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Valles Marineris
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Valles Marineris
Valles Marineris stretches over 4,000 km (2,500 mi) across Mars, mostly east-west just below the equator, as seen in this Viking 1 orbiter image mosaic. The three Tharsis Montes are at left; towards the top, an ancient outflow channel stretches northward from Echus Chasma to Kasei Valles. Similar outflow channels extend from the east end of Valles Marineris towards Mars's northern lowlands.
Coordinates
13°54′S 59°12′W / 13.9°S 59.2°W / -13.9; -59.2Coordinates: 13°54′S 59°12′W / 13.9°S 59.2°W / -13.9; -59.2
Length
over 4,000 km (2,500 mi)
Naming
Mariner 9
Valles Marineris (Latin for Mariner Valleys, named after the Mariner 9 Mars orbiter of 1971–72 which discovered it) is a system of canyons that runs along the Martian surface east of the Tharsis region.[1] At more than 4,000 km (2,500 mi) long, 200 km (120 mi) wide and up to 7 km (23,000 ft) deep,[2][3] Valles Marineris is one of the largest canyons of the Solar System, surpassed in length only by the rift valleys of Earth.
Valles Marineris is located along the equator of Mars, on the east side of the Tharsis Bulge, and stretches for nearly a quarter of the planet’s circumference. The canyon system starts in the west with Noctis Labyrinthus; proceeding to the east are Tithonium and Ius chasmata, then Melas, Candor and Ophir chasmata, then Coprates Chasma, then Ganges, Capri and Eos chasmata; finally it empties into an outflow channel region containing chaotic terrain that ends in the basin of Chryse Planitia.
It has been recently suggested that Valles Marineris is a large tectonic "crack" in the Martian crust.[4][5] Most researchers agree that this formed as the crust thickened in the Tharsis region to the west, and was subsequently widened by erosion.[citation needed] Near the eastern flanks of the rift, there appear to be channels that may have been formed by water or carbon dioxide. It has also been proposed that Valles Marineris is a large channel formed by the erosion of lava flowing from the flank of Pavonis Mons.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Formation
2 Regions of Valles Marineris
2.1 Noctis Labyrinthus
2.2 Ius and Tithonium chasmata
2.3 Melas, Candor and Ophir chasmata
2.4 Coprates Chasma
2.5 Eos and Ganges chasmata
2.6 Chryse region
3 Interactive Mars map
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Formation[edit]
Valles Marineris topographic view constructed from MOLA altimetry data. Image shows Coprates Chasma, with Melas Chasma at the top, Candor Chasma at top right, and part of Capri Chasma at the bottom
Topographic map of Valles Marineris with its associated outflow channels and their surroundings, based on MOLA altimetry data
There have been many different theories about the formation of Valles Marineris that have changed over the years.[7] Ideas in the 1970s were erosion by water or thermokarst activity, which is the melting of permafrost in glacial climes. Thermokarst activity may contribute, but erosion by water is a problematic mechanism because liquid water cannot exist in most current Martian surface conditions, which typically experience about 1% of Earth’s atmospheric pressure and a temperature range of 148 K (−125 °C; −193 °F) to 310 K (37 °C; 98 °F). Many scientists agree that there was liquid water flowing on the Martian surface in the past. Valles Marineris may have been enlarged by flowing water at this time. Another hypothesis by McCauley in 1972 was that the canyons formed by withdrawal of subsurface magma. Around 1989 Tanaka and Golombek proposed a theory of formation by tensional fracturing. The most agreed upon theory today is that Valles Marineris was formed by rift faults like the East African Rift, later made bigger by erosion and collapsing of the rift walls. It has also been proposed that Valles Marineris was formed by flowing lava.
The formation of Valles Marineris is thought to be closely tied with the formation of the Tharsis Bulge. The Tharsis Bulge was formed from the Noachian to Late Hesperian period of Mars, in three stages. The first stage consisted of a combination of volcanism and isostatic uplift; soon, however, the volcanism loaded the crust to a point at which the crust could no longer support the added weight of Tharsis, leading to widespread graben formation in the elevated regions of Tharsis. Stage two consisted of more volcanism and a loss of isostatic equilibrium; the source regions of the volcanism no longer resided underneath Tharsis, creating a very large load. Finally, the crust failed to hold up Tharsis and radial fractures formed, including at Valles Marineris. Stage three mainly consisted of more volcanism and asteroid impacts. The crust, having already reached its failure point, just stayed in place and younger volcanoes formed. Tharsis volcanism involved very low viscosity magma, forming shield volcanoes similar to those of the Hawaiian Island chain, but, because there is minor or no current active plate tectonics on Mars, the hotspot activity led to very long histories of repeated volcanic eruptions at the same spots, creating some of the largest volcanoes in the solar system, including the biggest, Olympus Mons.[8]
Landslides have left numerous deposits on the floor of Valles Marineris and contributed to widening it. Possible triggers of landslides are quakes caused by tectonic activity or impact events. Both types of events release seismic waves that accelerate the ground at and below the surface. Mars is much less tectonically active than Earth, and Mars-quakes are unlikely to have provided seismic waves of the required magnitude.[9] Most sizable craters on Mars date to the Late Heavy Bombardment, 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago (the Noachian period), and are older than the landslide deposits in Valles Marineris. However, three craters (including the crater Oudemans) have been identified, on the basis of their proximity and later dates, as ones whose formation may have caused some of the landslides.[9]
Valles Marineris in mosaic of Viking orbiter images, with Noctis Labyrinthus at the left, Melas Chasma in the middle, Hebes Chasma just left of top center, Eos Chasma at lower right and Ganges Chasma just above center right
Valles Marineris in mosaic of THEMIS infrared images from 2001 Mars Odyssey
Regions of Valles Marineris[edit]
Valles Marineris with major features labeled.
Noctis Labyrinthus[edit]
Morning water ice fog spills out of Noctis Labyrinthus (Viking 1 orbiter image)
Noctis Labyrinthus, on the western edge of the Valles Marineris Rift System, north of the Syria Planum and east of Pavonis Mons, is a jumbled terrain composed of huge blocks which are heavily fractured. Also it contains canyons that run in different directions surrounding large blocks of older terrain. Most of the upper parts of the blocks are composed of younger fractured material thought to be of volcanic origin associated with the Tharsis bulge. The other tops are composed of older fractured material thought also to be volcanic in origin, but differentiated from the younger material by more ruggedness and more impact craters. The sides of the blocks are composed of undivided material thought to be basement rock. The space between the blocks is composed mainly of either rough or smooth floor material. The rough floor material tends to be in the eastern portion of the Noctis Labyrinthus and is thought to be debris from the walls or maybe eolian features covering rough topography and landslides. The smooth floor material is thought to be composed of fluvial or basaltic material and/or eolian features covering an otherwise rough and jumbled terrain.[10] Terrains such as Noctis Labyrinthus are commonly found at the head of outflow channels, like the one explored by the Pathfinder mission and its Sojourner rover. They are interpreted to be a place of downward block faulting associated with the removal of ground fluid in catastrophic flood sequences.[11] The fluid could be either carbon-dioxide ice and gas, water or lava. The hypothesis of lava involvement is associated with a proposal that Noctis Labyrinthus is directly connected to lava tubes on the slope of Pavonis Mons.[6]
Part of Noctis Labyrinthus taken with Mars Global Surveyor.
Layers in the wall of Noctis Labyrinthus taken with Mars Global Surveyor, under the MOC Public Targeting Program.
Section of layers near top of Noctis Labyrinthus, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.
Group of layers near the bottom of Noctis Labyrinthus, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.
Wide view of cliff with layers in Noctis Labyrinthus.
Close-up of part of previous image of layers in Noctis Labyrinthus, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.
Close-up of complex, dark dunes in the previous image of the floor of Noctis Labyrinthus, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.
Close-up of some layers in wall of Noctis Labyrinthus, as seen by HiRISE under the HiWish program.
Ius and Tithonium chasmata[edit]
Ius Chasma image mosaic from 2001 Mars Odyssey, showing side canyons created by sapping. On the northern (upper) rim, right of center, a side canyon turns 90 degrees where it encounters a graben.
Further to the east from Oudemans, Ius and Tithonium chasmata are located parallel to each other, Ius to the south and Tithonium to the north. Ius is the wider of the two, leading to Melas Chasma. Ius has a ridge down the center of it by the name of Geryon Montes, composed of the undivided basement rock. The floor of Ius Chasma is mostly composed of pristine landslide material, not much degraded by cratering or erosion. The southern wall of Ius, and to a lesser extent the northern wall, has many short valleys stretching off roughly perpendicular to the line of the chasmas. These valleys have a stubby theater-headed leading edge very much like features seen on the Colorado Plateau near the Grand Canyon that appear from groundwater sapping. (Theater-headed means that, from above, the head of the valley is a well-defined U-shape). The valley is propagated by the continued erosion and the collapse of the wall.[12] Tithonium Chasma is very similar to Ius, except it is lacking the sapping features on the south side and contains a small portion of material that is similar to the smooth floor features except that it appears to be an ash fall that has been eroded by the wind. Between the two canyons, the surface is composed of younger fractured material - lava flows and faults from crustal extension of the Tharsis Bulge.[10]
Melas, Candor and Ophir chasmata[edit]
Ophir Chasma THEMIS mosaic
The next portion of Valles Marineris to the east are three chasmata, that from south to north are Melas, Candor and Ophir chasmata. Melas is east of Ius, Candor is east of Tithonium and Ophir appears as an oval that runs into Candor. All three chasmata are connected. The floor of Melas Chasma is about 70% younger massive material that is thought to be volcanic ash whipped up by the wind into eolian features. It also contains rough floor material from the erosion of the canyon walls. Also, in these central chasmata there is a portion of the floor that is higher than the rest of the floor, most likely left by the continued dropping of the other floor material. Around the edges of Melas is also a lot of slide material as seen in Ius and Tithonium chasmata.[10] This is also the deepest part of the Valles Marineris system at 11 km (36,000 ft) below the surrounding surface; from here the outflow channels are about a 0.03 degree slope upward to the northern plains, which means that if you filled the canyon with fluid, it would be a lake with a depth of 1 km (3,300 ft) before the fluid would flow out onto the northern plains.[13]
The material of the floor of the canyon system between Candor and Melas chasmata is grooved. This is interpreted to be alluvial deposits and/or material that has collapsed or contracted by the removal of ice or water. There are also portions of older and younger massive floor material of volcaniclastic origin - only separated in age by crater distribution. Also there is etched massive floor material that is like the younger and older massive material except that it has wind erosion features on it. There are also a few spires of undivided material composed of the same material as the canyon walls.[10]
Coprates Chasma[edit]
Seasonal flows on Coprates Chasma in Valles Marineris.
Deposits from landslides moving in opposite directions meet on the canyon floor near the junction of Melas and Coprates chasmata.
Further to the east, the canyon system runs into Coprates Chasma, which is very similar to Ius and Tithonium chasmata. Coprates differs from Ius in the eastern end which contains alluvial deposits and eolian material[10] and like Ius, has layered deposits, although the deposits in the Coprates Chasma are much more well defined. These deposits pre-date the Valles Marineris system, suggesting erosion and sedimentary processes later cut by the Valles Marineris system. Newer data from Mars Global Surveyor suggest that the origin of this layering is either just a succession of landslides, one over another, volcanic in origin, or it may be the bottom of a basin of either liquid or solid water ice suggesting that the peripheral canyons of the Valles Marineris system could have been at one time isolated lakes formed from erosional collapse. Another possible source of the layered deposits could be wind-blown, but the diversity of the layers suggests that this material is not dominant. Note that only the upper layers are thin, while the bottom layers are very big, suggesting that the lower layers were composed of mass wasted rock and the upper layers come from another source.[14] Some of this layering may have been transferred to the floor by landslides in which the layers are kept semi-intact, yet the layered section looks highly deformed with thickening and thinning beds that have multitudes of folds in them as seen in MOC image #8405. This complex terrain could also be just eroded sediment from an ancient Martian lake-bed and appear complex because all that we have is an aerial view like a geologic map and not enough elevation data to see if the beds are horizontal.
A field of more than 100 pitted cones on the floor of Coprates Chasma has been interpreted as a set of small igneous cinder or tuff cones, with associated lava flows. Crater dating indicates they are of Middle to Late Amazonian age, about 200 to 400 million years old.[15][16]
Eos and Ganges chasmata[edit]
Rim of Ganges chasma, closeup showing stratigraphy and small landslides.
Further to the east lie Eos and Ganges chasmata. Eos Chasma’s western floor is mainly composed of an etched massive material composed of either volcanic or eolian deposits later eroded by the Martian wind. The eastern end of the Eos chasma has a large area of streamlined bars and longitudinal striations. This is interpreted to be stream-carved plateau deposits and material transported and deposited by flowing fluid. Gangis Chasma is an offshoot chasma of Eos in a general east-west trend. The floor of Gangis is mainly composed of alluvial deposits from the canyon walls.[10]
Chryse region[edit]
East of Eos and Ganges, Valles Marineris empties out into the Chryse region of the northern plains of Mars at an elevation only 1 km (3,300 ft) above the deepest point of Valles Marineris in Melas Chasma. The outflow regions of the northern plains are similar to the terrain seen at the Mars Pathfinder landing site. A terrestrial counterpart of these outflow channels on Earth would be the scablands of eastern Washington. The eastern Washington scablands are a result of repeated catastrophic flooding due to the build-up of an ice dam at the head of Lake Missoula in the Late Pleistocene. The ice dam would block the water for a while, but when it broke, the ice would float on top of the ensuing flood and vast areas would be stripped of topsoil and vegetation, leaving a large barren area of 'teardrop' islands, longitudinal grooves and terraced margins. Many of these features are also seen in Martian outflow channels, but on a larger scale.[17]
The outflow occurs successively through several regions of chaotic terrain, Aurorae Chaos and Hydraotes Chaos, and finally through Simud Valles and Tiu Valles into Chryse Planitia.[11][18]
Interactive Mars map[edit]
Interactive imagemap of the global topography of Mars. Hover your mouse to see the names of over 25 prominent geographic features, and click to link to them. Coloring of the base map indicates relative elevations, based on data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter on NASA's Mars Global Surveyor. Reds and pinks are higher elevation (+3 km to +8 km); yellow is 0 km; greens and blues are lower elevation (down to −8 km). Whites (>+12 km) and browns (>+8 km) are the highest elevations. Axes are latitude and longitude; Poles are not shown.
(See also: Mars Rovers map) (view • discuss)

See also[edit]
Geography of Mars
Lakes on Mars
Vallis
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Valles Marineris". Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. USGS Astrogeology Science Center. Retrieved 2015-02-28. External link in |work= (help)
Jump up ^ "Vallis Marineris". Goddard Space Flight Center. NASA. 2002. Archived from the original on 2007-07-11. Retrieved 2018-01-22.
Jump up ^ "Valles Marineris". Welcome to the Planets. NASA. 2005. Retrieved 2018-01-22.
Jump up ^ Wolpert, Stuart (2012-08-09). "UCLA scientist discovers plate tectonics on Mars". UCLA. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
Jump up ^ Lin, An (2012-06-04). "Structural analysis of the Valles Marineris fault zone: Possible evidence for large-scale strike-slip faulting on Mars". Lithosphere. 4 (4): 286–330. doi:10.1130/L192.1. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Leone, Giovanni (2014-05-01). "A network of lava tubes as the origin of Labyrinthus Noctis and Valles Marineris on Mars". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 277: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.01.011.
Jump up ^ Cabrol, N. and E. Grin (eds.). 2010. Lakes on Mars. Elsevier. NY
Jump up ^ Cattermole, Peter; Mars: The Mystery Unfolds; Terra Publishing; 2001. p. 103-104
^ Jump up to: a b Akers, C.; Schedl, A. D.; Mundy, L. (2012). "What Caused the Landslides in Valles Marineris, Mars?" (PDF). 43rd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. p. 1932. Retrieved 2013-02-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Witbeck, Tanaka and Scott, Geologic Map of the Valles Marineris Region, Mars; USGS I-2010; 1991.
^ Jump up to: a b Rodriguez, J. Alexis P.; Kargel, Jeffrey S.; Baker, Victor R.; Gulick, Virginia C.; et al. (8 September 2015). "Martian outflow channels: How did their source aquifers form, and why did they drain so rapidly?". Nature - Scientific Reports. 5. doi:10.1038/srep13404. Retrieved 2015-09-12.
Jump up ^ Howard, Kochel and Holt; Sapping Features of the Colorado Plateau: A Comparative Planetary Geology Field Guide; NASA; 1988.
Jump up ^ Cattermole, 105
Jump up ^ Cattermole 113-114
Jump up ^ "Recent volcanic activity and hydrothermal minerals on Mars". Czech Academy of Sciences. 2017-07-19. Retrieved 2017-07-27.
Jump up ^ Brož, P.; Hauber, E.; Wray, J. J.; Michael, G. (2017). "Amazonian volcanism inside Valles Marineris on Mars". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 473: 122–130. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.06.003.
Jump up ^ Cattermole, 126
Jump up ^ United States Geological Survey Mars topographic map with feature names
References[edit]
Hoffman, Nick; White Mars: A New Model for Mars’ Surface and Atmosphere Based on CO2; Academic Press; 2000.
Malin Space Science Systems Home Page
Malin Space Science Systems, science paper
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Valles Marineris.
Google Video Fly Through (narrated)
Google Mars scrollable map - centered on Valles Marineris
Computer Simulation of a flyby through Mariner Valley on "Maniac World"
NASA/Arizona State University flythrough
Flying around Candor Chasma at an altitude of 100 meters
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Code talker
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 23 April 2018.
Jump to: navigation, search
"Codetalkers" redirects here. For the band, see The Codetalkers.
For the Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain character, see List of characters in the Metal Gear series § Code Talker.
Choctaw soldiers in training in World War I for coded radio and telephone transmissions
Code talkers are people in the 20th century who used obscure languages as a means of secret communication during wartime. The term is now usually associated with the United States service members during the world wars who used their knowledge of Native American languages as a basis to transmit coded messages. In particular, there were approximately 400–500 Native Americans in the United States Marine Corps whose primary job was the transmission of secret tactical messages. Code talkers transmitted these messages over military telephone or radio communications nets using formal or informally developed codes built upon their native languages. Their service improved the speed of encryption of communications at both ends in front line operations during World War II.
The name code talkers is strongly associated with bilingual Navajo speakers specially recruited during World War II by the Marines to serve in their standard communications units in the Pacific Theater. Code talking, however, was pioneered by the Cherokee and Choctaw peoples during World War I.
Other Native American code talkers were deployed by the United States Army during World War II, including Lakota,[1] Meskwaki, and Comanche soldiers. Soldiers of Basque ancestry were also used for code talking by the U.S. Marines during World War II in areas where other Basque speakers were not expected to be operating.
Contents
[hide]
1 Assiniboine code talkers
2 Basque code talkers
3 Cherokee code talkers
4 Choctaw code talkers
5 Comanche code talkers
6 Cree code talkers
7 Meskwaki code talkers
8 Navajo code talkers
9 Nubian code talkers
10 Seminole code talkers
11 Welsh code talkers
12 Wenzhou code talkers
13 Cryptographic properties
14 Post-war recognition
15 Gallery
16 See also
17 Notes
18 References
19 External links
Assiniboine code talkers[edit]
Members of the Assiniboine served as code talkers during World War II, utilizing the Assiniboine language to encrypt communications.[2] The code talkers included Gilbert Horn Sr., who grew up in the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation of Montana and later became a tribal judge and politician.[2]
Basque code talkers[edit]
In November 1952, Euzko Deya magazine [3] reported that in May 1942, upon meeting about 60 U.S. Marines of Basque ancestry in a San Francisco camp, Captain Frank D. Carranza conceived the idea of using the Basque language for codes.[4][5][6] His superiors were wary as there were known settlements of Basque in the Pacific region. There were 35 Basque Jesuits in Hiroshima, led by Pedro Arrupe. In China and the Philippines, there was a colony of Basque jai alai players, and there were Basque supporters of Falange in Asia. The American Basque code talkers were kept away from these theaters; they were initially used in tests and in transmitting logistic information for Hawaii and Australia.
According to Euzko Deya, on August 1, 1942, Lieutenants Nemesio Aguirre, Fernández Bakaicoa and Juanana received a Basque-coded message from San Diego for Admiral Chester Nimitz, warning him of the upcoming Operation Apple to remove the Japanese from the Solomon Islands. They also translated the start date, August 7, for the attack on Guadalcanal. As the war extended over the Pacific, there was a shortage of Basque speakers and the US military came to prefer the parallel program based on the use of Navajo speakers.
In 2017, Pedro Oiarzabal and Guillermo Tabernilla published a study [7] refuting Euzko Deya's article.[8] According to Oiarzabal and Tabernilla, they could not find Carranza, Aguirre, Fernández Bakaicoa or Juanana in the NARA or US Army archives. They find a small number of US Marines with Basque surnames, none of them in transmissions. They suggest that Carranza's story was an OSS operation to raise sympathy for the US intelligence among Basque nationalists.
Cherokee code talkers[edit]
The first known use of Native Americans in the American military to transmit messages under fire was a group of Cherokee troops used by the American 30th Infantry Division serving alongside the British during the Second Battle of the Somme in World War I. According to the Division Signal Officer, this took place in September 1918. Their unit was under British command at the time.[9]
Choctaw code talkers[edit]
Main article: Choctaw code talkers
During World War I, company commander Captain Lawrence of the U.S. Army overheard Solomon Louis and Mitchell Bobb conversing in the Choctaw language. He found eight Choctaw men in the battalion.[10] Eventually, fourteen Choctaw men in the Army's 36th Infantry Division trained to use their language in code. They helped the American Expeditionary Forces win several key battles in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in France, during the final large German push of the war. Within 24 hours of the Choctaw language being pressed into service, the tide of the battle had turned. In less than 72 hours, the Germans were retreating and the Allies were in full attack.[10]
Comanche code talkers[edit]
Comanche code-talkers of the 4th Signal Company (U.S. Army Signal Center and Ft. Gordon)
Hugh F. Foster Jr.'s Comanche codebook
German authorities knew about the use of code talkers during World War I, and sent a team of some thirty anthropologists to the United States to learn Native American languages before the outbreak of World War II,[11] but the task proved too difficult because of the array of languages and dialects; nonetheless the U.S. Army, learning of the Nazi effort, did not implement a large-scale code talker program in the European Theater. Fourteen Comanche code talkers did take part in the Invasion of Normandy, and continued to serve in the 4th Infantry Division in Europe.[12] Comanche of the 4th Signal Company compiled a vocabulary of over 100 code terms using words or phrases in their own language. Using a substitution method similar to the Navajo, the Comanche code word for tank was "turtle", bomber was "pregnant airplane", machine gun was "sewing machine" and Adolf Hitler was referred to as "crazy white man".[13] Two Comanche code-talkers were assigned to each regiment, the rest to 4th Infantry Division headquarters. Shortly after landing on Utah Beach on June 6, 1944, the Comanche began transmitting messages. Some were wounded but none killed.[13]
In 1989, the French government awarded the Comanche code-talkers the Chevalier of the National Order of Merit. On November 30, 1999, the United States Department of Defense presented Charles Chibitty with the Knowlton Award.[13][14]
Cree code talkers[edit]
In the World War II, native Cree speakers were used as code talkers for the Canadian Armed Forces. Due to oaths of secrecy, and official classification through 1963, the role of Cree speakers has gone unacknowledged by the Canadian government.[15] A 2015 documentary, Cree Code Talkers, tells the story of one such Métis individual, Charles "Checker" Tomkins, who died in 2003.[16]
Meskwaki code talkers[edit]
Meskwaki men used their language against the Germans while fighting in the US Army in North Africa. 27 out of then 168 Meskwaki in Iowa enlisted in the U.S. Army together in January 1941.[17]
Navajo code talkers[edit]
Alphabets (English)
Code Language (English)
Code Language (Navajo)
Modern spelling
A Ant Wol-la-chee Wóláchííʼ
B Bear Shush Shash
C Cat Moasi Mósí
D Deer Be Bįįh
E Elk Dzeh Dzeeh
F Fox Ma-e Mąʼii
G Goat Klizzie Tłʼízí
H Horse Lin Łį́į́ʼ
I Ice Tkin Tin
J Jackass Tkele-cho-gi Téliichoʼí
K Kid Klizzie-yazzi Tłʼízí yázhí
L Lamb Dibeh-yazzi Dibé yázhí
M Mouse Na-as-tso-si Naʼastsʼǫǫsí
N Nut Nesh-chee Neeshchʼííʼ
O Owl Ne-ash-jah Néʼéshjaaʼ
P Pig Bi-sodih Bisóodi
Q Quiver Ca-yeilth kʼaaʼ yeiłtįįh
R Rabbit Gah Gah
S Sheep Dibeh Dibé
T Turkey Than-zie Tązhii
U Ute No-da-ih Nóódaʼí
V Victor a-keh-di-glini Akʼehdidlíní
W Weasel Gloe-ih Dlǫ́ʼii
X Cross Al-an-as-dzoh Ałnáʼázdzoh
Y Yucca Tsah-as-zih Tsáʼásziʼ
Z Zinc Besh-do-gliz Béésh dootłʼizh
Philip Johnston, a civil engineer for the city of Los Angeles,[18] proposed the use of Navajo to the United States Marine Corps at the beginning of World War II. Johnston, a World War I veteran, was raised on the Navajo reservation as the son of a missionary to the Navajo. He was one of the few non-Navajo who spoke the language fluently.
Because Navajo has a complex grammar, it is not nearly mutually intelligible enough with even its closest relatives within the Na-Dene family to provide meaningful information. It was still an unwritten language, and Johnston thought Navajo could satisfy the military requirement for an undecipherable code. Navajo was spoken only on the Navajo lands of the American Southwest. Its syntax and tonal qualities, not to mention dialects, made it unintelligible to anyone without extensive exposure and training. One estimate indicates that at the outbreak of World War II, fewer than 30 non-Navajo could understand the language.[19]
Page one of Navajo recommendation letter, 1942
Page two of Navajo recommendation letter, 1942
Code Talkers Monument Ocala, Florida Memorial Park
Early in 1942, Johnston met with Major General Clayton B. Vogel, the commanding general of Amphibious Corps, Pacific Fleet, and his staff. Johnston staged tests under simulated combat conditions which demonstrated that Navajo men could encode, transmit, and decode a three-line English message in 20 seconds, versus the 30 minutes required by machines at that time. The idea was accepted, with Vogel recommending that the Marines recruit 200 Navajo. The first 29 Navajo recruits attended boot camp in May 1942. This first group created the Navajo code at Camp Pendleton, Oceanside, California.[20]
The Navajo code was formally developed and modeled on the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet that uses agreed-upon English words to represent letters. The Navajo Code Talkers were mainly Marines. As it was determined that phonetically spelling out all military terms letter by letter into words—while in combat—would be too time-consuming, some terms, concepts, tactics and instruments of modern warfare were given uniquely formal descriptive nomenclatures in Navajo (for example, the word for "shark" being used to refer to a destroyer, or "silver oak leaf" to the rank of lieutenant colonel).[21]
A codebook was developed to teach the many relevant words and concepts to new initiates. The text was for classroom purposes only, and was never to be taken into the field. The code talkers memorized all these variations and practiced their rapid use under stressful conditions during training. Uninitiated Navajo speakers would have no idea what the code talkers' messages meant; they would hear only truncated and disjointed strings of individual, unrelated nouns and verbs.
The Navajo code talkers were commended for the skill, speed, and accuracy they demonstrated throughout the war. At the Battle of Iwo Jima, Major Howard Connor, 5th Marine Division signal officer, had six Navajo code talkers working around the clock during the first two days of the battle. These six sent and received over 800 messages, all without error. Connor later stated, "Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima."[20]
To ensure a consistent use of code terminologies throughout the Pacific Theater, representative code talkers of each of the U.S. Marine divisions met in Hawaii to discuss shortcomings in the code, incorporate new terms into the system, and update their codebooks. These representatives in turn trained other code talkers who could not attend the meeting. As the war progressed, additional code words were added and incorporated program-wide. In other instances, informal shortcut code words were devised for a particular campaign and not disseminated beyond the area of operation. Examples of code words include the Navajo word for buzzard, jeeshóóʼ, which was used for bomber, while the code word used for submarine, béésh łóóʼ, meant iron fish in Navajo.[22] The last of the original 29 Navajo code talkers who developed the code, Chester Nez, died on June 4, 2014.[23]
The deployment of the Navajo code talkers continued through the Korean War and after, until it was ended early in the Vietnam War. The Navajo code is the only spoken military code never to have been deciphered.[21]
Nubian code talkers[edit]
In the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, Egypt employed Nubian-speaking Nubian people as codetalkers.[24][25][26][27][28]
Seminole code talkers[edit]
The last surviving Seminole code talker, Edmond Harjo of the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, died on March 31, 2014, at the age of 96.[29][30] Harjo had served as far afield as Normandy and the Battle of Iwo Jima during the war.[30] His biography was recounted by Speaker of the United States House of Representatives John Boehner at the Congressional Gold Medal ceremony honoring Harjo and other code talkers at the U.S. Capitol on November 20, 2013.[29][30][31]
Welsh code talkers[edit]
A system employing Welsh was used by British forces, but not to any great extent during World War II. The Royal Air Force had a plan in 1942 to use Welsh for secret communications during World War II, but the plan was not implemented.[32] Welsh was used more recently in the Yugoslav Wars for non-vital messages.[33]
Wenzhou code talkers[edit]
China used Wenzhounese speaking people as code talkers during the 1979 Sino-Vietnamese War.[34][35]
Cryptographic properties[edit]
Navajo code talkers, Saipan, June 1944
Non-speakers would find it extremely difficult to accurately distinguish unfamiliar sounds used in these languages. Additionally, a speaker who has acquired a language during their childhood sounds distinctly different from a person who acquired the same language in later life, thus reducing the chance of successful impostors sending false messages.
Navajo was an attractive choice for code use because few people outside the Navajo had learned to speak the language. Virtually no books in Navajo had been published. Outside of the language, the Navajo spoken code was not very complex by cryptographic standards. It would likely have been broken if a native speaker and trained cryptographers could have worked together effectively. The Japanese had an opportunity to attempt this when they captured Joe Kieyoomia in the Philippines in 1942 during the Bataan Death March. Kieyoomia, a Navajo sergeant in the U.S. Army, but not a code talker, was ordered to interpret the radio messages later in the war. However, since Kieyoomia had not participated in the code training, the messages made no sense to him. When he reported that he could not understand the messages, his captors tortured him.[36] The Japanese Imperial Army and Navy never cracked the spoken code.
Post-war recognition[edit]
The Navajo code talkers received no recognition until the declassification of the operation in 1968.[37] In 1982, the code talkers were given a Certificate of Recognition by U.S. President Ronald Reagan, who also named August 14, 1982, as "Navajo Code Talkers Day".[38][39]
On December 21, 2000, the U.S. Congress passed, and President Bill Clinton signed, Public Law 106-554, 114 Statute 2763, which awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the original 29 World War II Navajo code talkers and Silver Medals to each person who qualified as a Navajo code talker (approximately 300). In July 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush personally presented the Medal to four surviving original code talkers (the fifth living original code talker was not able to attend) at a ceremony held in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C. Gold Medals were presented to the families of the deceased 24 original code talkers.[40][41]
On September 17, 2007, eighteen Choctaw code talkers were posthumously awarded the Texas Medal of Valor from the Adjutant General of the State of Texas for their World War II service.[42]
On November 15, 2008, The Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 (Public Law 110-420), was signed into law by President George W. Bush, which recognizes every Native American code talker who served in the United States military during WWI or WWII (with the exception of the already-awarded Navajo) with a Congressional Gold Medal, designed as distinct for each tribe, with silver duplicates awarded to the individual code talkers or their next-of-kin.[43] As of 2013, 33 tribes have been identified and were honored at a ceremony at Emancipation Hall at the U.S. Capitol Visitor Center. One surviving code talker was present, Edmond Harjo.[44]
On November 27, 2017, three Navajo code talkers, along with the president of the Navajo Nation, Russell Begaye, appeared with President Trump in the Oval Office in an official White House ceremony to "pay tribute to the contributions of the young Native Americans recruited by the United States military to create top-secret coded messages used to communicate during [World War II] battles."[45] The executive director of the National Congress of American Indians, Jacqueline Pata, noted that Native Americans have "a very high level of participation in the military and veterans’ service." A statement by a Navajo Nation Council Delegate and comments by Pata and Begaye, among others, objected to Trump's remarks during the event, including his use "once again" of the "word Pocahontas in a negative way towards a political adversary."[46][45][47] The National Congress of American Indians objected to Trump's use of the name of an historical Native American figure as a derogatory term, and relatives of Code Talkers who were present said it was "too bad [Trump] put his foot in his mouth" and "he needs to grow up."[48]
Gallery[edit]
Code talkers on Bougainville, 1943
Code talkers at work, Australia, July 1943
Code talker on Tarawa, November 1943
Code talker Leslie Hemstreet, Okinawa, 1945
See also[edit]
United States Marine Corps portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Code talkers.
Battle Cry
Never So Few
Windtalkers
Chester Nez
Native Americans and World War II
Choctaw code talkers of World War I
Code-talker paradox
Navajo I
Navajo language
Navajo Nation
Navajo people
Southern Athabaskan languages
United States Army Indian Scouts
Security through obscurity
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Last Lakota code talker Clarence Wolf Guts dies at 86", Rapid City Journal (Rapid City, SD), 18 June 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Murray, David (2016-03-29). "Decorated war hero, code talker Gilbert Horn Sr. dies". Great Falls Tribune. Retrieved 2016-04-24.
Jump up ^ En Euzkera se dio la orden del desembarco de Guadalcanal, Ramón de Arrieta, Euzko Deya. La Voz de los Vascos en México 149 (November 1952), page 22, México D.F.
Jump up ^ "Egon arretaz egunari", Xabier G. Argüello, El País, August 1, 2004.
Jump up ^ La orden de desembarco en Guadalcanal se dió en vascuence para que no lo descubrieran los nipones, Juan Hernani, El Diario Vasco, December 26, 1952, it quotes Revista general de marina. Bibliographic reference in Euskomedia.org. Based on Criptografía, Revista General de Marina, 143 (November 1952), pages 551–552. Ministerio de Marina, Madrid
Jump up ^ Mikel Rodríguez. "Gaiak - Los vascos y la II Guerra Mundial". euskonews.com.
Jump up ^ Pedro J. Oiarzabal and Guillermo Tabernilla (2017). "El enigma del mito y la historia: Basque Code Talkers en la Segunda Guerra Mundial'". Saibigain.
Jump up ^ (in Spanish) Un estudio desmiente que el euskera se usara en código en la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Jesús J. Hernández, 25 June 2017, El Correo.
Jump up ^ Stanley, Captain John W. Personal Experience of a Battalion Commander and Brigade Signal Officer, 105th Field Signal Battalion in the Somme Offensive, September 29 – October 8, 1997. U.S. Army, 1932.
^ Jump up to: a b "Choctaw Code Talkers of World War II". Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved February 13, 2008.
Jump up ^ NSA Code Talker Exhibit
Jump up ^ "The Comanche Code Talkers". Archived from the original on July 5, 2008. Retrieved February 13, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Matthew J. Seelinger, Army History Research: 124th Signal Battalion Archived February 17, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Comanche Code Talker Charles Chibitty Dies". Washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2014-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Cree Code Talkers: Documentary Explores Role of Canada's Unsung WWII Heroes - Indian Country Media Network". indiancountrymedianetwork.com. Retrieved 2017-11-04.
Jump up ^ "About". Cree Code Talker. Retrieved 2017-11-04.
Jump up ^ "Last Meskwaki code talker remembers". USA Today. July 4, 2002. Retrieved February 13, 2008.
Jump up ^ Holm, Tom (2007). Code Talkers and Warriors. Chelsea House Pub. ISBN 0791093409. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ Vogel, Clayton; Johnston, Philip. "Letter to Commandant, USMC". Demonstration in California, 1942. Northern Arizona University, Cline Library. Retrieved July 20, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Navajo Code Talkers: World War II Fact Sheet". Naval Historical Center. 1992-09-17. Retrieved 2014-03-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Fox, Margalit (June 5, 2014). "Chester Nez, 93, Dies; Navajo Words Washed From Mouth Helped Win War". New York Times. Retrieved August 4, 2014.
Jump up ^ McLellan, Dennis (July 24, 2011). "Joe Morris Sr. dies at 85; Navajo code talker during World War II". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved July 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ Kolb, Joseph (2014-06-04). "Last of Navajo 'code talkers' dies in New Mexico". reuters.com. Retrieved 2014-06-04.
Jump up ^ "Changing Egypt Offers Hope to Long-Marginalized Nubians". News.nationalgeographic.com. 2013-12-17. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
Jump up ^ "Remembering Nubia: the Land of Gold - Politics - Egypt - Ahram Online". English.ahram.org.eg. 2012-04-18. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
Jump up ^ El Nuba (2014-04-02). "El Nuba | Cairo West Magazine". Cairowestmag.com. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
Jump up ^ "Peaceful Societies". Peaceful Societies. 2014-02-13. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
Jump up ^ "Code Talkers: Native American Languages in the Military". Alpha Omega Translations. 2015-06-17. Retrieved 2015-12-16.
^ Jump up to: a b Attocknie, Dana (2014-04-07). "Last living Seminole Code Talker walks on, loved ones pay respects, honor hero". Native American Times. Retrieved 2014-04-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Seminole code talker Edmond Harjo dies at 96". Tulsa World. 2014-04-13. Retrieved 2014-04-27.
Jump up ^ Peterson, Dick (2013-11-21). "Treasury and Mint Join Congress to Honor Native American Code Talkers". United States Department of the Treasury. Retrieved 2014-04-27.
Jump up ^ Chapman, H. S. (1987). "Welsh as a Secret Language". Transactions of the Caernarvonshire Historical Society. 48: 113–117.
Jump up ^ Heath, Tony (1996-08-26). "Welsh speak up for their ancient tongue". The Independent. p. 6.
Jump up ^ Nanlai Cao (4 November 2010). Constructing China's Jerusalem: Christians, Power, and Place in Contemporary Wenzhou. Stanford University Press. pp. 195–. ISBN 978-0-8047-7360-7.
Jump up ^ Zhang Zhixiong (23 June 2015). Chinese Education in Singapore: An untold story of conflict and change. Zhixiong Zhang. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-981-09-3952-6.
Jump up ^ "The People's Paths home page: How Effective Was Navajo Code? One Former Captive Knows". Yvwiiusdinvnohii.net. Archived from the original on November 9, 2013. Retrieved 2014-03-12.
Jump up ^ Fonseca, Felicia (February 11, 2008). "Navajo Code Talker dead at age 82". The Denver Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 30, 2008. Retrieved March 19, 2008.
Jump up ^ "National Navaho Code Talkers Day". Lapahie.com. 1982-08-14. Retrieved 2014-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Navajo Code Talkers and the Unbreakable Code — Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov. 2008-11-06. Retrieved 2014-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Navajo code talkers honored after 56 years". CNN. 2001-07-27. Retrieved 2014-08-03.
Jump up ^ "P.L. 106-554, see 114 STAT. 2763A–311" (PDF). gpo.gov. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
Jump up ^ Texas military honors Choctaw code talkers. Retrieved on May 2, 2008.
Jump up ^ "P.L. 110-420" (PDF). gpo.gov. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
Jump up ^ "Treasury and Mint Join Congress to Honor Native American Code Talkers". treasury.gov. Retrieved 2015-09-12.
^ Jump up to: a b Davis, Julie Hirschfeld (November 27, 2017). "Trump Mocks Warren as 'Pocahontas' at Navajo Veterans' Event". The New York Times. Retrieved November 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Statement in response to remarks by President Trump, Window Rock, Arkansas, The Navajo Nation, November 27, 2017, retrieved November 28, 2017
Jump up ^ "Navajo Nation Statement (November 27, 2017)". Wikisource. November 27, 2017. Retrieved December 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Felicia Fonseca (November 28, 2017). "Families of Navajo Code Talkers Slam President Trump for 'Pocahontas' Slur". Time.
References[edit]
Bibliography
Aaseng, Nathan. Navajo Code Talkers: America’s Secret Weapon in World War II. New York: Walker & Company, 1992. ISBN 0802776272 OCLC 672012184
Durrett, Deanne. Unsung Heroes of World War II: The Story of the Navajo Code Talkers. Library of American Indian History, Facts on File, Inc., 1998. ISBN 0816036039 OCLC 38067688
McClain, Salley. Navajo Weapon: The Navajo Code Talkers. Tucson, Arizona: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 2001. ISBN 1887896325 OCLC 48584920
Meadows, William C. The Comanche Code Talkers of World War II. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002. ISBN 0292798504 OCLC 55896749
Stanley, Captain John W. Personal Experience of a Battalion Commander and Brigade Signal Officer, 105th Field Signal Battalion in the Somme Offensive, September 29 – October 12, 1918. U.S. Army, 1932.
Gawne, Jonathan. Spearheading D-Day. Paris: Histoire et Collections, 1999. ISBN 2908182793 OCLC 45700217
Holm, Tom. Code Talkers and Warriors- Native Americans and World War II. New York: Infobase Publishing, 2007. ISBN 0-7910-9340-9
David Kahn, The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing, 1967. ISBN 0-684-83130-9
Simon Singh, The Code Book: The Science of Secrecy from Ancient Egypt to Quantum Cryptography, 2000. ISBN 978-0-385-49532-5
Web
National Museum of the American Indian- Codetalkers
Listen online – The Story of The Code Talkers – The American Storyteller Radio Journal
Samuel Tom Holiday – 4th Marine Division – 25th Regiment – H & S Company
Origins of the Navajo Code Talkers
Dept. of Navy Navajo Code Talkers' Dictionary
Dept. of Navy Navajo Code Talkers: World War II fact Sheet
Northern Arizona University Special Collections, regarding Navajo Codetalkers
Teaching with Documents: Memorandum Regarding the Enlistment of Navajo Indians. U.S. National Archives.
"Semper Fidelis, Code Talkers," U.S National Archives. Prologue Magazine: Winter 2001, Vol. 33, No. 4
Smithsonian Institution: American Indian Codetalkers
Native Americans in the U.S. Army Portal at the United States Army Center of Military History
American Indian Code Talker Medals Become Law
U.S. Sen. Bingaman: Navajo code talkers page
The Navajo Code Talkers: Code Talkers (Part of the Story)
How Effective Was Navajo Code? "One Former Captive Knows" Captured Navajo
Hopi Code Talker
Code Talkers Exhibit, Burger King, Kayenta, Navajo Nation
Windtalker
Navajo Code Talkers Association
Code Talkers roll of honour and images
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Code talkers.
Library resources about
Code talker
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Code Talkers
Official website of the Navajo Code talkers
Denise Winterman (19 May 2014). "World War One: The original code talkers". BBC News. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
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