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Crying (Roy Orbison song)
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"Crying"
Single by Roy Orbison
from the album Crying
B-side
"Candy Man"
Released
July 1961
Genre
Country
rock
Length
2:46
Label
Monument 447
Songwriter(s)
Roy Orbison
Joe Melson
Producer(s)
Fred Foster
Roy Orbison singles chronology
"Running Scared"
(1961) "Crying"
(1961) "Dream Baby (How Long Must I Dream)"
(1962)
"Running Scared"
(1961) "Crying"
(1961) "Dream Baby (How Long Must I Dream)"
(1962)
"Crying" is a ballad written by Roy Orbison and Joe Melson that was a hit for Orbison.
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition
2 Release and reception
3 Don McLean version
3.1 Chart performance
3.1.1 Weekly singles charts
3.1.2 Year-end charts
4 Other cover versions
5 Live cover performances
6 Appearances in film, television and other media
7 References
8 External links
Composition[edit]
Dave Marsh calls the song a "rock-bolero" with "blaring strings, hammered tympani, a ghostly chorus, the gentle strum of a guitar, [and] a hint of marimba".[1] Billboard observes an "expressive reading" on the "country-flavored ballad."[2] The personnel on the original recording included Orbison session regulars Bob Moore on bass; Floyd Cramer on piano; Buddy Harman on drums; and Boudleaux Bryant, Harold Bradley, and Scotty Moore on guitar.
Release and reception[edit]
The song was released as a 45-rpm single by Monument Records in July 1961 and reached No. 1 on the United States Cashbox chart for a week on October 7, 1961, and peaked at No. 2 on the rival Billboard Hot 100. Despite not reaching the summit in the latter publication, Billboard ranked the record as the No. 4 song of 1961.[3]
In 1987, Orbison rerecorded the song as a duet with k.d. lang as part of the soundtrack for the motion picture Hiding Out. Their collaboration won the Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. The duet version was a minor US chart hit for the pair, peaking at No. 28 Adult Contemporary and No. 42 on the hot country singles chart,[4] though it was a more substantial hit in the UK in 1992, reaching No. 13 on the UK Singles Chart. In 1993, the song recharted on the US Adult Contemporary chart, peaking at No. 40.[5]
In 2002, "Crying" was honored with a Grammy Hall of Fame Award. In 2010, Rolling Stone ranked it 69th on their list of the "500 greatest songs of all time".[6]
Don McLean version[edit]
"Crying"
Single by Don McLean
from the album Chain Lightning
B-side
"Genesis (In the Beginning)"
Released
1980
Genre
Country
easy listening
Length
3:35
Label
Millennium
Songwriter(s)
Roy Orbison
Joe Melson
Don McLean singles chronology
"Wonderful Baby"
(1975) "Crying"
(1980) "It's Just the Sun"
(1981)
"Wonderful Baby"
(1975) "Crying"
(1980) "It's Just the Sun"
(1981)
Don McLean recorded by far the most successful cover of the song, taking it to No. 5 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in early 1981.[7] His version of "Crying" also reached No. 2 adult contemporary and No. 6 Country. It fared even better in the UK, where it reached No. 1, spending three weeks atop the UK Singles Chart.[8] McLean issued an album in 1981; however, "Crying" was taken from his 1978 album, Chain Lightning. It became his second greatest hit.
Chart performance[edit]
Weekly singles charts[edit]
Chart (1980–81)
Peak
position
Australia 27
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[9] 1
Canada Top Singles 7
Canada Country 1
Dutch Top 40[10] 1
New Zealand[11] 11
UK 1
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[12] 5
U.S. Billboard Adult Contemporary 2
U.S. Billboard Country 6
U.S. Cash Box Top 100[13] 6
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1980)
Rank
Australia[14] 119
UK[15] 15
Chart (1981)
Rank
Canada 49
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[16] 40
U.S. Cash Box[17] 52
Other cover versions[edit]
In 1962, Waylon Jennings released his version ("Dream Baby (How Long Must I Dream)") on BAT Records as one of his first singles.
Del Shannon included the song in his 1964 album Handy Man.
A version by Jay and the Americans reached No. 25 in the US in 1966.
Glen Campbell also covered this song on his 1967 Gentle on My Mind album.[18]
Dottie West recorded it on her 1968 album What I'm Cut Out to Be.
Lynn Anderson recorded it for her 1968 album Big Girls Don't Cry.
B. J. Thomas included the song on his 1975 album Reunion
Experimental art rock guitarist Adrian Belew recorded a simple solo acoustic version of the song on his 1993 album The Acoustic Adrian Belew.
The Brazilian duo Chitãozinho & Xororó performed a Portuguese version of the song entitled "Lágrimas" in their 1998 album Na Aba do Meu Chapéu.
Gene Pitney included the song in his 1999 album Gene Pitney Sings Great Ballads.
Rebekah Del Rio performed an a cappella Spanish language version of the song entitled "Llorando" in the 2001 David Lynch film Mulholland Drive.[19]
Belgian singer Dana Winner recorded a version for her 2002 album Unforgettable Too
South African singer Nicholis Louw recorded a version in 2004.[20]
In 2007, Billy Gilman released it as a single.
Russian Red covered the song in 2009[21]
Mark Vincent covered the song for his 2010 album Compass (Mark Vincent album)
Clay Aiken recorded the song with Linda Eder on his 2010 album Tried and True.
La India covered the song in a salsa style on her 2010 album, Unica.
Il Divo included the song on the album Wicked Game in 2011.
Austra recorded a version for their deluxe edition 2011 album Feel It Break.
Billy Joe Royal released a version of the song.
Three other cover versions made country music charts over time. Charting with the song were:
Arlene Harden (No. 28 in 1970),[22]
Ronnie Milsap (No. 79 in 1976)[23]
Stephanie Winslow (No. 14 in 1980).[24]
Live cover performances[edit]
Carrie Underwood performed this song in the "Top 3" episode of the popular singing show American Idol. Underwood later won the competition.
Emily Vinette performed this song in the "Top 10" episode of Canadian Idol's third season. Vinette was voted off the next night. Ashley Coulter performed the song in the "Top 6" episode of season four. She was also voted off the next night.
In the final round of season two of the talent show America's Got Talent, ventriloquist Terry Fator used his puppet turtle "Winston" to perform this song, while impersonating Roy Orbison. Fator received the highest number of votes and won the competition along with the one million dollar prize.
In 2009 "Crying" was performed by Jamie 'Afro' Archer on the UK version of The X Factor.
American Idol season 12 finalist Kree Harrison performed "Crying" during Music of the American Idols week.
Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band covered the song live in May 1988, in Madison Square Garden.
Captain Soncho performed this song in New Delhi, India at Hard Rock Cafe.
In 2016, The Voice US finalist Billy Gilman performed this song at the Live Playoffs round.
Appearances in film, television and other media[edit]
U.S. Presidential hopeful Mitt Romney mentioned this song among his top 10 songs of all time in March 2012.[25]
In 2011, "Crying" was featured in the American comedy-drama film 50/50.[26]
"Crying" was featured in an episode of Only Fools and Horses. The episode "Stage Fright" featured Raquel and a guest character Tony Angelino (played by Philip Pope) singing this song at a function. Angelino had a rhotacism, causing him to pronounce his Rs incorrectly.
"Crying" is featured near the start of the first of the Australian telemovie trilogy Small Claims starring Rebecca Gibney and Claudia Karvan.
"Crying" was featured in the 1997 dystopian art movie Gummo. After huffing glue, Tummler remarks that his cross-dressing brother used to sing "Crying". Tummler then proceeds to weakly sing parts of the song. The original version of the song is used during the last scenes of the movie.
The song is featured in the 1999 film Paperback Hero, sung by Hugh Jackman and Claudia Karvan.
"Llorando" was featured in a famous scene in Mulholland Drive and during the closing scenes of Prison Break in season 3.
In "Ally McBeal", season 2 episode 6 "Worlds without love", Crying is sung by Vonda Shepard.
On February 2, 2008, k.d. lang, speaking on BBC Radio 4's Saturday Live program, said that Roy had told her that this song was written after he had seen an ex-girlfriend at a burger stand.
In early 2008, "Crying" was featured in an anti-drunk-driving commercial. It is sung karaoke-style.
In Sports Night, season 2, episode 14 ("And the Crowd Goes Wild"), Casey McCall wears sunglasses during the course of a day following an eye exam. His colleagues ridicule him for this, one of them saying, "Hit the high note in 'Crying' and I'll be impressed," in reference to Orbison and his trademark sunglasses.
In The Sopranos, season 5, episode 2 ("Rat Pack"), the song is playing at a diner while Tony is meeting with contractor Jack Massarone.
In Heroes, season 3, episode 23 ("1961"), "Crying" is playing in the background.
In The Walking Dead, season 7, episode 3 ("The Cell"), Daryl Dixon gives in to tears of guilt and sorrow while the song is played.
In Bates Motel, season 5, episode 6 "Marion", during the series recreation of the iconic shower scene from Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marsh, Dave (1999). The Heart of Rock & Soul: The 1001 Greatest Singles Ever Made. Da Capo Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 030680901X.
Jump up ^ "Spotlight Singles of the Week". Billboard: 27. July 31, 1961. Retrieved December 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1961
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2008). Hot Country Songs 1944 to 2008. Record Research, Inc. p. 305. ISBN 0-89820-177-2.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (1993). Top Adult Contemporary: 1961–1993. Record Research. p. 180.
Jump up ^ "Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs Of All Time". Rolling Stone. April 2010. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Billboard Hot 100 Chart History : "Crying" - Don McLean". Song-database.com. Retrieved 2014-03-29.
Jump up ^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 382. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Don Mclean – Crying" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 9 Sep 16.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-11. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ "NZ Top 40 Singles Chart | The Official New Zealand Music Chart". Nztop40.co.nz. 1980-10-19. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2002
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-05-27. Retrieved 2015-05-27.
Jump up ^ David Kent's "Australian Chart Book 1970-1992" Archived March 5, 2016, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "UK Singles of the Year" (PDF). Record Mirror. London: Spotlight Publications. December 27, 1980. p. 30. Retrieved June 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Hits of 1981/Top 100 Songs of 1981". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-07-19.
Jump up ^ Eder, Bruce. Gentle on My Mind at AllMusic. Retrieved August 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Taubin, Amy (September–October 2001). "In Dreams", Film Comment, 37 (5), p. 51–55.
Jump up ^ "Covers by Nicholis Louw". WhoSampled. Retrieved 2014-03-29.
Jump up ^ "Check out Russian Red Performing "Crying!"". Roy Orbison. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, p. 179
Jump up ^ Whitburn, p. 279
Jump up ^ Whitburn, p. 472
Jump up ^ "Mitt Romney names the greatest tunes off all time". Politico. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "IMDB soundtrack list for the movie 50/50". IMDb.com. 2011. Retrieved 2014-03-29.
External links[edit]
"Crying" at Allmusic
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"Theme from MASH" by Mash UK number one single (Don McLean version)
21 June 1980 - 12 July 1980 Succeeded by
"Xanadu" by Olivia Newton-John & Electric Light Orchestra
Preceded by
"Guitar Man"
by Elvis Presley RPM Country Tracks
number-one single (Don McLean version)
April 11-April 18, 1981 Succeeded by
"Old Flame"
by Alabama
Preceded by
"Hollywood Love"
by Carroll Baker RPM Country Tracks
number-one single of the year (Don McLean version)
1981 Succeeded by
"Love Will Turn You Around"
by Kenny Rogers
[show]
v
t
e
Roy Orbison
Studio albums
Lonely and Blue (1961)
Roy Orbison at the Rock House (1961)
Crying (1962)
In Dreams (1963)
There Is Only One Roy Orbison (1965)
Orbisongs (1965)
The Orbison Way (1966)
The Classic Roy Orbison (1966)
Roy Orbison Sings Don Gibson (1967)
The Fastest Guitar Alive (1967)
Cry Softly Lonely One (1967)
Roy Orbison's Many Moods (1969)
Big O (1970)
Hank Williams the Roy Orbison Way (1970)
Roy Orbison Sings (1972)
Memphis (1972)
Milestones (1973)
I'm Still In Love With You (1976)
Regeneration (1977)
Laminar Flow (1979)
In Dreams: The Greatest Hits (1987 – studio re-recordings of earlier hits)
Mystery Girl (1989)
King of Hearts (1992)
One of the Lonely Ones (2015)
Compilations
Roy Orbison's Greatest Hits (1962)
More of Roy Orbison's Greatest Hits (1964)
Early Orbison (1964)
The Great Songs of Roy Orbison (1970)
The All-Time Greatest Hits of Roy Orbison (1972)
In Dreams: The Greatest Hits (1987)
16 Biggest Hits (1999)
Collaborations
Class of '55 (1986)
Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 (1988)
Soundtrack appearances
Roadie (1980)
Blue Velvet (1986)
Less Than Zero (1987)
Live
A Black & White Night Live (1989)
Related articles
Discography
Traveling Wilburys
Roy Orbison/The Beatles Tour
Book
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Jay and the Americans
Sandy Deanne
Howie Kane
Jay Reincke
Marty Sanders
Jay Traynor
Kenny Vance
Jay Black
Studio albums
She Cried
Come a Little Bit Closer
Blockbusters
Sunday and Me
Livin' Above Your Head
Try Some of This!
Sands of Time
Wax Museum
Capture the Moment
Singles
"She Cried"
"Come a Little Bit Closer"
"Let's Lock the Door (And Throw Away the Key)"
"Cara Mia"
"Some Enchanted Evening"
"Sunday and Me"
"Crying"
"No Other Love"
"This Magic Moment"
"Walkin' in the Rain"
"There Goes My Baby"
Cover songs
"Here, There and Everywhere"
"Hushabye"
"It's a Big Wide Wonderful World"
"Maria"
"Monday, Monday"
"Nature Boy"
"Since I Don't Have You"
"Solitary Man"
"The Sun Ain't Gonna Shine (Anymore)"
"(There's) Always Something There to Remind Me"
"Tonight"
Book
[show]
v
t
e
k.d. lang
Studio albums
with The Reclines
A Truly Western Experience
Angel with a Lariat
Absolute Torch and Twang
Solo
Shadowland
Ingénue
All You Can Eat
Invincible Summer
Watershed
with The Siss Boom Bang
Sing It Loud
Covers
Drag
Hymns of the 49th Parallel
with Tony Bennett
A Wonderful World
Live and compilation albums
Live by Request
Reintarnation
Recollection
Singles
"Rose Garden"
"Crying"
"Full Moon Full of Love"
"Three Days"
"Luck in My Eyes"
"Constant Craving"
"Miss Chatelaine"
Related
Discography
case/lang/veirs
Book
[show]
v
t
e
Don McLean
Studio albums
Tapestry
American Pie
Don McLean
Playin' Favorites
Homeless Brother
Prime Time
Chain Lightning
Believers
Love Tracks
For the Memories Vols I & II
And I Love You So
Headroom
Christmas
The River of Love
Christmas Dreams
Sings Marty Robbins
You've Got to Share Songs for Children
The Western Album
Rearview Mirror: An American Musical Journey
Addicted to Black
Live albums
Solo
Dominion
Starry, Starry Night
Compilation albums
The Very Best of Don McLean
Favorites and Rarities
Legendary Songs of Don McLean
Christmastime!
Singles
"Castles in the Air"
"American Pie"
"Vincent"
"Wonderful Baby"
"Crying"
"Since I Don't Have You"
"He's Got You"
"You Can't Blame the Train"
Related articles
Discography
"The Saga Begins"
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Bias
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Bias (disambiguation).
The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Interpretations of the random patterns of craters on the moon. A common example of a perceptual bias caused by pareidolia.
Bias is prejudice in favour of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair.
Biases can be learned implicitly within cultural contexts. People may develop biases toward or against an individual, an ethnic group, a sexual or gender identity, a nation, a religion, a social class, a political party, theoretical paradigms and ideologies within academic domains, or a species.[1] Biased means one-sided, lacking a neutral viewpoint, or not having an open mind. Bias can come in many forms and is related to prejudice and intuition.[2]
In science and engineering, a bias is a systematic error. Statistical bias results from an unfair sampling of a population, or from an estimation process that does not give accurate results on average.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cognitive biases
1.1 Anchoring
1.2 Apophenia
1.3 Attribution bias
1.4 Confirmation bias
1.5 Framing
1.6 Halo effect
1.7 Horn effect
1.8 Self-serving bias
1.9 Status quo bias
2 Conflicts of interest
2.1 Bribery
2.2 Favoritism
2.3 Funding bias
2.4 Lobbying
2.5 Regulatory issues
2.6 Shilling
3 Statistical biases
4 Contextual biases
4.1 Academic bias
4.2 Educational bias
4.3 Experimenter bias
4.4 Full text on net bias
4.5 Inductive bias
4.6 Media bias
4.7 Publication bias
4.8 Reporting bias & social desirability bias
5 Prejudices
5.1 Classism
5.2 Lookism
5.3 Racism
5.4 Sexism
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Cognitive biases[edit]
Main articles: Cognitive bias and List of cognitive biases
A cognitive bias is a repeating or basic misstep in thinking, assessing, recollecting, or other cognitive processes.[3] That is, a pattern of deviation from standards in judgment, whereby inferences may be created unreasonably.[4] People create their own "subjective social reality" from their own perceptions,[5] their view of the world may dictate their behaviour.[6] Thus, cognitive biases may sometimes lead to perceptual distortion, inaccurate judgment, illogical interpretation, or what is broadly called irrationality.[7][8][9] However some cognitive biases are taken to be adaptive, and thus may lead to success in the appropriate situation.[10] Furthermore, cognitive biases may allow speedier choices when speed is more valuable than precision.[11] Other cognitive biases are a "by-product" of human processing limitations,[12] coming about because of an absence of appropriate mental mechanisms, or just from human limitations in information processing.[13]
Anchoring[edit]
Main article: Anchoring
Anchoring is a psychological heuristic that describes the propensity to rely on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.[14][15] According to this heuristic, individuals begin with an implicitly suggested reference point (the "anchor") and make adjustments to it to reach their estimate. For example, the initial price offered for a used car sets the standard for the rest of the negotiations, so that prices lower than the initial price seem more reasonable even if they are still higher than what the car is worth.[16][17]
Apophenia[edit]
Main articles: Apophenia and Pareidolia
See also: Hindsight bias
Apophenia, also known as patternicity,[18][19] or agenticity,[20] is the human tendency to perceive meaningful patterns within random data. Apophenia is well documented as a rationalization for gambling. Gamblers may imagine that they see patterns in the numbers which appear in lotteries, card games, or roulette wheels.[21] One manifestation of this is known as the "gambler's fallacy".
Pareidolia is the visual or auditory form of apophenia. It has been suggested that pareidolia combined with hierophany may have helped ancient societies organize chaos and make the world intelligible.[22][23]
Attribution bias[edit]
Main article: Attribution bias
An attribution bias can happen when individuals assess or attempt to discover explanations behind their own and others' behaviors.[24][25][26] People make attributions about the causes of their own and others’ behaviors; but these attributions don't necessarily precisely reflect reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, individuals are inclined to perceptual slips that prompt biased understandings of their social world.[27][28] When judging others we tend to assume their actions are the result of internal factors such as personality, whereas we tend to assume our own actions arise because of the necessity of external circumstances. There are a wide range of sorts of attribution biases, such as the ultimate attribution error, fundamental attribution error, actor-observer bias, and self-serving bias.
Confirmation bias[edit]
Confirmation bias has been described as an internal "yes man", echoing back a person's beliefs like Charles Dickens' character Uriah Heep.[29]
Main article: Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's beliefs or hypotheses while giving disproportionately less attention to information that contradicts it.[30] The effect is stronger for emotionally charged issues and for deeply entrenched beliefs. People also tend to interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing position. Biased search, interpretation and memory have been invoked to explain attitude polarization (when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence), belief perseverance (when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false), the irrational primacy effect (a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series) and illusory correlation (when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations). Confirmation biases contribute to overconfidence in personal beliefs and can maintain or strengthen beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. Poor decisions due to these biases have been found in political and organizational contexts.[31][32]
Framing[edit]
Main articles: Cultural bias and Framing (social sciences)
Framing involves the social construction of social phenomena by mass media sources, political or social movements, political leaders, and so on. It is an influence over how people organize, perceive, and communicate about reality.[33] It can be positive or negative - depending on the audience and what kind of information is being presented. For political purposes, framing often presents facts in such a way that implicates a problem that is in need of a solution. Members of political parties attempt to frame issues in a way that makes a solution favoring their own political leaning appear as the most appropriate course of action for the situation at hand.[34] As understood in social theory, framing is a schema of interpretation, a collection of anecdotes and stereotypes, that individuals rely on to understand and respond to events.[35] People use filters to make sense of the world, the choices they then make are influenced by their creation of a frame.
Cultural bias is the related phenomenon of interpreting and judging phenomena by standards inherent to one's own culture. Numerous such biases exist, concerning cultural norms for color, location of body parts, mate selection, concepts of justice, linguistic and logical validity, acceptability of evidence, and taboos. Ordinary people may tend to imagine other people as basically the same, not significantly more or less valuable, probably attached emotionally to different groups and different land.
Halo effect[edit]
Main article: Halo effect
The halo effect is when an observer's overall impression of a person, organization, brand, or product influences their feelings about specifics of that entity's character or properties.[36][37][38]
The name halo effect is based on the concept of the saint's halo, and is a specific type of confirmation bias, wherein positive sentiments in one area cause questionable or unknown characteristics to be seen positively. If the observer likes one aspect of something, they will have a positive predisposition toward everything about it.[39][40][41][42] A person’s appearance has been found to produce a halo effect.[43] The halo effect is also present in the field of brand marketing, affecting perception of companies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).[44][45][46][47][48][49][50]
Horn effect[edit]
Main article: Horn effect
Sometimes called horns effect (as in Devil's horns), the horn effect is one of a number of effects that psychologists call “Bias blind spots.”[51] The horn effect occurs when "individuals believe (that negative) traits are inter-connected."[52] This bias involves a halo effect working in a negative direction: if the observer dislikes one aspect of something, they will have a negative predisposition toward everything about it. It is a phenomenon in which an observer's judgment of a person is adversely affected by the presence of (for the observer) an unfavorable aspect of this person.
The term is derived from the English[53] word "horn" and refers to devil's horn(s). The opposite of the horn effect is called the halo effect, which is derived from the idea of the angel or saint's halo.[52] Both of these bias effects often clash with phrases such as "words mean something"[54][55] and "Your words have a history.".[56]
Self-serving bias[edit]
Main article: Self-serving bias
Self-serving bias is the tendency for cognitive or perceptual processes to be distorted by the individual's need to maintain and enhance self-esteem.[57] It is the propensity to credit accomplishment to our own capacities and endeavors, yet attribute failure to outside factors,[58] to dismiss the legitimacy of negative criticism, concentrate on positive qualities and accomplishments yet disregard flaws and failures. Studies have demonstrated that this bias can affect behavior in the workplace,[59] in interpersonal relationships,[60] playing sports,[61] and in consumer decisions.[62]
Status quo bias[edit]
Main article: Status quo bias
Status quo bias is an emotional bias; a preference for the current state of affairs. The current baseline (or status quo) is taken as a reference point, and any change from that baseline is perceived as a loss. Status quo bias should be distinguished from a rational preference for the status quo ante, as when the current state of affairs is objectively superior to the available alternatives, or when imperfect information is a significant problem. A large body of evidence, however, shows that status quo bias frequently affects human decision-making.[citation needed]
Conflicts of interest[edit]
Main article: Conflict of interest
A conflict of interest (COI) is when a person or association has intersecting interests (financial, personal, etc.) which could potentially corrupt. The potential conflict is autonomous of actual improper actions, it can be found and intentionally defused before corruption, or the appearance of corruption, happens. "A conflict of interest is a set of circumstances that creates a risk that professional judgement or actions regarding a primary interest will be unduly influenced by a secondary interest."[63] It exists if the circumstances are sensibly accepted to present a hazard that choices made may be unduly affected by auxiliary interests.[64]
Bribery[edit]
Main article: Bribery
Bribery is the giving of money, goods or other forms of recompense to in order to influence the recipient's behavior.[65] Bribes can include money (including tips), goods, rights in action, property, privilege, emolument, gifts, perks, skimming, return favors, discounts, sweetheart deals, kickbacks, funding, donations, campaign contributions, sponsorships, stock options, secret commissions, or promotions.[66] Expectations of when a monetary transaction is appropriate can differ from place to place. Political campaign contributions in the form of cash are considered criminal acts of bribery in some countries, while in the United States they are legal provided they adhere to election law. Tipping, is considered bribery in some societies, but not others.
Favoritism[edit]
Main article: In-group favoritism
Favoritism, sometimes known as in-group favoritism, or in-group bias, refers to a pattern of favoring members of one's in-group over out-group members. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, in allocation of resources, and in many other ways.[67][68] This has been researched by psychologists, especially social psychologists, and linked to group conflict and prejudice. Cronyism is favoritism of long-standing friends, especially by appointing them to positions of authority, regardless of their qualifications.[69] Nepotism is favoritism granted to relatives.[70][71][72][73]
Funding bias[edit]
Main article: Funding bias
Funding bias refers to the tendency of a scientific study to support the interests of the study's financial sponsor. This phenomenon is recognized sufficiently that researchers undertake studies to examine bias in past published studies.[74] It can be caused by any or all of: a conscious or subconscious sense of obligation of researchers towards their employers,[75] misconduct or malpractice,[76] publication bias,[76][77][78][79] or reporting bias.[80]
Lobbying[edit]
Box offered by tobacco lobbyists to Dutch Member of the European Parliament Kartika Liotard in September 2013
Main article: Lobbying
Lobbying is the attempt to influence choices made by administrators, frequently lawmakers or individuals from administrative agencies.[81][82][83] Lobbyists may be among a legislator's constituencies, or not; they may engage in lobbying as a business, or not. Lobbying is often spoken of with contempt, the implication is that people with inordinate socioeconomic power are corrupting the law in order to serve their own interests. When people who have a duty to act on behalf of others, such as elected officials with a duty to serve their constituents' interests or more broadly the common good, stand to benefit by shaping the law to serve the interests of some private parties, there is a conflict of interest. This can lead to all sides in a debate looking to sway the issue by means of lobbyists.
Regulatory issues[edit]
Main articles: Industry self-regulation and Regulatory capture
Self-regulation is the process whereby an organization monitors its own adherence to legal, ethical, or safety standards, rather than have an outside, independent agency such as a third party entity monitor and enforce those standards.[84] Self-regulation of any group can create a conflict of interest. If any organization, such as a corporation or government bureaucracy, is asked to eliminate unethical behavior within their own group, it may be in their interest in the short run to eliminate the appearance of unethical behavior, rather than the behavior itself.
Regulatory capture is a form of political corruption that can occur when a regulatory agency, created to act in the public interest, instead advances the commercial or political concerns of special interest groups that dominate the industry or sector it is charged with regulating.[85][86] Regulatory capture occurs because groups or individuals with a high-stakes interest in the outcome of policy or regulatory decisions can be expected to focus their resources and energies in attempting to gain the policy outcomes they prefer, while members of the public, each with only a tiny individual stake in the outcome, will ignore it altogether.[87] Regulatory capture is a risk to which a regulatory agency is exposed by its very nature.[88][89]
Shilling[edit]
Main article: Shill
Shilling is deliberately giving spectators the feeling that one is an energetic autonomous client of a vendor for whom one is working. The effectiveness of shilling relies on crowd psychology to encourage other onlookers or audience members to purchase the goods or services (or accept the ideas being marketed). Shilling is illegal in some places, but legal in others.[90] An example of shilling is paid reviews that give the impression of being autonomous opinions.
Statistical biases[edit]
Main article: Bias (statistics)
Statistical bias is a property of a statistical technique or of its results whereby the expected value of the results differs from the true underlying quantitative parameter being estimated. Arithmetic mean is an unbiased estimator of mean and geometric mean is an example of a biased estimator of mean.
Contextual biases[edit]
Academic bias[edit]
Main article: Academic bias
Academic bias is the bias or perceived bias of scholars allowing their beliefs to shape their research and the scientific community. Claims of bias are often linked to claims by conservatives of pervasive bias against political conservatives and religious Christians.[91] Some have argued that these claims are based upon anecdotal evidence which would not reliably indicate systematic bias,[92][93][94] and have suggested that this divide is due to self-selection of conservatives choosing not to pursue academic careers.[92][95] There is some evidence that perception of classroom bias may be rooted in issues of sexuality, race, class and sex as much or more than in religion.[96][97]
Educational bias[edit]
Main article: Bias in education
Bias in education refers to real or perceived bias in the educational system. The content of school textbooks is often the issue of debate, as their target audience is young people, and the term "whitewashing" is used to refer to selective removal of critical or damaging evidence or comment.[98][99][100] Religious bias in textbooks is observed in countries where religion plays a dominant role. There can be many forms of educational bias. Some overlooked aspects, occurring especially with the pedagogical circles of public and private schools—sources that are unrelated to fiduciary or mercantile impoverishment which may be unduly magnified—include teacher bias as well as a general bias against women who are going into STEM research.[101][102]
Experimenter bias[edit]
Main article: Experimenter's bias
In science research, experimenter bias occurs when experimenter expectancies regarding study results bias the research outcome.[103] Examples of experimenter bias include conscious or unconscious influences on subject behavior including creation of demand characteristics that influence subjects, and altered or selective recording of experimental results themselves.[104]
Full text on net bias[edit]
Main articles: FUTON bias and No abstract available bias
Full text on net (or FUTON) bias is a tendency of scholars to cite academic journals with open access—that is, journals that make their full text available on the internet without charge—in their own writing as compared with toll access publications. Scholars can more easily discover and access articles that have their full text on the internet, which increases authors' likelihood of reading, quoting, and citing these articles, this may increase the impact factor of open access journals relative to journals without open access.[105][106][107][108][109][110]
The related bias, no abstract available bias (NAA bias) is scholars' tendency to cite journal articles that have an abstract available online more readily than articles that do not.[105][110]
Inductive bias[edit]
Main article: Inductive bias
Inductive bias occurs within the field of machine learning. In machine learning one seeks to develop algorithms that are able to learn to anticipate a particular output. To accomplish this, the learning algorithm is given training cases that show the expected connection. Then the learner is tested with new examples. Without further assumptions, this problem cannot be solved exactly as unknown situations may not be predictable.[111][112] The inductive bias of the learning algorithm is the set of assumptions that the learner uses to predict outputs given inputs that it has not encountered.[111] It may bias the learner towards the correct solution, the incorrect, or be correct some of the time. A classical example of an inductive bias is Occam's Razor, which assumes that the simplest consistent hypothesis is the best.
Media bias[edit]
Main article: Media bias
Media bias is the bias or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of events, the stories that are reported, and how they are covered. The term generally implies a pervasive or widespread bias violating the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an individual journalist or article. There are varied forms of media bias, including agenda-setting, gatekeeping, sensationalism, and others.[113] The level of media bias in different nations is debated. There are also watchdog groups that report on media bias.
Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, the requirement that selected facts be linked into a coherent narrative, government influence including overt and covert censorship,[114] the influence of the owners of the news source, concentration of media ownership, the selection of staff, the preferences of an intended audience, and pressure from advertisers.
Bias has been a feature of the mass media since its birth with the invention of the printing press. The expense of early printing equipment restricted media production to a limited number of people. Historians have found that publishers often served the interests of powerful social groups.[115]
Publication bias[edit]
Main article: Publication bias
Publication bias is a type of bias with regard to what academic research is likely to be published because of a tendency of researchers, and journal editors, to prefer some outcomes rather than others e.g. results showing a significant finding, leads to a problematic bias in the published literature.[116] This can propagate further as literature reviews of claims about support for a hypothesis will themselves be biased if the original literature is contaminated by publication bias.[117] Studies with significant results often do not appear to be superior to studies with a null result with respect to quality of design.[118] However, statistically significant results have been shown to be three times more likely to be published compared to papers with null results.[119]
Reporting bias & social desirability bias[edit]
Main articles: Reporting bias and Social desirability bias
In epidemiology and empirical research, reporting bias is defined as "selective revealing or suppression of information" of undesirable behavior by subjects[120] or researchers. [121][122] It refers to a tendency to under-report unexpected or undesirable experimental results, while being more trusting of expected or desirable results. This can propagate, as each instance reinforces the status quo, and later experimenters justify their own reporting bias by observing that previous experimenters reported different results.
Social desirability bias is a bias within social science research where survey respondents can tend to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed positively by others.[123] It can take the form of over-reporting laudable behavior, or under-reporting undesirable behavior. This bias interferes with the interpretation of average tendencies as well as individual differences. The inclination represents a major issue with self-report questionnaires; of special concern are self-reports of abilities, personalities, sexual behavior, and drug use.[123]
Prejudices[edit]
Main articles: Bigotry, Prejudice, and Cultural bias
Bias and prejudice are usually considered to be closely related.[2] Prejudice is prejudgment, or forming an opinion before becoming aware of the relevant facts of a case. The word is often used to refer to preconceived, usually unfavorable, judgments toward people or a person because of gender, political opinion, social class, age, disability, religion, sexuality, race/ethnicity, language, nationality, or other personal characteristics. Prejudice can also refer to unfounded beliefs[124] and may include "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence".[125]
Classism[edit]
Main article: Class discrimination
Classism is discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes attitudes that benefit the upper class at the expense of the lower class, or vice versa.[126]
Lookism[edit]
Main article: Lookism
Lookism is stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination on the basis of physical attractiveness, or more generally to people whose appearance matches cultural preferences.[127][128][129] Many people make automatic judgments of others based on their physical appearance that influence how they respond to those people.[130][131]
Racism[edit]
Main article: Racism
Racism consists of ideologies based on a desire to dominate or a belief in the inferiority of another race.[132][133] It may also hold that members of different races should be treated differently.[134][135][136]
Sexism[edit]
Main article: Sexism
Sexism is discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. Sexism can affect any gender, but it is particularly documented as affecting women and girls.[137] It has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles,[138][139] and may include the belief that one sex or gender is intrinsically superior to another.[140]
See also[edit]
Psychology portal
Detection theory
Impartiality
Scholarly method
Source criticism
Weasel word
List of cognitive biases
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Jump up ^ Lo, Bernard; Field, Marilyn J. (2009). Conflict of Interest in Medical Research, Education, and Practice. Washington DC: National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-13188-9.
Jump up ^ Cain, D.M.; Detsky, A.S. (2008). "Everyone's a Little Bit Biased (Even Physicians)". JAMA. 299 (24): 2893–289. doi:10.1001/jama.299.24.2893. PMID 18577735. Archived from the original on 2013-07-26.
Jump up ^ "What is BRIBERY?". Black's Law Dictionary. Archived from the original on October 1, 2015. Retrieved September 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ See generally T. Markus Funk, "Don't Pay for the Misdeeds of Others: Intro to Avoiding Third-Party FCPA Liability," 6 BNA White Collar Crime Report 33 (January 14, 2011) Archived March 16, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. (discussing bribery in the context of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act).
Jump up ^ Aronson, E., Wilson, T. D., & Akert, R. (2010). Social psychology. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Donald M.; Doria, Janet R. (April 1981). "Self-serving and group-serving bias in attribution". Journal of Social Psychology. 113 (2): 201–211. doi:10.1080/00224545.1981.9924371. ISSN 0022-4545.
Jump up ^ "Cronyism". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved October 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Nepotism". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved September 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Nepotism." Archived 2016-01-25 at the Wayback Machine. Dictionary.com. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "In Praise of Nepotism: A Natural History". Adam Bellow Booknotes interview transcript. Archived from the original on 26 September 2010. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Article Nepotism". New Catholic Dictionary. Archived from the original on February 24, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-12.
Jump up ^ Krimsky, Sheldon (2012). "Do Financial Conflicts of Interest Bias Research? An Inquiry into the "Funding Effect" Hypothesis" (PDF). Science, Technology & Human Values. 38: 566–587. doi:10.1177/0162243912456271. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-10-17.
Jump up ^ Cialdini, Robert B (2008-08-08). Influence: Science and Practice (5th ed). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-205-60999-4.
^ Jump up to: a b David Michaels (2008-07-15). "It's Not the Answers That Are Biased, It's the Questions". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2017-10-09.
Jump up ^ Wilmshurst, Peter. "Dishonesty in Medical Research" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-21.
Jump up ^ Lexchin, Joel; Bero, Lisa A; Djulbegovic, Benjamin; Clark, Otavio (2003-05-31). "Pharmaceutical industry sponsorship and research outcome and quality: systematic review". BMJ. 326 (7400): 1167–1170. doi:10.1136/bmj.326.7400.1167. PMC 156458  . PMID 12775614. Archived from the original on 2010-02-06.
Jump up ^ Anders Sandberg (2007-01-14). "Supping with the Devil". OvercomingBias. Archived from the original on 2015-09-23.
Jump up ^ "Types of Bias". Cochrane Bias Methods Group. 2009-06-19. Archived from the original on 2010-07-23. Retrieved 2010-08-04.
Jump up ^ "lobbying". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.Com. Archived from the original on 2015-09-17.
Jump up ^ "lobbying". BBC News. London. 1 October 2008. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "lobbyist". Random House Unabridged Dictionary. 2006. Archived from the original on 2015-10-02.
Jump up ^ "Self-regulation dictionary definition". yourdictionary.com. Archived from the original on October 5, 2015. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Regulatory Capture Definition". Investopedia. Archived from the original on October 3, 2015. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Regulatory Capture 101". Wall Street Journal. 2014-10-06. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 2017-09-03. Retrieved 2017-09-08.
Jump up ^ Timothy B. Lee, "Entangling the Web" Archived 2011-05-11 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times (August 3, 2006). Retrieved April 1, 2011
Jump up ^ Gary Adams, Sharon Hayes, Stuart Weierter and John Boyd, "Regulatory Capture: Managing the Risk" Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback Machine. ICE Australia, International Conferences and Events (PDF) (October 24, 2007). Retrieved April 14, 2011
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Alexander (2013), Small is beautiful, at least in high-income democracies: the distribution of policy-making responsibility, electoral accountability, and incentives for rent extraction "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-10-05. Retrieved 2013-05-24. , World Bank.
Jump up ^ FTC v. Greeting Cards of America, Inc. et al - USA (S.D. Fla. 2004). Text
Jump up ^ Hibbing, John D (2014), "Differences in negativity bias underlie variations in political ideology", Behavior and Brain Sciences, 37: 297–350, doi:10.1017/S0140525X13001192, ISSN 1939-1323
^ Jump up to: a b Ames, Barry; Barker, David C; Bonneau, Chris W; Carman, Christopher J (2005), "Hide the Republicans, the Christians, and the Women: A Response to "Politics and Professional Advancement Among College Faculty"", The Forum, 3 (2), doi:10.2202/1540-8884.1075, ISSN 1540-8884
Jump up ^ Lee, John (November 2006), The "Faculty Bias" Studies: Science or Propaganda (PDF), American Federation of Teachers, archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-17, retrieved 2014-01-24
Jump up ^ Giroux, Henry A. (2006), "Academic Freedom Under Fire: The Case for Critical Pedagogy", College Literature, West Chester: West Chester University, 33 (4): 1–42, doi:10.1353/lit.2006.0051, ISSN 1542-4286
Jump up ^ Gross, Neil (9 April 2013), Why Are Professors Liberal and Why Do Conservatives Care?, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-07448-4, archived from the original on 27 June 2014, retrieved 2014-01-24
Jump up ^ Boysen, Guy A; Vogel, David L; Cope, Marissa A; Hubbard, Asale (2009), "Incidents Of Bias in College Classrooms: Instructor and Student Perceptions", Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 2 (4): 219–231, doi:10.1037/a0017538, ISSN 1938-8934
Jump up ^ Brady, K. L.; Eisler, R. M. (1995). "Gender Bias in the College Classroom: A Critical Review of the Literature and Implications for Future Research". Journal of Research and Development in Education. 29 (1): 9–19.
Jump up ^ Sadker, David. "Seven Forms of Bias in Instructional Materials". sadker.org. Archived from the original on 21 October 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Strauss, Valerie (12 September 2014). "Proposed Texas textbooks are inaccurate, biased and politicized, new report finds". washingtonpost.com. Washington Post. Archived from the original on 8 September 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Czitrom, Daniel (22 March 2010). "Texas school board whitewashes history". cnn.com. CNN. Archived from the original on 28 March 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "How to Get Your Ex Boyfriend Back - Tips to Win Back His Love and Get Him Back". www.americanmentalhealthfundation.org. Retrieved 2017-09-08.
Jump up ^ "Crisis Counseling with Children," Van Ornum and Murdock, 1990, NY: Crossroad/Continuum.
Jump up ^ Sackett, D. L. (1979). "Bias in analytic research". Journal of Chronic Diseases. 32 (1–2): 51–63. doi:10.1016/0021-9681(79)90012-2. PMID 447779.
Jump up ^ Barry H. Kantowitz; Henry L. Roediger, III; David G. Elmes (2009). Experimental Psychology. Cengage Learning. p. 371. ISBN 978-0-495-59533-5. Archived from the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Murali, N. S.; Murali, H. R.; Auethavekiat, P.; Erwin, P. J.; Mandrekar, J. N.; Manek, N. J.; Ghosh, A. K. (2004). "Impact of FUTON and NAA bias on visibility of research" (PDF). Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 79 (8): 1001–1006. doi:10.4065/79.8.1001. PMID 15301326. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Ghosh, A. K.; Murali, N. S. (2003). "Online access to nephrology journals: The FUTON bias". Nephrology, dialysis, transplantation : official publication of the European Dialysis and Transplant Association - European Renal Association. 18 (9): 1943; author reply 1943. doi:10.1093/ndt/gfg247. PMID 12937253. Archived from the original on 2015-10-16.
Jump up ^ Mueller, P. S.; Murali, N. S.; Cha, S. S.; Erwin, P. J.; Ghosh, A. K. (2006). "The effect of online status on the impact factors of general internal medicine journals". The Netherlands journal of medicine. 64 (2): 39–44. PMID 16517987. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19.
Jump up ^ Krieger, M. M.; Richter, R. R.; Austin, T. M. (2008). "An exploratory analysis of PubMed's free full-text limit on citation retrieval for clinical questions". Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA. 96 (4): 351–355. doi:10.3163/1536-5050.96.4.010. PMC 2568849  . PMID 18974812.
Jump up ^ Gilman, Isaac (2009). "Opening up the Evidence: Evidence-Based Practice and Open Access". Faculty Scholarship (PUL). Pacific University Libraries. Archived from the original on 2011-02-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Wentz, R. (2002). "Visibility of research: FUTON bias". The Lancet. 360 (9341): 1256–1256. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11264-5. PMID 12401287.
^ Jump up to: a b Mitchell, T. M. (1980). "The need for biases in learning generalizations". CBM-TR 5-110. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University. Archived from the original on 2015-10-16.
Jump up ^ DesJardins, M.; Gordon, D. F. (1995). "Evaluation and selection of biases in machine learning". Machine Learning Journal. 5: 1–17. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16.
Jump up ^ Strategic Maneuvering and Media Bias in Political News Magazine Opinion Articles, Stefano Mario Rivolta, 7 June 2011
Jump up ^ "10 Most Censored Countries" Archived 2015-10-16 at the Wayback Machine., Committee to Protect Journalists, 2 May 2006
Jump up ^ Ann Heinrichs, The Printing Press (Inventions That Shaped the World), p. 53, Franklin Watts, 2005, ISBN 0-531-16722-4, ISBN 978-0-531-16722-9
Jump up ^ Song, F.; Parekh, S.; Hooper, L.; Loke, Y. K.; Ryder, J.; Sutton, A. J.; Hing, C.; Kwok, C. S.; Pang, C.; Harvey, I. (2010). "Dissemination and publication of research findings: An updated review of related biases". Health technology assessment (Winchester, England). 14 (8): iii, iix–xi, iix–193. doi:10.3310/hta14080. PMID 20181324.
Jump up ^ H. Rothstein, A. J. Sutton and M. Borenstein. (2005). Publication bias in meta-analysis: prevention, assessment and adjustments. Wiley. Chichester, England ; Hoboken, NJ.
Jump up ^ Easterbrook, P. J.; Berlin, J. A.; Gopalan, R.; Matthews, D. R. (1991). "Publication bias in clinical research". Lancet. 337 (8746): 867–872. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(91)90201-Y. PMID 1672966.
Jump up ^ Dickersin, K.; Chan, S.; Chalmers, T. C.; et al. (1987). "Publication bias and clinical trials". Controlled Clinical Trials. 8 (4): 343–353. doi:10.1016/0197-2456(87)90155-3. PMID 3442991.
Jump up ^ Porta, Miquel, ed. (5 June 2008). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. Oxford University Press. p. 275. ISBN 978-0-19-157844-1. Archived from the original on 16 December 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Green S, Higgins S, editors: Glossary. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions 4.2.5. Archived 2010-03-09 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ McGauran, N; Wieseler, B; Kreis, J; Schüler, YB; Kölsch, H; Kaiser, T (2010). "Reporting bias in medical research - a narrative review" (PDF). Trials. 11: 37. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-11-37. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-01-08.
^ Jump up to: a b "Social Desirability Bias". psychologyconcepts.com. Archived from the original on August 31, 2015. Retrieved September 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ William James wrote: "A great many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudices." Quotable Quotes – Courtesy of The Freeman Institute
Jump up ^ Rosnow, Ralph L. (March 1972). "Poultry and Prejudice". Psychologist Today. 5 (10): 53–6.
Jump up ^ Kadi, Joanna (1996). Thinking Class. U.S.: South End Press. ISBN 0-89608-548-1.
Jump up ^ "Lookism". The Free Dictionary. Retrieved September 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bartleby.com Archived 2015-09-30 at the Wayback Machine. — "Lookism Archived December 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000.
Jump up ^ Farrell, Warren (2005). Why Men Earn More: The Startling Truth About the Pay Gap -- And What Women Can Do About It. AMACOM, ISBN 0814472109 p. 193
Jump up ^ Eagly, Alice; Ashmore, Richard; Makhijani, Mona G.; Longo, Laura C. (1991). "What is beautiful is good, but". Psychological Bulletin. 110: 109–128. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.109.
Jump up ^ Rhodes, Gillian; Simmons, Leigh; Peters, Marianne (2005). "Attractiveness and Sexual Behavior: Does Attractiveness Enhance Mating Success?". Evolution and Human Behavior. 26 (2): 186–201. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.08.014.
Jump up ^ "Oxford English Dictionary, Racism". Archived from the original on 2015-08-29. Retrieved 24 Aug 2015. Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against someone of a different race based on the belief that one’s own race is superior:
Jump up ^ SCHMID, W. THOMAS (April 1996). "The Definition of Racism". Journal of Applied Philosophy. 13 (1): 31–40. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5930.1996.tb00147.x.
Jump up ^ Racism Archived 2012-09-11 at the Wayback Machine. Oxford Dictionaries
Jump up ^ "Racism" in R. Schefer. 2008 Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. SAGE. p. 1113
Jump up ^ Newman, D. M. (2012). Sociology : exploring the architecture of everyday life (9th ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 405. ISBN 978-1-4129-8729-5. racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior.
Jump up ^ There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primarily to discrimination against women, and primarily affects women. See, for example:
"Sexism". New Oxford American Dictionary (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. 2010. ISBN 9780199891535. Defines sexism as "prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex."
"Sexism". Encyclopædia Britannica, Online Academic Edition. 2015. Defines sexism as "prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls." Notes that "sexism in a society is most commonly applied against women and girls. It functions to maintain patriarchy, or male domination, through ideological and material practices of individuals, collectives, and institutions that oppress women and girls on the basis of sex or gender."
Cudd, Ann E.; Jones, Leslie E. (2005). "Sexism". A Companion to Applied Ethics. London: Blackwell. Notes that "'Sexism' refers to a historically and globally pervasive form of oppression against women."
Masequesmay, Gina (2008). "Sexism". In O'Brien, Jodi. Encyclopedia of Gender and Society. SAGE. Notes that "sexism usually refers to prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls." Also states that "sexism is an ideology or practices that maintain patriarchy or male domination."
Hornsby, Jennifer (2005). "Sexism". In Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2 ed.). Oxford. Defines sexism as "thought or practice which may permeate language and which assume's women's inferiority to men."
"Sexism". Collins Dictionary of Sociology. Harper Collins. 2006. Defines sexism as "any devaluation or denigration of women or men, but particularly women, which is embodied in institutions and social relationships."
"Sexism". Palgrave MacMillan Dictionary of Political Thought. Palgrave MacMillan. 2007. Notes that "either sex may be the object of sexist attitudes... however, it is commonly held that, in developed societies, women have been the usual victims."
"Sexism". The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Love, Courtship, and Sexuality through History, Volume 6: The Modern World. Greenwood. 2007. "Sexism is any act, attitude, or institutional configuration that systematically subordinates or devalues women. Built upon the belief that men and women are constitutionally different, sexism takes these differences as indications that men are inherently superior to women, which then is used to justify the nearly universal dominance of men in social and familial relationships, as well as politics, religion, language, law, and economics."
Foster, Carly Hayden (2011). "Sexism". In Kurlan, George Thomas. The Encyclopedia of Political Science. CQ Press. ISBN 9781608712434. Notes that "both men and women can experience sexism, but sexism against women is more pervasive."
Johnson, Allan G. (2000). "Sexism". The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology. Blackwell. Suggests that "the key test of whether something is sexist... lies in its consequences: if it supports male privilege, then it is by definition sexist. I specify 'male privilege' because in every known society where gender inequality exists, males are privileged over females."
Lorber, Judith (2011). Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics. Oxford University Press. p. 5. Notes that "although we speak of gender inequality, it is usually women who are disadvantaged relative to similarly situated men."
Wortman, Camille B.; Loftus, Elizabeth S.; Weaver, Charles A (1999). Psychology. McGraw-Hill. "As throughout history, today women are the primary victims of sexism, prejudice directed at one sex, even in the United States."
Jump up ^ Matsumoto, David (2001). "The Handbook of Culture and Psychology". Oxford University Press: 197. ISBN 0-19-513181-9.
Jump up ^ Nakdimen KA The American Journal of Psychiatry [1984, 141(4):499-503]
Jump up ^ Doob, Christopher B. 2013. Social Inequality and Social Stratification in US Society. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
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