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Anaerobic respiration
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Anaerobic respiration is respiration using electron acceptors other than molecular oxygen (O2). Although oxygen is not used as the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain called physolmere; it is respiration without oxygen.[1]
In aerobic organisms undergoing respiration, electrons are shuttled to an electron transport chain, and the final electron acceptor is oxygen. Molecular oxygen is a highly oxidizing agent and, therefore, is an excellent electron acceptor. In anaerobes, other less-oxidizing substances such as sulfate (SO42−), nitrate (NO3−), sulphur (S), or fumarate are used. These terminal electron acceptors have smaller reduction potentials than O2, meaning that less energy is released per oxidized molecule. Therefore, generally speaking, anaerobic respiration is less efficient than aerobic.
Contents
[hide]
1 As compared with fermentation
2 Ecological importance
3 Economic relevance
4 Examples of respiration
5 See also
6 References
As compared with fermentation[edit]
There are two important microbial methane formation pathways, through carbonate reduction (respiration), and acetate fermentation.[2]
Cellular respiration (both aerobic and anaerobic) utilizes highly reduced chemical compounds such as NADH and FADH2 (for example produced during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle) to establish an electrochemical gradient (often a proton gradient) across a membrane, resulting in an electrical potential or ion concentration difference across the membrane. The reduced chemical compounds are oxidized by a series of respiratory integral membrane proteins with sequentially increasing reduction potentials with the final electron acceptor being oxygen (in aerobic respiration) or another chemical substance (in anaerobic respiration). A proton motive force drives protons down the gradient (across the membrane) through the proton channel of ATP synthase. The resulting current drives ATP synthesis from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
Fermentation, in contrast, does not utilize an electrochemical gradient. Fermentation instead only uses substrate-level phosphorylation to produce ATP. The electron acceptor NAD+ is regenerated from NADH formed in oxidative steps of the fermentation pathway by the reduction of oxidized compounds. These oxidized compounds are often formed during the fermentation pathway itself, but may also be external. For example, in homofermentative lactic acid bacteria, NADH formed during the oxidation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized back to NAD+ by the reduction of pyruvate to lactic acid at a later stage in the pathway. In yeast, acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol to regenerate NAD+. The two processes thus generate ATP in very different ways, and the terms should not be treated as synonyms.
Ecological importance[edit]
Anaerobic respiration is a critical component of the global nitrogen, iron, sulfur, and carbon cycles through the reduction of the oxyanions of nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon to more-reduced compounds. The biogeochemical cycling of these compounds, which depends upon anaerobic respiration, significantly impacts the carbon cycle and global warming. Anaerobic respiration occurs in many environments, including freshwater and marine sediments, soil, subsurface aquifers, deep subsurface environments, and biofilms. Even environments, such as soil, that contain oxygen also have micro-environments that lack oxygen due to the slow diffusion characteristics of oxygen gas.
An example of the ecological importance of anaerobic respiration is the use of nitrate as a terminal electron acceptor, or dissimilatory denitrification, which is the main route by which fixed nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere as molecular nitrogen gas.[3] Another example is methanogenesis, a form of carbonate respiration, that is used to produce methane gas by anaerobic digestion. Biogenic methane is used as a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. On the negative side, uncontrolled methanogenesis in landfill sites releases large volumes of methane into the atmosphere, where it acts as a powerful greenhouse gas.[4] Sulfate respiration produces hydrogen sulfide, which is responsible for the characteristic 'rotten egg' smell of coast wetlands and has the capacity to precipitate heavy metal ions from solution, leading to the deposition of sulfidic metal ores.[5]
Economic relevance[edit]
Dissimilatory denitrification is widely used in the removal of nitrate and nitrite from municipal wastewater. An excess of nitrate can lead to eutrophication of waterways into which treated water is released. Elevated nitrite levels in drinking water can lead to problems due to its toxicity. Denitrification converts both compounds into harmless nitrogen gas.[6]
Specific types of anaerobic respiration are also critical in bioremediation, which uses microorganisms to convert toxic chemicals into less-harmful molecules to clean up contaminated beaches, aquifers, lakes, and oceans. For example, toxic arsenate or selenate can be reduced to less toxic compounds by various anaerobic bacteria via anaerobic respiration. The reduction of chlorinated chemical pollutants, such as vinyl chloride and carbon tetrachloride, also occurs through anaerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration is useful in generating electricity in microbial fuel cells, which employ bacteria that respire solid electron acceptors (such as oxidized iron) to transfer electrons from reduced compounds to an electrode. This process can simultaneously degrade organic carbon waste and generate electricity.[7]
Examples of respiration[edit]
Type
Lifestyle
Electron acceptor
Products
Eo' [V]
Example organisms
aerobic respiration obligate aerobes and facultative anaerobes O2 H2O, CO2 + 0.82 eukaryotes and aerobic prokaryotes
iron reduction facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes Fe(III) Fe(II) + 0.75 Organisms within the order Desulfuromonadales (such as Geobacter, Geothermobacter, Geopsychrobacter, Pelobacter) and Shewanella species [8]
manganese facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes Mn(IV) Mn(II) Desulfuromonadales and Shewanella species [8]
cobalt reduction facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes Co(III) Co(II) Geobacter sulfurreducens
uranium reduction facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes U(VI) U(IV) Geobacter metallireducens[disputed – discuss], Shewanella oneidensis
nitrate reduction (denitrification) facultative anaerobes nitrate NO3− nitrite NO2− + 0.40 Paracoccus denitrificans, Escherichia coli
fumarate respiration facultative anaerobes fumarate succinate + 0.03 Escherichia coli
sulfate respiration obligate anaerobes sulfate SO42− sulfide HS− - 0.22 Many Deltaproteobacteria species in the orders Desulfobacterales, Desulfovibrionales, and Syntrophobacterales
methanogenesis (carbonate reduction) methanogens carbon dioxide CO2 methane CH4 - 0.25 Methanosarcina barkeri
sulfur respiration (sulfur reduction) facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes sulfur S0 sulfide HS− - 0.27 Desulfuromonadales
acetogenesis (carbonate reduction) obligate anaerobes carbon dioxide CO2 acetate - 0.30 Acetobacterium woodii
dehalorespiration facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes halogenated organic compounds R-X Halide ions and dehalogenated compound X− + R-H + 0.25–+ 0.60[9] Dehalococcoides and Dehalobacter species
See also[edit]
Hydrogenosomes and mitosomes
Standard electrode potential (data page)
Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Slonczewski, Joan L.; Foster, John W. (2011). Microbiology : An Evolving Science (2nd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. p. 166. ISBN 9780393934472.
Jump up ^ Sapart; et al. (2017). "The origin of methane in the East Siberian Arctic Shelf unraveled with triple isotope analysis". Biogeosciences. doi:10.5194/bg-14-2283-2017. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Simon, Jörg; Klotz, Martin G. (2013-02-01). "Diversity and evolution of bioenergetic systems involved in microbial nitrogen compound transformations". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics. The evolutionary aspects of bioenergetic systems. 1827 (2): 114–135. doi:10.1016/j.bbabio.2012.07.005.
Jump up ^ Bogner, Jean; Pipatti, Riitta; Hashimoto, Seiji; Diaz, Cristobal; Mareckova, Katarina; Diaz, Luis; Kjeldsen, Peter; Monni, Suvi; Faaij, Andre (2008-02-01). "Mitigation of global greenhouse gas emissions from waste: conclusions and strategies from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report. Working Group III (Mitigation)". Waste management & research: the journal of the International Solid Wastes and Public Cleansing Association, ISWA. 26 (1): 11–32. doi:10.1177/0734242x07088433. ISSN 0734-242X. PMID 18338699.
Jump up ^ Pester, Michael; Knorr, Klaus-Holger; Friedrich, Michael W.; Wagner, Michael; Loy, Alexander (2012-01-01). "Sulfate-reducing microorganisms in wetlands - fameless actors in carbon cycling and climate change". Frontiers in Microbiology. 3: 72. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2012.00072. ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 3289269  . PMID 22403575.
Jump up ^ Nancharaiah, Y. V.; Venkata Mohan, S.; Lens, P. N. L. (2016-09-01). "Recent advances in nutrient removal and recovery in biological and bioelectrochemical systems". Bioresource Technology. 215: 173–185. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2016.03.129. ISSN 1873-2976. PMID 27053446.
Jump up ^ Xu, Bojun; Ge, Zheng; He, Zhen (2015-05-15). "Sediment microbial fuel cells for wastewater treatment: challenges and opportunities". Environ. Sci.: Water Res. Technol. 1 (3): 279–284. doi:10.1039/c5ew00020c. ISSN 2053-1419.
^ Jump up to: a b Richter, Katrin; Schicklberger, Marcus; Gescher, Johannes (2012-02-01). "Dissimilatory reduction of extracellular electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 78 (4): 913–921. doi:10.1128/AEM.06803-11. ISSN 1098-5336. PMC 3273014  . PMID 22179232.
Jump up ^ Holliger, C.; Wohlfarth, G.; Diekert, G. (1998). "Reductive dechlorination in the energy metabolism of anaerobic bacteria". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 22 (5): 383. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.1998.tb00377.x.
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Wind rose
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the compass subdivision called "windrose", see Compass rose. For the Ukrainian airline called "Windrose", see Wind Rose Aviation.
Wind rose plot for LaGuardia Airport (LGA), New York, New York. 2008
A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location. Historically, wind roses were predecessors of the compass rose (found on charts), as there was no differentiation between a cardinal direction and the wind which blew from such a direction. Using a polar coordinate system of gridding, the frequency of winds over a time period is plotted by wind direction, with color bands showing wind speed ranges. The direction of the longest spoke shows the wind direction with the greatest frequency.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Use
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
A medieval wind rose
Before the development of the compass rose, a wind rose was included on maps in order to let the reader know which directions the 8 major winds (and sometimes 8 half winds and 16 quarter winds) blew within the plan view. No differentiation was made between cardinal directions and the winds which blew from said directions. North was depicted with a fleur de lis, while east was shown as a Christian cross to indicate the direction of Jerusalem from Europe.[1][2]
Use[edit]
Presented in a circular format, the modern wind rose shows the frequency of winds blowing from particular directions over a specified period. The length of each "spoke" around the circle is related to the frequency that the wind blows from a particular direction per unit time. Each concentric circle represents a different frequency, emanating from zero at the center to increasing frequencies at the outer circles. A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each spoke is broken down into color-coded bands that show wind speed ranges. Wind roses typically use 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc., although they may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions.[3] In terms of angle measurement in degrees, North corresponds to 0°/360°, East to 90°, South to 180° and West to 270°.
Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport runways, as aircraft experience greater lift when pointing into the wind.
See also[edit]
Pelorus (instrument)
Compass rose
Rhumbline network
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dan Reboussin (2005)Wind Rose. University of Florida. Retrieved on 2009-04-26.
Jump up ^ Thoen, Bill. "Origins of the Compass Rose". GISNet. Retrieved 2011-12-18.
Jump up ^ Jan Curtis (2007). Wind Rose Data. Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved on 2009-04-26.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wind roses.
Wind Rose Data for the U.S.
Carrie Bow Cay - Wind Rose
Wind rose plots from METAR data of year 2011
Wind rose plots from METAR data of year 2012
Wind rose plots from METAR data of year 2013
Wind rose plots from METAR data of year 2014
Wind rose plots from METAR data of year 2015
Wind rose plots from METAR data of year 2016
Wind rose plots from METAR data of year 2017
Wind rose in Excel, spreadsheet with diagrams
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wind_rose&oldid=825214477"
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