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List of states and union territories of India by population
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States and union
territories of India
ordered by
Area
Population
Abbreviations
Capitals
Child Nutrition
Crime rate
Electricity penetration
Fertility rate
Forest cover
GDP (per capita)
Highest point
HIV awareness
HDI
Home ownership
Household size
Human Trafficking
Institutional delivery
Life expectancy at birth
Literacy rate
Media exposure
Number of Vehicles
Number of voters
Obesity
Open defecation
Origin of name
Places of worship
Poverty
Power capacity
Safe Drinking Water
Safety of Women
School Enrollment Rate
Sex ratio
Suicides
Tax revenues
TV ownership
Toilet availability
Transport network
Underweight people
Unemployment
Vaccination coverage
v
t
e
India is a union of 29 states and 7 union territories.[1] As of 2011, with an estimated population of 1.2 billion, India is the world's second most populous country after the People's Republic of China. India occupies 2.4% of the world's land surface area and is home to 17.5% of the world's population.[2] After the Indo-Gangetic Plain, the eastern and western coastal regions of the Deccan Plateau are the most densely populated regions of India. The Thar Desert in western Rajasthan is one of the most densely populated deserts in the world. The northern and north-eastern states along the Himalayas contain cold arid deserts with fertile valleys.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Census of India
2 States and union territories (by population)
3 Notes
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Census of India[edit]
Population density map of India.
The first population census in British India was conducted in 1872. Since India's independence in 1947, a census has been conducted every 10 years, the first occurring in 1951.[4] The census in India is conducted by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner under the Ministry of Home Affairs, and is one of the largest administrative tasks conducted by a federal government.[5]
The latest population figures are based on data from the 2011 census of India.[6] During the decade of 2001–2011, India's annual population growth rate has slowed down from 2.15 percent to 1.76 percent.[6] Based on decennial census data, Dadra and Nagar Haveli have the fastest growth rate of 55.5 percent, followed by Daman and Diu (53.5 percent), Meghalaya (27.8 percent) and Arunachal Pradesh (25.9 percent). Nagaland recorded the lowest growth rate of -0.5 percent.[7]
India has 641,000 inhabited villages and 72.2 percent of the total population reside in these rural areas.[8] Of them 145,000 villages have population size of 500–999 persons; 130,000 villages have population size of 1000–1999 and 128,000 villages have population size of 200–499. There are 3,961 villages that have a population of 10,000 persons or more.[2] India's 27.8 percent urban population lives in more than 5,100 towns and over 380 urban agglomerations.[9] In the decade of 1991–2001, migration to major cities caused rapid increase in urban population.[10][11] On the basis of net migrants by last residence during the past decade, Maharashtra had most immigration with 2.3 million, followed by National Capital Territory of Delhi (1.7 million), Gujarat (0.68 million) and Haryana (0.67 million). Uttar Pradesh (−2.6 million) and Bihar (−1.7 million) topped the list for interstate emigration.[12] The five states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh account for almost half (47.90 percent) of the total Indian population.[6]
While the national average for sex ratio shows an increase from 933 in 2001 to 940 in 2011,[6] the 2011 census shows a sharp decline in child sex ratio, the number of females per thousand males in a population between age group 0–6 years.[6] States such as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Mizoram and Andaman and Nicobar Islands recorded an increase in child sex ratio.[6] National child sex ratio has declined from 927 in 2001 to 914 in 2011.[6] Telangana census was separated from Andhra Pradesh state census figures, after Telangana formally took birth on 2 June 2014.[13]
States and union territories (by population)[edit]
The total geographical area of India is 3,287,240 square kilometres (1,269,210 sq mi)α.[2] Population density is rounded to the nearest integer.
As per provisional census data of 2011, the total population of India is: 1,210,193,422.[6]
Rank
State or union territory
Population (2011 Census)[14]
(% of population of India)[15]
Decadal growth (2001–2011)
Rural pop.[16]
(%)
Urban pop.[16]
(%)
Area[17]
Density
Sex ratio
1 Uttar Pradesh 7008207281477000000♠207,281,477
(16.49%) 20.1% 7008155111022000000♠155,111,022
(77.72%) 7007444704550000000♠44,470,455
(22.28%) 7011240928000000000♠240,928 km2 (93,023 sq mi) 6996828000000000000♠828/km2 (2,140/sq mi) 908
2 Maharashtra 7008112372972000000♠112,372,972
(9.28%) 16.0% 7007615454410000000♠61,545,441
(54.77%) 7007508275310000000♠50,827,531
(45.23%) 7011307713000000000♠307,713 km2 (118,809 sq mi) 6996365000000000000♠365/km2 (950/sq mi) 946
3 Bihar 7008103804637000000♠103,804,637
(8.58%) 25.1% 7007920750280000000♠92,075,028
(88.70%) 7007117296090000000♠11,729,609
(11.30%) 7010941630000000000♠94,163 km2 (36,357 sq mi) 6997110199999999999♠1,102/km2 (2,850/sq mi) 916
4 West Bengal 7007913477360000000♠91,347,736
(7.55%) 13.9% 7007622136760000000♠62,213,676
(68.11%) 7007291340600000000♠29,134,060
(31.89%) 7010887520000000000♠88,752 km2 (34,267 sq mi) 6997102900000000000♠1,029/km2 (2,670/sq mi) 947
5 Madhya Pradesh 7007725975650000000♠72,597,565
(6.00%) 20.3% 7007525378990000000♠52,537,899
(72.37%) 7007200596660000000♠20,059,666
(27.63%) 7011308245000000000♠308,245 km2 (119,014 sq mi) 6996236000000000000♠236/km2 (610/sq mi) 931
6 Tamil Nadu 7007721389580000000♠72,138,958
(5.96%) 15.6% 7007371892290000000♠37,189,229
(51.55%) 7007349497290000000♠34,949,729
(48.45%) 7011130058000000000♠130,058 km2 (50,216 sq mi) 6996554999999999999♠555/km2 (1,440/sq mi) 995
7 Rajasthan 7007686210120000000♠68,621,012
(5.67%) 21.4% 7007515402360000000♠51,540,236
(75.11%) 7007170807760000000♠17,080,776
(24.89%) 7011342239000000000♠342,239 km2 (132,139 sq mi) 6996200999999999999♠201/km2 (520/sq mi) 926
8 Karnataka 7007611307040000000♠61,130,704
(5.05%) 15.7% 7007375525290000000♠37,552,529
(61.43%) 7007235781750000000♠23,578,175
(38.57%) 7011191791000000000♠191,791 km2 (74,051 sq mi) 6996319000000000000♠319/km2 (830/sq mi) 968
9 Gujarat 7007603836280000000♠60,383,628
(5.00%) 19.2% 7007346708170000000♠34,670,817
(57.42%) 7007257128110000000♠25,712,811
(42.58%) 7011196024000000000♠196,024 km2 (75,685 sq mi) 6996308000000000000♠308/km2 (800/sq mi) 918
10 Andhra Pradesh 7007493867990000000♠49,386,799
(4.08%) 11.1% 7007347763890000000♠34,776,389
(70.42%) 7007146104100000000♠14,610,410
(29.58%) 7011162968000000000♠162,968 km2 (62,922 sq mi) 6996303000000000000♠303/km2 (780/sq mi) 993
11 Odisha 7007419473580000000♠41,947,358
(3.47%) 14.0% 7007349512340000000♠34,951,234
(83.32%) 7006699612400000000♠6,996,124
(16.68%) 7011155707000000000♠155,707 km2 (60,119 sq mi) 6996268999999999999♠269/km2 (700/sq mi) 978
12 Telangana 7007352867570000000♠35,286,757
(2.97%) 17.87% 7007215853130000000♠21,585,313
(61.33%) 7007136086650000000♠13,608,665
(38.66%) 7011114840000000000♠114,840 km2 (44,340 sq mi) 6996307000000000000♠307/km2 (800/sq mi) 988
13 Kerala 7007333876770000000♠33,387,677
(2.76%) 4.9% 7007174455060000000♠17,445,506
(52.28%) 7007159321710000000♠15,932,171
(47.72%) 7010388630000000000♠38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi) 6996859000000000000♠859/km2 (2,220/sq mi) 1,084
14 Jharkhand 7007329662380000000♠32,966,238
(2.72%) 22.3% 7007250369460000000♠25,036,946
(75.95%) 7006792929200000000♠7,929,292
(24.05%) 7010797140000000000♠79,714 km2 (30,778 sq mi) 6996414000000000000♠414/km2 (1,070/sq mi) 947
15 Assam 7007311692720000000♠31,169,272
(2.58%) 16.9% 7007267805260000000♠26,780,526
(85.92%) 7006438875600000000♠4,388,756
(14.08%) 7010784380000000000♠78,438 km2 (30,285 sq mi) 6996397000000000000♠397/km2 (1,030/sq mi) 954
16 Punjab 7007277042360000000♠27,704,236
(2.30%) 13.7% 7007173168000000000♠17,316,800
(62.51%) 7007103874360000000♠10,387,436
(37.49%) 7010503620000000000♠50,362 km2 (19,445 sq mi) 6996549999999999999♠550/km2 (1,400/sq mi) 893
17 Chhattisgarh 7007255401960000000♠25,540,196
(2.11%) 22.6% 7007196036580000000♠19,603,658
(76.76%) 7006593653800000000♠5,936,538
(23.24%) 7011135191000000000♠135,191 km2 (52,198 sq mi) 6996189000000000000♠189/km2 (490/sq mi) 991
18 Haryana 7007253530810000000♠25,353,081
(2.09%) 19.9% 7007165314930000000♠16,531,493
(75.75%) 7006882158800000000♠8,821,588
(24.25%) 7010442120000000000♠44,212 km2 (17,070 sq mi) 6996573000000000000♠573/km2 (1,480/sq mi) 877
19 Jammu and Kashmir 7007125489260000000♠12,548,926
(1.04%) 23.7% 7006913482000000000♠9,134,820
(72.79%) 7006341410600000000♠3,414,106
(27.21%) 7011222236000000000♠222,236 km2 (85,806 sq mi) 6995570000000000000♠57/km2 (150/sq mi) 883
20 Uttarakhand 7007101167520000000♠10,116,752
(0.84%) 19.2% 7006702558300000000♠7,025,583
(69.45%) 7006309116900000000♠3,091,169
(30.55%) 7010534830000000000♠53,483 km2 (20,650 sq mi) 6996189000000000000♠189/km2 (490/sq mi) 963
21 Himachal Pradesh 7006686460200000000♠6,864,602
(0.57%) 12.8% 7006616780500000000♠6,167,805
(89.96%) 7005688704000000000♠688,704
(10.04%) 7010556730000000000♠55,673 km2 (21,495 sq mi) 6996122999999999999♠123/km2 (320/sq mi) 974
22 Tripura 7006367103200000000♠3,671,032
(0.30%) 14.7% 7006271005100000000♠2,710,051
(73.82%) 7005960981000000000♠960,981
(26.18%) 7010104860000000000♠10,486 km2 (4,049 sq mi) 6996350000000000000♠350/km2 (910/sq mi) 961
23 Meghalaya 7006296400700000000♠2,964,007
(0.24%) 27.8% 7006236897100000000♠2,368,971
(79.92%) 7005595036000000000♠595,036
(20.08%) 7010224290000000000♠22,429 km2 (8,660 sq mi) 6996131999999999999♠132/km2 (340/sq mi) 986
24 Manipurβ 7006272175600000000♠2,721,756
(0.22%) 18.7% 7006189962400000000♠1,899,624
(79.79%) 7005822132000000000♠822,132
(20.21%) 7010223270000000000♠22,327 km2 (8,621 sq mi) 6996122000000000000♠122/km2 (320/sq mi) 987
25 Nagaland 7006198060200000000♠1,980,602
(0.16%) -0.5% 7006140686100000000♠1,406,861
(71.03%) 7005573741000000000♠573,741
(28.97%) 7010165790000000000♠16,579 km2 (6,401 sq mi) 6996119000000000000♠119/km2 (310/sq mi) 931
26 Goa 7006145772300000000♠1,457,723
(0.12%) 8.2% 7005551414000000000♠551,414
(37.83%) 7005906309000000000♠906,309
(62.17%) 7009370200000000000♠3,702 km2 (1,429 sq mi) 6996394000000000000♠394/km2 (1,020/sq mi) 968
27 Arunachal Pradesh 7006138261100000000♠1,382,611
(0.11%) 25.9% 7006106916500000000♠1,069,165
(77.33%) 7005313446000000000♠313,446
(22.67%) 7010837430000000000♠83,743 km2 (32,333 sq mi) 6995170000000000000♠17/km2 (44/sq mi) 920
28 Mizoram 7006109101400000000♠1,091,014
(0.09%) 22.8% 7005529037000000000♠529,037
(48.49%) 7005561997000000000♠561,997
(51.51%) 7010210810000000000♠21,081 km2 (8,139 sq mi) 6995519999999999999♠52/km2 (130/sq mi) 975
29 Sikkim 7005607688000000000♠607,688
(0.05%) 12.4% 7005455962000000000♠455,962
(75.03%) 7005151726000000000♠151,726
(24.97%) 7009709600000000000♠7,096 km2 (2,740 sq mi) 6995859999999999999♠86/km2 (220/sq mi) 889
7001300000000000000♠NCT Delhi 7007189800000000000♠18,980,000
(1.38%) 21% 7005419319000000000♠419,319
(2.50%) 7007163339160000000♠16,333,916
(97.50%) 7009148400000000000♠1,484 km2 (573 sq mi) 6998112970000000000♠11,297/km2 (29,260/sq mi) 866
7001310000000000000♠UT1 Puducherry 7006124446400000000♠1,244,464
(0.10%) 27.7% 7005394341000000000♠394,341
(31.69%) 7005850123000000000♠850,123
(68.31%) 7008479000000000000♠479 km2 (185 sq mi) 6997259800000000000♠2,598/km2 (6,730/sq mi) 1,038
7001320000000000000♠UT2 Chandigarh 7006105545000000000♠1,055,450
(0.09%) 17.1% 7004290040000000000♠29,004
(2.75%) 7006102568200000000♠1,025,682
(97.25%) 7008114000000000000♠114 km2 (44 sq mi) 6997925200000000000♠9,252/km2 (23,960/sq mi) 818
7001330000000000000♠UT3 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 7005379944000000000♠379,944
(0.03%) 6.7% 7005244411000000000♠244,411
(64.33%) 7005135533000000000♠135,533
(35.67%) 7009824900000000000♠8,249 km2 (3,185 sq mi) 6995460000000000000♠46/km2 (120/sq mi) 878
7001340000000000000♠UT4 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 7005342853000000000♠342,853
(0.03%) 55.5% 7005183024000000000♠183,024
(53.38%) 7005159829000000000♠159,829
(46.62%) 7008491000000000000♠491 km2 (190 sq mi) 6996698000000000000♠698/km2 (1,810/sq mi) 775
7001350000000000000♠UT5 Daman and Diu 7005242911000000000♠242,911
(0.02%) 53.5% 7004603310000000000♠60,331
(24.84%) 7005182580000000000♠182,580
(75.16%) 7008112000000000000♠112 km2 (43 sq mi) 6997216900000000000♠2,169/km2 (5,620/sq mi) 618
7001360000000000000♠UT6 Lakshadweep 7004644290000000000♠64,429
(0.01%) 6.2% 7004141210000000000♠14,121
(21.92%) 7004503080000000000♠50,308
(78.08%) 7007320000000000000♠32 km2 (12 sq mi) 6997201300000000000♠2,013/km2 (5,210/sq mi) 946
Total India 1,210,193,422
(100%) 17.64% 833,087,662
(68.84%) 377,105,760
(31.16%) 3,287,240 km2 (1,269,210 sq mi) 382/km2 (990/sq mi) 943
Notes[edit]
For determining population density of India and the State of Jammu and Kashmir, the data excludes areas claimed by India but controlled by Pakistan (78,114 km2) and China (42,735 km2).[18][19]
This includes 120,849 square kilometres (46,660 sq mi) of territory controlled by Pakistan, but claimed by India along with Aksai Chin and Shaksgam Valley, territories administered by the People's Republic of China.
^β Excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata, and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati district of Manipur.
See also[edit]
Demographics of India
List of country subdivisions by population
List of metropolitan areas in India
List of states and union territories of India by area
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "India at a Glance: Profile". Government of India. Retrieved 2013-09-30.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Area and Population". Government of India (2001). Census of India. Retrieved 2008-10-26.
Jump up ^ "India - General Profile, Land Use Classification and Land Use Pattern" (PDF). National Informatics Centre (NIC). Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 14, 2006. Retrieved 2008-12-12.
Jump up ^ "Census Organisation of India". Government of India (2001). Census of India. Archived from the original on December 1, 2008. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
Jump up ^ "Brief history of census". Government of India (2001). Census of India. Retrieved 2008-10-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "India Census 2011, Provisional Population Totals" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/archive/00517/India_Census_2011___517160a.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.thehindu.com/multimedia/archive/00517/India_Census_2011___517160a.pdf
Jump up ^ "Urban Agglomerations (UAs) & towns". Government of India (2001). Census of India. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
Jump up ^ Shinde, Swati (13 Sep 2008). "Migration rate to city will dip". Times of India. Retrieved 2008-12-08.
Jump up ^ "Develop towns to stop migration to urban areas: economist". Chennai, India: Hindu. Dec 3, 2005. Retrieved 2008-12-08.
Jump up ^ "Migration". Government of India (2001). Census of India. Retrieved 2008-10-26.
Jump up ^ T-party: India's 29th state Telangana is born
Jump up ^ "List of states with Population, Sex Ratio and Literacy Census 2011". 2011 Census of India. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Ranking of States and Union territories by population size : 1991 and 2001" (PDF). Government of India (2001). Census of India. pp. 5–6. Retrieved 2008-12-12.
^ Jump up to: a b "Provisional Population Totals". Government of India (2011). Census of India. Retrieved 2011-07-23.
Jump up ^ "Area of India/state/district". Government of India (2001). Census of India. Retrieved 2008-10-27.
Jump up ^ "J&K 2011 Population density census" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Religion PCA 2011 J&K census".
2011 Indian Census
External links[edit]
Official website of Census of India
Census of India - Density of population
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Oyster
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Oyster (disambiguation).
Oyster
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Bivalvia
Pacific oyster from the Marennes-Oléron basin in France
Oyster is the common name for a number of different families of salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in marine or brackish habitats. In some species the valves are highly calcified, and many are somewhat irregular in shape. Many, but not all, oysters are in the superfamily Ostreoidea.
Some kinds of oysters are commonly consumed by humans, cooked or raw, and are regarded as a delicacy. Some kinds of pearl oysters are harvested for the pearl produced within the mantle. Windowpane oysters are harvested for their translucent shells, which are used to make various kinds of decorative objects.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Types
2.1 True oysters
2.2 Pearl oysters
2.3 Other types of oysters
3 Anatomy
4 Habitat and behaviour
5 Nutrient cycling
6 Ecosystem services
7 Human history
7.1 Fishing from the wild
7.2 Cultivating oysters
7.3 Restoration and recovery
7.4 Human impact
8 As food
8.1 Depuration
8.2 Nutrition
8.3 Selection, preparation and storage
8.4 Opening oysters
9 Diseases
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Etymology[edit]
First attested in English during the 14th century,[1] the word "oyster" comes from Old French oistre, in turn from Latin ostrea, the feminine form of ostreum,[2] which is the latinisation of the Greek ὄστρεον (ostreon), "oyster".[3] Compare ὀστέον (osteon), "bone".[4]
Types[edit]
True oysters[edit]
True oysters are members of the family Ostreidae. This family includes the edible oysters, which mainly belong to the genera Ostrea, Crassostrea, Ostreola, Magallana, and Saccostrea. Examples include the Belon oyster, eastern oyster, Olympia oyster, Pacific oyster, and the Sydney rock oyster.
Pearl oysters[edit]
Removing a pearl from a pearl oyster
Main article: Pearl oyster
Almost all shell-bearing mollusks can secrete pearls, yet most are not very valuable.
Pearl oysters are not closely related to true oysters, being members of a distinct family, the feathered oysters (Pteriidae). Both cultured pearls and natural pearls can be extracted from pearl oysters, though other molluscs, such as the freshwater mussels, also yield pearls of commercial value.
The largest pearl-bearing oyster is the marine Pinctada maxima, which is roughly the size of a dinner plate. Not all individual oysters produce pearls naturally. In fact, in a harvest of two and a half tons of oysters, only three to four oysters produce what commercial buyers consider to be absolute perfect pearls.[citation needed]
In nature, pearl oysters produce pearls by covering a minute invasive object with nacre.[5] Over the years, the irritating object is covered with enough layers of nacre to become a pearl. The many different types, colours and shapes of pearls depend on the natural pigment of the nacre, and the shape of the original irritant.
Pearl farmers can culture a pearl by placing a nucleus, usually a piece of polished mussel shell, inside the oyster. In three to seven years, the oyster can produce a perfect pearl. These pearls are not as valuable as natural pearls, but look exactly the same. In fact, since the beginning of the 20th century, when several researchers discovered how to produce artificial pearls, the cultured pearl market has far outgrown the natural pearl market.
Other types of oysters[edit]
A number of bivalve molluscs (other than true oysters and pearl oysters) also have common names that include the word "oyster", usually because they either taste like or look somewhat like true oysters, or because they yield noticeable pearls. Examples include:
Thorny oysters in the genus Spondylus
Pilgrim oyster, another term for a scallop, in reference to the scallop shell of St. James
Saddle oysters, members of the Anomiidae family also known as jingle shells
Dimydarian oysters, members of the family Dimyidae
Windowpane oysters
Pacific oyster
Pacific oyster, opened
In the Philippines, a local thorny oyster species known as Tikod Amo is a favorite seafood source in the southern part of the country.[6] Because of its good flavor, it commands high prices.
Anatomy[edit]
Oysters are filter feeders, drawing water in over their gills through the beating of cilia. Suspended plankton and particles are trapped in the mucus of a gill, and from there are transported to the mouth, where they are eaten, digested, and expelled as feces or pseudofeces. Oysters feed most actively at temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F). An oyster can filter up to 5 L (1.3 US gal) of water per hour. The Chesapeake Bay's once-flourishing oyster population historically filtered excess nutrients from the estuary's entire water volume every three to four days. Today, that would take nearly a year.[7] Excess sediment, nutrients, and algae can result in the eutrophication of a body of water. Oyster filtration can mitigate these pollutants.
In addition to their gills, oysters can also exchange gases across their mantles, which are lined with many small, thin-walled blood vessels. A small, three-chambered heart, lying under the adductor muscle, pumps colorless blood to all parts of the body. At the same time, two kidneys, located on the underside of the muscle, remove waste products from the blood. Their nervous system includes two pairs of nerve cords and three pairs of ganglia.
While some oysters have two sexes (European oyster and Olympia oyster), their reproductive organs contain both eggs and sperm. Because of this, it is technically possible for an oyster to fertilize its own eggs. The gonads surround the digestive organs, and are made up of sex cells, branching tubules, and connective tissue.
Once the female is fertilized, she discharges millions of eggs into the water. The larvae develop in about six hours and exist suspended in the water column as veliger larvae for two to three weeks before settling on a bed and maturing to sexual adulthood within a year.
Habitat and behaviour[edit]
Oyster reef at about mid-tide off fishing pier at Hunting Island State Park, South Carolina
A group of oysters is commonly called a bed or oyster reef.
Rocks in intertidal zone covered by oysters, at Bangchuidao Scenic Area, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China
As a keystone species, oysters provide habitat for many marine species. Crassostrea and Saccostrea live mainly in the intertidal zone, while Ostrea is subtidal. The hard surfaces of oyster shells and the nooks between the shells provide places where a host of small animals can live. Hundreds of animals, such as sea anemones, barnacles, and hooked mussels, inhabit oyster reefs. Many of these animals are prey to larger animals, including fish, such as striped bass, black drum and croakers.
An oyster reef can increase the surface area of a flat bottom 50-fold. An oyster's mature shape often depends on the type of bottom to which it is originally attached, but it always orients itself with its outer, flared shell tilted upward. One valve is cupped and the other is flat.
Oysters usually reach maturity in one year. They are protandric; during their first year, they spawn as males by releasing sperm into the water. As they grow over the next two or three years and develop greater energy reserves, they spawn as females by releasing eggs. Bay oysters usually spawn from the end of June until mid-August. An increase in water temperature prompts a few oysters to spawn. This triggers spawning in the rest, clouding the water with millions of eggs and sperm. A single female oyster can produce up to 100 million eggs annually. The eggs become fertilized in the water and develop into larvae, which eventually find suitable sites, such as another oyster's shell, on which to settle. Attached oyster larvae are called spat. Spat are oysters less than 25 mm (1 in) long. Many species of bivalves, oysters included, seem to be stimulated to settle near adult conspecifics.
Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas equipped with activity electrodes to follow their daily behaviour
Oysters are considered to filter large amounts of water to feed and breathe (exchange O2 and CO2 with water) but they are not permanently open. They regularly shut their valves to enter a resting state, even when they are permanently submersed. In fact their behaviour follows very strict circatidal and circadian rhythms according to the relative moon and sun positions. During neap tides, they exhibit much longer closing periods than during the spring tide.[8]
Some tropical oysters, such as the mangrove oyster in the family Ostreidae, grow best on mangrove roots. Low tide can expose them, making them easy to collect. In Trinidad in the West Indies, tourists are often astounded when they are told, in the Caribbean, "oysters grow on trees".
The largest oyster-producing body of water in the United States is Chesapeake Bay, although these beds have decreased in number due to overfishing and pollution. Willapa Bay in Washington produces more oysters than any other estuary in the US.[9] Other large oyster farming areas in the US include the bays and estuaries along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico from Apalachicola, Florida in the east to Galveston, Texas in the west. Large beds of edible oysters are also found in Japan and Australia. In 2005, China accounted for 80% of the global oyster harvest.[10] Within Europe, France remained the industry leader.
Common oyster predators include crabs, seabirds, starfish, and humans. Some oysters contain live crabs, known as oyster crabs.
Nutrient cycling[edit]
Bivalves, including oysters, are effective filter feeders and can have large effects on the water columns in which they occur.[11] As filter feeders, oysters remove plankton and organic particles from the water column.[12] Multiple studies have shown individual oysters are capable of filtering up to 50 gallons of water per day, and thus oyster reefs can significantly improve water quality and clarity.[13][14][15][16] Oysters consume nitrogen-containing compounds (nitrates and ammonia), phosphates, plankton, detritus, bacteria, and dissolved organic matter, removing them from the water. [17] What is not used for animal growth is then expelled as solid waste pellets, which eventually decompose into the atmosphere as nitrogen.[5] In Maryland, the Chesapeake Bay Program plans to use oysters to reduce the amount of nitrogen compounds entering the Chesapeake Bay by 8,600 t (19,000,000 lb) per year by 2010.[18] Several studies have shown that oysters and mussels have the capacity to dramatically alter nitrogen levels in estuaries.[19][20][21] In the U.S., Delaware is the only East Coast state without aquaculture, but making aquaculture a state-controlled industry of leasing water by the acre for commercial harvesting of shellfish is being considered.[22] Supporters of Delaware's legislation to allow oyster aquaculture cite revenue, job creation, and nutrient cycling benefits. It is estimated that one acre can produce nearly 750,000 oysters, which could filter between 57,000 to 150,000 m3 (15,000,000 to 40,000,000 US gal) of water daily.[22] Also see nutrient pollution for an extended explanation of nutrient remediation.
Ecosystem services[edit]
As an ecosystem engineer oysters provide "supporting" ecosystem services, along with "provisioning", "regulating" and "cultural" services. Oysters influence nutrient cycling, water filtration, habitat structure, biodiversity, and food web dynamics.[23] Oyster feeding and nutrient cycling activities could "rebalance" shallow, coastal ecosystems if restoration of historic populations could be achieved.[24] Furthermore, assimilation of nitrogen and phosphorus into shellfish tissues provides an opportunity to remove these nutrients from the environment, but this benefit has only recently been recognized.[24][25][26] In California's Tomales Bay, native oyster presence is associated with higher species diversity of benthic invertebrates[27] but other ecosystem services have not been studied.[28] As the ecological and economic importance of oyster reefs has become more widely acknowledged, creation of oyster reef habitat through restoration efforts has become more important- often with the goal of restoring multiple ecosystem services associated with natural oyster reefs.[29]
Human history[edit]
Still-Life with Oysters by Alexander Adriaenssen
The Whaleback Shell Midden in Maine contains the shells from oysters harvested for food dating from 2200-1000 years ago
Middens testify to the prehistoric importance of oysters as food, with some middens in New South Wales, Australia dated at ten thousand years.[30] They have been cultivated in Japan from at least 2000 BC.[30] In the United Kingdom, the town of Whitstable is noted for oyster farming from beds on the Kentish Flats that have been used since Roman times. The borough of Colchester holds an annual Oyster Feast each October, at which "Colchester Natives" (the native oyster, Ostrea edulis) are consumed. The United Kingdom hosts several other annual oyster festivals, for example Woburn Oyster Festival is held in September. Many breweries produce Oyster Stout, a beer intended to be drunk with oysters that sometimes includes oysters in the brewing process.
The French seaside resort of Cancale in Brittany is noted for its oysters, which also date from Roman times. Sergius Orata of the Roman Republic is considered the first major merchant and cultivator of oysters. Using his considerable knowledge of hydraulics, he built a sophisticated cultivation system, including channels and locks, to control the tides. He was so famous for this, the Romans used to say he could breed oysters on the roof of his house.[31]
In the early 19th century, oysters were cheap and mainly eaten by the working class. Throughout the 19th century, oyster beds in New York Harbor became the largest source of oysters worldwide. On any day in the late 19th century, six million oysters could be found on barges tied up along the city's waterfront. They were naturally quite popular in New York City, and helped initiate the city's restaurant trade.[32] New York's oystermen became skilled cultivators of their beds, which provided employment for hundreds of workers and nutritious food for thousands. Eventually, rising demand exhausted many of the beds. To increase production, they introduced foreign species, which brought disease; effluent and increasing sedimentation from erosion destroyed most of the beds by the early 20th century. Oysters' popularity has put ever-increasing demands on wild oyster stocks.[33] This scarcity increased prices, converting them from their original role as working-class food to their current status as an expensive delicacy.
In the United Kingdom, the native variety (Ostrea edulis) requires five years to mature and is protected by an Act of Parliament during the May to August spawning season. The current market is dominated by the larger Pacific oyster and rock oyster varieties which are farmed year round.
Fishing from the wild[edit]
Oysters are harvested by simply gathering them from their beds. In very shallow waters, they can be gathered by hand or with small rakes. In somewhat deeper water, long-handled rakes or oyster tongs are used to reach the beds. Patent tongs can be lowered on a line to reach beds that are too deep to reach directly. In all cases, the task is the same: the oysterman scrapes oysters into a pile, and then scoops them up with the rake or tongs.
In some areas, a scallop dredge is used. This is a toothed bar attached to a chain bag. The dredge is towed through an oyster bed by a boat, picking up the oysters in its path. While dredges collect oysters more quickly, they heavily damage the beds, and their use is highly restricted. Until 1965, Maryland limited dredging to sailboats, and even since then motor boats can be used only on certain days of the week. These regulations prompted the development of specialized sailboats (the bugeye and later the skipjack) for dredging.
Similar laws were enacted in Connecticut before World War I and lasted until 1969. The laws restricted the harvesting of oysters in state-owned beds to vessels under sail. These laws prompted the construction of the oyster sloop-style vessel to last well into the 20th century. Hope is believed to be the last-built Connecticut oyster sloop, completed in 1948.
Oysters can also be collected by divers.
In any case, when the oysters are collected, they are sorted to eliminate dead animals, bycatch (unwanted catch), and debris. Then they are taken to market, where they are either canned or sold live.
Cultivating oysters[edit]
Oyster culture in Riec-sur-Belon, France
Main article: Oyster farming
Oysters have been cultured for well over a century. The Pacific oyster (Magallana gigas) is presently the most widely grown bivalve around the world.[34] Two methods are commonly used, release and bagging. In both cases, oysters are cultivated onshore to the size of spat, when they can attach themselves to a substrate. They may be allowed to mature further to form 'seed oysters'. In either case, they are then placed in the water to mature. The release technique involves distributing the spat throughout existing oyster beds, allowing them to mature naturally to be collected like wild oysters. Bagging has the cultivator putting spat in racks or bags and keeping them above the bottom. Harvesting involves simply lifting the bags or rack to the surface and removing the mature oysters. The latter method prevents losses to some predators, but is more expensive.[35]
The Pacific oyster has been grown in the outflow of mariculture ponds. When fish or prawns are grown in ponds, it takes typically 10 kg (22 lb) of feed to produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of product (dry-dry basis). The other 9 kg (20 lb) goes into the pond and after mineralization, provides food for phytoplankton, which in turn feeds the oyster.
To prevent spawning, sterile oysters are now cultured by crossbreeding tetraploid and diploid oysters. The resulting triploid oyster cannot propagate, which prevents introduced oysters from spreading into unwanted habitats.[36]
Restoration and recovery[edit]
In many areas, non-native oysters have been introduced in attempts to prop up failing harvests of native varieties. For example, the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) was introduced to California waters in 1875, while the Pacific oyster was introduced there in 1929.[37] Proposals for further such introductions remain controversial.
The Pacific oyster prospered in Pendrell Sound, where the surface water is typically warm enough for spawning in the summer. Over the following years, spat spread out sporadically and populated adjacent areas. Eventually, possibly following adaptation to the local conditions, the Pacific oyster spread up and down the coast and now is the basis of the North American west coast oyster industry. Pendrell Sound is now a reserve that supplies spat for cultivation.[38] Near the mouth of the Great Wicomico River in the Chesapeake Bay, five-year-old artificial reefs now harbor more than 180 million native Crassostrea virginica. That is far lower than in the late 1880s, when the bay's population was in the billions, and watermen harvested about 910,000 m3 (25,000,000 imp bsh) annually. The 2009 harvest was less than 7,300 m3 (200,000 imp bsh). Researchers claim the keys to the project were:
using waste oyster shells to elevate the reef floor 25–45 cm (9.8–17.7 in) to keep the spat free of bottom sediments
building larger reefs, ranging up to 8.1 ha (20 acres) in size
disease-resistant broodstock[39]
The "oyster-tecture" movement promotes the use of oyster reefs for water purification and wave attenuation. An oyster-tecture project has been implemented at Withers Estuary, Withers Swash, South Carolina, by Neil Chambers-led volunteers, at a site where pollution was affecting beach tourism.[40] Currently, for the installation cost of $3000, roughly 4.8 million liters of water are being filtered daily. In New Jersey, however, the Department of Environmental Protection refused to allow oysters as a filtering system in Sandy Hook Bay and the Raritan Bay, citing worries that commercial shellfish growers would be at risk and that members of the public might disregard warnings and consume tainted oysters. New Jersey Baykeepers responded by changing their strategy for utilizing oysters to clean up the waterway, by partnering with Naval Weapons Station Earle. The Navy station is under 24/7 security and therefore eliminates any poaching and associated human health risk.[41] Oyster-tecture projects have been proposed to protect coastal cities, such as New York, from the threat of rising sea levels due to climate change.[42]
Human impact[edit]
The accidental or intentional introduction of species by humans has the potential to negatively impact native oyster populations. For example, non-native species in Tomales Bay have resulted in the loss of half of California's Olympia oysters.[43]
In October 2017, it was reported that underwater noise pollution can affect oysters as they close their shells when exposed to low frequencies of sounds in experimental conditions. Oysters rely on hearing waves and currents to regulate their circadian rhythms, and perception of weather events—such as rain—may induce spawning. Cargo ships, pile drivers, and explosions conducted underwater produce low frequencies that may be detected by oysters.[44]
As food[edit]
Chargrilled oysters
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oyster dishes.
Raw oysters presented on a plate
Oysters served on ice and with a piece of lemon on the side
Jonathan Swift is quoted as having said, "He was a bold man that first ate an oyster",[45] but evidence of oyster consumption goes back into prehistory, evidenced by oyster middens found worldwide. Oysters were an important food source in all coastal areas where they could be found, and oyster fisheries were an important industry where they were plentiful. Overfishing and pressure from diseases and pollution have sharply reduced supplies, but they remain a popular treat celebrated in oyster festivals in many cities and towns.
It was once assumed that oysters were only safe to eat in months with the letter 'r' in their English and French names. This myth is based in truth, in that in the Northern Hemisphere, oysters are much more likely to spoil in the warmer months of May, June, July, and August.[46] In recent years, pathogens such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus have caused outbreaks in several harvesting areas of the eastern United States during the summer months, lending further credence to this belief.
Depuration[edit]
Depuration of oysters is a common industry practice and widely researched in the scientific community but is not commonly known by end consumers. The main objective of seafood depuration is to remove fecal contamination in seafood before being sold to end consumers. Oyster depuration is useful since they are generally eaten raw and in many countries, the requirement to process is government-regulated or mandatory. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) formally recognizes depuration and has published detailed documents on the process,[47] whereas the Codex Alimentarius, encourages the application of seafood depuration.[48]
Oyster depuration begins after the harvest of oysters from farmed locations. The oysters are transported and placed into tanks pumped with clean water for periods of 48 to 72 hours. The holding temperatures and salinity vary according to species. The seawater that the oysters were originally farmed in does not remain in the oyster, since the water used for depuration must be fully sterilized, plus the depuration facility would not necessarily be located near the farming location.[49] Depuration of oysters can remove moderate levels of contamination of most bacterial indicators and pathogens. Well-known contaminants include Vibrio parahaemolyticus which is a bacterium found in seawater animals that is temperature sensitive, and Escherichia coli which is a bacterium found in coastal waters near highly populated cities having sewage systems discharging waste nearby, or from agricultural discharges.[50] Depuration expands beyond oysters into many shellfish and other related products, especially in seafood that is known to come from potentially polluted areas; depurated seafood is effectively a product cleansed from inside-out to make it safe for human consumption.
Nutrition[edit]
Oysters are an excellent source of zinc, iron, calcium, and selenium, as well as vitamin A and vitamin B12. Oysters are low in food energy; one dozen raw oysters contains 110 kilocalories (460 kJ).[51] They are rich in protein (approximately 9g in 100g of pacific oysters).[52]
Traditionally, oysters are considered to be an aphrodisiac, partially because they resemble female sex organs.[53] A team of American and Italian researchers analyzed bivalves and found they were rich in amino acids that trigger increased levels of sex hormones.[54] Their high zinc content aids the production of testosterone.[32]
Dietary supplements may contain calcium carbonate from oyster shells, though no evidence shows this offers any benefits beyond what calcium may offer.
Selection, preparation and storage[edit]
Unlike most shellfish, oysters can have a fairly long shelf life of up to four weeks. However, their taste becomes less pleasant as they age. Oysters should be refrigerated out of water, not frozen, and in 100% humidity. Oysters stored in water under refrigeration will open, consume available oxygen, and die.
Freshly opened pearl oysters
Freshly shucked European flat Oyster
Oysters must be eaten alive, or cooked alive. The shells of live oysters are usually tightly closed or snap shut given a slight tap. If the shell is open, the oyster is dead, and cannot be eaten safely. Cooking oysters in the shell kills the oysters and causes them to open by themselves. Traditionally, oysters that do not open have been assumed to be dead before cooking and therefore unsafe.[55] However, according to at least one marine biologist, Nick Ruello, this advice may have arisen from an old, poorly researched cookbook's advice regarding mussels, which has now become an assumed truism for all shellfish. Ruello found 11.5% of all mussels failed to open during cooking, but when forced open, 100% were "both adequately cooked and safe to eat."[56]
Giant oyster in southern Angola
Fried oyster with egg and flour is a common dish in Malaysia[57] and Singapore.
Oysters can be eaten on the half shell, raw, smoked, boiled, baked, fried, roasted, stewed, canned, pickled, steamed, or broiled, or used in a variety of drinks. Eating can be as simple as opening the shell and eating the contents, including juice. Butter and salt are often added. In the case of Oysters Rockefeller, preparation can be very elaborate. They are sometimes served on edible seaweed, such as brown algae.
Care should be taken when consuming oysters. Purists insist on eating them raw, with no dressing save perhaps lemon juice, vinegar (most commonly shallot vinegar), or cocktail sauce. Upscale restaurants pair raw oysters with a home-made Mignonette sauce, which consists primarily of fresh chopped shallot, mixed peppercorn, dry white wine and lemon juice or sherry vinegar. Like fine wine, raw oysters have complex flavors that vary greatly among varieties and regions: salty, briny, buttery, metallic, or even fruity. The texture is soft and fleshy, but crisp on the palate. North American varieties include: Kumamoto and Yaquina Bay from Oregon, Duxbury and Wellfleet from Massachusetts, Malpeque from Prince Edward Island, Canada, Blue Point from Long Island, New York, Pemaquid from Maine, and Cape May oysters from New Jersey. Variations in water salinity, alkalinity, and mineral/nutritional content influence their flavor profile.
Oysters can contain harmful bacteria. Oysters are filter feeders, so will naturally concentrate anything present in the surrounding water. Oysters from the Gulf Coast of the United States, for example, contain high bacterial loads of human pathogens in the warm months, most notably Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. In these cases, the main danger is for immunocompromised individuals, who are unable to fight off infection and can succumb to septicemia, leading to death. Vibrio vulnificus is the most deadly seafood-borne pathogen.
Opening oysters[edit]
Special knives for opening live oysters, such as this one, have short and stout blades.
Fresh oysters must be alive just before consumption or cooking. There is only one criterion: the oyster must be capable of tightly closing its shell. Open oysters should be tapped on the shell; a live oyster will close up and is safe to eat. Oysters which are open and unresponsive are dead and must be discarded. Some dead oysters, or oyster shells which are full of sand may be closed. These make a distinctive noise when tapped, and are known as 'clackers'.
Opening oysters, referred to as oyster-shucking, requires skill. The preferred method is to use a special knife (called an oyster knife, a variant of a shucking knife), with a short and thick blade about 5 cm (2.0 in) long.
While different methods are used to open an oyster (which sometimes depend on the type), the following is one commonly accepted oyster-shucking method.
Insert the blade, with moderate force and vibration if necessary, at the hinge between the two valves.
Twist the blade until there is a slight pop.
Slide the blade upward to cut the adductor muscle which holds the shell closed.
Inexperienced shuckers can apply too much force, which can result in injury if the blade slips. Heavy gloves are necessary; apart from the knife, the shell itself can be razor sharp. Professional shuckers require fewer than three seconds to open the shell.[32]
If the oyster has a particularly soft shell, the knife can be inserted instead in the 'sidedoor', about halfway along one side where the oyster lips widen with a slight indentation.
Opening or "shucking" oysters has become a competitive sport. Oyster-shucking competitions are staged around the world. Widely acknowledged to be the premiere event, the Guinness World Oyster Opening Championship is held in September at the Galway Oyster Festival. The annual Clarenbridge Oyster Festival 'Oyster Opening Competition' is also held in Galway, Ireland.
Diseases[edit]
Oysters are subject to various diseases which can reduce harvests and severely deplete local populations. Disease control focuses on containing infections and breeding resistant strains, and is the subject of much ongoing research.
"Dermo" is caused by a protozoan parasite (Perkinsus marinus). It is a prevalent pathogen, causes massive mortality, and poses a significant economic threat to the oyster industry. The disease is not a direct threat to humans consuming infected oysters.[58] Dermo first appeared in the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s, and until 1978 was believed to be caused by a fungus. While it is most serious in warmer waters, it has gradually spread up the east coast of the United States.[59]
Multinucleated sphere X (MSX) is caused by the protozoan Haplosporidium nelsoni, generally seen as a multinucleated Plasmodium. It is infectious and causes heavy mortality in the eastern oyster; survivors, however, develop resistance and can help propagate resistant populations. MSX is associated with high salinity and water temperatures.[58] MSX was first noted in Delaware Bay in 1957, and is now found all up and down the East Coast of the United States. Evidence suggests it was brought to the US when Crassostrea gigas, a Japanese oyster variety, was introduced to Delaware Bay.[59]
Some oysters also harbor bacterial species which can cause human disease; of importance is Vibrio vulnificus, which causes gastroenteritis, which is usually self-limiting, and cellulitis. Cellulitis can be so severe and rapidly spreading, often it requires amputation. It is usually acquired when the contents of the oyster come in contact with a cut skin lesion, as when shucking an oyster.
See also[edit]
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Oyster
Food portal
Angels on horseback (classic recipe)
Auckland oyster
Belon oyster
Bluff oyster
Eastern oyster
List of delicacies
List of smoked foods
Olympia oyster
Ostrea angasi (Australian southern mud or native flat oyster)
Oyster cracker
Oyster farming
Oyster festival
Oyster omelette
Oyster pirate
Oyster sauce
Oysters Kirkpatrick (classic recipe and minor English literary character)
Oysters Rockefeller
Pacific oyster
Pearl
Pearl oyster
Red tide
Rolled oyster
Rock oyster
San Leandro Oyster Beds
Shellder
Sydney rock oyster
Tabby (cement)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Oysters in Cynee, Recipe for Oysters in Bread Sauce (Oysters in Cynee) from the 1390 English text, The Forme of Cury, from Celtnet Recipes
Jump up ^ ostrea, ostreum, Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, on Perseus
Jump up ^ ὄστρεον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
Jump up ^ ὀστέον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ Jump up to: a b "A dozen ocean-cleaners and a pint of Guinness, please". The Economist. 2008-12-18. Retrieved 2008-12-26.
Jump up ^ "Native oyster species in Surigao del Sur draws attention for R&D | eVolved". eVolved. 2011-12-02. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
Jump up ^ "Oyster Reefs: Ecological importance" (PDF). US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ Tran, D., Nadau, A., Durrieu, G., Ciret, P., Parisot, JP., Massabuau, JC. 2011. Field chronobiology of a Molluscan bivalve: how the moon and sun cycles interact to drive oyster activity rhythms. Chronobiology International, Vol. 28, Num. 4: 307-317.
Jump up ^ Ruesink Lab - About the Bay
Jump up ^ "China harvests almost 4 m tonnes of oyster in 2005".
Jump up ^ Padilla, D.K. 2010. Context-dependent Impacts of a Non-native Ecosystem Engineer, the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas. Integrative and Comparative Biology, Vol. 50, Num. 2: 213-225.
Jump up ^ Jud and Layman. 2011. Loxahatchee River oyster reef restoration monitoring report: Using baselines derived from long-term monitoring of benthic community structure on natural oyster reefs to assess the outcome of large-scale oyster reef restoration. Prepared for Martin County, state of Florida.
Jump up ^ Jonas, R.B., 1997. Bacteria, dissolved organics and oxygens consumption in salinity stratified Chesapeake Bay, an anoxia paradigm. Am. Zool. 37, 612-620.
Jump up ^ Officer, C.B., Smayda, T.J. and Mann, R., 1982. Benthic Filter Feeding - a Natural Eutrophication Control. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 9, 203-210.
Jump up ^ Ulanowicz, R.E. and Tuttle, J.H., 1992. The Trophic Consequences of Oyster Stock Rehabilitation in Chesapeake Bay. Estuaries 15, 298-306.
Jump up ^ Newell, R. 2004. Ecosystem Influences of Natural and Cultivated Populations of Suspension-Feeding Bivalve Molluscs: A Review. J. Shellfish Research, 23(1):51-61.
Jump up ^ Crisp et al. 1985. Feeding by oyster larvae: the functional response, energy budget and comparison with mussel larvae. J. Marine Biology Assoc. U.K 65:759-783.
Jump up ^ "Oyster Restoration Projected to Provide Significant Boost to Bay Grasses While Removing Nitrogen Pollution from the Bay". Maryland Department of Natural Resources. Archived from the original on 2006-09-03. Retrieved 2008-12-26.
Jump up ^ Newell, R.I.E., Fisher, T.R., Holyoke, R.R., Cornwell, J.C. (2005). "Influence of eastern oysters on nitrogen and phosphorus regeneration in Chesapeake Bay, USA". In Dame, R., Olenin, S. The Comparative Roles of Suspension Feeders in Ecosystems, Vol. 47 (NATO Science Series IV: Earth and Environmental Sciences ed.). Netherlands: Springer. pp. 93–120. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Grabowski, J.H., Petersen, C.H. (2007). Cuddington, K., Byers, J.E., Wilson, W.G., Hastings, A, ed. Restoring oyster reefs to recover ecosystem services (Ecosystem Engineers: Concepts, Theory and Applications ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier-Academic Press. pp. 281–298. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Rose JM, Tedesco M, Wikfors GH, Yarish C (2010). "International Workshop on Bioextractive Technologies for Nutrient Remediation Summary Report". US Dept Commer, Northeast Fish Sci Cent Ref Doc. 10-19; 12 p. Available from: National Marine Fisheries Service, 166 Water Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543-1026.
^ Jump up to: a b Brown, Ashton (June 10, 2013). "'Aquaculture' shellfish harvesting bill moves forward". Delaware State News. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved June 11, 2013.
Jump up ^ Schulte, David M. et al. 2009. Unprecedented Restoration of a Native Oyster Metapopulation. Science 1124, 325.
^ Jump up to: a b Wikfors, Gary H. 2011. Trophic interactions between phytoplankton and bivalve aquaculture. In, Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment. Ed: S.E. Shumway. John Wiley & Sons.
Jump up ^ Officer, C.B., T.J. Smayda & R. Mann. 1982. Benthic filter feeding, a natural eutrophication control. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 9:203-120.
Jump up ^ Lindahl, O., et al. 2005. Improving marine water quality by mussel farming- a profitable solution for Swedish society. Ambio 131-138.
Jump up ^ Kimbro, D. L. & E. D. Grosholz. 2006. Disturbance influences oyster community richness and evenness, but not diversity. Ecology 87:2378–2388
Jump up ^ Camara, M. and Vadopalas, B. 2009. Genetic aspects of restoring Olympia oysters and other native bivalves: Balancing the need for action, good intentions, and the risk of making things worse. Journal of Shellfish Research 28(1):121-145
Jump up ^ Jud and Layman. 2011. Loxahatchee River oyster reef restoration monitoring report: Using baselines derived from long-term monitoring of benthic community structure on natural reefs to assess the outcome of large-scale oyster reef restoration. http://www.loxahatcheeriver.org/pdf/FIU_NOAAMonitRpt_2011.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b "Oyster industry in NSW". NSW Department of Primary Industries. NSW Government. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Holland, Tom (2003). Rubicon. ISBN 0-385-50313-X.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kurlansky, Mark (2006). The Big Oyster: History on the Half Shell. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-47638-8.
Jump up ^ Clover, Charles (2004). The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat. London: Ebury Press. ISBN 0-09-189780-7.
Jump up ^ FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture - Aquatic species
Jump up ^ "Oyster Farming in Louisiana" (PDF). Louisiana State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-01. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ Nell J. A. (2002). "Farming triploid oysters". Aquaculture. 210: 69–88. doi:10.1016/S0044-8486(01)00861-4.
Jump up ^ Conte, Fred S. "California Oyster Culture" (PDF). University of California, Davis Department of Animal Science. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-12-01. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Shellfish Tenures Locations Map". Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ Fountain, Henry (August 3, 2009). "Oysters Are on the Rebound in the Chesapeake Bay". The New York Times. Retrieved August 25, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Oyster-Tecture in Action". THE DIRT. 2011-02-24. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
Jump up ^ "NY/NJ Baykeeper | Protect, Preserve, Restore". www.nynjbaykeeper.org. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
Jump up ^ "Oyster-tecture - SCAPE". SCAPE. Retrieved 2017-12-12.
Jump up ^ "Invasive Species Threaten Critical Habitats, Oyster Among Victims". ScienceDaily. August 10, 2009. Retrieved November 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Quenqua, Douglas (October 25, 2017). "Yes, Oysters Can 'Hear.' They Probably Wish We'd Clam Up". New York Times. Archived from the original on October 25, 2017. Retrieved November 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Polite Conversations, 1738, cited e.g. in "Oyster Heaven". Wilmington Magazine. Wilmington Star-News. November 24, 2004. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Nefsc Fish Faq". Nefsc.noaa.gov. 2011-06-16. Archived from the original on 2011-10-04. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
Jump up ^ (Bivalve Depuration: fundamental and practical aspects. FAO Fisheries Technical paper. No 511. Rome FAO 2008.)
Jump up ^ (Code of Practice for fish and fishery products (first edition) Rome 2009. WHO and FAO ISBN 978-92-5-105914-2)
Jump up ^ (Impact of water salinity and types of oysters on depuration for reducing Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) Feb 2013 Sureerat Phuvasate, Yi-Cheng Su)
Jump up ^ (Escherichia coli in seafood: A brief overview, Renata Albuquerque Costa, Fisheries Engineering, INTA Faculty, Sobral-Ceara, Brazil feb 2013)
Jump up ^ "Nutrition Facts and Analysis for Mollusks, oyster, eastern, wild, raw". Nutritiondata.com. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
Jump up ^ "Calories in pacific Oyster". Recipeofhealth.com. 2015-03-28.
Jump up ^ Stott, Rebecca (2004). Oyster. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9781861892218. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Pearly wisdom: oysters are an aphrodisiac". The Sydney Morning Herald. 2005-03-24.
Jump up ^ "Safely Cooking Oysters and Other Molluscan Shellfish". SafeOysters.org. 2009-03-09. Retrieved 2015-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Mussel myth an open and shut case". ABC Science. 2008-10-29. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
Jump up ^ "Fried Oyster". Best Malaysian Food Guide. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Oyster Diseases". Connecticut Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2008-01-16. External link in |publisher= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "MSX/Dermo". Chesapeake Bay Program. Archived from the original on 2009-03-01. Retrieved 2009-04-05. External link in |publisher= (help)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oyster.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Oysters
Look up oyster in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
MolluSCAN eye, a website devoted to the online study of molluscan bivalve behavior around the world, including oysters. Daily update.
World of Boats (EISCA) Collection ~ Fal Oyster Boat, Sunny South
Oysters grown on trestles in Ireland
Nutrition Facts for Oysters
Oyster farming in the Rivers Crouch, Roach and Blackwater of Eastern Essex
"Oyster". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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Helix aspersa

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/wiki/Cepaea_nemoralis
mw-redirect
Cepaea nemoralis

values:
/wiki/Mercenaria_mercenaria
mw-redirect
Mercenaria mercenaria

values:
/wiki/Spisula_solidissima
mw-redirect
Spisula solidissima

values:
/wiki/Pearl_diving
mw-redirect
Pearl diving

values:
/wiki/List_of_fishing_topics_by_subject
mw-redirect
List of fishing topics by subject

values:
/wiki/File:Atlantic_cod.jpg
image
Atlantic cod

values:
/wiki/File:Pacific_oysters_01.jpg
image
Pacific oysters

values:
navbox-image
2
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Aquaculture_of_salmon
mw-redirect
Aquaculture of salmon

values:
/wiki/World_fish_production
mw-redirect
World fish production

values: List of commercially important fish species

values:
/wiki/Fisheries_glossary
mw-redirect
Fisheries glossary

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Spisula_aequilateralis
mw-redirect
Spisula aequilateralis

values:
/wiki/Cerastoderma_edule
mw-redirect
Cerastoderma edule

values:
/wiki/Blood_cockle
mw-redirect
Blood cockle

values:
/wiki/New_Zealand_green-lipped_mussel
mw-redirect
New Zealand green-lipped mussel

values:
/wiki/Tiostrea_chilensis
mw-redirect
Tiostrea chilensis

values:
/wiki/Strombus_canarium
mw-redirect
Strombus canarium

values:
/wiki/Lightning_whelk
mw-redirect
Lightning whelk

values:
/wiki/Channeled_whelk
mw-redirect
Channeled whelk

values:
/wiki/Octopus_macropus
mw-redirect
Octopus macropus

values:
/wiki/Thaumoctopus_mimicus
mw-redirect
Thaumoctopus mimicus

values: Category:Dishes involving the consumption of live animals

values: Category:Articles with 'species' microformats

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2007

values: Category:Commons category with local link different than on Wikidata

values: Category:Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters

values: Category:Pages using Columns-list with deprecated parameters

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the New International Encyclopedia

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Oyster
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Oyster&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oester
Oester – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values:
https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostre
Ostre – Old English
ang
ang
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ang
display: none;

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stridiya
Stridiya – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: ঝিনুক – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Вустрыцы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old
display: none;

values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istr
Istr – Breton
br
br
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostra
Ostra – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values: Chʼosh yoołgai bitsʼaʼígíí (Ałtsʼáʼáztiin) – Navajo

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nv
display: none;

values: Στρείδι – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostro
Ostro – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: صدف چروک – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oisre
Oisre – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eisir
Eisir – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gd
display: none;

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostra
Ostra – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalvam
Kalvam – Goan Konkani
gom
gom
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gom
display: none;

values:
https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%B4
굴 – Korean
ko
ko
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostro
Ostro – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-io
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiram
Tiram – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostra
Ostra – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwit
Zwit – Haitian Creole
ht
ht
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrea
Ostrea – Latin
la
la
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

values: कालवे (प्राणी) – Marathi

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiram
Tiram – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atzcalli
Atzcalli – Nāhuatl
nah
nah
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nah
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustra
Ustra – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostra
Ostra – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stridie
Stridie – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Устрица – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyster
Eyster – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostriga
Ostriga – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osterit
Osterit – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talaba
Talaba – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: ஆளி (மெல்லுடலி) – Tamil

values: หอยนางรม – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A0u
Hàu – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

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values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

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