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Physiology
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Oil painting depicting Claude Bernard, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils
Physiology (/ˌfɪziˈɒlədʒi/; from Ancient Greek φύσις (physis), meaning 'nature, origin', and -λογία (-logia), meaning 'study of'[1]) is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which works within a living system.[2] A sub-discipline of biology, its focus is in how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system.[3] Given the size of the field, it is divided into, among others, animal physiology (including that of humans), plant physiology, cellular physiology, microbial physiology (microbial metabolism), bacterial physiology, and viral physiology.[3]
Central to an understanding of physiological functioning is its integrated nature with other disciplines such as chemistry and physics, coordinated homeostatic control mechanisms, and continuous communication between cells.[4]
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded to those who make significant achievements in this discipline by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In medicine, a physiologic state is one occurring from normal body function, rather than pathologically, which is centered on the abnormalities that occur in animal diseases, including humans.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Women in physiology
2 Subdisciplines
3 Human physiology
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
7 Bibliography
History[edit]
Physiological studies date back to the ancient civilizations of India[6][7] and Egypt alongside anatomical studies, but did not utilize dissection or vivisection.[8]
The study of human physiology as a medical field dates back to at least 420 BC to the time of Hippocrates, also known as the "father of medicine."[9] Hippocrates incorporated his belief system called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour: black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudis Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry.[10] Claudius Galenus (c. ~130–200 AD), known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates though, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body.[11] His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates idea that emotions were also tied to the humours, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth.[11] Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology.[12] And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine.[11]
Jean Fernel (1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology".[13]
In the 1820s, the French physiologist Henri Milne-Edwards introduced the notion of physiological division of labor, which allowed to "compare and study living things as if they were machines created by the industry of man." Inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the "body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory ... where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual." In more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems (called by him as appareils).[14]
In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and surgical wounds. He later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result decreases death rate from surgery by a substantial amount.[5][15]
The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club.[16] The American Physiological Society (APS) is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, "devoted to fostering education, scientific research, and dissemination of information in the physiological sciences."[17]
In 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on "conditional reflexes" that involved dogs' saliva production in response to a plethora of sounds and visual stimuli.[15]
In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (1813–1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment), which would later be taken up and championed as "homeostasis" by American physiologist Walter B. Cannon in 1929. By homeostasis, Cannon meant "the maintenance of steady states in the body and the physiological processes through which they are regulated."[18] In other words, the body's ability to regulate its internal environment. It should be noted that, William Beaumont was the first American to utilize the practical application of physiology.
Nineteenth century physiologists such as Michael Foster, Max Verworn, and Alfred Binet, based on Haeckel's ideas, elaborated what came to be called "general physiology", a unified science of life based on the cell actions,[14] later renamed in the twentieth century as cell biology.[19]
In the 20th century, biologists became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of comparative physiology and ecophysiology.[20] Major figures in these fields include Knut Schmidt-Nielsen and George Bartholomew. Most recently, evolutionary physiology has become a distinct subdiscipline.[21]
In 1920, August Krogh won the Nobel Prize for discovering how, in capillaries, blood flow is regulated.[15]
In 1954, Andrew Huxley and Hugh Huxley, alongside their research team, discovered the sliding filaments in skeletal muscle, known today as the sliding filament theory.[15]
Women in physiology[edit]
Initially, women were largely excluded from official involvement in any physiological society. The American Physiological Society, for example, was founded in 1887 and included only men in its ranks.[22] In 1902, the American Physiological Society elected Ida Hyde as the first female member of the society.[23] Hyde, a representative of the American Association of University Women and a global advocate for gender equality in education,[24] attempted to promote gender equality in every aspect of science and medicine.
Soon thereafter, in 1913, J.S. Haldane proposed that women be allowed to formally join The Physiological Society, which had been founded in 1876.[citation needed] On 3 July 1915, six women were officially admitted: Florence Buchanan, Winifred Cullis, Ruth C. Skelton, Sarah C. M. Sowton, Constance Leetham Terry, and Enid M. Tribe.[25] The centenary of the election of women was celebrated in 2015 with the publication of a book "Women physiologists: centenary celebrations and beyond for The Physiological Society ISBN 978-0-9933410-0-7.
Prominent women physiologists include:
Gerty Cori,[26] along with husband Carl Cori, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 for their discovery of the phosphate-containing form of glucose known as glycogen, as well as its function within eukaryotic metabolic mechanisms for energy production. Moreover, they discovered the Cori cycle, also known as the Lactic acid cycle,[27] which describes how muscle tissue converts glycogen into lactic acid via lactic acid fermentation.
Barbara McClintock was rewarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of genetic transposition McClintock is the only female recipient who has won an unshared Nobel Prize.[28]
Gertrude Elion,[29] along with George Hitchings and Sir James Black, received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for their development of drugs employed in the treatment of several major diseases, such as leukemia, some autoimmune disorders, gout, malaria, and viral herpes.
Linda B. Buck,[30] along with Richard Axel, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004 for their discovery of odorant receptors and the complex organization of the olfactory system.
Françoise Barré-Sinoussi,[31] along with Luc Montagnier, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2008 for their work on the identification of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), the cause of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
Elizabeth Blackburn,[32] along with Carol W. Greider[33] and Jack W. Szostak, was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the genetic composition and function of telomeres and the enzyme called telomerase.
Subdisciplines[edit]
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Outline
Category
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There are many ways to categorize the subdiscplines of physiology:[34]
based on the taxa studied: human physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, microbial physiology, viral physiology
based on the level of organization: cell physiology, molecular physiology, systems physiology, organismal physiology, ecological physiology, integrative physiology
based on the process that causes physiological variation: developmental physiology, environmental physiology, evolutionary physiology
based on the ultimate goals of the research: applied physiology (e.g., medical physiology), non-applied (e.g., comparative physiology)
Human physiology[edit]
Main article: Human body § Physiology
Human physiology seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the human body alive and functioning,[3] through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. The endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals. that integrate function in animals. Homeostasis is a major aspect with regard to such interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.[citation needed]
Changes in physiology can impact the mental functions of individuals. Examples of this would be the effects of certain medications or toxic levels of substances.[35][36] Change in behavior as a result of these substances is often used to assess the health of individuals.[37][38]
Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by animal experimentation. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and anatomy are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.[39]
See also[edit]
Biology portal
Outline of physiology
Applied physiology
Cell physiology
Cybernetics
Cytoarchitecture
Defense physiology
Ecophysiology
Exercise physiology
Fish physiology
Insect physiology
Human body
List of physiologists
Metabolome
Neurophysiology
Physiome
Plant physiology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "physiology". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Prosser, C. Ladd (1991). Comparative Animal Physiology, Environmental and Metabolic Animal Physiology (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Liss. pp. 1–12. ISBN 0-471-85767-X.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hall, John (2011). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders/Elsevier. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4160-4574-8.
Jump up ^ Widmaier, Eric P.; Raff, Hershel; Strang, Kevin T. (2016). Vander's Human Physiology The Mechanisms of Body Function. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-1-259-29409-9.
^ Jump up to: a b "What is physiology?". Medical News Today.
Jump up ^ D. P. Burma; Maharani Chakravorty. From Physiology and Chemistry to Biochemistry. Pearson Education. p. 8.
Jump up ^ Francis Zimmermann. The Jungle and the Aroma of Meats: An Ecological Theme in Hindu Medicine. Motilal Banarsidass publications. p. 159.
Jump up ^ "Medicine Across Cultures". google.com.
Jump up ^ "Physiology". Science Clarified. Advameg, Inc. Retrieved 2010-08-29.
Jump up ^ "Early Medicine and Physiology". ship.edu.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Galen of Pergamum". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Fell, C.; Pearson, F. (November 2007). "Historical Perspectives of Thoracic Anatomy". Thoracic Surgery Clinics. 17 (4): 443–8. doi:10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.001.
Jump up ^ Wilbur Applebaum. Encyclopedia of the Scientific Revolution: From Copernicus to Newton. Routledge. p. 344.
^ Jump up to: a b R. M. Brain. The Pulse of Modernism: Physiological Aesthetics in Fin-de-Siècle Europe. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015. 384 pp., [1].
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Milestones in Physiology (1822-2013)" (PDF). 1 October 2013. Retrieved 2015-07-25.
Jump up ^ "The Society’s history | Physiological Society". www.physoc.org. Retrieved 2017-02-21.
Jump up ^ "American Physiological Society > About". www.the-aps.org. Retrieved 2017-02-21.
Jump up ^ Brown Theodore M.; Fee Elizabeth (October 2002). "Walter Bradford Cannon: Pioneer Physiologist of Human Emotions". American Journal of Public Health. 92 (10): 1594–1595. PMC 1447286  . doi:10.2105/ajph.92.10.1594.
Jump up ^ Heilbron, J. L. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science, Oxford University Press, p. 649, link.
Jump up ^ Feder, ME; Bennett, AF; WW, Burggren; Huey, RB (1987). New directions in ecological physiology. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-34938-3.
Jump up ^ Garland, Jr, Theodore; Carter, P. A. (1994). "Evolutionary physiology" (PDF). Annual Review of Physiology. 56 (1): 579–621. PMID 8010752. doi:10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051.
Jump up ^ "American Physiological Society > Founders". www.the-aps.org. The American Physiological Society.
Jump up ^ Tucker, GS (December 1981). "Ida Henrietta Hyde: the first woman member of the society" (PDF). The Physiologist. 24 (6): 1–9. PMID 7043502.
Jump up ^ "Ida Henrietta Hyde". jwa.org.
Jump up ^ "Women in Physiology". physoc.org.
Jump up ^ "Carl Cori and Gerty Cori". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ "Cori cycle". TheFreeDictionary.com.
Jump up ^ "Facts on the Nobel Prizes in Physiology and Medicine". nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB. Retrieved 2016-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Gertrude B. Elion". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004". nobelprize.org.
Jump up ^ "Francoise Barre-Sinoussi - biography - French virologist". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ "Elizabeth H. Blackburn". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ "Carol W. Greider". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Moyes, C.D., Schulte, P.M. Principles of Animal Physiology, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.
Jump up ^ van der Linden, S. (2013). "A Response to Dolan. In A. Oliver (Ed.)" (PDF). pp. 209–2015. Retrieved April 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mental disorders". World Health Organization. WHO. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Eszopiclone" (PDF). F.A. Davis. 2017. Retrieved April 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Zolpidem" (PDF). F.A. Davis. Retrieved April 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bergman, Esther M; de Bruin, Anique BH; Herrler, Andreas; Verheijen, Inge WH; Scherpbier, Albert JJA; van der Vleuten, Cees PM (19 November 2013). "Students’ perceptions of anatomy across the undergraduate problem-based learning medical curriculum: a phenomenographical study". US National Library of Medicine. National Institutes of Health. PMC 4225514  . doi:10.1186/1472-6920-13-152. Together with physiology and biochemistry, anatomy is one of the basic sciences that are to be taught in the medical curriculum.
External links[edit]
Look up physiology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikisource has original works on the topic: Physiology
The Physiological Society
physiologyINFO.org public information site sponsored by The American Physiological Society
Bibliography[edit]
Human physiology
Widmaier, E.P., Raff, H., Strang, K.T. Vander's Human Physiology. 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2009.
Marieb, E.N. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 10th Edition, Benjamin Cummings, 2012.
Animal physiology
Hill, R.W., Wyse, G.A., Anderson, M. Animal Physiology, 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, 2012.
Moyes, C.D., Schulte, P.M. Principles of Animal Physiology, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.
Randall, D., Burggren, W., and French, K. Eckert Animal Physiology: Mechanism and Adaptation, 5th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, 2002.
Schmidt-Nielsen, K. Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Withers, P.C. Comparative animal physiology. Saunders College Publishing, New York, 1992.
Plant physiology
Larcher, W. Physiological plant ecology (4th ed.). Springer, 2001.
Salisbury, F.B, Ross, C.W. Plant physiology. Brooks/Cole Pub Co., 1992
Taiz, L., Zieger, E. Plant Physiology (5th ed.), Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer, 2010.
Fungal physiology
Griffin, D.H. Fungal Physiology, Second Edition. Wiley-Liss, New York, 1994.
Protistan physiology
Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Cell physiology sourcebook: essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
Levandowski, M., Hutner, S.H. (eds). Biochemistry and physiology of protozoa. Volumes 1, 2, and 3. Academic Press: New York, NY, 1979; 2nd ed.
Laybourn-Parry J. A Functional Biology of Free-Living Protozoa. Berkeley, California: University of California Press; 1984.
Algal physiology
Lobban, C.S., Harrison, P.J. Seaweed ecology and physiology. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Stewart, W. D. P. (ed.). Algal Physiology and Biochemistry. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1974.
Bacterial physiology
El-Sharoud, W. (ed.). Bacterial Physiology: A Molecular Approach. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 2008.
Kim, B.H., Gadd, M.G. Bacterial Physiology and Metabolism. Cambridge, 2008.
Moat, A.G., Foster, J.W., Spector, M.P. Microbial Physiology, 4th ed. Wiley-Liss, Inc. New York, NY, 2002.
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Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1901–1925
1901 Emil Behring
1902 Ronald Ross
1903 Niels Finsen
1904 Ivan Pavlov
1905 Robert Koch
1906 Camillo Golgi / Santiago Ramón y Cajal
1907 Alphonse Laveran
1908 Élie Metchnikoff / Paul Ehrlich
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1910 Albrecht Kossel
1911 Allvar Gullstrand
1912 Alexis Carrel
1913 Charles Richet
1914 Róbert Bárány
1915
1916
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1919 Jules Bordet
1920 August Krogh
1921
1922 Archibald Hill / Otto Meyerhof
1923 Frederick Banting / John Macleod
1924 Willem Einthoven
1925
1926–1950
1926 Johannes Fibiger
1927 Julius Wagner-Jauregg
1928 Charles Nicolle
1929 Christiaan Eijkman / Frederick Gowland Hopkins
1930 Karl Landsteiner
1931 Otto Warburg
1932 Charles Scott Sherrington / Edgar Adrian
1933 Thomas Morgan
1934 George Whipple / George Minot / William Murphy
1935 Hans Spemann
1936 Henry Dale / Otto Loewi
1937 Albert Szent-Györgyi
1938 Corneille Heymans
1939 Gerhard Domagk
1940
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1944 Joseph Erlanger / Herbert Gasser
1945 Alexander Fleming / Ernst Chain / Howard Florey
1946 Hermann Muller
1947 Carl Cori / Gerty Cori / Bernardo Houssay
1948 Paul Müller
1949 Walter Hess / António Egas Moniz
1950 Edward Kendall / Tadeusz Reichstein / Philip Hench
1951–1975
1951 Max Theiler
1952 Selman Waksman
1953 Hans Krebs / Fritz Lipmann
1954 John Enders / Thomas Weller / Frederick Robbins
1955 Hugo Theorell
1956 André Cournand / Werner Forssmann / Dickinson W. Richards
1957 Daniel Bovet
1958 George Beadle / Edward Tatum / Joshua Lederberg
1959 Severo Ochoa / Arthur Kornberg
1960 Frank Burnet / Peter Medawar
1961 Georg von Békésy
1962 Francis Crick / James Watson / Maurice Wilkins
1963 John Eccles / Alan Hodgkin / Andrew Huxley
1964 Konrad Bloch / Feodor Lynen
1965 François Jacob / André Lwoff / Jacques Monod
1966 Francis Rous / Charles B. Huggins
1967 Ragnar Granit / Haldan Hartline / George Wald
1968 Robert W. Holley / Har Khorana / Marshall Nirenberg
1969 Max Delbrück / Alfred Hershey / Salvador Luria
1970 Bernard Katz / Ulf von Euler / Julius Axelrod
1971 Earl Sutherland Jr.
1972 Gerald Edelman / Rodney Porter
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1974 Albert Claude / Christian de Duve / George Palade
1975 David Baltimore / Renato Dulbecco / Howard Temin
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1977 Roger Guillemin / Andrew Schally / Rosalyn Yalow
1978 Werner Arber / Daniel Nathans / Hamilton O. Smith
1979 Allan Cormack / Godfrey Hounsfield
1980 Baruj Benacerraf / Jean Dausset / George Snell
1981 Roger Sperry / David H. Hubel / Torsten Wiesel
1982 Sune Bergström / Bengt I. Samuelsson / John Vane
1983 Barbara McClintock
1984 Niels Jerne / Georges Köhler / César Milstein
1985 Michael Brown / Joseph L. Goldstein
1986 Stanley Cohen / Rita Levi-Montalcini
1987 Susumu Tonegawa
1988 James W. Black / Gertrude B. Elion / George H. Hitchings
1989 J. Michael Bishop / Harold E. Varmus
1990 Joseph Murray / E. Donnall Thomas
1991 Erwin Neher / Bert Sakmann
1992 Edmond Fischer / Edwin G. Krebs
1993 Richard J. Roberts / Phillip Sharp
1994 Alfred G. Gilman / Martin Rodbell
1995 Edward B. Lewis / Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard / Eric F. Wieschaus
1996 Peter C. Doherty / Rolf M. Zinkernagel
1997 Stanley B. Prusiner
1998 Robert F. Furchgott / Louis Ignarro / Ferid Murad
1999 Günter Blobel
2000 Arvid Carlsson / Paul Greengard / Eric Kandel
2001–present
2001 Leland H. Hartwell / Tim Hunt / Paul Nurse
2002 Sydney Brenner / H. Robert Horvitz / John E. Sulston
2003 Paul Lauterbur / Peter Mansfield
2004 Richard Axel / Linda B. Buck
2005 Barry Marshall / Robin Warren
2006 Andrew Fire / Craig Mello
2007 Mario Capecchi / Martin Evans / Oliver Smithies
2008 Harald zur Hausen / Luc Montagnier / Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
2009 Elizabeth Blackburn / Carol W. Greider / Jack W. Szostak
2010 Robert G. Edwards
2011 Bruce Beutler / Jules A. Hoffmann / Ralph M. Steinman (posthumously)
2012 John B. Gurdon / Shinya Yamanaka
2013 James Rothman / Randy Schekman / Thomas C. Südhof
2014 John O'Keefe / May-Britt Moser / Edvard Moser
2015 William C. Campbell / Satoshi Ōmura / Tu Youyou
2016 Yoshinori Ohsumi
2017 Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, Michael W. Young
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