hall of Fame. February 7, 2010. Retrieved March 12, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ashwill, Gary (October 29, 2010). "Hail Mary". Agate Type. Retrieved April 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ Brown, Scott (September 23, 2008). "The 10 Best College Football Hail Mary passes of the past 30 years". Scott Brown's Sportsbytes. Retrieved November 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ 17 november 2006 (2006-11-17). "Flutie's Miracle in Miami". Youtube.com. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
Jump up ^ "The Heights 10 November 2008 — Boston College". bc.edu.
Jump up ^ "It Was a Super Holiday Bowl". Los Angeles Times. January 13, 1986. Retrieved November 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ Schwartz, Larry (November 19, 2003). "Kordell's Hail Mary a "Miracle in Michigan"". ESPN. Retrieved November 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Kleinpeter, Jim (November 9, 2012). "Remembering LSU's Bluegrass Miracle on the 10th anniversary". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved November 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Staples, Andy (October 23, 2011). "Miracle 'Rocket' boosts Spartans to improbable victory over Badgers". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved November 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Prather, Carl (November 16, 2013). "The Prayer at Jordan-Hare! Auburn wins 43–38!". WAFF. Retrieved November 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ "'Houk's Hug' adds to BYU's legend of 'Miracle at Memorial' – KSL.com". ksl.com.
Jump up ^ Floyd, Brian (2015-12-04). "This is how the Lions handed the Packers a game-winning Hail Mary". SB Nation. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ Cardinals survive Packers' Hail Mary in wild OT win Connor Orr nfl.com January 16, 2016, Retrieved on January 23, 2018
Jump up ^ "Central Michigan stuns No. 17 Oklahoma State on controversial Hail Mary". USA TODAY. 2016-09-10. Retrieved 2018-04-21.
Jump up ^ "Tennessee vs. Georgia – Game Recap – October 1, 2016 – ESPN". ESPN.com. Retrieved 2016-10-05.
Jump up ^ "Florida beat Tennessee with the most ridiculous Hail Mary touchdown pass". For The Win. 2017-09-16. Retrieved 2017-09-17.
Jump up ^ "Florida vs. Tennessee: Gators win on incredible last-second Hail Mary". Sporting News. 2017-09-16. Retrieved 2017-09-17.
Jump up ^ 1 January 2013 (2013-01-01). "Today Tonight: Fan's dispute with the NBL". Youtube.com. Retrieved 2014-01-26.
Jump up ^ "Hail Mary – and Other Divine Photo Tricks". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Metasploit for the Aspiring Hacker, Part 4". Armitage. Retrieved 2017-05-18.
External links[edit]
"In 1975, Cowboys quarterback Roger Staubach popularized which football phrase?". Trivia Today.
Welter, Ben (June 20, 2016). "Dec. 29, 1975: Drew Pearson's 'Hail Mary' catch". Minneapolis Star Tribune. Retrieved January 14, 2010.
"The Famous Hail Mary Pass". Viking Update. July 20, 2001. Archived from the original on February 16, 2007. Retrieved March 20, 2007.
"Inside nuggets from the Hail Mary game". The Dallas Morning News. Archived from the original on September 3, 2004. Retrieved March 20, 2007.
Call, Andy. "Hesitation referee's worst decision". The Canton Repository. Archived from the original on March 22, 2007. Retrieved March 20, 2007.
"Photo Gallery of Great Moments". Fantasy Football Bookmarks. Archived from the original on February 8, 2007. Retrieved March 20, 2007.
Blair, Sam (December 29, 1975). "Ironically, it happened to the Vikings". The Dallas Morning News. Archived from the original on September 3, 2004. Retrieved March 20, 2007.
Blair, Sam (December 28, 1995). "A pass' presence". The Dallas Morning News. Archived from the original on September 3, 2004. Retrieved March 20, 2007.
Luska, Frank (December 29, 2000). "25 years later, answered prayer hails memories". The Dallas Morning News. Archived from the original on September 3, 2004. Retrieved March 20, 2007.
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Hershey–Chase experiment
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Overview of experiment and observations
The Hershey–Chase experiments were a series of experiments conducted in 1952[1] by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase that helped to confirm that DNA is genetic material. While DNA had been known to biologists since 1869,[2] many scientists still assumed at the time that proteins carried the information for inheritance because DNA appeared simpler than proteins. In their experiments, Hershey and Chase showed that when bacteriophages, which are composed of DNA and protein, infect bacteria, their DNA enters the host bacterial cell, but most of their protein does not. Although the results were not conclusive, and Hershey and Chase were cautious in their interpretation, previous, contemporaneous, and subsequent discoveries all served to prove that DNA is the hereditary material.
Hershey shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Max Delbrück and Salvador Luria for their “discoveries concerning the genetic structure of viruses.”[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical background
2 Methods and results
2.1 Experiment and conclusions
3 Discussion
3.1 Confirmation
3.2 Other experiments
4 Legacy
5 References
6 External links
Historical background[edit]
In the early twentieth century, biologists thought that proteins carried genetic information.[4] This was based on the belief that proteins were more complex than DNA.[4] Phoebus Levene's influential "tetranucleotide hypothesis", which incorrectly proposed that DNA was a repeating set of identical nucleotides, supported this conclusion.[5] The results of the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment, published in 1944, suggested that DNA was the genetic material, but there was still some hesitation within the general scientific community to accept this, which set the stage for the Hershey–Chase experiment.[4][6]
Hershey and Chase, along with others who had done related experiments, confirmed that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information.[1] Before that, Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty had shown that DNA led to the transformation of one strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae to another that was more virulent.[7] The results of these experiments provided evidence that DNA was the biomolecule that carried genetic information.
Methods and results[edit]
Structural overview of T2 phage
Hershey and Chase needed to be able to examine different parts of the phages they were studying separately, so they needed to isolate the phage subsections. Viruses were known to be composed of a protein shell and DNA, so they chose to uniquely label each with a different elemental isotope. This allowed each to be observed and analyzed separately. Since phosphorus is contained in DNA but not amino acids, radioactive phosphorus-32 was used to label the DNA contained in the T2 phage. Radioactive sulfur-35 was used to label the protein sections of the T2 phage, because sulfur is contained in amino acids but not DNA.[1]
Hershey and Chase inserted the radioactive elements into the bacteriophages by adding the isotopes to separate media within which bacteria were allowed to grow for 4 hours before bacteriophage introduction. When the bacteriophages infected the bacteria, the progeny contained the radioactive isotopes in their structures. This procedure was performed once for the sulfur-labeled phages and once for phosphorus-labeled phages.[1] The labeled progeny were then allowed to infect unlabeled bacteria. The phage coats remained on the outside of the bacteria, while genetic material entered. Disruption of phage from the bacteria by agitation in a blender followed by centrifugation allowed for the separation of the phage coats from the bacteria. These bacteria were lysed to release phage progeny. The progeny of the phages that were originally labeled with 32P remained labeled, while the progeny of the phages originally labeled with 35S were unlabeled. Thus, the Hershey–Chase experiment helped confirm that DNA, not protein, is the genetic material.
Hershey and Chase showed that the introduction of deoxyribonuclease (referred to as DNase), an enzyme that breaks down DNA, into a solution containing the labeled bacteriophages did not introduce any 32P into the solution. This demonstrated that the phage is resistant to the enzyme while intact. Additionally, they were able to plasmolyze the bacteriophages so that they went into osmotic shock, which effectively created a solution containing most of the 32P and a heavier solution containing structures called “ghosts” that contained the 35S and the protein coat of the virus. It was found that these “ghosts” could adsorb to bacteria that were susceptible to T2, although they contained no DNA and were simply the remains of the original bacterial capsule. They concluded that the protein protected the DNA from DNAse, but that once the two were separated and the phage was inactivated, the DNAse could hydrolyze the phage DNA.[1] However, it subsequently became clear that in some viruses, RNA is the genetic material.
Experiment and conclusions[edit]
Hershey and Chase were also able to prove that the DNA from the phage is inserted into the bacteria shortly after the virus attaches to its host. Using a high speed blender they were able to force the bacteriophages from the bacterial cells after adsorption. The lack of 32P labeled DNA remaining in the solution after the bacteriophages had been allowed to adsorb to the bacteria showed that the phage DNA was transferred into the bacterial cell. The presence of almost all the radioactive 35S in the solution showed that the protein coat that protects the DNA before adsorption stayed outside the cell.[1]
Hershey and Chase concluded that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material. They determined that a protective protein coat was formed around the bacteriophage, but that the internal DNA is what conferred its ability to produce progeny inside a bacterium. They showed that, in growth, protein has no function, while DNA has some function. They determined this from the amount of radioactive material remaining outside of the cell. Only 20% of the 32P remained outside the cell, demonstrating that it was incorporated with DNA in the cell's genetic material. All of the 35S in the protein coats remained outside the cell, showing it was not incorporated into the cell, and that protein is not the genetic material.[1]
Hershey and Chase's experiment concluded that little sulfur containing material entered the bacterial cell. However no specific conclusions can be made regarding whether material that is sulfur-free enters the bacterial cell after phage adsorption. Further research was necessary to conclude that it was solely bacteriophages' DNA that entered the cell and not a combination of protein and DNA where the protein did not contain any sulfur.[1]
Discussion[edit]
Confirmation[edit]
Further information: DNA and DNA § History of DNA research
Hershey and Chase concluded that protein was not likely to be the hereditary genetic material. However, they did not make any conclusions regarding the specific function of DNA as hereditary material, and only said that it must have some undefined role.[1][4]
Confirmation and clarity came a year later in 1953, when James D. Watson and Francis Crick correctly hypothesized, in their journal article "Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid", the double helix structure of DNA, and suggested the copying mechanism by which DNA functions as hereditary material. Furthermore, Watson and Crick suggested that DNA, the genetic material, is responsible for the synthesis of the thousands of proteins found in cells. They had made this proposal based on the structural similarity that exists between the two macromolecules, that is, both protein and DNA are linear sequences of amino acids and nucleotides respectively.[8]
Other experiments[edit]
Once the Hershey–Chase experiment was published, the scientific community generally acknowledged that DNA was the genetic code material. This discovery led to a more detailed investigation of DNA to determine its composition as well as its 3D structure. Using X-ray crystallography, the structure of DNA was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick with the help of previously documented experimental evidence by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin.[9] Knowledge of the structure of DNA led scientists to examine the nature of genetic coding and, in turn, understand the process of protein synthesis. George Gamow proposed that the genetic code was composed of sequences of three DNA base pairs known as triplets or codons which represent one of the twenty amino acids.[10] Genetic coding helped researchers to understand the mechanism of gene expression, the process by which information from a gene is used in protein synthesis. Since then, much research has been conducted to modulate steps in the gene expression process. These steps include transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and post-translational modification which are used to control the chemical and structural nature of proteins.[11] Moreover, genetic engineering gives engineers the ability to directly manipulate the genetic materials of organisms using recombinant DNA techniques. The first recombinant DNA molecule was created by Paul Berg in 1972 when he combined DNA from the monkey virus SV40 with that of the lambda virus.[12]
Experiments on hereditary material during the time of the Hershey-Chase Experiment often used bacteriophages as a model organism. Bacteriophages lend themselves to experiments on hereditary material because they incorporate their genetic material into their host cell's genetic material (making them useful tools), they multiply quickly, and they are easily collected by researchers.[4]
Legacy[edit]
The Hershey–Chase experiment, its predecessors, such as the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment, and successors served to unequivocally establish that hereditary information was carried by DNA. This finding has numerous applications in forensic science, crime investigation and genealogy. It provided the background knowledge for further applications in DNA forensics, where DNA fingerprinting uses data originating from DNA, not protein sources, to deduce genetic variation.[13]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Hershey A, Chase M; Chase (1952). "Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage" (PDF). J Gen Physiol. 36 (1): 39–56. doi:10.1085/jgp.36.1.39. PMC 2147348  . PMID 12981234.
Jump up ^ Dahm R (January 2008). "Discovering DNA: Friedrich Miescher and the early years of nucleic acid research". Hum. Genet. 122 (6): 565–81. doi:10.1007/s00439-007-0433-0. PMID 17901982.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1969". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2011-04-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e O'Connor, Clare (2008). "Isolating hereditary material: Frederick Griffith, Oswald Avery, Alfred Hershey, and Martha Chase". Scitable by Nature Education. Retrieved 20 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Carr, Steven M. (2009). "Tetranucleotide Hypothesis". Retrieved 1 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Matthew Cobb; Morange, Michel (1998). A history of molecular biology. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 37–38, 44. ISBN 0-674-00169-9.
Jump up ^ Avery OT, Macleod CM, McCarty M; MacLeod; McCarty (February 1944). "Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types: Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III". J. Exp. Med. 79 (2): 137–58. doi:10.1084/jem.79.2.137. PMC 2135445  . PMID 19871359. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Pauling L, Corey RB; Corey (February 1953). "A Proposed Structure For The Nucleic Acids". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 39 (2): 84–97. Bibcode:1953PNAS...39...84P. doi:10.1073/pnas.39.2.84. PMC 1063734  . PMID 16578429.
Jump up ^ "L.O. Rosalind Franklin and the Double Helix. Physics Today, March 2003". Physics Today. Retrieved 2011-04-06.
Jump up ^ Crick, Francis (1988). "Chapter 8: The genetic code". What mad pursuit: a personal view of scientific discovery. New York: Basic Books. pp. 89–101. ISBN 0-465-09138-5.
Jump up ^ Berk V, Cate JH; Cate (June 2007). "Insights into protein biosynthesis from structures of bacterial ribosomes". Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 17 (3): 302–9. doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2007.05.009. PMID 17574829.
Jump up ^ Jackson DA, Symons RH, Berg P; Symons; Berg (October 1972). "Biochemical method for inserting new genetic information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: circular SV40 DNA molecules containing lambda phage genes and the galactose operon of Escherichia coli". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 69 (10): 2904–9. Bibcode:1972PNAS...69.2904J. doi:10.1073/pnas.69.10.2904. PMC 389671  . PMID 4342968. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Jobling MA, Gill P; Gill (October 2004). "Encoded evidence: DNA in forensic analysis" (PDF). Nat. Rev. Genet. 5 (10): 739–51. doi:10.1038/nrg1455. PMID 15510165.
External links[edit]
Hershey–Chase experiment animation
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United States customary units
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
United States customary units are a system of measurements commonly used in the United States. The United States customary system (USCS or USC) developed from English units which were in use in the British Empire before the U.S. became an independent country. However, the United Kingdom's system of measures was overhauled in 1824 to create the imperial system, changing the definitions of some units. Therefore, while many U.S. units are essentially similar to their Imperial counterparts, there are significant differences between the systems.
The majority of U.S. customary units were redefined in terms of the meter and the kilogram with the Mendenhall Order of 1893 and, in practice, for many years before.[1] These definitions were refined by the international yard and pound agreement of 1959.[2] Americans primarily use customary units in commercial activities, as well as for personal and social use. In science, medicine, many sectors of industry and some of government and military, metric units are used. The International System of Units (SI), the modern form of the metric system, is preferred for many uses by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).[3] For newer units of measure where there is no traditional customary unit, international units are used, sometimes mixed with customary units, such as electrical resistance of wire expressed in ohms (SI) per thousand feet.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Units of length
3 Units of area
4 Units of capacity and volume
4.1 Fluid volume
4.2 Dry volume
5 Units of weight and mass
5.1 Grain measures
6 Cooking measures
7 Units of temperature
8 Other units
9 Other names for U.S. customary units
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
History[edit]
See also: Imperial and US customary measurement systems and Comparison of the imperial and US customary measurement systems
The United States system of units is similar to the British imperial system.[4] Both systems are derived from English units, a system which had evolved over the millennia before American independence, and which had its roots in Roman and Anglo-Saxon units.
The customary system was championed by the U.S.-based International Institute for Preserving and Perfecting Weights and Measures in the late 19th century. Advocates of the customary system saw the French Revolutionary, or metric, system as atheistic.[5] An auxiliary of the Institute in Ohio published a poem with wording such as "down with every 'metric' scheme" and "A perfect inch, a perfect pint".[5] One adherent of the customary system called it "a just weight and a just measure, which alone are acceptable to the Lord".[5]
The U.S. government passed the Metric Conversion Act of 1975, which made the metric system "the preferred system of weights and measures for U.S. trade and commerce". The legislation states that the federal government has a responsibility to assist industry as it voluntarily converts to the metric system, i.e., metrification. This is most evident in U.S. labeling requirements on food products, where SI units are almost always presented alongside customary units. According to the CIA Factbook, the United States is one of three nations (along with Liberia and Burma) that have not adopted the metric system as their official system of weights and measures.[6]
U.S. customary units are widely used on consumer products and in industrial manufacturing. Metric units are standard in science, medicine, as well as many sectors of industry and government, including the military.[6] There are anecdotal objections to the use of metric units in carpentry and the building trades, on the basis that it is easier to remember an integer number of inches plus a fraction than a measurement in millimeters,[7] or that foot-inch measurements are more suitable when distances are frequently divided into halves, thirds and quarters, often in parallel. The metric system also lacks a parallel to the foot.[8]
Units of length[edit]
Unit
Divisions
SI equivalent
Most common measures shown in italics
Exact relationships shown in boldface
International
1 point (p) 127/360 mm or 6996352778000000000♠352.778 μm
1 pica (P̸) 12 p 127/30 mm or 6997423300000000000♠4.233 mm
1 inch (in or ″) 6 P̸ 25.4 mm
1 foot (ft or ′) 12 in 6999304800000000000♠0.3048 m[9]
1 yard (yd) 3 ft 6999914400000000000♠0.9144 m[9]
1 mile (mi) 7003160934400000000♠5280 ft or 7003160934400000000♠1760 yd 7003160934400000000♠1.609344 km
US Survey
1 link (li) 33/50 ft or 7.92 in 792/3937 m or 6999201170000000000♠20.117 cm
1 (survey) foot (ft) 1200/3937 m or 6999304800000000000♠30.480 cm[9]
1 rod (rd) 25 li or 16.5 ft 19,800/3937 m or 7000502900000000000♠5.029 m
1 chain (ch) 4 rd or 66 ft 79,200/3937 m or 7001201160000000000♠20.116 m
1 furlong (fur) 10 ch 792/3937 km or 7002201168000000000♠201.168 m
1 survey (or statute) mile (mi) 8 fur 6336/3937 km or 7003160934700000000♠1.609347 km[9]
1 league (lea) 3 mi 19,008/3937 km or 7003482800000000000♠4.828 km
International Nautical[9]
1 fathom (ftm) 2 yd 7000182880000000000♠1.8288 m
1 cable (cb) 120 ftm or 1.091 fur 7002219456000000000♠219.456 m
1 nautical mile (NM or nmi) 8.439 cb or 1.151 mi 1.852 km
For measuring length, the U.S. customary system uses the inch, foot, yard, and mile, which are the only four customary length measurements in everyday use. Since July 1, 1959, these have been defined on the basis of 1 yard = 0.9144 meters except for some applications in surveying.[2] The U.S., the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries agreed on this definition, and so it is often termed international measure.
When international measure was introduced in the English-speaking countries, the basic geodetic datum in North America was the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27), which had been constructed by triangulation based on the definition of the foot in the Mendenhall Order of 1893, that is 1 foot = 1200/3937 meters: this definition was retained for data derived from NAD27, but renamed the US survey foot to distinguish it from the international foot.[2] For most applications, the difference between the two definitions is insignificant – one international foot is exactly 0.999998 of a US survey foot, for a difference of about 1/8 inch (3 mm) per mile – but it affects the definition of the State Plane Coordinate Systems (SPCSs), which can stretch over hundreds of miles.[10]
The NAD27 was replaced in the 1980s by the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83), which is defined in meters. The SPCSs were also updated, but the National Geodetic Survey left the decision of which (if any) definition of the foot to use to the individual states. All SPCSs are defined in meters, but seven states also have SPCSs defined in US survey feet and an eighth state in international feet: the other 42 states use only meter-based SPCSs.[10]
State legislation is also important for determining the conversion factor to be used for everyday land surveying and real estate transactions, although the difference (2 ppm) is of no practical significance given the precision of normal surveying measurements over short distances (usually much less than a mile). Twenty-four states have legislated that surveying measures should be based on the US survey foot, eight have legislated that they be made on the basis of the international foot, and eighteen have not specified the conversion factor from metric units.[10]
Units of area[edit]
Unit
Divisions
SI equivalent
Exact relationships shown in boldface
1 square survey foot (sq ft or ft2) 144 square inches 6998929034100000000♠0.09290341 m2
1 square chain (sq ch or ch2) 7003435600000000000♠4356 sq ft (survey) or 16 sq rods 7002404687300000000♠404.6873 m2
1 acre 7004435600000000000♠43560 sq ft (survey) or 10 sq ch 7003404687300000000♠4046.873 m2
1 section 640 acres or 1 sq mile (survey) 7006258999800000000♠2.589998 km2
1 survey township (twp) 36 sections or 4 sq leagues 7007932399300000000♠93.23993 km2
The most widely used area unit with a name unrelated to any length unit is the acre. The National Institute of Standards and Technology contends that customary area units are defined in terms of the square survey foot, not the square international foot.[9] Conversion factors are based on Astin (July 27, 1968)[11] and National Institute of Standards and Technology (2008).[12]
Units of capacity and volume[edit]
Volume in general
Unit
Divisions
SI equivalent
1 cubic inch (cu in) or (in3) 6995163870640000000♠16.387064 mL[13]
1 cubic foot (cu ft) or (ft3) 7003172800000000000♠1728 cu in 6998283168465920000♠28.316846592 L
1 cubic yard (cu yd) or (yd3) 27 cu ft 6999764554857984000♠764.554857984 L
6999764554857984000♠0.764554857984 m3
1 acre-foot (acre ft) 7004435600000000000♠43560 cu ft
7003161333300000000♠1613.333 cu yd 7003123348183754752♠1.23348183754752 ML
7003123348200000000♠1233.482 m3
The cubic inch, cubic foot and cubic yard are commonly used for measuring volume. In addition, there is one group of units for measuring volumes of liquids, and one for measuring volumes of dry material.
Other than the cubic inch, cubic foot and cubic yard, these units are differently sized from the units in the imperial system, although the names of the units are similar. Also, while the U.S. has separate systems for measuring the volumes of liquids and dry material, the imperial system has one set of units for both.
Fluid volume[edit]
Liquid volume
Most common measures shown in italic font
Exact conversions in bold font
Unit
Divisions
SI equivalent
1 minim (min) ~1 drop or 0.95 grain of water 6992616115199218750♠61.611519921875 μL
1 US fluid dram (fl dr) 60 min 6994369669119531250♠3.6966911953125 mL
1 teaspoon (tsp) 80 min 6994492892159374999♠4.92892159375 mL
1 tablespoon (Tbsp) 3 tsp or 4 fl dr 6995147867647812500♠14.78676478125 mL
1 US fluid ounce (fl oz) 2 Tbsp or 1.0408 oz av of water 6995295735295625000♠29.5735295625 mL
1 US shot (jig) 1.5 fl oz or 3 Tbsp 6995443602943437500♠44.36029434375 mL
1 US gill (gi) 22⁄3 jig or 4 fl oz 6996118294118249999♠118.29411825 mL
1 US cup (cp) 2 gi or 8 fl oz 6996236588236499999♠236.5882365 mL
1 (liquid) US pint (pt) 2 cp or 16.65 oz av of water 6996473176472999999♠473.176473 mL
1 (liquid) US quart (qt) 2 pt 6996946352946000000♠0.946352946 L
1 (liquid) US gallon (gal) 4 qt or 231 cu in 6997378541178400000♠3.785411784 L
1 (liquid) barrel (bbl) 31.5 gal or 1⁄2 hogshead 6999119240471196000♠119.240471196 L
1 oil barrel (bbl) 11⁄3 (liquid) barrel or 42 gal or 2⁄3 hogshead 6999158987294928000♠158.987294928 L
1 hogshead 1.5 oil barrels or 63 gal or 7000842187500000000♠8.421875 cu ft
or 524.7 lb of water 6999238480942392000♠238.480942392 L
One US fluid ounce is 1⁄16 of a US pint, 1⁄32 of a US quart, and 1⁄128 of a US gallon. The teaspoon, tablespoon, and cup are defined in terms of a fluid ounce as  1⁄6, 1⁄2, and 8 fluid ounces. The fluid ounce derives its name originally from being the volume of one ounce avoirdupois of water, but in the US it is defined as 1⁄128 of a US gallon. Consequently, a fluid ounce of water weighs about 1.041 ounces avoirdupois.
The saying "a pint's a pound the world around" refers to 16 US fluid ounces of water weighing approximately (about 4% more than) one pound avoirdupois. An imperial pint of water weighs a pound and a quarter (20 oz).
A 23.7 US fl oz (700 mL) bottle displaying both US and metric units.
There are varying standards for barrel for some specific commodities, including 31 gal for beer, 40 gal for whiskey or kerosene, and 42 gal for petroleum. The general standard for liquids is 31.5 gal or half a hogshead. The common 55 gallon size of drum for storing and transporting various products and wastes is sometimes confused with a barrel, though it is not a standard measure.
In the U.S., single servings of beverages are usually measured in fluid ounces. Milk is usually sold in half pints (8 fluid ounces), pints, quarts, half gallons, and gallons. Water volume for sinks, bathtubs, ponds, swimming pools, etc., is usually stated in gallons or cubic feet. Quantities of gases are usually given in cubic feet (at one atmosphere).
Minims, drams and gill are rarely used currently. The gill is often referred to as a "half-cup".
Dry volume[edit]
Dry volume[14]
Unit
Divisions
SI equivalent
1 (dry) pint (pt) 7001336003125000000♠33.6003125 cu in 6996550610471357500♠0.5506104713575 L
1 (dry) quart (qt) 2 pt 6997110122100000000♠1.101221 L
1 (dry) gallon (gal) 4 qt 6997440488400000000♠4.404884 L
1 peck (pk) 2 gal 6997880976800000000♠8.809768 L
1 bushel (bu) 4 pk 6998352390701668800♠35.23907016688 L
1 (dry) barrel (bbl) 7003705600000000000♠7056 cu in or 6997994242424242424♠3.281 bu 6999115627100000000♠115.6271 L
Dry volume is measured on a separate system, although many of the names remain the same. Small fruits and vegetables are often sold in dry pints and dry quarts. The US dry gallon is less commonly used, and was not included in the handbook that many states recognize as the authority on measurement law.[14][15] However pecks, or bushels are sometimes used—particularly for grapes, apples and similar fruits in agricultural regions.
Units of weight and mass[edit]
Main articles: Pound (force) and Pound (mass)
Conversions
Type
Unit
Divisions
SI equivalent
Avoirdupois
1 grain (gr) 1⁄7000 lb 6995647989100000000♠64.79891 mg
1 dram (dr) 27 11⁄32 gr or 8.859 carats 6997177184519531250♠1.7718451953125 g
1 ounce (oz) 16 dr 6998283495231250000♠28.349523125 g
1 pound (lb) 16 oz 6999453592370000000♠453.59237 g
1 US hundredweight (cwt) 100 lb 7001453592370000000♠45.359237 kg
1 long hundredweight 112 lb 7001508023454400000♠50.80234544 kg
1 ton (short ton) 20 US cwt or 2000 lb 7002907184740000000♠907.18474 kg
1 long ton 20 long cwt or 2240 lb 7003101604690880000♠1016.0469088 kg
Troy
1 grain (gr) 1⁄7000 lb or 1⁄5760 lb t 6995647989100000000♠64.79891 mg
1 pennyweight (dwt) 24 gr or 7.776 carats 6997155517384000000♠1.55517384 g
1 troy ounce (oz t) 20 dwt 6998311034768000000♠31.1034768 g
1 troy pound (lb t) 12 oz t or 13.17 oz 6999373241721600000♠373.2417216 g
Most common measures shown in italics
Exact conversions shown in bold
There have historically been five different English systems of mass: tower, apothecaries', troy, avoirdupois, and metric. Of these, the avoirdupois weight is the most common system used in the U.S., although Troy weight is still used to weigh precious metals. Apothecaries weight—once used by pharmacies—has been largely replaced by metric measurements. Tower weight fell out of use in England (due to legal prohibition in 1527) centuries ago, and was never used in the U.S. The imperial system, which is still used for some measures in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, is based on avoirdupois, with variations from U.S. customary units larger than a pound.
The pound avoirdupois, which forms the basis of the U.S. customary system of mass, is defined as exactly 7002453592370000000♠453.59237 grams by agreement between the U.S., the United Kingdom, and other English-speaking countries in 1959. Other units of mass are defined in terms of it.
The avoirdupois pound is legally defined as a measure of mass,[16] but the name pound is also applied to measures of force. For instance, in many contexts, the pound avoirdupois is used as a unit of mass, but in some contexts, the term "pound" is used to refer to "pound-force". The slug is another unit of mass derived from pound-force.
Troy weight, avoirdupois weight, and apothecaries' weight are all built from the same basic unit, the grain, which is the same in all three systems. However, while each system has some overlap in the names of their units of measure (all have ounces and pounds), the relationship between the grain and these other units within each system varies. For example, in apothecary and troy weight, the pound and ounce are the same, but are different from the pound and ounce in avoirdupois in terms of their relationships to grains and to each other. The systems also have different units between the grain and ounce (apothecaries' has scruple and dram, troy has pennyweight, and avoirdupois has just dram, sometimes spelled drachm). The dram in avoirdupois weighs just under half of the dram in apothecaries'. The fluid dram unit of volume is based on the weight of 1 dram of water in the apothecaries' system.
To alleviate confusion, it is typical when publishing non-avoirdupois weights to mention the name of the system along with the unit. Precious metals, for example, are often weighed in "troy ounces", because just "ounce" would be more likely to be assumed to mean an avoirdupois ounce.
For the pound and smaller units, the U.S. customary system and the British imperial system are identical. However, they differ when dealing with units larger than the pound. The definition of the pound avoirdupois in the imperial system is identical to that in the U.S. customary system.
In the U.S., only the ounce, pound and short ton – known in the country simply as the ton – are commonly used, though the hundredweight is still used in agriculture and shipping. The grain is used to describe the mass of propellant and projectiles in small arms ammunition. It was also used to measure medicine and other very small masses.
Grain measures[edit]
In agricultural practice, a bushel is a fixed volume of 2150.42 cubic inches. The mass of grain will therefore vary according to density. Some nominal weight examples are:-[citation needed]
1 bushel (corn) = 56 lb = 25.4012 kg
1 bushel (wheat) = 60 lb = 27.2155 kg
1 bushel (barley) = 48 lb = 21.7724 kg
In trade terms a bushel is a term used to refer to these nominal weights, although even this varies. With oats, Canada uses 34 lb bushels and the USA uses 32 lb bushels.[citation needed]
Cooking measures[edit]
Main article: Cooking weights and measures
Common volume measures in English-speaking countries
(Comparable measures listed for comparison purposes.)
Measure
Australia
Canada
UK
US
US FDA[17]
Teaspoon 5 mL 5 mL 4.74 mL 4.93 mL 5 mL
Dessertspoon 10 mL — 9.47 mL — —
Tablespoon 20 mL 15 mL 14.21 mL 14.79 mL 15 mL
Fluid ounce — — 28.41 mL 29.57 mL 30 mL
Cup 250 mL 250 mL 284.13 mL 236.59 mL 240 mL
Pint — — 568.26 mL 473.18 mL —
Quart — — 1136.52 mL 946.35 mL —
Gallon — — 4546.09 mL 3785.41 mL —
The most common practical cooking measures for both liquid and dry ingredients in the U.S. (and many other countries) are the teaspoon, tablespoon, and cup, along with halves, thirds, quarters, and eighths of these. Pounds, ounces, fluid ounces, and common sizes are also used, such as can (presumed size varies depending on product), jar, square (e.g., 1 oz of chocolate), stick (e.g., 4 oz butter), or fruit/vegetable (e.g., a half lemon, two medium onions).[citation needed]
Units of temperature[edit]
Degrees Fahrenheit are used in the U.S. to measure temperatures in most non-scientific contexts. The Rankine scale of absolute temperature also saw some use in thermodynamics. Scientists worldwide use the kelvin and degree Celsius. Several U.S. technical standards are expressed in Fahrenheit temperatures and American medical practitioners often use degrees Fahrenheit for body temperature.
The relationship between the different temperature scales is linear but the scales have different zero points, so conversion is not simply multiplication by a factor. Pure water freezes at 32 °F = 0 °C and boils at 212 °F = 100 °C at 1 atm. The conversion formula is:
[ ∘ F ] = 9 5 [ ∘ C ] + 32 {\displaystyle [^{\circ }{\text{F}}]={\frac {9}{5}}[^{\circ }{\text{C}}]+32} or inversely as [ ∘ C ] = 5 9 ( [ ∘ F ] − 32 ) {\displaystyle [^{\circ }{\text{C}}]={\frac {5}{9}}([^{\circ }{\text{F}}]-32)} .
Other units[edit]
1 board-foot = 1 ft × 1 ft × 1 in = 6997236000000000000♠2.360 dm3
1 British thermal unit (Btu) ≈ 1055 J
1 ton of refrigeration (12,000 Btu/h) = 3.517 kW
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 J
1 food calorie (kilocalorie, large calorie) (kcal, Cal) = 4.184 kJ
1 foot-pound (energy) ≈ 1.356 J
1 hand = 4 in = 10.16 cm
1 horsepower ≈ 745.7 W
1 R-value (ft2⋅°F⋅h/Btu) ≈ 0.1761 RSI (K⋅m2/W)
1 slug = 1 lbf⋅s2/ft
1 U (rack unit) = 1.75 in = 44.45 mm
Various combination units are in common use, including the foot-pound (ft⋅lbf), the acre-foot, and the pound per square inch (psi); these are straightforwardly defined based on the above basic units.
Sizing systems are used for various items in commerce, several of which are U.S.-specific:
US standard clothing size
American wire gauge is used for most metal wire.
Scoop (utensil) sizes, numbered by scoops per quart
Thickness of leather is measured in ounces, 1 oz equals 1/64 inch (0.4 mm).[18]
Bolts and screws follow the Unified Thread Standard rather than the ISO metric screw thread standard.
Knitting needles in the United States are measured according to a non-linear unitless numerical system.
Aluminium foil is measured in mils (1/100th of an inch, or 0.0254 mm) in the United States.
Cross-sectional area of electrical wire is measured in Circular mils in the U.S. and Canada, one circular mil (cmil) being equal to 6990506700000000000♠5.067×10−4 mm2 (or 6990506708663999999♠7.854×10−7 in2). Since this is so small, actual wire is commonly measured in thousands of a cmil, called either kcmil or MCM.
The mil or thou is also sometimes used to mean thousandth of an inch.
Sheet metal in the U.S. is commonly measured in gauge (not to be confused with the American wire gauge), which is derived from weight and thus differs by material.
Nominal Pipe Size is used for the outside diameter of pipes. Below NPS14, the NPS number is not consistent with the pipe diameter in inches.
Copper tubing, however, is measured in nominal size, 1/8 inch less than the outside diameter.
The Schedule system is used for standard pipe thicknesses.
Alcohol content is frequently given in proof.
The cord is used for volume of firewood.
The square is used to mean 100 square feet in construction.
Heat flux in the U.S. is measured in Langleys.
Other names for U.S. customary units[edit]
The United States Code refers to these units as "traditional systems of weights and measures".[19]
Other common ways of referring to the system in the U.S. are: "Standard", "Customary", or, erroneously: "Imperial", or "English" (which refers to the post-1824 reform measures used throughout the British Empire). Another term is the foot–pound–second (FPS) system, as opposed to centimeter–gram–second (CGS) and meter–kilogram–second (MKS) systems.
Tools and fasteners with sizes measured in inches are sometimes called "SAE bolts" or "SAE wrenches" to differentiate them from their metric counterparts. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) originally developed fasteners standards using U.S. units for the U.S. auto industry; the organization now uses metric units.[20]
See also[edit]
Acre-foot
Board foot
Conversion of units
Cord (unit)
Fahrenheit (vs. Celsius vs. Kelvin)
History of measurement, systems, and units of measurement
Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States (1790)
Mars Climate Orbiter
Standard cubic foot
References[edit]
Jump up ^ T.C. Mendenhall, Superintendent of Standard Weights and Measures. Order of April 5, 1893 Archived September 30, 2012, at the Wayback Machine., published as Appendix 6 to the Report for 1893 of the Coast and Geodetic Survey.
^ Jump up to: a b c Astin, A.V., Karo, H.A. and Mueller, F.H. (June 25, 1959). Doc 59-5442, "Refinement of Values for the Yard and the Pound." Federal Register. When reading the document note that 999,998 = 3937 × 254.
Jump up ^ Laws and Metric Program. U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2010
Jump up ^ "English units of measurement". The Columbia Encyclopedia 6th ed. 2001-2007. archived copy.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gardner, Martin (1957). "The Great Pyramid".
^ Jump up to: a b "Appendix G - Weights and Measures". The World Factbook. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved August 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ Robyn Williams (February 8, 1998) "Trouble with the Metric System". Australian Radio National, Ockham's Razor.
Jump up ^ Ed Tenner, (May 2005). "The Trouble with the Meter" Technologyreview.com
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Roberts, R.W. (February 3, 1975). Federal Register republished in Barbrow, L.E. and Judson, L. V. (1976) Weights and Measures of the United States. National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 447. p. 36
^ Jump up to: a b c "Frequently Asked Questions about the National Geodetic Survey". National Geodetic Survey. Retrieved May 16, 2009. |contribution= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ Astin, A. V. (July 27, 1968). Federal Register Archived 2006-10-05 at the Wayback Machine.. Republished in Barbrow, L.E and Judson, L.V. Weights and Measures of the United States: A Brief History. National Bureau of Standards Special Publication 447. pp. 34–35.
Jump up ^ National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI).
Jump up ^ The recommended symbol for the liter in the United States is 'L' per National Institute of Standards and Technology. (1995.) Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). Special Publication 811.
^ Jump up to: a b 101st Conference on Weights and Measures 2016. (2017). Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices. National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. C-6, C-11, C-16.
Jump up ^ Summary of State Laws and Regulations in Weights and Measures Archived December 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.. (2005) National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Jump up ^ NIST Handbook 44, Appendix C, General Tables of Units of Measurement, page C-6 Avoirdupois Units of Mass Archived 2011-10-18 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Title 21, 101.9 Nutrition labeling of food" (PDF). Code of Federal Regulations. US Government Printing Office. 2012-04-12. Retrieved 2014-11-02. For nutrition labeling purposes, a teaspoon means 5 milliliters (mL), a tablespoon means 15 mL, a cup means 240 mL, 1 fl oz means 30 mL, and 1 oz in weight means 28 g.
Jump up ^ Wells, Larry J. (1981). Makin' Leather: A Manual of Primitive and Modern Leather Skills. Cedar Fort. p. 13. ISBN 0882908359.
Jump up ^ 15 U.S.C. § 205b
Jump up ^ "Rules for SAE Use of SI (Metric) Units" (PDF). Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. May 1999. Retrieved July 2012. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
External links[edit]
Rowlett's A Dictionary of Units of Measurement
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