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List of current heads of state and government
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"World leaders" redirects here. For the CIA-published public domain directory, see World Leaders.
See also: List of state leaders in the 21st century
This is a list of current heads of state and heads of government. In some cases, mainly in presidential systems, there is only one leader being both head of state and head of government. In other cases, mainly in semi-presidential and parliamentary systems, the head of state and the head of government are different people. In semi-presidential and parliamentary systems, the head of government role (i.e. executive branch) is fulfilled by both the listed head of government and the head of state.
The list also includes the names of recently elected or appointed heads of state and government who will take office on an appointed date, such as presidents-elect and prime ministers-designate, and those leading a government in exile if internationally recognised.
Contents
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1 Member and observer states of the United Nations
2 Other states
3 Other governments
4 Other entities
5 See also
6 Notes
7 External links
Member and observer states of the United Nations[edit]
Legend:
Yellow highlighted cells indicate state leaders whose constitutionally interpreted positions (e.g. de jure) individually administer the governmental executive, legislature
Blue highlighted cells distinguish heads of state or party leaders chiefly regarded as exercising (e.g. de facto) further systemic influence, authority within their system of government
Names in small font generally denote acting, transitional, temporary leaders, or representatives. Other notes and exceptions are provided at § Notes.
State
Head of state
Head of government
Afghanistan
President – Ashraf Ghani[α] Chief Executive – Abdullah Abdullah
Albania
President – Ilir Meta Prime Minister – Edi Rama
Algeria
President – Abdelaziz Bouteflika Prime Minister – Ahmed Ouyahia
Andorra
Episcopal Co-Prince – Joan Enric Vives Sicília
Co-Prince's Representative – Josep Maria Mauri
French Co-Prince – Emmanuel Macron[β]
Co-Prince's Representative – Patrick Strzoda Head of Government – Antoni Martí
Angola
President – João Lourenço
Antigua and Barbuda
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Rodney Williams Prime Minister – Gaston Browne
Argentina
President – Mauricio Macri
Armenia
President – Serzh Sargsyan Prime Minister – Karen Karapetyan
Australia
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Peter Cosgrove Prime Minister – Malcolm Turnbull
Austria
Federal President – Alexander Van der Bellen Federal Chancellor – Sebastian Kurz
Azerbaijan
President – Ilham Aliyev Prime Minister – Artur Rasizade
Bahamas, The
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Marguerite Pindling Prime Minister – Hubert Minnis
Bahrain
King – Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Prime Minister – Prince Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa
Bangladesh
President – Abdul Hamid Prime Minister – Sheikh Hasina
Barbados
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Sandra Mason Prime Minister – Freundel Stuart
Belarus
President – Alexander Lukashenko Prime Minister – Andrei Kobyakov
Belgium
King – Philippe Prime Minister – Charles Michel
Belize
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Colville Young Prime Minister – Dean Barrow
Benin
President – Patrice Talon
Bhutan
King – Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck Prime Minister – Tshering Tobgay
Bolivia
President – Evo Morales
Bosnia and Herzegovina
High Representative – Valentin Inzko
Presidency[δ]
Chairman of the Council of Ministers – Denis Zvizdić
Dragan Čović (as Chairman)
Mladen Ivanić (as Member)
Bakir Izetbegović (as Member)
Botswana
President – Ian Khama
Brazil
President – Michel Temer[ε]
Brunei
Sultan and Prime Minister – Hassanal Bolkiah
Bulgaria
President – Rumen Radev Prime Minister – Boyko Borisov
Burkina Faso
President – Roch Marc Christian Kaboré Prime Minister – Paul Kaba Thieba
Burundi
President – Pierre Nkurunziza
Cambodia
King – Norodom Sihamoni Prime Minister – Hun Sen
Cameroon
President – Paul Biya[α] Prime Minister – Philémon Yang
Canada
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor General – Julie Payette Prime Minister – Justin Trudeau
Cape Verde
President – Jorge Carlos Fonseca Prime Minister – Ulisses Correia e Silva
Central African Republic
President – Faustin-Archange Touadéra[α] Prime Minister – Simplice Sarandji
Chad
President – Idriss Déby[α] Prime Minister – Albert Pahimi Padacké
Chile
President – Michelle Bachelet
President-elect – Sebastián Piñera
China
General Secretary of the Communist Party – Xi Jinping
President – Xi Jinping Premier of the State Council – Li Keqiang
Colombia
President – Juan Manuel Santos
Comoros
President – Azali Assoumani
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
President – Joseph Kabila Prime Minister – Bruno Tshibala
Congo, Republic of the
President – Denis Sassou Nguesso Prime Minister – Clément Mouamba
Costa Rica
President – Luis Guillermo Solís
Croatia
President – Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović Prime Minister – Andrej Plenković
Cuba
First Secretary of the Communist Party – Raúl Castro
President of the Council of State and President of the Council of Ministers – Raúl Castro
Cyprus
President – Nicos Anastasiades
Czech Republic
President – Miloš Zeman Prime Minister – Andrej Babiš
Denmark
Queen – Margrethe II Prime Minister – Lars Løkke Rasmussen
Djibouti
President – Ismaïl Omar Guelleh[α] Prime Minister – Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed
Dominica
President – Charles Savarin Prime Minister – Roosevelt Skerrit
Dominican Republic
President – Danilo Medina
East Timor
President – Francisco Guterres Prime Minister – Mari Alkatiri
Ecuador
President – Lenín Moreno
Egypt
President – Abdel Fattah el-Sisi Prime Minister – Sherif Ismail
El Salvador
President – Salvador Sánchez Cerén
Equatorial Guinea
President – Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo[α] Prime Minister – Francisco Pascual Obama Asue
Eritrea
President – Isaias Afwerki
Estonia
President – Kersti Kaljulaid Prime Minister – Jüri Ratas
Ethiopia
President – Mulatu Teshome Prime Minister – Hailemariam Desalegn
Fiji
President – George Konrote Prime Minister – Frank Bainimarama
Finland
President – Sauli Niinistö Prime Minister – Juha Sipilä
France
President – Emmanuel Macron[β] Prime Minister – Édouard Philippe
Gabon
President – Ali Bongo Ondimba[α] Prime Minister – Emmanuel Issoze-Ngondet
Gambia, The
President – Adama Barrow
Georgia
President – Giorgi Margvelashvili Prime Minister – Giorgi Kvirikashvili
Germany
President – Frank-Walter Steinmeier Chancellor – Angela Merkel
Ghana
President – Nana Akufo-Addo
Greece
President – Prokopis Pavlopoulos Prime Minister – Alexis Tsipras
Grenada
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Cécile La Grenade Prime Minister – Keith Mitchell
Guatemala
President – Jimmy Morales
Guinea
President – Alpha Condé[α] Prime Minister – Mamady Youla
Guinea-Bissau
President – José Mário Vaz Prime Minister – Umaro Sissoco Embaló
Guyana
President – David A. Granger[α] Prime Minister – Moses Nagamootoo
Haiti
President – Jovenel Moïse Prime Minister – Jack Guy Lafontant
Honduras
President – Juan Orlando Hernández
Hungary
President – János Áder Prime Minister – Viktor Orbán
Iceland
President – Guðni Th. Jóhannesson Prime Minister – Katrín Jakobsdóttir
India
President – Ram Nath Kovind Prime Minister – Narendra Modi
Indonesia
President – Joko Widodo
Iran
Supreme Leader – Ali Khamenei President – Hassan Rouhani
Iraq
President – Fuad Masum Prime Minister – Haider al-Abadi
Ireland
President – Michael D. Higgins Taoiseach – Leo Varadkar
Israel
President – Reuven Rivlin Prime Minister – Benjamin Netanyahu
Italy
President – Sergio Mattarella President of the Council of Ministers – Paolo Gentiloni
Ivory Coast
President – Alassane Ouattara[α] Prime Minister – Amadou Gon Coulibaly
Jamaica
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Patrick Allen Prime Minister – Andrew Holness
Japan
Emperor – Akihito Prime Minister – Shinzō Abe
Jordan
King – Abdullah II Prime Minister – Hani Al-Mulki
Kazakhstan
President – Nursultan Nazarbayev Prime Minister – Bakhytzhan Sagintayev
Kenya
President – Uhuru Kenyatta
Kiribati
President – Taneti Mamau
Kuwait
Emir – Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Prime Minister – Sheikh Jaber Al-Mubarak Al-Hamad Al-Sabah
Kyrgyzstan
President – Sooronbay Jeenbekov Prime Minister – Sapar Isakov
Laos
General Secretary of the Communist Party – Bounnhang Vorachith
President – Bounnhang Vorachith Prime Minister – Thongloun Sisoulith
Latvia
President – Raimonds Vējonis Prime Minister – Māris Kučinskis
Lebanon
President – Michel Aoun President of the Council of Ministers – Saad Hariri
Lesotho
King – Letsie III Prime Minister – Tom Thabane
Liberia
President – Ellen Johnson Sirleaf
President-elect – George Weah
Libya
Chairman of the Presidential Council and Prime Minister – Fayez al-Sarraj
Liechtenstein
Prince Regnant – Hans-Adam II Head of Government – Adrian Hasler
Regent – Hereditary Prince Alois
Lithuania
President – Dalia Grybauskaitė Prime Minister – Saulius Skvernelis
Luxembourg
Grand Duke – Henri Prime Minister – Xavier Bettel
Macedonia
President – Gjorge Ivanov President of the Government – Zoran Zaev
Madagascar
President – Hery Rajaonarimampianina Prime Minister – Olivier Mahafaly Solonandrasana
Malawi
President – Peter Mutharika
Malaysia
Yang di-Pertuan Agong – Muhammad V Prime Minister – Najib Razak
Maldives
President – Abdulla Yameen
Mali
President – Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta Prime Minister – Soumeylou Boubèye Maïga
Malta
President – Marie Louise Coleiro Preca Prime Minister – Joseph Muscat
Marshall Islands
President – Hilda Heine
Mauritania
President – Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz Prime Minister – Yahya Ould Hademine
Mauritius
President – Ameenah Gurib Prime Minister – Pravind Jugnauth
Mexico
President – Enrique Peña Nieto
Micronesia
President – Peter M. Christian
Moldova
President – Igor Dodon Prime Minister – Pavel Filip
Monaco
Sovereign Prince – Albert II Minister of State – Serge Telle
Mongolia
President – Khaltmaagiin Battulga Prime Minister – Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh
Montenegro
President – Filip Vujanović Prime Minister – Duško Marković
Morocco
King – Mohammed VI Head of Government – Saadeddine Othmani
Mozambique
President – Filipe Nyusi[α] Prime Minister – Carlos Agostinho do Rosário
Myanmar
President – Htin Kyaw[α] State Counsellor – Aung San Suu Kyi
Namibia
President – Hage Geingob[α] Prime Minister – Saara Kuugongelwa
Nauru
President – Baron Waqa
Nepal
President – Bidhya Devi Bhandari Prime Minister – Sher Bahadur Deuba
Netherlands
King – Willem-Alexander Prime Minister – Mark Rutte
New Zealand
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Patsy Reddy[ζ] Prime Minister – Jacinda Ardern
Nicaragua
President – Daniel Ortega
Niger
President – Mahamadou Issoufou Prime Minister – Brigi Rafini
Nigeria
President – Muhammadu Buhari
Norway
King – Harald V Prime Minister – Erna Solberg
North Korea
Chairman of the Workers' Party of Korea – Kim Jong-un
Supreme Leader and Chairman of the State Affairs Commission – Kim Jong-un[η]
Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly – Kim Yong-nam[θ] Premier of the Cabinet – Pak Pong-ju
Oman
Sultan and Prime Minister – Qaboos bin Said al Said
Pakistan
President – Mamnoon Hussain Interim Prime Minister – Shahid Khaqan Abbasi
Palau
President – Tommy Remengesau
Palestine
President – Mahmoud Abbas Prime Minister – Rami Hamdallah
Panama
President – Juan Carlos Varela
Papua New Guinea
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Bob Dadae Prime Minister – Peter O'Neill
Paraguay
President – Horacio Cartes
Peru
President – Pedro Pablo Kuczynski[α] Prime Minister – Mercedes Aráoz
Philippines
President – Rodrigo Duterte
Poland
President – Andrzej Duda Prime Minister – Mateusz Morawiecki
Portugal
President – Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa Prime Minister – António Costa
Qatar
Emir – Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani Prime Minister – Sheikh Abdullah bin Nasser bin Khalifa Al Thani
Romania
President – Klaus Iohannis Prime Minister – Mihai Tudose
Russia
President – Vladimir Putin Prime Minister – Dmitry Medvedev
Rwanda
President – Paul Kagame[α] Prime Minister – Edouard Ngirente
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Tapley Seaton Prime Minister – Timothy Harris
Saint Lucia
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Vacant
Governor-general–designate – Neville Cenac Prime Minister – Allen Chastanet
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Frederick Ballantyne Prime Minister – Ralph Gonsalves
Samoa
O le Ao o le Malo – Va'aletoa Sualauvi II Prime Minister – Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi
San Marino
Captain Regent[ι] – Enrico Carattoni
Captain Regent[ι] – Matteo Fiorini
São Tomé and Príncipe
President – Evaristo Carvalho Prime Minister – Patrice Trovoada
Saudi Arabia
King and Prime Minister – Salman
Senegal
President – Macky Sall Prime Minister – Mohammed Dionne
Serbia
President – Aleksandar Vučić Prime Minister – Ana Brnabić
Seychelles
President – Danny Faure
Sierra Leone
President – Ernest Bai Koroma
Singapore
President – Halimah Yacob Prime Minister – Lee Hsien Loong
Slovakia
President – Andrej Kiska Prime Minister – Robert Fico
Slovenia
President – Borut Pahor Prime Minister – Miro Cerar
Solomon Islands
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Frank Kabui Prime Minister – Rick Houenipwela
Somalia
President – Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed Prime Minister – Hassan Ali Khayre
South Africa
President – Jacob Zuma
South Sudan
President – Salva Kiir Mayardit
South Korea
President – Moon Jae-in[α] Prime Minister – Lee Nak-yeon
Spain
King – Felipe VI President of the Government – Mariano Rajoy
Sri Lanka
President – Maithripala Sirisena[α] Prime Minister – Ranil Wickremesinghe
Sudan
President – Omar al-Bashir[α] Prime Minister – Bakri Hassan Saleh
Suriname
President – Dési Bouterse
Swaziland
King – Mswati III Prime Minister – Barnabas Sibusiso Dlamini
Sweden
King – Carl XVI Gustaf Prime Minister – Stefan Löfven
Switzerland
Federal Council[κ]
Alain Berset (as President)
Ueli Maurer (as Vice President)
Doris Leuthard (as Member)
Simonetta Sommaruga (as Member)
Johann Schneider-Ammann (as Member)
Guy Parmelin (as Member)
Ignazio Cassis (as Member)
Syria
President – Bashar al-Assad Prime Minister – Imad Khamis
Tajikistan
President – Emomali Rahmon[α] Prime Minister – Kokhir Rasulzoda
Tanzania
President – John Magufuli[α] Prime Minister – Kassim Majaliwa
Thailand
King – Maha Vajiralongkorn Prime Minister – Prayut Chan-o-cha
Togo
President – Faure Gnassingbé[α] Prime Minister – Komi Sélom Klassou
Tonga
King – Tupou VI Prime Minister – ʻAkilisi Pōhiva
Trinidad and Tobago
President – Anthony Carmona Prime Minister – Keith Rowley
Tunisia
President – Beji Caid Essebsi Head of Government – Youssef Chahed
Turkey
President – Recep Tayyip Erdoğan[λ] Prime Minister – Binali Yıldırım
Turkmenistan
President – Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow
Tuvalu
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Iakoba Italeli Prime Minister – Enele Sopoaga
Uganda
President – Yoweri Museveni[α] Prime Minister – Ruhakana Rugunda
Ukraine
President – Petro Poroshenko Prime Minister – Volodymyr Groysman
United Arab Emirates
President – Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan Prime Minister – Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum
United Kingdom
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ] Prime Minister – Theresa May
United States
President – Donald Trump
Uruguay
President – Tabaré Vázquez
Uzbekistan
President – Shavkat Mirziyoyev[α] Prime Minister – Abdulla Aripov
Vanuatu
President – Tallis Obed Moses Prime Minister – Charlot Salwai
Vatican City
Sovereign – Pope Francis President of the Governorate – Cardinal Giuseppe Bertello
Venezuela
President – Nicolás Maduro
Vietnam
General Secretary of the Communist Party – Nguyễn Phú Trọng
President – Trần Đại Quang Prime Minister – Nguyễn Xuân Phúc
Yemen
President – Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi Prime Minister – Ahmed Obeid bin Daghr
Zambia
President – Edgar Lungu
Zimbabwe
President – Emmerson Mnangagwa
Other states[edit]
The following states control their territory and are recognised by at least one UN member state.
State
Also claimed by
Head of state
Head of government
Abkhazia
Georgia
President – Raul Khajimba Prime Minister – Beslan Bartsits
Cook Islands[μ]
New Zealand
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Queen's Representative – Tom Marsters Prime Minister – Henry Puna
Kosovo
Serbia
President – Hashim Thaçi Prime Minister – Ramush Haradinaj
Niue[μ]
New Zealand
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Patsy Reddy[ζ] Premier – Sir Toke Talagi
Northern Cyprus
Cyprus
President – Mustafa Akıncı Prime Minister – Hüseyin Özgürgün
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Morocco
General Secretary of the Polisario Front – Brahim Ghali
President – Brahim Ghali Prime Minister – Abdelkader Taleb Omar
South Ossetia
Georgia
President – Anatoliy Bibilov Prime Minister – Erik Pukhayev
Taiwan (Republic of China)
People's Republic of China
President – Tsai Ing-wen President of the Executive Yuan – William Lai
The following states/governments control their territory, but are not recognised by any UN member states.
State/Government
Also claimed by
Head of state
Head of government
Artsakh
Azerbaijan
President – Bako Sahakyan
Somaliland
Somalia
President – Muse Bihi Abdi
Transnistria
Moldova
President – Vadim Krasnoselsky Prime Minister – Aleksandr Martynov
Other governments[edit]
These alternative governments are recognised as a sovereign state by at least one UN member.
Government
Also claimed by
Head of state
Head of government
House of Representatives
Libya
President of the House of Representatives – Aguila Saleh Issa Prime Minister – Abdullah al-Thani
Supreme Political Council
Yemen
President of the Supreme Political Council – Saleh Ali al-Sammad Prime Minister – Abdel-Aziz bin Habtour
Syrian Interim Government
Syria
President – Riad Seif Prime Minister – Jawad Abu Hatab
Other entities[edit]
Entity
Head of state
Head of government
European Union
President of the European Council – Donald Tusk President of the European Commission – Jean-Claude Juncker
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Acting Lieutenant and Grand Master – Giacomo dalla Torre del Tempio di Sanguinetto Grand Chancellor – Albrecht Freiherr von Boeselager
See also[edit]
International relations portal
Politics portal
List of countries by system of government
List of current longest ruling non-royal national leaders
List of current state leaders by date of assumption of office
List of current presidents
List of current sovereign monarchs
List of current vice presidents and designated acting presidents
List of current prime ministers
List of current foreign ministers
List of current presidents of assembly
List of current dependent territory leaders
List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government
List of leaders of dependent territories
List of longest-ruling non-royal national leaders since 1900
List of the oldest living state leaders
List of national governments
Lists of state leaders
Lists of state leaders by year
List of state leaders in 2018
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w In this state, the president is both head of state and of government; the office of prime minister may exist in these states, but it does not direct executive power (neither does the Afghan Chief Executive nor the Myanma/Burmese State Counsellor, either).
^ Jump up to: a b The President of France and the French Co-Prince of Andorra are positions held by the same person.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Constitutionally, Elizabeth II is separately and equally monarch of 16 sovereign states (alongside the United Kingdom) known collectively as the Commonwealth realms. In each of these states, with the exception of the UK (where she permanently resides) she is duly represented at the national level by a governor-general.
Jump up ^ The three-member Bosnian presidency is the head of state collectively.
Jump up ^ Temer assumed the Brazilian presidential powers and duties during the course of the suspension of Dilma Rousseff on 12 May 2016. Temer assumed the presidency outright when Rousseff was convicted and removed from office via impeachment on 31 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b The Governor-General of New Zealand and the Governor-General of Niue are positions held by the same person.
Jump up ^ The term "Supreme Leader" is used as a description (for the sake of brevity) rather than being an official title of a single office. The three actual offices held by Kim are:
Chairman of the Workers' Party of Korea
Chairman of the State Affairs Commission
Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army
Jump up ^ The President (otherwise known as Chairman) of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly accepts the credentials of foreign ambassadors, signs treaties, receives visiting heads of state, and represents North Korea on all state visits (ceremonial functions usually performed by heads of state in other states). The president has held these duties since 1998, when the constitution was revised.
^ Jump up to: a b Since 2016, the Grand and General Council of San Marino has held a larger proportion of seats for the United Left than those for the Popular Alliance; it can thus be inferred that the partner belonging to the former party exercises wider legislative capabilities than the latter through its parliamentary superiority, outnumbering the latter party by 3 seats.
Jump up ^ The seven-member Swiss Federal Council is collectively head of state and government. As a party to the Council, the President serves solely in a primus inter pares capacity for one year.
Jump up ^ Until the ratification of the Turkish constitutional referendum, Erdoğan remains ostensibly barred from wielding political power.
^ Jump up to: a b States in free association with New Zealand.
External links[edit]
CIDOB Foundation (in Spanish)—contextualised biographies of world political leaders
EmilePhaneuf—an archived, partial list of official websites for heads of state
Portale Storia (in Spanish)—a list of current rulers by country
Rulers—a list of rulers throughout time and places
United Nations—a list of heads of state, heads of government, and foreign ministers
WorldStatesmen—an online encyclopedia of the leaders of nations and territories
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'54
'53
'52
'51
'50
'49
'48
'47
'46
'45
'44
'43
'42
'41
'40
'39
'38
'37
'36
'35
'34
'33
'32
'31
'30
'29
'28
'27
'26
'25
'24
'23
'22
'21
'20
'19
'18
'17
'16
'15
'14
'13
'12
'11
'10
'09
'08
'07
'06
'05
'04
'03
'02
1601
16th century
List of state leaders in the 16th century
1600
1599
'98
'97
'96
'95
'94
'93
'92
'91
'90
'89
'88
'87
'86
'85
'84
'83
'82
'81
'80
'79
'78
'77
'76
'75
'74
'73
'72
'71
'70
'69
'68
'67
'66
'65
'64
'63
'62
'61
'60
'59
'58
'57
'56
'55
'54
'53
'52
'51
'50
'49
'48
'47
'46
'45
'44
'43
'42
'41
'40
'39
'38
'37
'36
'35
'34
'33
'32
'31
'30
'29
'28
'27
'26
'25
'24
'23
'22
'21
'20
'19
'18
'17
'16
'15
'14
'13
'12
'11
'10
'09
'08
'07
'06
'05
'04
'03
'02
1501
15th century
List of state leaders in the 15th century
1500
1499
'98
'97
'96
'95
'94
'93
'92
'91
'90
'89
'88
'87
'86
'85
'84
'83
'82
'81
'80
'79
'78
'77
'76
'75
'74
'73
'72
'71
'70
'69
'68
'67
'66
'65
'64
'63
'62
'61
'60
'59
'58
'57
'56
'55
'54
'53
'52
'51
'50
'49
'48
'47
'46
'45
'44
'43
'42
'41
'40
'39
'38
'37
'36
'35
'34
'33
'32
'31
'30
'29
'28
'27
'26
'25
'24
'23
'22
'21
'20
'19
'18
'17
'16
'15
'14
'13
'12
'11
'10
'09
'08
'07
'06
'05
'04
'03
'02
1401
14th century
List of state leaders in the 14th century
1400
1399
'98
'97
'96
'95
'94
'93
'92
'91
'90
'89
'88
'87
'86
'85
'84
'83
'82
'81
'80
'79
'78
'77
'76
'75
'74
'73
'72
'71
'70
'69
'68
'67
'66
'65
'64
'63
'62
'61
'60
'59
'58
'57
'56
'55
'54
'53
'52
'51
'50
'49
'48
'47
'46
'45
'44
'43
'42
'41
'40
'39
'38
'37
'36
'35
'34
'33
'32
'31
'30
'29
'28
'27
'26
'25
'24
'23
'22
'21
'20
'19
'18
'17
'16
'15
'14
'13
'12
'11
'10
'09
'08
'07
'06
'05
'04
'03
'02
1301
13th century
List of state leaders in the 13th century
1300
1299
'98
'97
'96
'95
'94
'93
'92
'91
'90
'89
'88
'87
'86
'85
'84
'83
'82
'81
'80
'79
'78
'77
'76
'75
'74
'73
'72
'71
'70
'69
'68
'67
'66
'65
'64
'63
'62
'61
'60
'59
'58
'57
'56
'55
'54
'53
'52
'51
'50
'49
'48
'47
'46
'45
'44
'43
'42
'41
'40
'39
'38
'37
'36
'35
'34
'33
'32
'31
'30
'29
'28
'27
'26
'25
'24
'23
'22
'21
'20
'19
'18
'17
'16
'15
'14
'13
'12
'11
'10
'09
'08
'07
'06
'05
'04
'03
'02
1201
12th century
List of state leaders in the 12th century
1200
1199
'98
'97
'96
'95
'94
'93
'92
'91
'90
'89
'88
'87
'86
'85
'84
'83
'82
'81
'80
'79
'78
'77
'76
'75
'74
'73
'72
'71
'70
'69
'68
'67
'66
'65
'64
'63
'62
'61
'60
'59
'58
'57
'56
'55
'54
'53
'52
'51
'50
'49
'48
'47
'46
'45
'44
'43
'42
'41
'40
'39
'38
'37
'36
'35
'34
'33
'32
'31
'30
'29
'28
'27
'26
'25
'24
'23
'22
'21
'20
'19
'18
'17
'16
'15
'14
'13
'12
'11
'10
'09
'08
'07
'06
'05
'04
'03
'02
1101
11th century
List of state leaders in the 11th century
1100
'1099
'98
'97
'96
'95
'94
'93
'92
'91
'90
'89
'88
'87
'86
'85
'84
'83
'82
'81
'80
'79
'78
'77
'76
'75
'74
'73
'72
'71
'70
'69
'68
'67
'66
'65
'64
'63
'62
'61
'60
'59
'58
'57
'56
'55
'54
'53
'52
'51
'50
'49
'48
'47
'46
'45
'44
'43
'42
'41
'40
'39
'38
'37
'36
'35
'34
'33
'32
'31
'30
'29
'28
'27
'26
'25
'24
'23
'22
'21
'20
'19
'18
'17
'16
'15
'14
'13
'12
'11
'10
'09
'08
'07
'06
'05
'04
'03
'02
'1001
1st millennium
List of state leaders in the 10th century
List of state leaders in the 9th century
List of state leaders in the 8th century
List of state leaders in the 7th century
List of state leaders in the 6th century
List of state leaders in the 5th century
List of state leaders in the 4th century
List of state leaders in the 3rd century
List of state leaders in the 2nd century
List of state leaders in the 1st century
1st millennium BC
List of state leaders in the 1st century BC
List of state leaders in the 2nd century BC
List of state leaders in the 3rd century BC
List of state leaders in the 4th century BC
List of state leaders in the 5th century BC
List of state leaders in the 6th century BC
List of state leaders in the 7th century BC
List of state leaders in the 8th century BC
List of state leaders in the 9th century BC
List of state leaders in the 10th century BC
2nd millennium BC
List of state leaders in the 11th century BC
List of state leaders in the 12th century BC
List of state leaders in the 13th century BC
List of state leaders in the 14th century BC
List of state leaders in the 15th century BC
List of state leaders in the 16th century BC
List of state leaders in the 17th century BC
List of state leaders in the 18th century BC
List of state leaders in the 19th century BC
List of state leaders in the 20th century BC
Earlier
List of state leaders in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC
[show]
v
t
e
Heads of state and government of Africa
Heads of state
UN member states
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
The Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Other states
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Somaliland
Heads of government
UN member states
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
The Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Sudan
Swaziland
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Other states
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Somaliland
Defunct states
and governments
Belgian Congo
Governor-General
Burundi
King
Prime Minister
Ethiopia
Emperor (list)
Malawi
Prime Minister
Kenya
Prime Minister
Rwanda
King
Rhodesia
President
Prime Minister
Southern Rhodesia
Governor
South Africa
Governor-General
State President
Prime Minister
Sudan
Governor-General
Zanzibar
Sultan
Prime Minister
Zambia
Prime Minister
Zimbabwe
Prime Minister
[show]
v
t
e
Heads of state and government of the Americas
Heads
of state
UN members
and observers
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Canada
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Uruguay
Venezuela
Dependencies and
other territories
Anguilla
Aruba
Bermuda
Bonaire
Cayman Islands
Falkland Islands
French Guiana
Greenland
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Montserrat
Navassa Island
Puerto Rico
Saba
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Martin
Sint Eustatius
Sint Maarten
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Turks and Caicos Islands
United States Virgin Islands
Heads of
government
UN members
and observers
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Canada
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Uruguay
Venezuela
Dependencies and
other territories
Anguilla
Aruba
Bermuda
Bonaire
Cayman Islands
Falkland Islands
French Guiana
Greenland
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Montserrat
Navassa Island
Puerto Rico
Saba
Saint Barthélemy
Saint Martin
Sint Eustatius
Sint Maarten
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Turks and Caicos Islands
United States Virgin Islands
[show]
v
t
e
Heads of state and government of Asia
Heads
of state
UN members
and observers
Afghanistan
Armenia1
Azerbaijan1
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
East Timor
Georgia1
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
North Korea
Oman
Pakistan
Palestine
Philippines
Qatar
Russia1
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
South Korea
Syria
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Yemen
special administrative regions
and limited recognised states
Abkhazia1
Hong Kong
Macau
Nagorno-Karabakh1
Northern Cyprus1
South Ossetia1
Taiwan
Heads of
government
UN members
and observers
Afghanistan
Armenia1
Azerbaijan1
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Cambodia
China
Cyprus
East Timor
Georgia1
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Myanmar
Nepal
North Korea
Oman
Pakistan
Palestine
Philippines
Qatar
Russia1
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
South Korea
Syria
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Yemen
special administrative regions
and limited recognised states
Abkhazia1
Hong Kong
Macau
Nagorno-Karabakh1
Northern Cyprus1
South Ossetia1
Taiwan
1 Partially or entirely in Asia, depending on the definition of the Europe–Asia border.
[show]
v
t
e
Heads of state and government of Europe
Heads
of state
UN members
and observers
Albania
Andorra
Armenia1
Austria
Azerbaijan1
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus1
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Georgia1
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Kazakhstan1
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Malta
Moldova
Monaco
Montenegro
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation1
San Marino
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey1
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Vatican City
Partially recognised2
Abkhazia1
Kosovo
Northern Cyprus1
South Ossetia1
Unrecognised states3
Artsakh1
Transnistria
Former countries
Czechoslovakia
East Germany
Serbia and Montenegro
Soviet Union1
Yugoslavia
Heads of
government
UN members
and observers
Albania
Andorra
Armenia1
Austria
Azerbaijan1
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus1
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Georgia1
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Kazakhstan1
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Malta
Moldova
Monaco
Montenegro
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation1
San Marino
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey1
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Vatican City
Partially recognised2
Abkhazia1
Kosovo
Northern Cyprus1
South Ossetia1
Unrecognised states3
Artsakh1
Transnistria
Former countries
Czechoslovakia
East Germany
Serbia and Montenegro
Soviet Union1
Yugoslavia
1. Partially or entirely in Asia, depending on geographical definition.
2. Recognised by at least one United Nations member.
3. Not recognised by any United Nations members.
[show]
v
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e
Heads of state and government of Oceania
Heads of state
Sovereign states
Australia
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Federated States of Micronesia
Nauru
New Zealand
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Associated states of New Zealand
Cook Islands
Niue
Heads of government
Sovereign states
Australia
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Federated States of Micronesia
Nauru
New Zealand
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Associated states of New Zealand
Cook Islands
Niue
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_current_heads_of_state_and_government&oldid=819451781"
Categories:
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Prime Minister of Andorra

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Prime Minister of Belarus

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/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Belize
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Prime Minister of Belize

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President of Benin

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Prime Minister of Bhutan

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Sultan of Brunei

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President of Burkina Faso

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/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Burkina_Faso
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Prime Minister of Burkina Faso

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/wiki/President_of_Burundi
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President of Burundi

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/wiki/King_of_Cambodia
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King of Cambodia

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/wiki/President_of_Cape_Verde
mw-redirect
President of Cape Verde

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/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Cape_Verde
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Prime Minister of Cape Verde

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/wiki/President_of_Chad
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President of Chad

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Prime Minister of Chad

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President of the Comoros

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/wiki/President_of_Djibouti
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President of Djibouti

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Prime Minister of Djibouti

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/wiki/President_of_Dominica
mw-redirect
President of Dominica

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/wiki/President_of_Equatorial_Guinea
mw-redirect
President of Equatorial Guinea

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/wiki/President_of_Eritrea
mw-redirect
President of Eritrea

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/wiki/President_of_Gabon
mw-redirect
President of Gabon

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/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Gabon
mw-redirect
Prime Minister of Gabon

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/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Grenada
mw-redirect
Prime Minister of Grenada

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/wiki/President_of_Guinea
mw-redirect
President of Guinea

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/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Guinea
mw-redirect
Prime Minister of Guinea

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/wiki/President_of_Guinea-Bissau
mw-redirect
President of Guinea-Bissau

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/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Guinea-Bissau
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Prime Minister of Guinea-Bissau

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/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Guyana
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Prime Minister of Guyana

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/wiki/President_of_the_Ivory_Coast
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The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano
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The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African
Cover image
Author
Olaudah Equiano
Country
Great Britain
Language
English
Subject
Autobiography
Publication date
1789
OCLC
23633870
LC Class
HT869.E6 A3 1794
Green plaque at Riding House Street, London, noting the place where Equiano lived and published his narrative.
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African, first published in 1789 in London,[1] is the autobiography of Olaudah Equiano. The narrative is argued to be a variety of styles, such as a slavery narrative, travel narrative, and spiritual narrative.[2] The book describes Equiano's time spent in enslavement, and documents his attempts at becoming an independent man through his study of the Bible, and his eventual success in gaining his own freedom and in business thereafter.
Contents
[hide]
1 Main themes
2 Summary
3 Controversy about origins
4 Reception
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Main themes[edit]
Slavery in West Africa and how the experience differed from slavery in the Americas
The African slave's voyage from Africa (Bini) to the Americas and England[3]
The journey from slavery to freedom and parallel journey from heathenism to Christianity
Institutional slavery can raise the master as above man as the slave is forced beneath, both corrupting the master with power and crippling the slave with the lack thereof
Summary[edit]
Preface
Prior to Chapter 1, Equiano writes: "An invidious falsehood having appeared in the Oracle of the 25th, and the Star of the 27th of April 1792, with a view to hurt my character, and to discredit and prevent the sale of my Narrative."[4] Like many literary works written by black people during this time, Equiano's work was discredited as a false presentation of his slavery experience. To combat these accusations, Equiano includes a set of letters written by white people who "knew me when I first arrived in England, and could speak no language but that of Africa."[4] In his article, Preface to Blackness: Text and Pretext[5] Henry Louis Gates Jr. discusses the use of prefaces by black authors to humanize their being, which in turn made their work credible. In this section of the book, Equiano includes this preface to avoid further discrediting. Other notable works with a "preface to blackness" include the poems of Phyllis Wheatley.
Chapter 1
Equiano opens his Narrative by explaining the struggle that comes with writing a memoir. He is very passionate about the hardships that memoir writers go through. He explains that they often have to defend themselves from those who remain critical about the truth of their work. He apologizes to his readers in advance for not having the most exciting story, but hopes that it serves to be helpful to other slaves in his position. He states, "I am neither a saint, a hero, nor a tyrant." He begins his story with a description of his homeland and the district in which he was born. He was born in the kingdom of Benin. Benin was a part of Guinea. The specific district that he represented was Eboe, which is in the same area as what is now Nigeria. Within the district, Equiano was born in Essake, a small province, in 1745. He goes into detail concerning his district and the isolation of his province.[6]
Eboe, Equiano’s district, was very established when it came to rules and laws of governing. Their system of marriage and law were strictly enforced. His father was an elder in the district, and he was in charge of punishing criminals and resolving issues of conflict within the society. Within the district, women were held to higher standards than men. Marriage was seen as extremely important. The bride’s family was responsible for providing gifts for the family of the husband, and the wife was seen as "owned by her husband".[7]
Dancing was a huge part of the culture within the kingdom. All dancing as separated into four divisions of groups of people, and they all represented an important part of life and an important event in life. The kingdom was made up of many musicians, singers, poets, dancers, and artists. The people of the kingdom lived a simple life. Nothing was luxurious. Clothes and homes were very plain and clean. The only type of luxuries in their eyes were perfumes and on occasions alcohol. Women were in charge of creating clothing for the men and women to wear. But, as far as occupation goes, agriculture was the primary occupation. The kingdom sat on rich soil, thus allowing for health food and abundant growth. Slaves were also present in the kingdom, but in Eboe, only slaves who were prisoners of war or convicted criminals were traded.
Some hardships came with an unusual amount of locusts and nonstop random wars with other districts. If another district’s chief waged war and won, then they would acquire all slaves, but in losses, the chief would be put to death. Religion was extremely important in the Equiano’s society. The people of Eboe believed in one "Creator." They believed that the Creator lived in the sun and was in charge of major occurrences: life, death, and war. They believed that those who died transmigrated into spirits, but their friends and family who did not transmigrate protected them from evil spirits. They believed in circumcision. Equiano compared this practice of circumcision to that of the Jews.
Equiano goes on to explain the customs of his people. Children were named after events or virtues of some sort. Olaudah meant fortune, but it also served as a symbol of command of speech and his demanding voice. Two of the main themes of the Eboe religion were cleanliness and decency. Touching of women during their menstrual cycle and the touching of dead bodies were seen as unclean. As Equiano discusses his people, he explains the fear of poisons within the community. Snakes and plants contained poisons that were harmful to the Eboe people. He describes an instance where a snake once slithered through his legs without harming him. He considered himself extremely lucky.[8]
Equiano makes numerous references to the similarity between the Jews and his people. Like the Jews, not only did his people practice circumcision, but they also practiced sacrificing, burnt offerings, and purification. He explains how Abraham’s wife was African, and that the skin colour of Eboan Africans and modern Jews differs due to the climate difference. At the end of the first chapter, Equiano asserts that Africans were not inferior people. The Europeans saw them as inferior because they were ignorant of the European language, history, and customs. He explains that it is important to remember that the ancestors of the Europeans were once uncivilized and barbarians at one point or another. He states, "Understanding is not confined to feature or colour."
Chapter 2
Equiano begins the chapter by explaining how he and his sister were kidnapped. The pair are forced to travel with their captors for a time, when one day, the two children are separated. Equiano becomes the slave-companion to the children of a wealthy chieftain. He stays there for about a month, until he runs away after accidentally killing one of his master's chickens. Equiano hides in the shrubbery and woods surrounding his master's village, but after several days without food, steals away into his master's kitchen to eat. Exhausted, Equiano falls asleep in the kitchen and is discovered by another slave who takes Equiano to the master. The master is forgiving and insists that Equiano shall not be harmed.
Soon after, Equiano is sold to a group of travellers. One day, his sister appears with her master at the house and they share a joyous reunion; however, she and her company depart, and Equiano never sees his sister again. Equiano is eventually sold to a wealthy widow and her young son. Equiano lives almost as an equal among them and is very happy until he is again taken away and forced to travel with "heathens" to the seacoast.[9]
Equiano is forced onto a slave ship and spends the next several weeks on the ship under terrible conditions. He points out the "closeness of the place, and the heat of the climate, added to the number in the ship" suffocates them; some slaves even preferred to drown, and one was saved but to be flogged later, as he had chosen to die rather that accept to be a slave. At last they reach the island of Barbados, where Equiano and all the other slaves are separated and sold. The author mentions the impact of their selling away, as "on the signal given, (as the beat of a drum), the buyers rush at once into the yard where they are confined, and make choice of that parcel they like best. [...] The noise and clamour [...] serve not a little to increase the apprehension of the Terrified Africans."
Throughout the whole passage, Equiano refers to white people as cruel, greedy, and mean. He is very surprised by the way they relate to each other, as they are even cruel between them, not only to the slaves. However, as he meets more white people and learns about their culture he comes to the conclusion that the white men are not inherently evil but that institutional slavery has made them cruel and callous.
Chapter 3
Equiano was lonely at the new plantation and didn’t have anyone to talk to. He did his work by himself. One day, when he was in the kitchen, he saw one of the women slaves with an iron muzzle on, and that shocked him. As he continued looking around the house he saw a watch on the wall and a painting. He was paranoid by both of these objects because he thought they were spying for the Master. This shows just how little he knew about the common technology of the time. On the plantation he was called Jacob, instead of his real name. One day, a man, whose name is Michael Henry Pascal, came to the Master's house and wanted to purchase Equiano. He paid thirty to forty pounds for him and Equiano left to work on a ship. He liked it a lot better on the ship because the other people aboard were nicer to him and he ate better than he did previously. He was renamed again to Gustavus Vassa, which he didn’t like but got used to so he didn’t get punished. On the ship Equiano made a friend whose name was Richard Baker. Richard became a companion and interpreter for Equiano because he didn’t understand the language everyone else was speaking. They became very close. Richard died in 1759 and it was hard on Equiano.[10]
Chapter 4
It has now been two or three years since Equiano first came to England. He has spent the majority of his time at sea. He didn’t mind the work he was doing and has spent so much time there he almost considered himself an Englishman. He could speak English decently, but he could perfectly understand everything that was being said to him. He also started viewing the others on the ship as superiors to him instead of barbaric and scary. He wanted to be like them. Equiano went to London with his Master and was sent to serve for the Guerins. He liked it there and they provided him an education. He got baptized with the help of Miss Guerins. After a while his Master got called back to sea, so Equiano had to leave school to work for his Master. They went to Gibraltar, which allowed him to get cheap fruit and tell the story of losing his sister. A person who lived in the area told him that he saw his sister and took him to her, but it ended up not being his sister. Equiano met Daniel Queen while working for his Master and he quickly became a big part of his life. He taught him a variety of things like religion, education, and how to shave. Equiano viewed him almost like a father and tried to repay him with sugar or Tabaco whenever he could afford it. The ship left to go to London in December because they heard talk to peace and the end of the war. When they got there his Master gave him away to Captain Doran, even though he didn’t want to go.[10]
Chapter 5
In the middle of May, Equiano was summoned by Captain Doran and was told he had been sold to a new Master, whose name was Mr. Robert King. King wanted to purchase him because he liked his character and how much of a hard worker he is. Other people offered King up to one hundred guineas for Equiano. King was good to Equiano and said he would put him in school and fit him for a clerk. King fed his slaves well and sometimes got criticized by others for it. King’s philosophy was: the better fed the slave; the harder the slave would work. King had Equiano do a new job on the ship, which is called gauging. Gauging is measuring the depth of the boat or a compartment of a boat. He also put Equiano in charge of the Negro cargo on the ship. While working for King, Equiano saw clerks and other white men rape women, which made him angry, especially because he couldn’t do anything about it.[10]
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 opens with Equiano explaining that he has seen a lot of bad and unfair things happen as a slave. He recounts a specific event that happened in 1763. He and a companion were trying to sell limes and oranges that were in bags. Two white men came up to them and took the fruit away from them. They begged them for the bags back and explained that it was everything they owned, but the white men threatened to flog them if they continued begging. They walked away because they were scared, but after a while they went back to the house and asked for their stuff back again. The men gave them two of the three bags back. The bag that they kept was all of the companions fruit, so Equiano gave him about one-third of his fruit. They went off to sell the fruit and ended up getting 37 bits for it, which was surprising. During this time Equiano started working as a sailor and selling and trading items like gin and tumblers. When he was in the West Indies, he witnessed a free mulatto man, whose name is Joseph Clipson, be taken in and made a slave by a white man. Equiano says that happens a lot in that area. He decides that he can’t be free until he leaves the West Indies. With the money he is earning from selling items he is saving it to buy his freedom.[10]
Before Equiano and his captain leave for a trip to Philadelphia, his captain hears that Equiano was planning on running away. His Master reminds him how valuable he is and how he will just find him and get him back if he tries to run away. Equiano explains that he didn’t plan on running away and if he wanted to run away he would have done it by now given all the freedom the Master and the captain give him. The captain confirms what Equiano said and decided it was just a rumor. Equiano tells the Master then that he is interested in buying his freedom eventually.[10]
When they get to Philadelphia, he goes and sells what his Master gave him and also talked to Mrs. Davis. Mrs. Davis is a wise woman who reveals secrets and foretells events. She tells him he wouldn’t be a slave for long. The ship continues on to Georgia and while they are there, Doctor Perkins beats Equiano up and leaves him laying on the ground unable to move. Police pick him up and put him in jail. His captain finds out when he doesn’t come back the night before and gets him out of jail. He also has the best doctors treat him. He tries to sue Doctor Perkins, but a lawyer explains that there is not a case because Equiano is a black man. Equiano slowly recovers and gets back to work.[10]
Chapter 7
Equiano is getting close to purchasing his freedom with all the money he has saved from selling items. The ship was supposed to go to Montserrat, where he thought he would get the last of the money he needed, but they get an order to go to St. Eustatia and then Georgia instead. He sells some more items and earned enough money to buy his freedom. He goes to the captain to consult with him about what to say to his Master. The captain says to come by on a certain morning when he and the Master will be having breakfast. He goes in that day and proposes to purchase his own freedom for 70 pounds. With a little convincing from the captain, he agrees, and Equiano is granted complete freedom. The narrative ends with Equiano’s Montserrat in full text.[10]
Controversy about origins[edit]
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vass, The African, originally published in 1789, played a large role in "[altering] public opinion" towards the slave trade in Britain. Equiano was viewed as "an authority" in relation to the slave trade. His claim to being born in Eboe, now southern Nigeria, and being captured and traded as a child gave him definite credibility. But his credibility came to question in the 1790s in order to destroy the negative opinion on the slave trade. There were rumours that Equiano was actually born in the West Indies, but these claims were thrown away for being "politically motivated."[11]
Decades after The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African, was published and newly edited in 1967 by Paul Edwards a debate was sparked on the validity of the origins of Equiano’s story.
In 1999, Vincent Carretta published findings of two records which raised questions regarding Equiano's account of being born in Africa.[12] In particular, he located two documents disproving Equiano credibility. Carretta found Equiano's baptismal record dated February 9, 1759 from a church in Westminster (England), where Equiano was recorded as "Gustavus Vassa, a Black born in Carolina, 12 years old", and a naval muster roll from 1773 where Equiano likewise identified his birthplace as "South Carolina".[13] These documents were enough for Carretta to believe that Equiano's claims about his early life were "probably fictitious".[14] Aside from contradicting Equiano's account directly, these records suggested that, even if Equiano were born in Africa, he would have been at most seven or eight years old when he was sold into slavery (given that he must have been purchased by Michael Henry Pascal in Virginia no later than December 1754); to Carretta, this cast doubt on reliability of Equiano's first-hand descriptions of his home "country" and "countrymen".[15] Carretta believes that his findings are possible evidence that Equiano had borrowed his account of Africa from others. Carretta goes on to say the timing of the publication of The Interesting Narrative was not an accident,[16] noting "the revelation that Gustavus Vassa was a native-born Igbo originally named Olaudah Equiano appears to have evolved during 1788 in response to the needs of the abolitionist movement."[17]
Carretta explains that Equiano presumably knew what parts of his story could be corroborated by others, and, more importantly if he was combining fiction with fact, what parts could not easily be contradicted.[16]
"Equiano’s fellow abolitionists were calling for precisely the kind of account of Africa and the Middle Passage that he supplied. Because only a native African would have experienced the Middle Passage, the abolitionist movement needed an African, not an African-American, voice. Equiano’s autobiography corroborated and even explicitly drew upon earlier reports of Africa and the Middle Passage by some white observers, and challenged those of others."
Paul E. Lovejoy disputes Carretta’s claim that Vassa was born in South Carolina because of Vassa’s knowledge of the Igbo society. Lovejoy refers to Equiano as Vassa because he never used his African name until he wrote his narrative.[18] Lovejoy believes Vassa's description of his country and his people is sufficient confirmation that he was born where he said he was, and based on when boys received the ichi scarification, that he was about 11 when he was kidnapped, as he claims, which suggests a birth date of about 1742, not 1745 or 1747.[19] Lovejoy thoughts on the baptismal record are that Vassa couldn't have made up his origins because he would have been too young. Lovejoy goes on to say:[19]
"If Carretta is correct about Vassa's age at the time of baptism, accepting the documentary evidence, then he was too young to have created a complex fraud about origins. The fraud must have been perpetrated later, but when? Certainly the baptismal record cannot be used as proof that he committed fraud, only that his godparents might have."
Lovejoy also believes that Equiano’s godparents, the Guerins and Pascals, wanted people to think that Vassa was creole born, and not a native African, because he had mastered English so well by then or for other reasons relating to perceived higher status for creoles.[20]
In 2007, Carretta wrote a response to Lovejoy’s claims about the Equiano’s Godparents saying: "Lovejoy can offer no evidence for such a desire or perception."[16] Carretta went on to say: "Equiano’s age on the 1759 baptismal record to be off by a year or two before puberty is plausible. But to have it off by five years, as Lovejoy contends, would place Equiano well into puberty at the age of 17, when he would have been far more likely to have had a say in, and later remembered, what was recorded. And his godparents and witnesses should have noticed the difference between a child and an adolescent."[21]
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The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano was one of the first widely read slave narratives. Eight editions were printed during the author's lifetime, and it was translated into Dutch and German.[22] The structure and rhetorical strategies of the book were influential and created a model for subsequent slave narratives.[22] The different kinds of aspects and ideas in his narrative, such as travel, religion, and slavery, cause some readers to debate what kind of narrative his writing is: a slavery narrative, a spiritual narrative, or a travel narrative.[2]
The work has proven so influential in the study of African and African-American literature that it is frequently taught in both English literature and History classrooms in universities. The work has also been republished in the influential Heinemann African Writers Series.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African – Written By Himself at project Gutenberg.
^ Jump up to: a b Collins, Janelle (2006). "Passage to Slavery, Passage to Freedom: Olaudah Equiano and the Sea". Midwest Quarterly. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Gates 1989, p. 154.
^ Jump up to: a b Louis Gates Jr, Henry (2012). The Classic Slave Narratives. New American Library. p. 3. ISBN 9780451532138.
Jump up ^ Louis Gates Jr., Henry. "Preface to Blackness: Text and Pretext". Afro-American Literature: The Reconstruction of Instruction.
Jump up ^ Carey, Brycchan. "Olaudah Equiano: An Illustrated Biography". Brycchan Carey homepage. Retrieved 3 December 2014.
Jump up ^ Public Broadcasting Service. "Africans in America:Part 1-Olaudah Equiano". www.pbs.org. Resource Bank: Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
Jump up ^ The Equiano Project (2007). "Olaudah Equiano: 1745–1797". www.equiano.org. Worcestershire Records Office. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Equiano in Africa". IMDb. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Equiano, Olaudah (2013). The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself. United States of America: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 355–387. ISBN 978-0-393-91885-4.
Jump up ^ Layson, Hanna; Tikoff, Valentina. "Olaudah Equiano and the Eighteenth-Century Debate over Africa and the Slave Trade". Digital Collections for the Classroom. Newberry Library. Retrieved 12 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Blackburn, Robin. "The True Story of Equiano". The Nation. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Equiano the African: Biography of a Self-made Man".
Jump up ^ Chambers, Douglas. ""Almost and Englishmen: Vincent Carretta". H-Net. H-Atlantic. Retrieved 12 November 2017.
Jump up ^ ""Almost an Englishman": Carretta's Equiano" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b c Carretta, Vincent (2007). "Response to Paul Lovejoy's 'Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African'". Slavery & Abolition. 28 (1): 116.
Jump up ^ Carretta, Vincent. Equiano, the African: Biography of a self-made man. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, Paul E. (2006). "Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African". Slavery And Abolition. 27 (3): 318.
^ Jump up to: a b Lovejoy, Paul E. (2006). "Construction of Identity: Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa?". Historically Speaking. 7 (3): 9.
Jump up ^ Lovejoy, Paul E. (2006). "Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African". Slavery And Abolition. 27 (3): 337.
Jump up ^ Carretta, Vincent (2007). "Response to Paul Lovejoy's 'Autobiography and Memory: Gustavus Vassa, alias Olaudah Equiano, the African'". Slavery & Abolition. 28 (1): 118.
^ Jump up to: a b Gates 1989, p. 153.
References[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African
Equiano, Olaudah (2001), Sollors, Werner, ed., The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African written by himself; authoritative text, contexts, criticism (1st ed.), New York: Norton, ISBN 0393974944, LCCN 00058386
Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. (1989). The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195060751.
External links[edit]
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African at Project Gutenberg
Catalog record for The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Or Gustavus Vassa, The African at the United States Library of Congress
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano public domain audiobook at LibriVox
The Interesting Narrative of Olaudah Equiano: A short animation partially adapted from the book with a third act set in 1838 when slavery is abolished.
"North American Slave Narratives: Alphabetical List of Slave and Ex-Slave Narratives". Documenting the American South. The University Library, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 2004. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
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Non-fiction books
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789)
The Narrative of Robert Adams (1816)
American Slavery as It Is (1839)
Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845)
The Life of Josiah Henson (1849)
Twelve Years a Slave (1853)
My Bondage and My Freedom (1855)
Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (1861)
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Our Nig (1859)
Jubilee (1966)
The Confessions of Nat Turner (1967)
Roots: The Saga of an American Family (1976)
Underground to Canada (1977)
Kindred (1979)
Dessa Rose (1986)
Beloved (1987)
Middle Passage (1990)
Queen: The Story of an American Family (1993)
Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons (1996)
Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade (2001)
Walk Through Darkness (2002)
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The Underground Railroad (2016)
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Related
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Book of Negroes (1783)
Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book (1847)
Slave Songs of the United States (1867)
Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery (2002)
The Hemingses of Monticello (2008)
Documentaries
Unchained Memories (2003)
Frederick Douglass and the White Negro (2008)
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values: The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself

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values: アフリカ人、イクイアーノの生涯の興味深い物語 – Japanese

values: The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano – Simple English

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