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Hysteresis
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Not to be confused with Hysteria.
Electric displacement field D of a ferroelectric material as the electric field E is first decreased, then increased. The curves form a hysteresis loop.
Hysteresis is the dependence of the state of a system on its history. For example, a magnet may have more than one possible magnetic moment in a given magnetic field, depending on how the field changed in the past. Plots of a single component of the moment often form a loop or hysteresis curve, where there are different values of one variable depending on the direction of change of another variable. This history dependence is the basis of memory in a hard disk drive and the remanence that retains a record of the Earth's magnetic field magnitude in the past. Hysteresis occurs in ferromagnetic and ferroelectric materials, as well as in the deformation of rubber bands and shape-memory alloys and many other natural phenomena. In natural systems it is often associated with irreversible thermodynamic change such as phase transitions and with internal friction; and dissipation is a common side effect.
Hysteresis can be found in physics, chemistry, engineering, biology and economics, and so on. It is incorporated in many artificial systems: for example, in thermostats and Schmitt triggers, it prevents unwanted frequent switching.
Hysteresis can be a dynamic lag between an input and an output that disappears if the input is varied more slowly; this is known as rate-dependent hysteresis. However, phenomena such as the magnetic hysteresis loops are mainly rate-independent, which makes a durable memory possible.
Systems with hysteresis are nonlinear, and can be mathematically challenging to model. Some models such as the Preisach model (originally applied to ferromagnetism) and the Bouc-Wen model attempt to capture general features of hysteresis; and there are also phenomenological models for particular phenomena such as the Jiles-Atherton model for ferromagnetism.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology and history
2 Types
2.1 Rate-dependent
2.2 Rate-independent
3 In engineering
3.1 Control systems
3.2 Electronic circuits
3.3 User interface design
3.4 Aerodynamics
4 In mechanics
4.1 Elastic hysteresis
4.2 Contact angle hysteresis
4.3 Bubble shape hysteresis
4.4 Adsorption hysteresis
4.5 Matric potential hysteresis
5 In materials
5.1 Magnetic hysteresis
5.1.1 Physical origin
5.1.2 Magnetic hysteresis models
5.1.3 Applications
5.2 Electrical hysteresis
5.3 Liquid–solid-phase transitions
6 In biology
6.1 Cell biology and genetics
6.2 Immunology
6.3 Neuroscience
6.4 Respiratory physiology
6.5 Voice and speech physiology
6.6 Ecology and epidemiology
7 In economics
7.1 Permanently higher unemployment
7.2 Game theory
8 Additional considerations
8.1 Models of hysteresis
8.2 Energy
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology and history[edit]
The term "hysteresis" is derived from ὑστέρησις, an Ancient Greek word meaning "deficiency" or "lagging behind". It was coined around 1890 by Sir James Alfred Ewing to describe the behaviour of magnetic materials.
Some early work on describing hysteresis in mechanical systems was performed by James Clerk Maxwell. Subsequently, hysteretic models have received significant attention in the works of Ferenc Preisach (Preisach model of hysteresis), Louis Néel and D. H. Everett in connection with magnetism and absorption. A more formal mathematical theory of systems with hysteresis was developed in the 1970s by a group of Russian mathematicians led by Mark Krasnosel'skii.[1]
Types[edit]
Rate-dependent[edit]
One type of hysteresis is a simple lag between input and output. A simple example is a sinusoidal input X(t) that results in a sinusoidal output Y(t), but with a phase lag φ:
X ( t ) = X 0 sin  ω t Y ( t ) = Y 0 sin  ( ω t − ϕ ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}X(t)&=X_{0}\sin \omega t\\Y(t)&=Y_{0}\sin \left(\omega t-\phi \right).\end{aligned}}}
Such behavior can occur in linear systems, and a more general form of response is
Y ( t ) = χ i X ( t ) + ∫ 0 ∞ Φ d ( τ ) X ( t − τ ) d τ , {\displaystyle Y(t)=\chi _{\text{i}}X(t)+\int _{0}^{\infty }\Phi _{\text{d}}(\tau )X(t-\tau )\,\mathrm {d} \tau ,}
where χ i {\displaystyle \chi _{\text{i}}} is the instantaneous response and Φ d ( τ ) {\displaystyle \Phi _{d}(\tau )} is the impulse response to an impulse that occurred τ {\displaystyle \tau } time units in the past. In the frequency domain, input and output are related by a complex generalized susceptibility that can be computed from Φ d {\displaystyle \Phi _{d}} ; it is mathematically equivalent to a transfer function in linear filter theory and analogue signal processing.[2]
This kind of hysteresis is often referred to as rate-dependent hysteresis. If the input is reduced to zero, the output continues to respond for a finite time. This constitutes a memory of the past, but a limited one because it disappears as the output decays to zero. The phase lag depends on the frequency of the input, and goes to zero as the frequency decreases.[2]
When rate-dependent hysteresis is due to dissipative effects like friction, it is associated with power loss.[2]
Rate-independent[edit]
Systems with rate-independent hysteresis have a persistent memory of the past that remains after the transients have died out.[3] The future development of such a system depends on the history of states visited, but does not fade as the events recede into the past. If an input variable X(t) cycles from X0 to X1 and back again, the output Y(t) may be Y0 initially but a different value Y2 upon return. The values of Y(t) depend on the path of values that X(t) passes through but not on the speed at which it traverses the path.[2] Many authors restrict the term hysteresis to mean only rate-independent hysteresis.[4] Hysteresis effects can be characterized using the Preisach model and the generalized Prandtl-Ishlinskii model.[5]
In engineering[edit]
Control systems[edit]
In control systems, hysteresis can be used to filter signals so that the output reacts less rapidly than it otherwise would, by taking recent history into account. For example, a thermostat controlling a heater may switch the heater on when the temperature drops below A, but not turn it off until the temperature rises above B. (For instance, if one wishes to maintain a temperature of 20 °C then one might set the thermostat to turn the heater on when the temperature drops to below 18 °C and off when the temperature exceeds 22 °C).
Similarly, a pressure switch can be designed to exhibit hysteresis, with pressure set-points substituted for temperature thresholds.
Electronic circuits[edit]
Sharp hysteresis loop of a Schmitt trigger
Often, some amount of hysteresis is intentionally added to an electronic circuit to prevent unwanted rapid switching. This and similar techniques are used to compensate for contact bounce in switches, or noise in an electrical signal.
A Schmitt trigger is a simple electronic circuit that exhibits this property.
A latching relay uses a solenoid to actuate a ratcheting mechanism that keeps the relay closed even if power to the relay is terminated.
Hysteresis is essential to the workings of some memristors (circuit components which "remember" changes in the current passing through them by changing their resistance).[6]
Hysteresis can be used when connecting arrays of elements such as nanoelectronics, electrochrome cells and memory effect devices using passive matrix addressing. Shortcuts are made between adjacent components (see crosstalk) and the hysteresis helps to keep the components in a particular state while the other components change states. Thus, all rows can be addressed at the same time instead of individually.
In the field of audio electronics, a noise gate often implements hysteresis intentionally to prevent the gate from "chattering" when signals close to its threshold are applied.
User interface design[edit]
A hysteresis is sometimes intentionally added to computer algorithms. The field of user interface design has borrowed the term hysteresis to refer to times when the state of the user interface intentionally lags behind the apparent user input. For example, a menu that was drawn in response to a mouse-over event may remain on-screen for a brief moment after the mouse has moved out of the trigger region and the menu region. This allows the user to move the mouse directly to an item on the menu, even if part of that direct mouse path is outside of both the trigger region and the menu region. For instance, right-clicking on the desktop in most Windows interfaces will create a menu that exhibits this behavior.
Aerodynamics[edit]
In aerodynamics, hysteresis can be observed when decreasing the angle of attack of a wing after stall, regarding the lift and drag coefficients. The angle of attack where the flow on top of the wing reattaches is generally lower than the angle of attack where the flow separates during the increase of the angle of attack.[7]
In mechanics[edit]
Elastic hysteresis[edit]
Elastic hysteresis of an idealized rubber band. The area in the centre of the hysteresis loop is the energy dissipated due to internal friction.
In the elastic hysteresis of rubber, the area in the centre of a hysteresis loop is the energy dissipated due to material internal friction.
Elastic hysteresis was one of the first types of hysteresis to be examined.[8][9]
A simple way to understand it is in terms of a rubber band with weights attached to it. If the top of a rubber band is hung on a hook and small weights are attached to the bottom of the band one at a time, it will get longer. As more weights are loaded onto it, the band will continue to extend because the force the weights are exerting on the band is increasing. When each weight is taken off, or unloaded, the band will get shorter as the force is reduced. As the weights are taken off, each weight that produced a specific length as it was loaded onto the band now produces a slightly longer length as it is unloaded. This is because the band does not obey Hooke's law perfectly. The hysteresis loop of an idealized rubber band is shown in the figure.
In terms of force, the rubber band was harder to stretch when it was being loaded than when it was being unloaded. In terms of time, when the band is unloaded, the effect (the length) lagged behind the cause (the force of the weights) because the length has not yet reached the value it had for the same weight during the loading part of the cycle. In terms of energy, more energy was required during the loading than the unloading, the excess energy being dissipated as heat.
Elastic hysteresis is more pronounced when the loading and unloading is done quickly than when it is done slowly.[10] Some materials such as hard metals don't show elastic hysteresis under a moderate load, whereas other hard materials like granite and marble do. Materials such as rubber exhibit a high degree of elastic hysteresis.
When the intrinsic hysteresis of rubber is being measured, the material can be considered to behave like a gas. When a rubber band is stretched it heats up, and if it is suddenly released, it cools down perceptibly. These effects correspond to a large hysteresis from the thermal exchange with the environment and a smaller hysteresis due to internal friction within the rubber. This proper, intrinsic hysteresis can be measured only if the rubber band is adiabatically isolated.
Small vehicle suspensions using rubber (or other elastomers) can achieve the dual function of springing and damping because rubber, unlike metal springs, has pronounced hysteresis and does not return all the absorbed compression energy on the rebound. Mountain bikes have made use of elastomer suspension, as did the original Mini car.
The primary cause of rolling resistance when a body (such as a ball, tire, or wheel) rolls on a surface is hysteresis. This is attributed to the viscoelastic characteristics of the material of the rolling body.
Contact angle hysteresis[edit]
The contact angle formed between a liquid and solid phase will exhibit a range of contact angles that are possible. There are two common methods for measuring this range of contact angles. The first method is referred to as the tilting base method. Once a drop is dispensed on the surface with the surface level, the surface is then tilted from 0° to 90°. As the drop is tilted, the downhill side will be in a state of imminent wetting while the uphill side will be in a state of imminent dewetting. As the tilt increases the downhill contact angle will increase and represents the advancing contact angle while the uphill side will decrease; this is the receding contact angle. The values for these angles just prior to the drop releasing will typically represent the advancing and receding contact angles. The difference between these two angles is the contact angle hysteresis.
The second method is often referred to as the add/remove volume method. When the maximum liquid volume is removed from the drop without the interfacial area decreasing the receding contact angle is thus measured. When volume is added to the maximum before the interfacial area increases, this is the advancing contact angle. As with the tilt method, the difference between the advancing and receding contact angles is the contact angle hysteresis. Most researchers prefer the tilt method; the add/remove method requires that a tip or needle stay embedded in the drop which can affect the accuracy of the values, especially the receding contact angle.
Bubble shape hysteresis[edit]
The equilibrium shapes of bubbles expanding and contracting on capillaries (blunt needles) can exhibit hysteresis depending on the relative magnitude of the maximum capillary pressure to ambient pressure, and the relative magnitude of the bubble volume at the maximum capillary pressure to the dead volume in the system.[11] The bubble shape hysteresis is a consequence of gas compressibility, which causes the bubbles to behave differently across expansion and contraction. During expansion, bubbles undergo large non equilibrium jumps in volume, while during contraction the bubbles are more stable and undergo a relatively smaller jump in volume resulting in an asymmetry across expansion and contraction. The bubble shape hysteresis is qualitatively similar to the adsorption hysteresis, and as in the contact angle hysteresis, the interfacial properties play an important role in bubble shape hysteresis.
The existence of the bubble shape hysteresis has important consequences in interfacial rheology experiments involving bubbles. As a result of the hysteresis, not all sizes of the bubbles can be formed on a capillary. Further the gas compressibility causing the hysteresis leads to unintended complications in the phase relation between the applied changes in interfacial area to the expected interfacial stresses. These difficulties can be avoided by designing experimental systems to avoid the bubble shape hysteresis.[11][12]
Adsorption hysteresis[edit]
Hysteresis can also occur during physical adsorption processes. In this type of hysteresis, the quantity adsorbed is different when gas is being added than it is when being removed. The specific causes of adsorption hysteresis are still an active area of research, but it is linked to differences in the nucleation and evaporation mechanisms inside mesopores. These mechanisms are further complicated by effects such as cavitation and pore blocking.
In physical adsorption, hysteresis is evidence of mesoporosity-indeed, the definition of mesopores (2–50 nm) is associated with the appearance (50 nm) and disappearance (2 nm) of mesoporosity in nitrogen adsorption isotherms as a function of Kelvin radius.[13] An adsorption isotherm showing hysteresis is said to be of Type IV (for a wetting adsorbate) or Type V (for a non-wetting adsorbate), and hysteresis loops themselves are classified according to how symmetric the loop is.[14] Adsorption hysteresis loops also have the unusual property that it is possible to scan within a hysteresis loop by reversing the direction of adsorption while on a point on the loop. The resulting scans are called "crossing," "converging," or "returning," depending on the shape of the isotherm at this point.[15]
Matric potential hysteresis[edit]
The relationship between matric water potential and water content is the basis of the water retention curve. Matric potential measurements (Ψm) are converted to volumetric water content (θ) measurements based on a site or soil specific calibration curve. Hysteresis is a source of water content measurement error. Matric potential hysteresis arises from differences in wetting behaviour causing dry medium to re-wet; that is, it depends on the saturation history of the porous medium. Hysteretic behaviour means that, for example, at a matric potential (Ψm) of 5 kPa, the volumetric water content (θ) of a fine sandy soil matrix could be anything between 8% to 25%.[16]
Tensiometers are directly influenced by this type of hysteresis. Two other types of sensors used to measure soil water matric potential are also influenced by hysteresis effects within the sensor itself. Resistance blocks, both nylon and gypsum based, measure matric potential as a function of electrical resistance. The relation between the sensor’s electrical resistance and sensor matric potential is hysteretic. Thermocouples measure matric potential as a function of heat dissipation. Hysteresis occurs because measured heat dissipation depends on sensor water content, and the sensor water content–matric potential relationship is hysteretic. As of 2002[update], only desorption curves are usually measured during calibration of soil moisture sensors. Despite the fact that it can be a source of significant error, the sensor specific effect of hysteresis is generally ignored.[17]
In materials[edit]
Magnetic hysteresis[edit]
Main article: Magnetic hysteresis
Theoretical model of magnetization m against magnetic field h. Starting at the origin, the upward curve is the initial magnetization curve. The downward curve after saturation, along with the lower return curve, form the main loop. The intercepts hc and mrs are the coercivity and saturation remanence.
When an external magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material such as iron, the atomic dipoles align themselves with it. Even when the field is removed, part of the alignment will be retained: the material has become magnetized. Once magnetized, the magnet will stay magnetized indefinitely. To demagnetize it requires heat or a magnetic field in the opposite direction. This is the effect that provides the element of memory in a hard disk drive.
The relationship between field strength H and magnetization M is not linear in such materials. If a magnet is demagnetized (H=M=0) and the relationship between H and M is plotted for increasing levels of field strength, M follows the initial magnetization curve. This curve increases rapidly at first and then approaches an asymptote called magnetic saturation. If the magnetic field is now reduced monotonically, M follows a different curve. At zero field strength, the magnetization is offset from the origin by an amount called the remanence. If the H-M relationship is plotted for all strengths of applied magnetic field the result is a hysteresis loop called the main loop. The width of the middle section is twice the coercivity of the material.[18]
A closer look at a magnetization curve generally reveals a series of small, random jumps in magnetization called Barkhausen jumps. This effect is due to crystallographic defects such as dislocations.[19]
Magnetic hysteresis loops are not exclusive to materials with ferromagnetic ordering. Other magnetic orderings, such as spin glass ordering, also exhibit this phenomenon.[20]
Physical origin[edit]
Main article: Ferromagnetism
The phenomenon of hysteresis in ferromagnetic materials is the result of two effects: rotation of magnetization and changes in size or number of magnetic domains. In general, the magnetization varies (in direction but not magnitude) across a magnet, but in sufficiently small magnets, it does not. In these single-domain magnets, the magnetization responds to a magnetic field by rotating. Single-domain magnets are used wherever a strong, stable magnetization is needed (for example, magnetic recording).
Larger magnets are divided into regions called domains. Across each domain, the magnetization does not vary; but between domains are relatively thin domain walls in which the direction of magnetization rotates from the direction of one domain to another. If the magnetic field changes, the walls move, changing the relative sizes of the domains. Because the domains are not magnetized in the same direction, the magnetic moment per unit volume is smaller than it would be in a single-domain magnet; but domain walls involve rotation of only a small part of the magnetization, so it is much easier to change the magnetic moment. The magnetization can also change by addition or subtraction of domains (called nucleation and denucleation).
Magnetic hysteresis models[edit]
The most known empirical models in hysteresis are Preisach and Jiles-Atherton models. These models allow an accurate modeling of the hysteresis loop and are widely used in the industry. However, these models lose the connection with thermodynamics and the energy consistency is not ensured. Last models rely on a consistent thermodynamic formulation. VINCH model[21] is inspired by the kinematic hardening laws and by the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. In particular, in addition to provide an accurate modeling, the stored magnetic energy and the dissipated energy are known at all times. The obtained incremental formulation is variationally consistent, i.e., all internal variables follow from the minimization of a thermodynamic potential. That allows to obtain easily a vectorial model while Preisach and Jiles-Atherton are fundamentally scalar models.
Applications[edit]
Main article: Magnet § Common uses of magnets
There are a great variety of applications of the hysteresis in ferromagnets. Many of these make use of their ability to retain a memory, for example magnetic tape, hard disks, and credit cards. In these applications, hard magnets (high coercivity) like iron are desirable so the memory is not easily erased.
Magnetically soft (low coercivity) iron is used for the cores in electromagnets. The low coercivity reduces that energy loss associated with hysteresis. The low energy loss during a hysteresis loop is also the reason why soft iron is used for transformer cores and electric motors.
Electrical hysteresis[edit]
Electrical hysteresis typically occurs in ferroelectric material, where domains of polarization contribute to the total polarization. Polarization is the electrical dipole moment (either C·m−2 or C·m). The mechanism, an organization of the polarization into domains, is similar to that of magnetic hysteresis.
Liquid–solid-phase transitions[edit]
Hysteresis manifests itself in state transitions when melting temperature and freezing temperature do not agree. For example, agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 32 to 40 °C. This is to say that once agar is melted at 85 °C, it retains a liquid state until cooled to 40 °C. Therefore, from the temperatures of 40 to 85 °C, agar can be either solid or liquid, depending on which state it was before.
In biology[edit]
Cell biology and genetics[edit]
Main article: Cell biology
Hysteresis in cell biology often follows bistable systems where the same input state can lead to two different, stable outputs. Where bistability can lead to digital, switch-like outputs from the continuous inputs of chemical concentrations and activities, hysteresis makes these systems more resistant to noise. These systems are often characterized by higher values of the input required to switch into a particular state as compared to the input required to stay in the state, allowing for a transition that is not continuously reversible, and thus less susceptible to noise.
Cells undergoing cell division exhibit hysteresis in that it takes a higher concentration of cyclins to switch them from G2 phase into mitosis than to stay in mitosis once begun.[22] [23]
Biochemical systems can also show hysteresis-like output when slowly varying states that are not directly monitored are involved, as in the case of the cell cycle arrest in yeast in exposed to mating pheromone.[24] Here, the duration of cell cycle arrest depends not only on the final level of input Fus3, but also on the previously achieved Fus3 levels. This effect is achieved in due to the slower time scales involved in the transcription of intermediate Far1, such that the total Far1 activity reaches its equilibrium value slowly, and for transient changes in Fus3 concentration, the response of the system depends on the Far1 concentration achieved with the transient value. Experiments in this type of hysteresis benefit from the ability to change the concentration of the inputs with time. The mechanisms are often elucidated by allowing independent control of the concentration of the key intermediate, for instance, by using an inducible promoter.
Main article: Chromatin
Darlington in his classic works on genetics[25][26] discussed hysteresis of the chromosomes, by which he meant "failure of the external form of the chromosomes to respond immediately to the internal stresses due to changes in their molecular spiral", as they lie in a somewhat rigid medium in the limited space of the cell nucleus.
Main article: Morphogen
In developmental biology, cell type diversity is regulated by long range-acting signaling molecules called morphogens that pattern uniform pools of cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. The morphogen Sonic Hedgehog (Shh), for example, acts on limb bud and neural progenitors to induce expression of a set of homeodomain-containing transcription factors to subdivide these tissues into distinct domains. It has been shown that these tissues have a 'memory' of previous exposure to Shh.[27] In neural tissue, this hysteresis is regulated by a homeodomain (HD) feedback circuit that amplifies Shh signaling.[28] In this circuit, expression of Gli transcription factors, the executors of the Shh pathway, is suppressed. Glis are processed to repressor forms (GliR) in the absence of Shh, but in the presence of Shh, a proportion of Glis are maintained as full-length proteins allowed to translocate to the nucleus, where they act as activators (GliA) of transcription. By reducing Gli expression then, the HD transcription factors reduce the total amount of Gli (GliT), so a higher proportion of GliT can be stabilized as GliA for the same concentration of Shh.
Immunology[edit]
There is some evidence that T cells exhibit hysteresis in that it takes a lower signal threshold to activate T cells that have been previously activated. Ras activation is required for downstream effector functions of activated T cells.[29] Triggering of the T cell receptor induces high levels of Ras activation, which results in higher levels of GTP-bound (active) Ras at the cell surface. Since higher levels of active Ras have accumulated at the cell surface in T cells that have been previously stimulated by strong engagement of the T cell receptor, weaker subsequent T cell receptor signals received shortly afterwards will deliver the same level of activation due to the presence of higher levels of already activated Ras as compared to a naïve cell.
Neuroscience[edit]
See also: Refractory period (physiology)
The property by which some neurons do not return to their basal conditions from a stimulated condition immediately after removal of the stimulus is an example of hysteresis.
Respiratory physiology[edit]
Lung hysteresis is evident when observing the compliance of a lung on inspiration versus expiration. The difference in compliance (volume/pressure) is due to the additional energy required during inspiration to recruit and inflate additional alveoli.[30]
The transpulmonary pressure vs Volume curve of inhalation is different from the Pressure vs Volume curve of exhalation, the difference being described as hysteresis. Lung volume at any given pressure during inhalation is less than the lung volume at any given pressure during exhalation.[31]
Voice and speech physiology[edit]
A hysteresis effect may be observed in voicing onset versus offset.[32] The threshold value of the subglottal pressure required to start the vocal fold vibration is lower than the threshold value at which the vibration stops, when other parameters are kept constant. In utterances of vowel-voiceless consonant-vowel sequences during speech, the intraoral pressure is lower at the voice onset of the second vowel compared to the voice offset of the first vowel, the oral airflow is lower, the transglottal pressure is larger and the glottal width is smaller.
Ecology and epidemiology[edit]
Hysteresis is a commonly encountered phenomenon in ecology and epidemiology, where the observed equilibrium of a system can not be predicted solely based on environmental variables, but also requires knowledge of the system's past history. Notable examples include the theory of spruce budworm outbreaks and behavioral-effects on disease transmission.
In economics[edit]
Main article: Hysteresis (economics)
Economic systems can exhibit hysteresis. For example, export performance is subject to strong hysteresis effects: because of the fixed transportation costs it may take a big push to start a country's exports, but once the transition is made, not much may be required to keep them going.
When some negative shock reduces employment in a company or industry, fewer employed workers then remain. As usually the employed workers have the power to set wages, their reduced number incentivizes them to bargain for even higher wages when the economy again gets better instead of letting the wage be at the equilibrium wage level, where the supply and demand of workers would match. This causes hysteresis: the unemployment becomes permanently higher after negative shocks.[33][34]
Permanently higher unemployment[edit]
The idea of hysteresis is used extensively in the area of labor economics, specifically with reference to the unemployment rate.[35] According to theories based on hysteresis, severe economic downturns (recession) and/or persistent stagnation (slow demand growth, usually after a recession) cause unemployed individuals to lose their job skills (commonly developed on the job) or to find them become obsolete or become demotivated/disillusioned/depressed or lose job-seeking skills. In addition, employers may use time spent in unemployment as a screening tool, i.e., to weed out less desired employees in hiring decisions. Then, in times of an economic upturn, recovery, or 'boom', the affected workers will not share in the prosperity, remaining unemployed for long periods (e.g., over 52 weeks). This makes unemployment "structural", i.e., extremely difficult to reduce simply by increasing the aggregate demand for products and labor without causing increased inflation. That is, it is possible that a ratchet effect in unemployment rates exists, so a short-term rise in unemployment rates tend to persist. For example, traditional anti-inflationary policy (the use of recession to fight inflation) leads to a permanently higher 'natural' rate of unemployment (more scientifically known as the NAIRU). This occurs first because inflationary expectations are 'sticky' downward due to wage and price rigidities (and so adapt slowly over time rather than being approximately correct as in theories of rational expectations) and second because labor markets do not clear instantly in response to unemployment.
The existence of hysteresis has been put forward as a possible explanation for the persistently high unemployment of many economies in the 1990s. Hysteresis has been invoked by Olivier Blanchard among others to explain the differences in long run unemployment rates between Europe and the United States. Labor market reform (usually meaning institutional change promoting more flexible wages, firing, and hiring) or strong demand-side economic growth may not therefore reduce this pool of long-term unemployed. Thus, specific targeted training programs are presented as a possible policy solution.[33] However, the hysteresis hypothesis suggests such training programs are aided by persistently high demand for products (perhaps with incomes policies to avoid increased inflation), which reduces the transition costs out of unemployment and into paid employment easier.
Game theory[edit]
Hysteresis occurs in applications of game theory to economics, in models with product quality, agent honesty or corruption of various institutions. Slightly different initial conditions can lead to opposite outcomes and resulting stable good and bad equilibria.[citation needed]
Additional considerations[edit]
Models of hysteresis[edit]
Each subject that involves hysteresis has models that are specific to the subject. In addition, there are models that capture general features of many systems with hysteresis.[1][36] An example is the Preisach model of hysteresis, which represents a hysteresis nonlinearity as a linear superposition of square loops called non-ideal relays.[1] Many complex models of hysteresis arise from the simple parallel connection, or superposition, of elementary carriers of hysteresis termed hysterons.
A simple parametric description of various hysteretic loops may be found in the Lapshin model of hysteresis.[36] Along with the classical loop (see figure at the top of the page), substitution of trapezoidal or triangle pulses instead of the harmonic functions also allows piecewise-linear hysteresis loops (see Electronic circuit example) frequently used in discrete automatics to be built in the model. There is an implementation of the hysteresis model in R programming language (package Hysteresis).[37]
The Bouc–Wen model of hysteresis is often used to describe non-linear hysteretic systems. It was introduced by Bouc[38][39] and extended by Wen,[40] who demonstrated its versatility by producing a variety of hysteretic patterns. This model is able to capture in analytical form, a range of shapes of hysteretic cycles which match the behaviour of a wide class of hysteretical systems; therefore, given its versability and mathematical tractability, the Bouc–Wen model has quickly gained popularity and has been extended and applied to a wide variety of engineering problems, including multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) systems, buildings, frames, bidirectional and torsional response of hysteretic systems two- and three-dimensional continua, and soil liquefaction among others. The Bouc–Wen model and its variants/extensions have been used in applications of structural control, in particular in the modeling of the behaviour of magnetorheological dampers, base isolation devices for buildings and other kinds of damping devices; it has also been used in the modelling and analysis of structures built of reinforced concrete, steel, masonry and timber.[citation needed]
Energy[edit]
When hysteresis occurs with extensive and intensive variables, the work done on the system is the area under the hysteresis graph.
See also[edit]
Backlash (engineering)
Black box
Bean's critical state model
Deadband
Fuzzy control system
Hysteresivity
Markov property
Path dependence
Path dependence (physics)
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Bertotti, Giorgio (1998). "Ch. 2". Hysteresis in magnetism: For physicists, materials scientists, and engineers. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-093270-2.
Jump up ^ The term is attributed to Truesdell & Noll 1965 by Visintin 1994, page 13.
Jump up ^ Visintin 1994, page 13
Jump up ^ Mohammad Al Janaideh, Subhash Rakheja, Chun-Yi Su An analytical generalized Prandtl–Ishlinskii model inversion for hysteresis compensation in micropositioning control, IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, Volume:16 Issue:4, PP 734 - 744, 15 July 2010
Jump up ^ Johnson, R. Colin. "'Missing link' memristor created: Rewrite the textbooks?". EE Times April 30, 2008. Retrieved September 2011. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Zifeng Yang; Hirofumi Igarashi; Mathew Martin; Hui Hu (Jan 7–10, 2008). An Experimental Investigation on Aerodynamic Hysteresis of a Low-Reynolds Number Airfoil (pdf). 46th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. Reno, Nevada: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. AIAA-2008-0315.
Jump up ^ Love, Augustus E. (1927). Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity (Dover Books on Physics & Chemistry). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60174-9.
Jump up ^ Ewing, J. A. (1889). "On hysteresis in the relation of strain to stress". British Association Reports: 502.
Jump up ^ Hopkinson, B.; Williams, G. T. (1912). "The Elastic Hysteresis of Steel". Proceedings of the Royal Society. 87 (598): 502. Bibcode:1912RSPSA..87..502H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1912.0104.
^ Jump up to: a b Chandran Suja, V.; Frostad, J. M.; Fuller, G. G. (2016-10-31). "Impact of Compressibility on the Control of Bubble-Pressure Tensiometers". Langmuir. ISSN 0743-7463. doi:10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b03258.
Jump up ^ Alvarez, Nicolas J.; Walker, Lynn M.; Anna, Shelley L. (2010-08-17). "A Microtensiometer To Probe the Effect of Radius of Curvature on Surfactant Transport to a Spherical Interface". Langmuir. 26 (16): 13310–13319. ISSN 0743-7463. doi:10.1021/la101870m.
Jump up ^ Gregg, S. J.; Sing, Kenneth S. W. (1982). Adsorption, Surface Area, and Porosity (Second ed.). London: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-300956-2.
Jump up ^ Sing, K. S. W.; Everett, D. H.; Haul, R. A. W.; Moscou, L.; Pierotti, R. A.; J. Roquérol, J.; Siemieniewska, T. (1985). "Reporting physisorption data for gas/solid systems with special reference to the determination of surface area and porosity (Recommendations 1984)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 57 (4): 603–619. doi:10.1351/pac198557040603.
Jump up ^ Tompsett, G. A.; Krogh, L.; Griffin, D. W.; Conner, W. C. (2005). "Hysteresis and Scanning Behavior of Mesoporous Molecular Sieves". Langmuir. 21 (8): 8214–8225. PMID 16114924. doi:10.1021/la050068y.
Jump up ^ Parkes, Martin (8 April 1999). "Subject: Accuracy of capacitance soil moisture ...". SOWACS (Mailing list). Retrieved 28 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Scanlon, B. R.; Andraski, B. J.; Bilskie, J. (2002). "Methods of soil analysis: Physical Methods: Miscellaneous methods for measuring matric or water potential" (PDF). Soil Science Society of America. 4: 643–670. ISBN 0-89118-810-X. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-03-13. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
Jump up ^ Chikazumi 1997, Chapter 1
Jump up ^ Chikazumi 1997, Chapter 15
Jump up ^ Monod, P.; PréJean, J. J.; Tissier, B. (1979). "Magnetic hysteresis of CuMn in the spin glass state". J. Appl. Phys. American Institute of Physics. 50 (B11): 7324. Bibcode:1979JAP....50.7324M. doi:10.1063/1.326943. Retrieved 9 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Vincent Francois-Lavet et al (2011-11-14). Vectorial Incremental Nonconservative Consistent Hysteresis model.
Jump up ^ Pomerening, Joseph R.; Sontag, Eduardo D.; Ferrell, James E. (2003). "Building a cell cycle oscillator: hysteresis and bistability in the activation of Cdc2". Nature Cell Biology. 5 (4): 346–251. PMID 12629549. doi:10.1038/ncb954.
Jump up ^ Ferrell JE Jr.; Machleder EM (1998). "The biochemical basis of an all-or-none cell fate switch in Xenopus oocytes.". Science. 280 (5365): 895–8. Bibcode:1998Sci...280..895F. PMID 9572732. doi:10.1126/science.280.5365.895.
Jump up ^ Doncic, Andreas; Skotheim, Jan M (2013). "Feedforward regulation ensures stability and rapid reversibility of a cellular state". Molecular Cell. 50 (6). PMC 3696412  .
Jump up ^ Darlington, C. D. (1937). Recent Advances in Cytology (Genes, Cells, & Organisms) (Second ed.). P. Blakiston's Son & Co. ISBN 978-0-8240-1376-9.
Jump up ^ Rieger, R.; Michaelis, A.; M. M. (1968). A Glossary of Genetics and Cytogenetics : Classical and Molecular (Third ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-04316-4.
Jump up ^ Harfe, B. D.; Scherz, P. J.; Nissim, S.; Tian, H.; McMahon, A. P.; Tabin, C. J. (2004). "Evidence for an expansion-based temporal Shh gradient in specifying vertebrate digit identities". Cell. 118 (4): 517–28. PMID 15315763. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2004.07.024.
Jump up ^ Lek, M.; Dias, J. M.; Marklund, U.; Uhde, C. W.; Kurdija, S.; Lei, Q.; Sussel, L.; Rubenstein, J. L.; Matise, M. P.; Arnold, H. -H.; Jessell, T. M.; Ericson, J. (2010). "A homeodomain feedback circuit underlies step-function interpretation of a Shh morphogen gradient during ventral neural patterning". Development. 137 (23): 4051–4060. PMID 21062862. doi:10.1242/dev.054288.
Jump up ^ Das, J.; Ho, M.; Zikherman, J.; Govern, C.; Yang, M.; Weiss, A.; Chakraborty, A. K.; Roose, J. P. (2009). "Digital Signaling and Hysteresis Characterize Ras Activation in Lymphoid Cells". Cell. 136 (2): 337–351. PMC 2662698  . PMID 19167334. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008.11.051.
Jump up ^ Escolar, J. D.; Escolar, A. (2004). "Lung histeresis: a morphological view" (PDF). Histology and Histopathology Cellular and Molecular Biology. 19 (1): 159–166. PMID 14702184. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
Jump up ^ West, John B. (2005). Respiratory physiology: the essentials. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-5152-7.
Jump up ^ Lucero, Jorge C. (1999). "A theoretical study of the hysteresis phenomenon at vocal fold oscillation onset–offset". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 105 (1): 423–431. Bibcode:1999ASAJ..105..423L. ISSN 0001-4966. doi:10.1121/1.424572.
^ Jump up to: a b Ball, Laurence M. (2009) "Hysteresis in Unemployment: Old and New Evidence", US National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Working Paper No. 14818
Jump up ^ Blanchard, Olivier J.; Summers, Lawrence H. (1986). "Hysteresis and the European Unemployment Problem". NBER Macroeconomics Annual. 1: 15–78. doi:10.2307/3585159.
Jump up ^ S.P. Hargreaves Heap (1980)."Choosing the Wrong `Natural' Rate: Accelerating Inflation or Decelerating Employment and Growth?" The Economic Journal Vol. 90, No. 359 (Sep., 1980), pp. 611-620.
^ Jump up to: a b R. V. Lapshin (1995). "Analytical model for the approximation of hysteresis loop and its application to the scanning tunneling microscope" (PDF). Review of Scientific Instruments. USA: AIP. 66 (9): 4718–4730. Bibcode:1995RScI...66.4718L. ISSN 0034-6748. doi:10.1063/1.1145314. (Russian translation is available).
Jump up ^ S. Maynes; F. Yang; A. Parkhurst (November 20, 2013). "Package Hysteresis (Tools for Modeling Rate-Dependent Hysteretic Processes and Ellipses)". R-project. Retrieved December 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bouc, R. (1967). "Forced vibration of mechanical systems with hysteresis". Proceedings of the Fourth Conference on Nonlinear Oscillation. Prague, Czechoslovakia. p. 315.
Jump up ^ Bouc, R. (1971). "Modèle mathématique d'hystérésis: application aux systèmes à un degré de liberté". Acustica (in French). 24: 16–25.
Jump up ^ Wen, Y. K. (1976). "Method for random vibration of hysteretic systems". Journal of Engineering Mechanics. 102 (2): 249–263.
Further reading[edit]
Chikazumi, Sōshin (1997). Physics of Ferromagnetism. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-851776-9.
Jiles, D. C.; Atherton, D. L. (1986). "Theory of ferromagnetic hysteresis". Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. 61: 48–60. Bibcode:1986JMMM...61...48J. doi:10.1016/0304-8853(86)90066-1.
Krasnosel'skii, Mark; Pokrovskii, Alexei (1989). Systems with Hysteresis. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-15543-2.
Mayergoyz, Isaak D.; Bertotti, Giorgio, eds. (2005). The Science of Hysteresis (3-volume set). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-480874-4.
Mielke, A.; Roubíček, T. (2015). Rate-Independent Systems - Theory and Application. Springer, New York. ISBN 978-1-4939-2705-0.
Truesdell, C.; Noll, Walter (2004). Antman, Stuart, ed. The Non-Linear Field Theories of Mechanics (Third ed.). ISBN 978-3-540-02779-9. Originally published as Volume III/3 of Handbuch der Physik in 1965.
Visintin, Augusto (1994). Differential models of hysteresis. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-54793-8.
Noori, Hamid R. (2014). Hysteresis phenomena in biology. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-38217-8.
External links[edit]
Look up hysteresis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Elastic hysteresis of household string is examined at Wikiversity
Overview of contact angle Hysteresis
Preisach model of hysteresis – Matlab codes developed by Zs. Szabó
Hysteresis
What's hysteresis?
Dynamical systems with hysteresis (interactive web page)
Magnetization reversal app (coherent rotation)
Elastic hysteresis and rubber bands
Authority control
GND: 4132813-9
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text:
United States Secretary of State
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Secretary of state (U.S. state government).
Secretary of State of the United States
Seal of the Secretary of State
Flag of the Secretary of State
Incumbent
Mike Pompeo
since April 26, 2018
Department of State
Style
Mr. Secretary
Member of
Cabinet, National Security Council
Reports to
The President
Seat
Washington, D.C.
Appointer
The President
with Senate advice and consent
Term length
Appointed
Constituting instrument
22 U.S.C. § 2651
Precursor
United States Secretary of Foreign Affairs
Formation
July 27, 1789; 228 years ago (1789-07-27)
First holder
John Jay (acting)
Thomas Jefferson
Succession
Fourth[1]
Deputy
Deputy Secretary of State
Salary
$205,700 annually[2] (Executive Schedule I)[3]
Website
www.state.gov
The Secretary of State is a senior official of the federal government of the United States of America, and as head of the U.S. Department of State, is principally concerned with foreign policy and is considered to be the U.S. government's equivalent of a Minister for Foreign Affairs.[4][5]
The Secretary of State is nominated by the President of the United States and, following a confirmation hearing before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, is confirmed by the United States Senate. The Secretary of State, along with the Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of Defense, and Attorney General, are generally regarded as the four most important Cabinet members because of the importance of their respective departments.[6] Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level (currently $205,700).[3]
The current Secretary of State is Mike Pompeo. On March 13, 2018, President Donald Trump dismissed Rex Tillerson and nominated Pompeo, then Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, to replace Tillerson.[7][8] Tillerson announced later that day that his last day at the State Department would be March 31, 2018.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Duties and responsibilities
2 List of Secretaries of State
3 References
4 External links
Duties and responsibilities[edit]
The stated duties of the Secretary of State are as follows:[10]
"Supervises the United States Foreign Service" and "administers the Department of State"
Advises the President on matters relating to U.S. foreign policy including the appointment of diplomatic representatives to other nations and on the acceptance, recall, or dismissal of representatives from other nations
"Negotiates, interprets, or terminates treaties and agreements" and "conducts negotiations relating to U.S. foreign affairs"
"Personally participates in or directs U.S. representatives to international conferences, organizations, and agencies"
Provides information and services to U.S. citizens living or traveling abroad such as providing credentials in the form of passports
"Ensures the protection of the U.S. Government to American citizens, property, and interests in foreign countries"
"Supervises the administration of the U.S. immigration policy abroad"
Communicates issues relating the U.S. foreign policy to Congress and to U.S. citizens
"Promotes beneficial economic intercourse between the U.S. and other countries"
The original duties of the Secretary of State include some domestic duties such as:[citation needed]
Receipt, publication, distribution, and preservation of the laws of the United States
Preparation, sealing, and recording of the commissions of Presidential appointees
Preparation and authentication of copies of records and authentication of copies under the Department's seal
Custody of the Great Seal of the United States
Custody of the records of former Secretary of the Continental Congress except for those of the Treasury and War departments
Most of the domestic functions of the Department of State have been transferred to other agencies. Those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries.[11] Under Federal Law,[12] the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger.
As the highest-ranking member of the cabinet, the Secretary of State is the third-highest official of the executive branch of the Federal Government of the United States, after the President and Vice President and is fourth in line to succeed the Presidency, coming after the Vice President, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and the President pro tempore of the Senate. Six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Others, including Henry Clay, William Seward, James Blaine, William Jennings Bryan, John Kerry, and Hillary Clinton have been unsuccessful presidential candidates, either before or after their term of office as Secretary of State.
The nature of the position means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretary's tenure is 112 by Hillary Clinton.[13] Second is Madeleine Albright with 96.[14] The record for most air miles traveled in a secretary's tenure is 1.380 million miles by John Kerry.[15] Second is Condoleezza Rice's 1.059 million miles, and third is Clinton's 956,733 miles.[13]
What are the Qualifications of a Secretary of State? He ought to be a Man of universal Reading in Laws, Governments, History. Our whole terrestrial Universe ought to be summarily comprehended in his Mind.
“
”
—John Adams[16]
List of Secretaries of State[edit]
Further information: List of Secretaries of State of the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "3 U.S. Code § 19 - Vacancy in offices of both President and Vice President; officers eligible to act". Cornell Law School.
Jump up ^ "Pay & Leave: Salaries & Wages". Salary Table No. 2015-EX. United States Office of Personnel Management. January 1, 2015. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b 5 U.S.C. § 5312.
Jump up ^ "Heads of State, Heads of Government, Ministers for Foreign Affairs", Protocol and Liaison Service, United Nations. Retrieved November 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ NATO Member Countries, NATO. Retrieved November 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Cabinets and Counselors: The President and the Executive Branch (1997). Congressional Quarterly. p. 87.
Jump up ^ Haaretz (2018-03-13). "Meet Mike Pompeo, Trump's Reported New Hardliner Secretary of State". Haaretz. Retrieved 2018-03-13.
Jump up ^ "Rex Tillerson out as secretary of state; CIA Director Mike Pompeo will replace him". PBS NewsHour. Retrieved 2018-03-13.
Jump up ^ "Trump fires Rex Tillerson as secretary of state". 2018-03-13. Retrieved 2018-03-13.
Jump up ^ "Duties of the Secretary of State". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved February 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Duties of the Secretary of State of the United States". www.state.gov. United States Department of State. January 20, 2009. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ "3 U.S. Code § 20 - Resignation or refusal of office".
^ Jump up to: a b Mark Landler (January 4, 2013). "Scare Adds to Fears That Clinton's Work Has Taken Toll". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Lee, Matthew (June 28, 2012). "Frequent flier Hillary Clinton hits 100-country mark". Detroit Free Press. Associated Press. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (April 6, 2016). "Kerry breaks record for miles traveled by secretary of state". Fox News.
Jump up ^ Ford, Worthington C., ed. (1927). Statesman and Friend: Correspondence of John Adams with Benjamin Waterhouse, 1784–1822. Boston, MA: Little, Brown, and Company. p. 57.
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Current U.S. order of precedence (ceremonial)
Preceded by
Ambassadors from the United States
(while at their posts) Order of Precedence of the United States
as Secretary of State Succeeded by
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Preceded by
Otherwise Barack Obama
as Former President Succeeded by
Otherwise António Guterres
as Secretary-General of the United Nations
Current U.S. presidential line of succession
Preceded by
President pro tempore of the Senate
Orrin Hatch 4th in line Succeeded by
Secretary of the Treasury
Steve Mnuchin
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United States Secretaries of State
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1781–89
R. Livingston
Jay
Secretary of State
1789–present
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Randolph
Pickering
J. Marshall
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Smith
Monroe
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Tillerson
Pompeo
[show]
v
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Agencies under the United States Department of State
Headquarters: Harry S Truman Building
Mike Pompeo, Secretary of State
John Sullivan, Deputy Secretary of State and Deputy Secretary of State for Management and Resources
Thomas A. Shannon Jr., Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs
Deputy Secretary of State and
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Under Secretary for
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Bureau of Conflict and Stabilization Operations
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Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration
Office of Global Criminal Justice
Office of Global Youth Issues
Office to Monitor and Combat Anti-Semitism
Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons
Bureaus/Offices
reporting directly to the Secretary
Bureau of Intelligence and Research
Bureau of Legislative Affairs
Office of Civil Rights
Office of Inspector General
Office of the Legal Adviser
Office of Policy Planning Staff
Office of the Chief of Protocol
Office of Global Food Security
Office of Global Women's Issues
Office of the United States Global AIDS Coordinator
Office of Global Partnerships
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[show]
v
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Presidential line of succession in the United States of America
Vice President (Mike Pence)
Speaker of the House of Representatives (Paul Ryan)
President pro tempore of the Senate (Orrin Hatch)
Secretary of State (Mike Pompeo)
Secretary of the Treasury (Steven Mnuchin)
Secretary of Defense (Jim Mattis)
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Secretary of Health and Human Services (Alex Azar)
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development (Ben Carson)
Secretary of Transportation (Elaine Chao[a])
Secretary of Energy (Rick Perry)
Secretary of Education (Betsy DeVos)
Secretary of Veterans Affairs (Robert Wilkie)
Secretary of Homeland Security (Kirstjen Nielsen)
Jump up ^ Although Elaine Chao is the current Secretary of Transportation, she is not a natural-born citizen (acquired U.S. citizenship by naturalization) and thus ineligible for the presidency.
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