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General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
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General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Type
multilateral treaty
Signed
30 October 1947 (1947-10-30)
Location
Geneva, Geneva Canton, Switzerland
"GATT" redirects here. For other uses, see GATT (disambiguation).
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was a legal agreement between many countries, whose overall purpose was to promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers such as tariffs or quotas. According to its preamble, its purpose was the "substantial reduction of tariffs and other trade barriers and the elimination of preferences, on a reciprocal and mutually advantageous basis."
It was first discussed during the United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment and was the outcome of the failure of negotiating governments to create the International Trade Organization (ITO). GATT was signed by 23 nations in Geneva on October 30, 1947, and took effect on January 1, 1948. It remained in effect until the signature by 123 nations in Marrakesh on April 14, 1994, of the Uruguay Round Agreements, which established the World Trade Organization (WTO) on January 1, 1995. The WTO is in some ways a successor to GATT, and the original GATT text (GATT 1947) is still in effect under the WTO framework, subject to the modifications of GATT 1994.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Rounds
1.1 Annecy Round: 1949
1.2 Torquay Round: 1951
1.3 Geneva Round: 1955–56
1.4 Dillon Round: 1960–62
1.5 Kennedy Round: 1962–67
1.6 Tokyo Round: 1973–79
1.7 Uruguay Round: 1986–94
2 GATT and the World Trade Organization
3 Effects on trade liberalization
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Rounds[edit]
GATT held a total of nine rounds,
[hide]
v
t
e
GATT and WTO trade rounds[2]
Name
Start
Duration
Countries
Subjects covered
Achievements
Geneva April 1947 7 months 23 Tariffs Signing of GATT, 45,000 tariff concessions affecting $10 billion of trade
Annecy April 1949 5 months 34 Tariffs Countries exchanged some 5,000 tariff concessions
Torquay September 1950 8 months 34 Tariffs Countries exchanged some 8,700 tariff concessions, cutting the 1948 tariff levels by 25%
Geneva II January 1956 5 months 22 Tariffs, admission of Japan $2.5 billion in tariff reductions
Dillon September 1960 11 months 45 Tariffs Tariff concessions worth $4.9 billion of world trade
Kennedy May 1964 37 months 48 Tariffs, Anti-dumping Tariff concessions worth $40 billion of world trade
Tokyo September 1973 74 months 102 Tariffs, non-tariff measures, "framework" agreements Tariff reductions worth more than $300 billion achieved
Uruguay September 1986 87 months 123 Tariffs, non-tariff measures, rules, services, intellectual property, dispute settlement, textiles, agriculture, creation of WTO, etc. The round led to the creation of WTO, and extended the range of trade negotiations, leading to major reductions in tariffs (about 40%) and agricultural subsidies, an agreement to allow full access for textiles and clothing from developing countries, and an extension of intellectual property rights.
Doha November 2001 ? 159 Tariffs, non-tariff measures, agriculture, labor standards, environment, competition, investment, transparency, patents etc. The round has not yet concluded. Bali Package signed on the 7th December 2013.
Annecy Round: 1949[edit]
The second round took place in 1949 in Annecy, France. 13 countries took part in the round. The main focus of the talks was more tariff reductions, around 5000 in total.
Torquay Round: 1951[edit]
The third round occurred in Torquay, England in 1951.[3] Thirty-eight countries took part in the round. 8,700 tariff concessions were made totaling the remaining amount of tariffs to ¾ of the tariffs which were in effect in 1948. The contemporaneous rejection by the U.S. of the Havana Charter signified the establishment of the GATT as a governing world body.[4]
Geneva Round: 1955–56[edit]
The fourth round returned to Geneva in 1955 and lasted until May 1956. Twenty-six countries took part in the round. $2.5 billion in tariffs were eliminated or reduced.
Dillon Round: 1960–62[edit]
The fifth round occurred once more in Geneva and lasted from 1960-1962. The talks were named after U.S. Treasury Secretary and former Under Secretary of State, Douglas Dillon, who first proposed the talks. Twenty-six countries took part in the round. Along with reducing over $4.9 billion in tariffs, it also yielded discussion relating to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC).
Kennedy Round: 1962–67[edit]
The sixth round of GATT multilateral trade negotiations, held from 1963 to 1967. It was named after U.S. President John F. Kennedy in recognition of his support for the reformulation of the United States trade agenda, which resulted in the Trade Expansion Act of 1962. This Act gave the President the widest-ever negotiating authority.
As the Dillon Round went through the laborious process of item-by-item tariff negotiations, it became clear, long before the Round ended, that a more comprehensive approach was needed to deal with the emerging challenges resulting from the formation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and EFTA, as well as Europe's re-emergence as a significant international trader more generally.
Japan's high economic growth rate portended the major role it would play later as an exporter, but the focal point of the Kennedy Round always was the United States-EEC relationship. Indeed, there was an influential American view that saw what became the Kennedy Round as the start of a transatlantic partnership that might ultimately lead to a transatlantic economic community.
To an extent, this view was shared in Europe, but the process of European unification created its own stresses under which the Kennedy Round at times became a secondary focus for the EEC. An example of this was the French veto in January 1963, before the round had even started, on membership by the United Kingdom.
Another was the internal crisis of 1965, which ended in the Luxembourg Compromise. Preparations for the new round were immediately overshadowed by the Chicken War, an early sign of the impact variable levies under the Common Agricultural Policy would eventually have. Some participants in the Round had been concerned that the convening of UNCTAD, scheduled for 1964, would result in further complications, but its impact on the actual negotiations was minimal.
In May 1963 Ministers reached agreement on three negotiating objectives for the round:
(a) Measures for the expansion of trade of developing countries as a means of furthering their economic development,
(b) Reduction or elimination of tariffs and other barriers to trade, and
(c) Measures for access to markets for agricultural and other primary products.
The working hypothesis for the tariff negotiations was a linear tariff cut of 50% with the smallest number of exceptions. A drawn-out argument developed about the trade effects a uniform linear cut would have on the dispersed rates (low and high tariffs quite far apart) of the United States as compared to the much more concentrated rates of the EEC which also tended to be in the lower held of United States tariff rates.
The EEC accordingly argued for an evening-out or harmonization of peaks and troughs through its cerement, double cart and thirty: ten proposals. Once negotiations had been joined, the lofty working hypothesis was soon undermined. The special-structure countries (Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa), so called because their exports were dominated by raw materials and other primary commodities, negotiated their tariff reductions entirely through the item-by-item method.
In the end, the result was an average 35% reduction in tariffs, except for textiles, chemicals, steel and other sensitive products; plus a 15% to 18% reduction in tariffs for agricultural and food products. In addition, the negotiations on chemicals led to a provisional agreement on the abolition of the American Selling Price (ASP). This was a method of valuing some chemicals used by the noted States for the imposition of import duties which gave domestic manufacturers a much higher level of protection than the tariff schedule indicated.
However, this part of the outcome was disallowed by Congress, and the American Selling Price was not abolished until Congress adopted the results of the Tokyo Round. The results on agriculture overall were poor. The most notable achievement was agreement on a Memorandum of Agreement on Basic Elements for the Negotiation of a World Grants Arrangement, which eventually was rolled into a new International Grains Arrangement.
The EEC claimed that for it the main result of the negotiations on agriculture was that they "greatly helped to define its own common policy". The developing countries, who played a minor role throughout the negotiations in this Round, benefited nonetheless from substantial tariff cuts particularly in non-agricultural items of interest to them.
Their main achievement at the time, however, was seen to be the adoption of Part IV of the GATT, which absolved them from according reciprocity to developed countries in trade negotiations. In the view of many developing countries, this was a direct result of the call at UNCTAD I for a better trade deal for them.
There has been argument ever since whether this symbolic gesture was a victory for them, or whether it ensured their exclusion in the future from meaningful participation in the multilateral trading system. On the other hand, there was no doubt that the extension of the Long-Term Arrangement Regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles, which later became the Multi-Fiber Arrangement, for three years until 1970 led to the longer-term impairment of export opportunities for developing countries.
Another outcome of the Kennedy Round was the adoption of an Anti-dumping Code, which gave more precise guidance on the implementation of Article VI of the GATT. In particular, it sought to ensure speedy and fair investigations, and it imposed limits on the retrospective application of anti-dumping measures.
Kennedy Round took place from 1962–1967. $40 billion in tariffs were eliminated or reduced.
Tokyo Round: 1973–79[edit]
Reduced tariffs and established new regulations aimed at controlling the proliferation of non-tariff barriers and voluntary export restrictions. 102 countries took part in the round. Concessions were made on $19 billion worth.
Uruguay Round: 1986–94[edit]
The Uruguay Round began in 1986. It was the most ambitious round to date, hoping to expand the competence of the GATT to important new areas such as services, capital, intellectual property, textiles, and agriculture. 123 countries took part in the round. The Uruguay Round was also the first set of multilateral trade negotiations in which developing countries had played an active role.[5]
Agriculture was essentially exempted from previous agreements as it was given special status in the areas of import quotas and export subsidies, with only mild caveats. However, by the time of the Uruguay round, many countries considered the exception of agriculture to be sufficiently glaring that they refused to sign a new deal without some movement on agricultural products. These fourteen countries came to be known as the "Cairns Group", and included mostly small and medium-sized agricultural exporters such as Australia, Brazil, Canada, Indonesia, and New Zealand.
The Agreement on Agriculture of the Uruguay Round continues to be the most substantial trade liberalization agreement in agricultural products in the history of trade negotiations. The goals of the agreement were to improve market access for agricultural products, reduce domestic support of agriculture in the form of price-distorting subsidies and quotas, eliminate over time export subsidies on agricultural products and to harmonize to the extent possible sanitary and phytosanitary measures between member countries.
GATT and the World Trade Organization[edit]
Main article: Uruguay Round
In 1993, the GATT was updated (GATT 1994) to include new obligations upon its signatories. One of the most significant changes was the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO). The 75 existing GATT members and the European Communities became the founding members of the WTO on 1 January 1995. The other 52 GATT members rejoined the WTO in the following two years (the last being Congo in 1997). Since the founding of the WTO, 21 new non-GATT members have joined and 29 are currently negotiating membership. There are a total of 164 member countries in the WTO, with Liberia and Afghanistan being the newest members as of 2016.
Of the original GATT members, Syria[6][7] and the SFR Yugoslavia have not rejoined the WTO. Since FR Yugoslavia, (renamed as Serbia and Montenegro and with membership negotiations later split in two), is not recognised as a direct SFRY successor state; therefore, its application is considered a new (non-GATT) one. The General Council of WTO, on 4 May 2010, agreed to establish a working party to examine the request of Syria for WTO membership.[8][9] The contracting parties who founded the WTO ended official agreement of the "GATT 1947" terms on 31 December 1995. Montenegro became a member in 2012, while Serbia is in the decision stage of the negotiations and is expected to become one of the newest members of the WTO in 2014 or in near future.
Whilst GATT was a set of rules agreed upon by nations, the WTO is an institutional body. As such, GATT was merely a forum for nations to discuss, while the WTO is a proper international organization (which implies physical headquarters, staff, delegation...). The WTO expanded its scope from traded goods to include trade within the service sector and intellectual property rights. Although it was designed to serve multilateral agreements, during several rounds of GATT negotiations (particularly the Tokyo Round) plurilateral agreements created selective trading and caused fragmentation among members. WTO arrangements are generally a multilateral agreement settlement mechanism of GATT.[10]
Effects on trade liberalization[edit]
The average tariff levels for the major GATT participants were about 22 percent in 1947.[11] As a result of the first negotiating rounds, tariffs were reduced in the GATT core of the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia, relative to other contracting parties and non-GATT participants.[11] By the Kennedy round (1962–67), the average tariff levels of GATT participants were about 15%.[11] After the Uruguay Round, tariffs were under 5%.[11]
In addition to facilitating applied tariff reductions, the early GATT's contribution to trade liberalization "include binding the negotiated tariff reductions for an extended period (made more permanent in 1955), establishing the generality of nondiscrimination through most-favored nation (MFN) treatment and national treatment, ensuring increased transparency of trade policy measures, and providing a forum for future negotiations and for the peaceful resolution of bilateral disputes. All of these elements contributed to the rationalization of trade policy and the reduction of trade barriers and policy uncertainty."[11]
See also[edit]
Cultural exception
Most favoured nation
GATT special and differential treatment
References[edit]
Jump up ^ World Trade Organization: WTO legal texts; General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994
Jump up ^ a)The GATT years: from Havana to Marrakesh, World Trade Organization
b)Timeline: World Trade Organization – A chronology of key events, BBC News
c)Brakman-Garretsen-Marrewijk-Witteloostuijn, Nations and Firms in the Global Economy, Chapter 10: Trade and Capital Restriction
Jump up ^ "WTO | Understanding the WTO - The GATT years: from Havana to Marrakesh". www.wto.org. Retrieved 2017-07-06.
Jump up ^ Michael Hudson, Super Imperialism: The Origin and Fundamentals of U.S. World Dominance, 2nd ed. (London and Sterling, VA: Pluto Press, 2003), 258.
Jump up ^ "The GATT Uruguay Round". ODI briefing paper. Overseas Development Institute. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fiftieth Anniversary GATT". Wto.org. Retrieved 2013-08-16.
Jump up ^ "Understanding the WTO - members". WTO. Retrieved 2013-08-16.
Jump up ^ "Accession status: Syrian Arab Republic". WTO. Retrieved 2013-08-16.
Jump up ^ "2010 News items – Working party established on Syria’s membership request". WTO. Retrieved 2013-08-16.
Jump up ^ What is the WTO? (Official WTO site)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bown, Chad P.; Irwin, Douglas A. (2015-12-01). "The GATT's Starting Point: Tariff Levels circa 1947". National Bureau of Economic Research.
Further reading[edit]
Aaronson Susan A. Trade and the American Dream: A Social History of Postwar Trade Policy & co (1996)
Irwin, Douglas A. "The GATT in Historical Perspective," American Economic Review Vol. 85, No. 2, (May, 1995), pp. 323–28 in JSTOR
McKenzie, Francine. "GATT and the Cold War," Journal of Cold War Studies, Summer 2008, 10#3 pp. 78–109
Zeiler, Thomas W. Free Trade, Free World: The Advent of GATT (1999) excerpt and text search
External links[edit]
GATT Digital Library 1947–1994 at Stanford University
The WTO and Global Trade at PBS
BBCnews World/Europe country profile
Text of GATT 1947
Text of GATT 1994
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Biomass (ecology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Apart from bacteria, the total global live biomass has been estimated as 560 billion tonnes C,[1] most of which is found in forests.[2]
Shallow aquatic environments, such as wetlands, estuaries and coral reefs, can be as productive as forests, generating similar amounts of new biomass each year on a given area.[3]
Biomass is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given time. Biomass can refer to species biomass, which is the mass of one or more species, or to community biomass, which is the mass of all species in the community. It can include microorganisms, plants or animals.[4] The mass can be expressed as the average mass per unit area, or as the total mass in the community.
How biomass is measured depends on why it is being measured. Sometimes, the biomass is regarded as the natural mass of organisms in situ, just as they are. For example, in a salmon fishery, the salmon biomass might be regarded as the total wet weight the salmon would have if they were taken out of the water. In other contexts, biomass can be measured in terms of the dried organic mass, so perhaps only 30% of the actual weight might count, the rest being water. For other purposes, only biological tissues count, and teeth, bones and shells are excluded. In some applications, biomass is measured as the mass of organically bound carbon (C) that is present.
Apart from bacteria, the total live biomass on Earth is about 560 billion tonnes C,[1] and the total annual primary production of biomass is just over 100 billion tonnes C/yr.[5] The total live biomass of bacteria may be as much as that of plants and animals[6] or may be much less.[7] The total amount of DNA base pairs on Earth, as a possible approximation of global biodiversity, is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes.[8] In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 x 1012 tonnes of carbon.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Ecological pyramids
2 Terrestrial biomass
3 Ocean biomass
4 Bacterial biomass
5 Global biomass
6 Global rate of production
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Ecological pyramids[edit]
Main article: Ecological pyramid
An ecological pyramid.
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation that shows, for a given ecosystem, the relationship between biomass or biological productivity and trophic levels.
A biomass pyramid shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level.
A productivity pyramid shows the production or turn-over in biomass at each trophic level.
An ecological pyramid provides a snapshot in time of an ecological community.
The bottom of the pyramid represents the primary producers (autotrophs). The primary producers take energy from the environment in the form of sunlight or inorganic chemicals and use it to create energy-rich molecules such as carbohydrates. This mechanism is called primary production. The pyramid then proceeds through the various trophic levels to the apex predators at the top.
When energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, typically only ten percent is used to build new biomass. The remaining ninety percent goes to metabolic processes or is dissipated as heat. This energy loss means that productivity pyramids are never inverted, and generally limits food chains to about six levels. However, in oceans, biomass pyramids can be wholly or partially inverted, with more biomass at higher levels.
Terrestrial biomass[edit]
Terrestrial biomass generally decreases markedly at each higher trophic level (plants, herbivores, carnivores). Examples of terrestrial producers are grasses, trees and shrubs. These have a much higher biomass than the animals that consume them, such as deer, zebras and insects. The level with the least biomass are the highest predators in the food chain, such as foxes and eagles.
In a temperate grassland, grasses and other plants are the primary producers at the bottom of the pyramid. Then come the primary consumers, such as grasshoppers, voles and bison, followed by the secondary consumers, shrews, hawks and small cats. Finally the tertiary consumers, large cats and wolves. The biomass pyramid decreases markedly at each higher level.
Ocean biomass[edit]
The marine food chain
predatory fish
↑
filter feeders
↑
predatory zooplankton
↑
zooplankton
↑
phytoplankton
See also: Marine life
Ocean or marine biomass, in a reversal of terrestrial biomass, can increase at higher trophic levels. In the ocean, the food chain typically starts with phytoplankton, and follows the course:
Phytoplankton → zooplankton → predatory zooplankton → filter feeders → predatory fish
Phytoplankton are the main primary producers at the bottom of the marine food chain. Phytoplankton use photosynthesis to convert inorganic carbon into protoplasm. They are then consumed by microscopic animals called zooplankton.
Zooplankton comprise the second level in the food chain, and includes small crustaceans, such as copepods and krill, and the larva of fish, squid, lobsters and crabs.
In turn, small zooplankton are consumed by both larger predatory zooplankters, such as krill, and by forage fish, which are small, schooling, filter-feeding fish. This makes up the third level in the food chain.
An ocean food web showing a network of food chains
The fourth trophic level consists of predatory fish, marine mammals and seabirds that consume forage fish. Examples are swordfish, seals and gannets.
Apex predators, such as orcas, which can consume seals, and shortfin mako sharks, which can consume swordfish, make up the fifth trophic level. Baleen whales can consume zooplankton and krill directly, leading to a food chain with only three or four trophic levels.
Marine environments can have inverted biomass pyramids. In particular, the biomass of consumers (copepods, krill, shrimp, forage fish) is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton that grow and reproduce rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production. In contrast, terrestrial primary producers grow and reproduce slowly.
There is an exception with cyanobacteria. Marine cyanobacteria are the smallest known photosynthetic organisms; the smallest of all, Prochlorococcus, is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across.[10] Prochlorococcus is possibly the most plentiful species on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater may contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide, there are estimated to be several octillion (~1027) individuals.[11] Prochlorococcus is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the oligotrophic (nutrient poor) regions of the oceans.[12] The bacterium accounts for an estimated 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere, and forms part of the base of the ocean food chain.[13]
Bacterial biomass[edit]
There are typically 50 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. In a much-cited study from 1998[6] the world bacterial biomass was calculated to be 350 to 550 billions of tonnes of carbon, equal to between 60% and 100% of the carbon in plants. More recent studies of seafloor microbes have cast considerable doubt on that, one study in 2012[7] reduced the calculated microbial biomass on the seafloor from the original 303 billions of tonnes of C to just 4.1 billions of tonnes of C, reducing the global biomass of prokaryotes to 50 to 250 billions of tonnes of C. Further, if the average per cell biomass of prokaryotes is reduced from 86 to 14 femtograms C[7] then the global biomass of prokaryotes is reduced to 13 to 44.5 billions of tonnes of C, equal to between 2.4% and 8.1% of the carbon in plants.
Geographic location
Number of cells (×1029)
Billions of tonnes of carbon
Ocean floor
2.9[7] to 50[14]
4.1[7] to 303[6]
Open ocean
1.2[6]
1.7[6][7] to 10[6]
Terrestrial soil
2.6[6]
3.7[6][7] to 22[6]
Subsurface terrestrial
2.5 to 25[6]
3.5[6][7] to 215[6]
Global biomass[edit]
Estimates for the global biomass of species and higher level groups are not always consistent across the literature. Apart from bacteria, the total global biomass has been estimated at about 560 billion tonnes C.[1] Most of this biomass is found on land, with only 5 to 10 billion tonnes C found in the oceans.[1] On land, there is about 1,000 times more plant biomass (phytomass) than animal biomass (zoomass). About 18% of this plant biomass is eaten by the land animals.[15] However, in the ocean, the animal biomass is nearly 30 times larger than the plant biomass.[16] Most ocean plant biomass is eaten by the ocean animals.[15]
name
number of species
date of estimate
individual count
mean living mass of individual
percent biomass (dried)
total number of carbon atoms
global dry biomass in million tonnes
global wet (fresh) biomass in million tonnes
Terrestrial
Humans
1
2012[17]
7.0 billion
50 kg
(incl children)
30%
4.015 x 1036 [18]
105
350
2005
4.63 billion
62 kg
(excl children)[19]
287[19]
Cattle
1
1.3 billion[20]
400 kg
30%
156
520
Sheep and goats
2
2002
1.75 billion[21]
60 kg
30%
31.5
105
Chickens
1
24 billion
2 kg
30%
14.4
48
Ants
12,649[22]
107 - 108 billion [23]
3 x 10−6 kg
(0.003 grams)
30%
10–100
30-300
Earthworms
>7,000
1881
Darwin
1.3 x 10 6 billion [24]
3 g
30% [25]
1,140-2,280[24]
3,800-7,600[24]
Termites
>2,800
1996
445[26]
Marine
Blue whales[27]
1
Pre-whaling
340,000
40%[28]
36
2001
4,700
40%[28]
0.5
Fish
>10,000
2009
800-2,000[29]
Antarctic krill
1
1924–2004
7.8 x 1014
0.486 g
379[30]
Copepods
(a zooplankton)
13,000
10−6 - 10−9 kg
1x1037 [31]
Cyanobacteria
(a picoplankton)
?
2003
1,000[32]
Global
Prokaryotes
(bacteria)
?
1998
4–6 x 1030 cells[6]
1.76-2.76 x 1040 [6]
350,000-550,000[6]
Humans comprise about 100 million tonnes of the Earth's dry biomass,[33] domesticated animals about 700 million tonnes, earthworms over 1,100 million tonnes,[24] and annual cereal crops about 2.3 billion tonnes.[34]
The most successful animal species, in terms of biomass, may well be Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, with a fresh biomass approaching 500 million tonnes,[30][35][36] although domestic cattle may also reach these immense figures.[citation needed] However, as a group, the small aquatic crustaceans called copepods may form the largest animal biomass on earth.[37] A 2009 paper in Science estimates, for the first time, the total world fish biomass as somewhere between 0.8 and 2.0 billion tonnes.[38][39] It has been estimated that about 1% of the global biomass is due to phytoplankton,[40] and 25% is due to fungi.[41][42]
Grasses, trees and shrubs have a much higher biomass than the animals that consume them
The total biomass of bacteria may equal that of plants.[6]
Copepods may form the largest biomass of any animal species group.[37]
Antarctic krill form one of the largest biomasses of any individual animal species.[35]
It has been claimed that fungi make up 25% of the global biomass
Global rate of production[edit]
Globally, terrestrial and oceanic habitats produce a similar amount of new biomass each year (56.4 billion tonnes C terrestrial and 48.5 billion tonnes C oceanic).
Net primary production is the rate at which new biomass is generated, mainly due to photosynthesis. Global primary production can be estimated from satellite observations. Satellites scan the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) over terrestrial habitats, and scan sea-surface chlorophyll levels over oceans. This results in 56.4 billion tonnes C/yr (53.8%), for terrestrial primary production, and 48.5 billion tonnes C/yr for oceanic primary production.[5] Thus, the total photoautotrophic primary production for the Earth is about 104.9 billion tonnes C/yr. This translates to about 426 gC/m²/yr for land production (excluding areas with permanent ice cover), and 140 gC/m²/yr for the oceans.
However, there is a much more significant difference in standing stocks—while accounting for almost half of total annual production, oceanic autotrophs account for only about 0.2% of the total biomass. Autotrophs may have the highest global proportion of biomass, but they are closely rivaled or surpassed by microbes.[43][44]
Terrestrial freshwater ecosystems generate about 1.5% of the global net primary production.[45]
Some global producers of biomass in order of productivity rates are
Producer
Biomass productivity
(gC/m²/yr)
Ref
Total area
(million km²)
Ref
Total production
(billion tonnes C/yr)
Swamps and Marshes 2,500 [3]
Tropical rainforests 2,000 [46] 8 16
Coral reefs 2,000 [3] 0.28 [47] 0.56
Algal beds 2,000 [3]
River estuaries 1,800 [3]
Temperate forests 1,250 [3] 19 24
Cultivated lands 650 [3][48] 17 11
Tundras 140 [3][48]
Open ocean 125 [3][48] 311 39
Deserts 3 [48] 50 0.15
See also[edit]
Biomass (as in bioproducts)
Natural organic matter
Productivity (ecology)
Primary nutritional groups
Standing stock
Lake Pohjalampi - a biomass manipulation study
List of harvested aquatic animals by weight
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Groombridge B, Jenkins MD (2000) Global biodiversity: Earth’s living resources in the 21st century Page 11. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, World Conservation Press, Cambridge
Jump up ^ "Biomass". Archived from the original on 14 June 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Ricklefs, Robert E.; Miller, Gary Leon (2000). Ecology (4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-7167-2829-0.
Jump up ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "biomass".
^ Jump up to: a b Field, C.B.; Behrenfeld, M.J.; Randerson, J.T.; Falkowski, P. (1998). "Primary production of the Biosphere: Integrating Terrestrial and Oceanic Components". Science. 281 (5374): 237–240. Bibcode:1998Sci...281..237F. doi:10.1126/science.281.5374.237. PMID 9657713.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Whitman WB, Coleman DC, Wiebe WJ (1998). "Prokaryotes: the unseen majority" (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (12): 6578–83. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.6578W. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578. PMC 33863  . PMID 9618454.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Kallmeyer J; et al. (2012). "Global distribution of microbial abundance and biomass in subseafloor sediment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (40): 16213–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.1203849109. PMC 3479597  . PMID 22927371.
Jump up ^ Nuwer, Rachel (18 July 2015). "Counting All the DNA on Earth". The New York Times. New York: The New York Times Company. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
Jump up ^ "The Biosphere: Diversity of Life". Aspen Global Change Institute. Basalt, CO. Retrieved 2015-07-19.
Jump up ^ Kettler, Gregory C.; Martiny, Adam C.; Huang, Katherine; Zucker, Jeremy; Coleman, Maureen L.; Rodrigue, Sebastien; Chen, Feng; Lapidus, Alla; et al. (December 2007). "Patterns and Implications of Gene Gain and Loss in the Evolution of Prochlorococcus". PLoS Genetics. 3 (12): e231. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0030231. PMC 2151091  . PMID 18159947.
Jump up ^ Nemiroff, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (27 September 2006). "Earth from Saturn". Astronomy Picture of the Day. NASA.
Jump up ^ F. Partensky, W. R. Hess & D. Vaulot (1999). "Prochlorococcus, a marine photosynthetic prokaryote of global significance". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 63 (1): 106–127. PMC 98958  . PMID 10066832.
Jump up ^ The Most Important Microbe You've Never Heard Of
Jump up ^ Lipp JS, Morono Y, Inagaki F, Hinrichs KU (2008). "Significant contribution of Archaea to extant biomass in marine subsurface sediments". Nature. 454: 991–994. doi:10.1038/nature07174. PMID 18641632.
^ Jump up to: a b Hartley, Sue (2010) The 300 Million Years War: Plant Biomass v Herbivores Royal Institution Christmas Lecture.
Jump up ^ Darlington, P (1966) http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Terrestrial+Fauna "Biogeografia". Published in The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition (1970-1979).
Jump up ^ US world population clock Archived 1 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Freitas, Robert A. Jr.Nanomedicine 3.1 Human Body Chemical Composition Foresight Institute, 1998
^ Jump up to: a b Walpole, S.C.; Prieto-Merino, D.; Edwards, P.; Cleland, J.; Stevens, G.; Roberts, I. (2012). "The weight of nations: an estimation of adult human biomass" (PDF). BMC Public Health. 12 (1): 439. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-439. PMC 3408371  . PMID 22709383.
Jump up ^ Cattle Today. "Breeds of Cattle at CATTLE TODAY". Cattle-today.com. Retrieved 2013-10-15.
Jump up ^ World's Rangelands Deteriorating Under Mounting Pressure Archived 11 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Earth Policy Institute 2002
Jump up ^ http://osuc.biosci.ohio-state.edu/hymenoptera/tsa.sppcount?the_taxon=Formicidae
Jump up ^ Embery, Joan and Lucaire, Ed (1983) Collection of Amazing Animal Facts.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Blakemore R. J. (2017) Darwin’s win-win for Global Worming?
Jump up ^ Lee, K.E. (1985: 33) Earthworms - their Ecology and Relationships with Soils and Land Use. Academic Press.
Jump up ^ Sum of [(biomass m^-2)*(area m^2)] from table 3 in Sanderson, M.G. 1996 Biomass of termites and their emissions of methane and carbon dioxide: A global database Global Biochemical Cycles, Vol 10:4 543-557
Jump up ^ Pershing, A.J.; Christensen, L.B.; Record, N.R.; Sherwood, G.D.; Stetson, P.B.; Humphries, Stuart (2010). Humphries, Stuart, ed. "The Impact of Whaling on the Ocean Carbon Cycle: Why Bigger Was Better". PLoS ONE. 5 (8): e12444. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...512444P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012444. PMC 2928761  . PMID 20865156. (Table 1)
^ Jump up to: a b Jelmert, A.; Oppen-Berntsen, D.O. (1996). "Whaling and Deep-Sea Biodiversity". Conservation Biology. 10 (2): 653–654. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020653.x.
Jump up ^ Wilson RW, Millero FJ, Taylor JR, Walsh PJ, Christensen V, Jennings S and Grosell M (2009) "Contribution of Fish to the Marine Inorganic Carbon Cycle" Science, 323 (5912) 359-362. (This article provides a first estimate of global fish "wet weight" biomass)
^ Jump up to: a b Atkinson, A.; Siegel, V.; Pakhomov, E.A.; Jessopp, M.J.; Loeb, V. (2009). "A re-appraisal of the total biomass and annual production of Antarctic krill" (PDF). Deep-Sea Research Part I. 56 (5): 727–740. Bibcode:2009DSRI...56..727A. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2008.12.007.
Jump up ^ Buitenhuis, E. T.; Quéré, C. Le; Aumont, O.; Beaugrand, G.; Bunker, A.; Hirst, A.; Ikeda, T.; O'Brien, T.; Piontkovski, S.; Straile, D. (2006). "Biogeochemical fluxes through mesozooplankton". Global Biogeochemical Cycles. 20: 2003. Bibcode:2006GBioC..20.2003B. doi:10.1029/2005GB002511.
Jump up ^ Garcia-Pichel, F; Belnap, J; Neuer, S; Schanz, F (2003). "Estimates of global cyanobacterial biomass and its distribution" (PDF). Algological Studies. 109: 213–217. doi:10.1127/1864-1318/2003/0109-0213.
Jump up ^ The world human population was 6.6 billion in January 2008. At an average weight of 100 pounds (30 lbs of biomass), that equals 100 million tonnes.[clarification needed]
Jump up ^ FAO Statistical Yearbook 2013: page 130 - http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3107e/i3107e.PDF
^ Jump up to: a b Nicol, S.; Endo, Y. (1997). Fisheries Technical Paper 367: Krill Fisheries of the World. FAO.
Jump up ^ Ross, R. M. and Quetin, L. B. (1988). Euphausia superba: a critical review of annual production. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 90B, 499-505.
^ Jump up to: a b Biology of Copepods Archived 1 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine. at Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg
Jump up ^ Wilson, RW; Millero, FJ; Taylor, JR; Walsh, PJ; Christensen, V; Jennings, S; Grosell, M (2009). "Contribution of Fish to the Marine Inorganic Carbon Cycle". Science. 323 (5912): 359–362. Bibcode:2009Sci...323..359W. doi:10.1126/science.1157972. PMID 19150840.
Jump up ^ Researcher gives first-ever estimate of worldwide fish biomass and impact on climate change PhysOrg.com, 15 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Bidle1, KD; Falkowski, PG (2004). "Cell death in planktonic, photosynthetic microorganisms". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2 (8): 643–655. doi:10.1038/nrmicro956.
Jump up ^ Miller, JD (1992). "Fungi as contaminants in indoor air". Atmospheric Environment. 26 (12): 2163–2172. Bibcode:1992AtmEn..26.2163M. doi:10.1016/0960-1686(92)90404-9.
Jump up ^ Sorenson, WG (1999). "Fungal spores: Hazardous to health?" (PDF). Environ Health Perspect. 107 (Suppl 3): 469–472. doi:10.1289/ehp.99107s3469. PMC 1566211  . PMID 10423389.
Jump up ^ Whitman, W. B.; Coleman, D. C.; Wieb, W. J. (1998). "Prokaryotes: The unseen majority" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95 (12): 6578–6583. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.6578W. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578. PMC 33863  . PMID 9618454.
Jump up ^ Groombridge, B.; Jenkins, M. (2002). World Atlas of Biodiversity: Earth's Living Resources in the 21st Century. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, United Nations Environment Programme. ISBN 0-520-23668-8. PMC 3408371  .
Jump up ^ Alexander, David E. (1 May 1999). Encyclopedia of Environmental Science. Springer. ISBN 0-412-74050-8.
Jump up ^ Ricklefs, Robert E.; Miller, Gary Leon (2000). Ecology (4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-7167-2829-0.
Jump up ^ Spalding, Mark, Corinna Ravilious, and Edmund Green. 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press and UNEP/WCMC.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Park, Chris C. (2001). The environment: principles and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 564. ISBN 978-0-415-21770-5.
Further reading[edit]
Foley, JA; Monfreda, C; Ramankutty, N and Zaks, D (2007) Our share of the planetary pie Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104(31): 12585–12586. Download
Haberl, H; Erb, KH; Krausmann, F; Gaube, V; Bondeau, A; Plutzar, C; Gingrich, S; Lucht, W and Fischer-Kowalski, M (2007) Quantifying and mapping the human appropriation of net primary production in earth's terrestrial ecosystems Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104(31):12942-12947. Download
Purves, William K and Orians, Gordon H (2007) Life: The Science of Biology, 8th Ed. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1-4292-0877-2
External links[edit]
Look up biomass in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Counting bacteria
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Biomass distributions for high trophic-level fishes in the North Atlantic, 1900–2000
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values: كتلة بيولوجية (علم البيئة) – Arabic

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https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass
Biomass – Estonian
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https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bithmhais
Bithmhais – Irish
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https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomasa
Biomasa – Galician
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values: Биомасса – Kyrgyz

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values: Масса вида – Russian

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values: Біомаса (екологія) – Ukrainian

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