text:
Wit Studio
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Wit Studio
Type
Kabushiki kaisha
Industry
Animation studio
Genre
various
Founded
June 1, 2012; 5 years ago (2012-06-01)[1]
Headquarters
Musashino, Tokyo, Japan[1]
Key people
George Wada (President)[1]
Products
Anime (Television, Film, OVA)
Number of employees
34[2]
Parent
IG Port
Website
witstudio.co.jp
WIT STUDIO, Inc. (株式会社ウィットスタジオ, Kabushiki-gaisha Witto Sutajio) is a Japanese animation studio founded on June 1, 2012 by producers at Production I.G as a subsidiary of IG Port. It is headquartered in Musashino, Tokyo, Japan, with Production I.G producer George Wada as president and Tetsuya Nakatake, also a producer at Production I.G., as a director of the studio. It gained notability for producing the anime adaptation of the Attack on Titan manga series.[1]
Wit Studio was funded with an initial investment of ¥30,000,000 in capital from IG Port, Wada and Nakatake, who are reported to own 66.6%, 21.6% and 10.0% equity in the studio respectively.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Filmography
1.1 Television
1.2 Films and OVAs
1.3 Video games
2 References
3 External links
Filmography[edit]
Television[edit]
Year
Title
Director
Format
Episodes
Notes
2013–ongoing Attack on Titan Tetsurō Araki
Masashi Koizuka[5] TV Series 37 + 8 OVA Adapted from Hajime Isayama's manga of the same name
2014–2015 Hozuki's Coolheadedness Hiro Kaburaki TV Series 13 + 3 OVA Adapted from Natsumi Eguchi's manga of the same name
2015 The Rolling Girls Kotomi Deai TV Series 12 Original work
2015 Seraph of the End Daisuke Tokudo TV Series 24 + 1 OVA Adapted from Takaya Kagami's manga of the same name
2016 Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress Tetsurō Araki TV Series 12 Original work
2017–2018 The Ancient Magus' Bride Norihiro Naganuma TV Series 24 Adapted from Kore Yamazaki's manga of the same name
2018 After the Rain Ayumu Watanabe TV Series 12 Adapted from Jun Mayuzuki's manga of the same name
TBA Vinland Saga TBA TV Series TBA Adapted from Makoto Yukimura's manga of the same name
Films and OVAs[edit]
Year
Title
Director
Format
Episodes
Notes
2013 Hal Ryōtarō Makihara Film
2014–2015 Attack on Titan – Part 1: Crimson Bow and Arrow
Attack on Titan – Part 2: Wings of Freedom Tetsurō Araki Film Recap films of the anime series' first season
2014–2015 Attack on Titan: No Regrets Tetsurō Araki OVA 2 Adapted from Gun Snark's manga of the same name
2015 The Empire of Corpses Ryōtarō Makihara Film Part of Project Itoh
2016 Star Fox Zero: The Battle Begins Kyoji Asano ONA Short film adapted from the video game Star Fox Zero
2016–2017 The Ancient Magus' Bride: Those Awaiting a Star Norihiro Naganuma OVA 3 Adapted from Kore Yamazaki's manga The Ancient Magus' Bride
2016–2017 Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress - Part 1: Gathering Light
Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress - Part 2: Burning Life Tetsurō Araki Film Recap films of Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress
2017–2018 Laughing Under the Clouds Gaiden Tetsuya Wakano Film 3 Adapted from Karakara-Kemuri's manga Laughing Under the Clouds
2017–2018 Attack on Titan: Lost Girls Tetsurō Araki
Masashi Koizuka OVA 3 Adapted from Hiroshi Seko's novel of the same name
2018 Attack on Titan: The Roar of Awakening Tetsurō Araki
Masashi Koizuka Film Recap film of the anime series' second season
2018 Pokémon the Movie: Everyone's Story Tetsuo Yajima Film Follow-up to 2017's Pokémon the Movie: I Choose You!
Collaboration with OLM
TBA Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress: Unato Decisive Battle Tetsurō Araki Film Sequel to Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress
Video games[edit]
Year
Title
Publisher
Format
Notes
2017 Tales of the Rays Bandai Namco[6] Mobile Game Opening Animation/Cutscenes
2018 Kōtetsujō no Kabaneri -Ran- Hajimaru Michiato DMM Games Mobile Game Opening Animation
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "WIT STUDIO Company" (in Japanese). WIT STUDIO. Retrieved September 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ Marina (March 29, 2016). "Sakura-Con 2016 – Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress and More by WIT Studio". wordpress.com. Retrieved February 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ "IG Port Founds New Animation Planning and Production Subsidiary". Retrieved April 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "IGポート　アニメ企画・制作子会社設立 「戦国BASARA」などのプロデューサー役員に". Retrieved April 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "進撃！巨人中学校×進撃の巨人"進撃祭"Reading & Live Event イベントレポート". Retrieved July 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ "テイルズオブザレイズ -Tales of the Rays- Official Website" (in Japanese). Retrieved February 14, 2017.
External links[edit]
Official website (in Japanese)
Wit Studio at Anime News Network's encyclopedia
[show]
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Wit Studio
Television series
Attack on Titan (2013–present)
Hozuki's Coolheadedness (2014)
The Rolling Girls (2015)
Seraph of the End (2015)
Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress (2016)
The Ancient Magus' Bride (2017–2018)
After the Rain (2018)
Vinland Saga (TBA)
Films
Hal (2013)
Attack on Titan (2014–2018)
The Empire of Corpses (2015)
Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress (2016–2017)
Laughing Under the Clouds Gaiden (2017–2018)
Pokémon the Movie: Everyone's Story (2018)
Kabaneri of the Iron Fortress: Unato Decisive Battle (TBA)
OVAs
Attack on Titan: No Regrets (2014–2015)
The Ancient Magus' Bride: Those Awaiting a Star (2016–2017)
Attack on Titan: Lost Girls (2017–2018)
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Animation industry in Japan
History of anime
Companies/studios
Active
3Hz
8-Bit
A.C.G.T
A.P.P.P.
AIC
Ajia-do Animation Works
Aniplex
A-1 Pictures
CloverWorks
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Bandai Namco Holdings
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Bridge
C-Station
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CoMix Wave Films
Creators in Pack
Daume
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Eiken
Feel
G&G Direction
Gainax
Gallop
Genco
GoHands
Gonzo
Hoods Entertainment
IG Port
Production I.G
Wit Studio
Xebec
Imagin
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Khara
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OLM
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Project No.9
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Visual Works
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Tezuka Productions
TNK
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Ufotable
Ultra Super Pictures
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Ordet
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Studio Trigger
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Yumeta Company
Zexcs
Defunct
Artmic
Cherry Lips
Group TAC
Hal Film Maker
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Jetlag Productions
Kitayama Eiga Seisakujo
Manglobe
Palm Studio
Radix Ace Entertainment
Spectrum Animation
Studio Fantasia
Topcraft
Triangle Staff
Tsuchida Production
Walt Disney Animation Japan
Industry
associations
The Association of Japanese Animations
Japanese Animation Creators Association
Awards
Animation Kobe Awards
Animax Anison Grand Prix
Anime Grand Prix
Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year
Japan Media Arts Awards
Mainichi Film Award for Best Animation Film
Newtype Anime Award
Ōfuji Noburō Award
Seiyu Awards
Sugoi Japan Award
Tokyo Anime Award
Types
Original net animation (ONA)
Original video animation (OVA)
Television
Late night
UHF
Genres
Ecchi
Girls with guns
Harem
Hentai
Tentacle erotica
Lolicon
Kaitō
Magical girl
Mecha
Shotacon
Yaoi
Yuri
Related topics
Animage
Katsudō Shashin
Kinema Junpo
Manga
Newtype
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Bernward Doors
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Bernward Doors
The image side of the bronze doors of the Hildesheim Cathedral, showing scenes from the Book of Genesis on the left leaf, from top to bottom, and from the life of Jesus on the right leaf, from bottom to top
Year
c. 1015 (1015)
Type
Ottonian art
Medium
Bronze
Location
Hildesheim, Germany
Coordinates
52°08′56″N 9°56′47″E / 52.1489°N 9.9464°E / 52.1489; 9.9464Coordinates: 52°08′56″N 9°56′47″E / 52.1489°N 9.9464°E / 52.1489; 9.9464
The Bernward Doors (German: Bernwardstür) are the two leaves of a pair of Ottonian or Romanesque bronze doors, made c. 1015 for Hildesheim Cathedral in Germany. They were commissioned by Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim (938–1022). The doors show relief images from the Bible, scenes from the Book of Genesis on the left door and from the life of Jesus on the right door. They are considered a masterpiece of Ottonian art, and feature the oldest known monumental image cycle in German sculpture, and also the oldest cycle of images cast in metal in Germany.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Creation and technical features
3 Iconography
3.1 Left door
3.2 Right door
3.3 Typological correlation
4 Style and composition
4.1 Composition of the scenes
4.2 Figures
4.3 Identity of the artist
5 Predecessors and later works
6 Original location dispute
7 Liturgical significance
8 Bibliography
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Along with the Bernward Column, the doors are part of Bishop Bernward's efforts to create a cultural ascendancy for the seat of his diocese with artistic masterpieces in the context of the Renovatio imperii sought by the Ottonians. A Latin inscription on the middle crossbar produced after Bernward's death[2] gives the year 1015 as the terminus ante quem for the creation of the doors:
AN[NO] DOM[INI] INC[ARNATIONIS] M XV B[ERNVARDVS] EP[ISCOPVS] DIVE MEM[ORIE] HAS VALVAS FVSILES IN FACIE[M] ANGELICI TE[M]PLI OB MONIM[EN]T[VM] SVI FEC[IT] SVSPENDI
(In the 1015th year of the incarnation of the Lord, Bishop Bernward (richly remembered) had these cast doors hung at the front of the angelic temple to his own memory)
Creation and technical features[edit]
The westwork of Hildesheim Cathedral in 2005.
Each leaf of the doors was cast as a single piece. Given the size (left: 472.0 x 125.0 cm, right: 472.0 x 114.5 cm, maximum thickness c. 3.5-4.5 cm) and enormous weight (both c. 1.85 tonnes) of the doors, this is a great achievement for its time. The raw material for the casting was Gunmetal, which consisted predominantly of copper (above 80%) with roughly equal parts of lead, tin, and zinc.[3] To date material analysis has not been able to show which ore deposit the metal came from, though the ironworks at Rammelsberg near Goslar has been ruled out.[4]
Like their predecessors, the Wolfstür (Wolf's door) of the Aachen Cathedral and the Marktportal (Market Portal) of the Mainz Cathedral, the Bernward Doors were manufactured using the Lost-wax process, which puts exceptional demands on the workers of the casting workshop, since the mold can only be used once. The individual scenes of the doors were carved from massive wax or tallow tablets by modellers and then combined, supported by an iron frame, which is probably how the slight irregularities in the bands which divide the individual scenes came about. Even the doorknockers in the form of grotesque lion's heads with rings of grace in their mouths were included in the original mold rather than being soldered on later. Technical analysis has shown that the mold was stood on the long side and filled with bronze, so that the molten metal would spread evenly; investigation has found cooling cracks in the metal.[5] The result of this process was probably still rather rough, covered in metal bumps from the pipes in the mold through which the metal was poured in and through which air escaped and it would have had to have been worked over and polished up in great detail.
Iconography[edit]
Iconographic program of the Bernward Doors, in German
The Bernward Doors depict scenes from the Book of Genesis (left door) arranged in parallel to scenes from the Gospels (right door). The scenes are organized based on the principle that Adam and Christ mirror each other - with Christ's sacrificial death redeeming Adam's sin. The left door depicts the increasing estrangement of humanity from God from top to bottom: the Creation, the Fall, Cain's murder of Abel. The right door shows the redemptive work of Christ from bottom to top: the Annunciation and Nativity, the Passion, the Resurrection). The depictions of the right door, in which the birth and childhood of Jesus are followed immediately by his passion and resurrection, are complemented thematically by the depiction of his life and ministry on the Bernward Column, which was probably also donated by Bernward, and stood in the east choir of St. Michael's until the eighteenth century.
In some cases, several events which chronologically occur one after another are depicted in a single panel, leading to an odd sense of multiplicity. This was an artistic convention of the time, much used in illuminated manuscripts. So for example, Adam appears twice in the scene of his awakening by God the Father.
Left door[edit]
Top panel: God creates Adam. Adam after the creation.
Second panel: Adam and Eve are introduced
Third panel: The fall
Fourth panel: God interrogates Adam and Eve
Fifth panel: Expulsion from paradise
Sixth panel: Life on earth
(door handle)
Seventh panel: Cain and Abel make their offerings to God
Eighth panel: Cain kills Abel
Right door[edit]
Top panel: Noli me tangere; ascension of Christ into heaven
Second panel: The women at the tomb
Third panel: The crucifixion
Fourth panel: Christ appears before Pilate and Herod
Fifth panel: The child Jesus is brought to the Temple
Sixth panel: The gifts of the Wise Men
(door handle)
Seventh panel: The birth of Christ
Eighth panel: The annunciation to Mary
Typological correlation[edit]
To understand the parallelism between the panels of the left and right doors, one must enter the medieval mindset, with its a typological reading of the Old Testament according to the revelation of the New Testament (concordantia veteris et novi testamenti - harmony of the Old and New Testament). The typological concordances presented on the Bernward doors are based for the most part on the theological writings of the Church Fathers, especially St. Augustine:
Left door (Book of Genesis)
Right door (Life of Jesus)
Typological connection[6]
God brings Adam to life, Adam pays homage (?) to God the Father Noli me tangere / Ascension of Jesus The creation of Adam prefigures the resurrection of Christ.[7]
Meeting of Adam and Eve The Women at the tomb Adam and Eve correspond as a couple to Christ and the women at the tomb, who were interpreted in a figurative sense as the "Brides of Christ".[8]
Fall of man Crucifixion of Jesus The Fall is the origin of original sin, which was repaid by the sacrificial death of Christ on the cross (1 Corinthians 15:22).
Interrogation and condemnation of Adam and Eve Jesus interrogated by Herod and Pilate While the banishment of Adam and Eve marked the beginning of a sinful, godless, and painful world, the condemnation of Christ brought salvation through the sacrifice on the cross. Adam and Eve deny their own debt, while Christ takes on the debt of others.
Expulsion from Paradise Presentation of Jesus at the Temple While Adam and Eve are driven from the "House of God" as a result of their sinfulness, Christ modelled the path to paradise for his followers in his presentation at the Temple.
Life of Adam and Eve on Earth Adoration of the Magi Mary as the "New Eve", who outweighs Eve's disobedience by her own obedience to God.[9]
Sacrifices of Cain and Abel Nativity of Christ The lamb, which Abel sacrifices, refers to the incarnation of God as Christ and his divine purity.
Cain murders Abel Annunciation The murder of the righteous Abel foreshadows in his blood the death of God in his incarnation as Christ.[10]
Style and composition[edit]
The doors are made up of a number of framed panels; unlike the Roman originals, however, the design at Hildesheim is not their design, but probably an imitation of the ancient Roman examples.[11] Moreover, the impact of the frames is significantly reduced in favour of the figural scenes by their narrowness and the flat relief, so that they appear like the images of a contemporary illustrated manuscript, like the Codex Aureus of Echternach.
Composition of the scenes[edit]
The composition of the individual scenes is simple and effective. In contrast to the dramatic depictions of Carolingian art, the artists avoided richly decorated backgrounds. The scenery, consisting of plants (especially on the left leaf) and architectural elements (mostly on the right leaf) are depicted in low relief and kept to a minimum. They are only there at all where they are necessary for comprehension of the scene or for compositional reasons. Instead, vast empty spaces provide negative space around the figures in the panels, to great effect. Alexander von Reitzenstein (de) identified the empty space as an "effective space of corresponding gestures."[12] With their movement and individual gestures, each figure interacts with others – none of the figures can be understood on their own, independent of their counterparts, without losing their meaning.[13]
Figures[edit]
Detail of the left door leaf: Cain murders Abel
Detail of the right door leaf: The adoration of the Magi
As usual in medieval art, the figures are not individualized, but repeat a few stylised types. They have the disproportionately large, oval faces which are characteristic of Pre-Romanesque sculpture. Their very large, almond-shaped eyes sit in flat sockets with sharply delineated eyebrows. The hair is composed of parallel strands from a central parting. Nevertheless, the facial expressions of some figures are very individuated and match the figures' gestures. Especially relevant in this respect is the figure of Cain who looks up to the Hand of God in heaven with fearful, terror-stricken eyes and pulls his cloak tight around his body.
A progressive feature of the figures on the Bernward Doors is their style of relief: the figures do not extend a uniform distance from the background, but 'lean' out from it, so that when seen side on they almost give the impression of "roses on a trellis, with nodding heads."[14] An particular apt example of this is the figure of Mary with the baby Jesus in the depiction of the Adoration of the Magi: while her lower body is still in low relief, her upper body and Christ project out further, and finally Mary's shoulders and head are cast in the round. This unusual style was used for artistic reasons, not because of technical limitations.[15]
Identity of the artist[edit]
Unlike, for example, the Market Portal of the Mainz Cathedral, the identity of the artist responsible for the Bernward Doors is not preserved. As a result, older research attempted to identify a varying number of different artists on the basis of stylistic analysis of the individual panels.[16] Rainer Kahsnitz has since put these attributions in doubt, since the differences in execution between the reliefs is so marginal that they might as easily be the result of technical requirements as different artistic styles.[17] Probably a single artist was responsible for the creation of the Bernward Doors, with a small group of apprentices and assistants.[18]
Predecessors and later works[edit]
Wooden door of St. Sabina in Rome, c.430.
Bronze doors of the Marktportal, Mainz Cathedral c.1009.
There are various possibilities for the model of the Hildesheim doors as panelled doors (on the Roman model) and for the material used. Outstanding examples of monumental bronzeworking of the period include the doors of the Palatine chapel (c.800) and the doors of the Marktportal of Mainz Cathedral, which Archbishop Willigis had the founder Berenger cast in 1009.[19] However, these doors have no figural decoration, except for door handles in the shape of lion's heads on the Aachen Wolfstür.[20] As his biographer Thangmar reported in the Vita Bernwardi, Bishop Bernward lived first in the Hostel of the Schola Francorum at the Vatican and then in the Imperial Palace on the Palatine during his stay at Rome in 1001/2. He would have had the opportunity to view the monumental bronze door at the entrance to Old St. Peter's.[21] He probably also saw the Late Antique wooden doors of Santa Sabina with their relief cycle in which Old and New Testament scenes are arranged opposite each other in a typology.[22] The Late Antique doors of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan are also a possible model.[23]
Franz Dibelius first pointed out the clear parallels between illumination of manuscripts in the time of Charles the Bald and the composition of the images and figures of the left door. Some scenes of the Bernward Doors, e.g. the creation of Adam or the earthly life of Adam and Eve are arranged nearly identically to the so-called Moutier-Grandval Bible (London, British Library, Ms Add. 10546). Significantly, this Late Carolingian manuscript came from Tours, where Bernward stayed in 1006, returning to Hildesheim a year later with expensive relics for the silver Cross of Bernward. Close parallels can also be seen with other significant manuscripts of the ninth century, such as the c.800 Alcuin Bible (Bamberg State Library, Msc.Bibl.1) and the Bible of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, created in 877 at Corbie Abbey (Rom, Abbazia di S. Paolo fuori le mura). That Bernward brought copies of famous Frankish bibles back from his travels is definitely not certain, but possible.[24] The ivory cover of the Stammheim Missal (de), in which Alcuin presents a book to St. Martin of Tours, as the patron saint of his cloister, could derive from a bible of Tours acquired by Bernward.[25] Rudolf Wesenberg drew further iconographic and stylistic connections, but with traditional frescos in St. Paul beyond the Walls and Old St. Peter's which Bernward could have seen while in Rome.[26]
A range of further medieval bronze doors followed the Bernward Doors, but they have no clear connection with Hildesheim. The idea of casting the whole door from a single mold did not catch on - the most important metal doors are composed of a wooden frame with bronze panels inserted.[27] One of the Gniezno Doors, made for Poland in about 1175, is also a single piece casting, but artistically much less sophisticated. This apparently proved too difficult, and for the other door 24 cast panels were soldered together. For the western doors of St. Paulus in Worms, in 1881, the sculptor Lorenz Gedon (de) created a detailed replica of the Bernward Doors; unlike the original, these were made of cast iron and for reasons of space, the two highest images (the creation of Adam and the Ascension of Christ!) were not included.[28] The Renaissance Florence Baptistery doors are the most famous doors in the tradition Bernward played an important role in reviving.
Original location dispute[edit]
The "Angelic temple" named in the inscription has been identified by some scholars as Bernward's sepulchral church of the archangel St. Michael. According to them, the doors were originally hung in the south aisle (perhaps as two separate doors), in the cloisters, or in no longer extant westwork and were transferred to the Cathedral in 1035 for the new western entrance which Wolfhere (de) reports that Bishop Gotthard had made in his biography, Vita Godehardi (de).[29] A combination of the previous hypothesis with the original location of the doors is provided by Wesenberg.[30] Latterly, Bernhard Bruns attempted to locate the original location of the doors at St. Michael's by their iconography.[31] The excavations carried out during renovations in 2006 have now demonstrated that St. Michael's never had a westwork. But the installation of the doors on the south aisle has also come into question, since foundation remains of a narthex were found there, next to the western stairway tower.[32] Recent research in religious history now demonstrates templum angelicum was a liturgical form for a church dedicated to St. Michael.[33]
Other scholars argue that the doors were in Hildesheim Cathedral from the beginning, in the westwork which is otherwise held to have first been built in 1035.[34] Although the current west gallery has only been there since 1035,[35] they argue that Bernward had already laid down a west building here, whose shape and appearance can no longer be reconstructed with confidence. Either Bernward would have had the previous west choir and the crypt underneath truncated to create space for a vestibule, where the Bernward Doors might have been installed[36] or he would have had the west choir extended and installed the doors in the entrance to a chapel, which would have been built in front of the apse.[37] Only a few hints in the foundations support the idea of a Bernwardian west gallery in the cathedral and they allow no more detailed conjecture about its layout.
Literary sources offer no evidence for Bernward's construction work on the cathedral. If the doors were located in the western part of the building, they would have had to have been moved pretty soon after, since the cathedral was drastically altered by his successors Gotthard, Azelin and Hezilo.[38] A later period of drastic reconstruction of the western part of the building occurred in 1842-50. Later, the westwork was largely rebuilt after taking severe damage in an air raid during the Second World War. The modern plan of Wilhelm Fricke (which is not uncontroversial) is not based on the alleged layout of Bernward's time, but on the westwork of Minden Cathedral and the alleged appearance of Hildesheim cathedral's westwork under Bishop Hezilo (1054–61).[39]
The leaves of the door escaped damage in the air raid of Hildesheim on 22 March 1945 only because they had been removed (at the initiative of the cathedral chapter) almost three years earlier, along with many other artworks of the cathedral. The leaves of the doors were taken to the so-called Kehrwieder wall in the southeast of the old city, where they spent the war underground. Since the doors weigh several tonnes, they had to be transported lying longwise in a stable scaffold by two teams of horses.[40]
Liturgical significance[edit]
According to the Hildesheim cathedral ordinarium of 1473 "On Ash Wednesday in the medium monasterii, the bishop performed the ash sprinkling and the expulsion of public penitents through the southwestern church doors. After that they departed from the cathedral barefoot with the clergy through the large bronze doors and after walking about they went back in through the same doors."[41] The rite of the expulsion of the penitents in Lent derives its meaning from the banishment of Adam and Eve from Paradise shown on the doors. "The images of the left leaf with the creation of humanity, the fall of man and the story of Cain and Abel corresponds to the breviary reading (Genesis 1-5.5) on Septuagesima Sunday and the following week, which begins the pre-Lenten period."[42] Thus in its original location, the door probably also served for the education of the penitents, who were restricted to the vestibule (Narthex or "Paradise") of the churchbuilding during Lent.
Bibliography[edit]
Silke von Berswordt-Wallrabe: Verflüchtigung und Konkretion. Die Malerei von Qiu Shihua - im Hinblick auf die Bernwardtür, in: übergänge | transitions. Gotthard Graubner - Bernwardtür - Qiu Shihua, hg. v. Michael Brandt u. Gerd Winner, Hildesheim 2014, S. 48-57.
Michael Brandt: Bernwards Tür – Schätze aus dem Dom zu Hildesheim, Verlag Schnell & Steiner GmbH, Regensburg 2010, ISBN 978-3-7954-2045-1
Bernhard Bruns: Die Bernwardstür – Tür zur Kirche. Bernward, Hildesheim 1992, ISBN 3-87065-725-1
Aloys Butzkamm (2004), Ein Tor zum Paradies. Kunst und Theologie auf der Bronzetür des Hildesheimer Doms, Paderborn: Bonifatius, ISBN 3-89710-275-7 162 pages, many black and white illustrations, one colour foldout.
Abstract: The work is dedicated mostly to the iconographic and theological meaning of the scenes, but in an introductory chapter it also offers an overview of previous scholarship and a historical background from which the Hildesheim doors emerged.
Franz Dibelius (1907), Die Bernwardstür zu Hildesheim, Strassburg: Heitz 152 pages, 3 black and white images, 16 tables.
Abstract: Despite its age, the work remains relevant for the most part.
Hans Drescher (1993), "Zur Technik bernwardinischer Silber- und Bronzegüsse", in Michael Brandt, Arne Eggebrecht, Bernward von Hildesheim und das Zeitalter der Ottonen: Ausst. Kat. Dom- und Diözesanmuseum Hildesheim, Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum 1993, Band 1, Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, pp. 337–351, ISBN 3-8053-1567-8 14 pages, 14 black and white images and illustrations.
Abstract: This publication deals primarily with the technical aspects, material composition and workshop operations of silver and bronz casting under Bernward. The focus is on the Bernward Doors and the Bernward Column.
Michael Fehr (1978), Zur Ikonographie und Erzählstruktur der Hildesheimer Bronzetüren, Bochum 184 pages, 25 drawings by the author.
Abstract: As well as an analysis of the narrative structure of the images on the Bernward doors, this work also justifies the interpretation of the first scene on the left leaf, which had hitherto not been clearly explained, as a depiction of the creation of Adam and Eve.
pdf-Datei der Monographie
Kurd Fleige (1993), "Die Symbolbedeutung des Baumes in der romanischen Kunst - Erläutert an den Skulpturen der Bernwardstür in Hildesheim", in Kurd Fleige, Kirchenkunst, Kapitellsymbolik und profane Bauten: Ausgewählte Aufsätze zur Bau- und Kunstgeschichte Hildesheims und seiner Umgebung, Hildesheim: Bernward-Verlag GmbH, pp. 37–50, ISBN 3-87065-793-6 14 pages, 13 black and white images.
Abstract: The publication deals with the symbolism of the depiction of trees on the doors, considering each of the scenes relationship to each other.
Bernhard Gallistl (1990), Die Bronzetüren Bischof Bernwards im Dom zu Hildesheim, Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, ISBN 3-451-21983-2 96 pages, 50 colour and 9 black and white images.
Abstract: The work synthesis previous scholarship, but without references. In the description of the individual scenes the focus is on the theological and iconographic connections: the perfection of the creation of man and woman by Christ and his church.
Bernhard Gallistl (2000), Der Dom zu Hildesheim und sein Weltkulturerbe. Bernwardstür und Christussäule, Hildesheim: Olms, ISBN 3-89366-500-5 145 pages, many black and white images and details.
Abstract: The work deals with the production of bronzeworks under Bernward at Hildesheim. The main focus here too is on the description of individual scenes in theological and iconographic terms.
Bernhard Gallistl (2007/2008.), "In Faciem Angelici Templi. Kultgeschichtliche Bemerkungen zu Inschrift und ursprünglicher Platzierung der Bernwardstür.", Jahrbuch für Geschichte und Kunst im Bistum Hildesheim, 75./76.: 59–92. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Abstract: The author finds that the expression (arch)angelicum templum specifically signifies the angel's patronage in the imperial sanctuary of St. Michael at Constantinople and at Chonai in Asia Minor, the major pilgrimage site for St. Michael in Christendom.
Richard Hoppe-Sailer: Farbe - Fläche - Körper - Raum. Gotthard Graubners Gemälde im Dialog mit der Hildesheimer Bernwardtür, in: übergänge | transitions. Gotthard Graubner - Bernwardtür - Qiu Shihua, hg. v. Michael Brandt u. Gerd Winner, Hildesheim 2014, S. 6-15.
Rainer Kahsnitz (1993), "Bronzetüren in Dom", in Michael Brandt, Arne Eggebrecht, Bernward von Hildesheim und das Zeitalter der Ottonen: Ausst. Kat. Dom- und Diözesanmuseum Hildesheim, Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum 1993, Band 2, Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, pp. 503–512, ISBN 3-8053-1567-8 10 pages, 3 colour tables.
Abstract: Critical synthesis of the scholarly literature with bibliography.
Karl Bernhard Kruse (2008), "Zum Phantom der Westhalle in St.Michaelis, Hildesheim", in Christiane Segers-Glocke, St. Michaelis in Hildesheim - Forschungsergebnisse zur bauarchäologischen Untersuchung im Jahr 2006 = Arbeitshefte zur Denkmalpflege in Niedersachsen 34, Hameln: C.W. Niemeyer Buchverlage GmbH, pp. 144–159, ISBN 978-3-8271-8034-6 16 pages, 22 colour images.
Abstract: Discussion of the results of excavation in the west choir of St. Michael.
Renate Maas: Bernwards Tür als Ereignis der Gegenwart, in: übergänge | transitions. Gotthard Graubner - Bernwardtür - Qiu Shihua, hg. v. Michael Brandt u. Gerd Winner, Hildesheim 2014, S. 20-29.
Renate Maas, Hans Jantzens Analyse ottonischer Kunst: Der Bildraum als Symbol historischen Anfangs und ontologischen Ursprungs. In: Ingrid Baumgärtner et al. (Hg.), Raumkonzepte. Göttingen: V&R unipress, 2009, S. 95-123.
Rudolf Wesenberg (1955), Bernwardinische Plastik. Zur ottonischen Kunst unter Bischof Bernward von Hildesheim, Berlin: Deutscher Verein für Kunstwissenschaft, pp. 65–116, 172–181 190 pages, many black and white images and diagrams, 77 black and white tables.
Abstract: Older but still fundamental work on Bernwardian sculpture, which contains a detailed critical analysis and numerous black and white detail shots of the Bernward doors. In the appendix there is an extensive treatment of the manufacturing details and original location of the doors.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jantzen, Hans (1959). Ottonische Kunst [Ottonian Art] (in German) (2 ed.). Hamburg: Rowohlt. p. 115.
Jump up ^ Drescher 1993, pp. 339–342.
Jump up ^ Drescher 1993, p. 339.
Jump up ^ Drescher 1993, p. 349.
Jump up ^ Drescher 1993, pp. 340–342.
Jump up ^ After Gallistl 1990. Separate reference is made below to the original sources.
Jump up ^ Augustine of Hippo (2006), Cooperatorum Veritatis Societas, ed., "De civitate Dei, XIII,23" (PDF, 5,65MB), Documenta Catholica Omnia (in Latin), retrieved 2008-06-30
Jump up ^ Peter Chrysologus (2006), Cooperatorum Veritatis Societas, ed., "Sermones, LXXX" (PDF, 3,27MB), Documenta Catholica Omnia (in Latin), retrieved 2008-06-30
Jump up ^ Irenaeus (2006), translated by Philip Schaff, "Adversus haereses, V.19.1", Christian Classics Etheral Library, retrieved 2008-06-30
Jump up ^ Irenaeus (2006), translated by Philip Schaff, "Adversus haereses, V,14,1", Christian Classics Etheral Library, retrieved 2008-06-30
Jump up ^ Dibelius 1907, pp. 128–129.
Jump up ^ Alexander von Reitzenstein (1994), Der Weg der deutschen Plastik vom frühen bis zum späten Mittelalter, Eggstätt: Selbstverlag Helene von Reitzenstein, p. 23
Jump up ^ Hermann Beenken (1924), Romanische Skulptur in Deutschland, Leipzig: Klinckhardt & Biermann, p. 8
Jump up ^ Wilhelm Messerer (1959), Das Relief im Mittelalter (in German), Berlin: Gebrüder Mann, p. 19
Jump up ^ Drescher 1993, p. 340.
Jump up ^ See, among others Adolph Goldschmidt (1926), Die deutschen Bronzetüren des frühen Mittelalters (in German), Marburg a. d. Lahn: Verlag des Kunstgeschichtlichen Seminars der Universität ; Wesenberg 1955.
Jump up ^ Kahsnitz 1993, p. 512.
Jump up ^ Drescher 1993, p. 342.
Jump up ^ Dibelius 1907, pp. 122–132.
Jump up ^ The lion-headed door handles of the Marktportal in Mainz are thirteenth century additions.
Jump up ^ Bernhard Gallistl. "Die Hildesheimer Bronzetür und die sakrale Vorbildlichkeit in der bernwardinischen Kunst." Hildesheimer Jahrbuch 64. 1993 pp. 69–86
Jump up ^ Adolf Bertram (1892), Die Thüren von St. Sabina in Rom als Vorbild der Bernwards-Thüren, Hildesheim: Kornacker
Jump up ^ Dibelius 1907, p. 152.
Jump up ^ Dibelius 1907, pp. 37-41; Carl Nordenfalk. "Noch eine touronische Bilderbibel", in FS Bernhard Bischoff, Stuttgart 1971, pp. 153-163
Jump up ^ 1000 Jahre St. Michael in Hildesheim, Petersberg 2012(Schriften des Hornemann Instituts, Vol 14), p. 140, pl. 54
Jump up ^ Wesenberg 1955, pp. 68–69; Bauer, Gerd. Bemerkungen zur Bernwards-Tür. In: Niederdeutsche Beiträge zur Kunstgeschichte. vol. 19.1980, pp. 9–35
Jump up ^ e.g. the Bronze Doors of Augsburg Cathedral (eleventh century), the doors of San Zeno, Verona (twelfth or thirteenth century) and St. Sophia, Veliky Novgorod (1152-1154)
Jump up ^ Dominican cloist of St. Paul, Worms, "Das Portal von St. Paulus, die verkleinerte Kopie der Hildesheimer Bernwardstür", Sankt Paulus Worms, archived from the original on 2008-06-14, retrieved 2008-06-25
Jump up ^ Originally argued by Dibelius 1907, pp. 78-80.
Jump up ^ Wesenberg 1955, pp. 174–181
Jump up ^ Die Bernwardstür − Tür zur Kirche, Hildesheim: Bernward, 1992, pp. 129–136, ISBN 3-87065-725-1
Jump up ^ Tschan, Francis J. Saint Bernward of Hildesheim. 3. Album. Publications in Mediaeval Studies, 13. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame, 1952, pl. 252–255
Jump up ^ Gallistl 2007/2008 pp. 65f
Jump up ^ Kahsnitz (1993, pp. 503–504) raised the possibility, in connection with this, that the westwork of Hildesheim Cathedral was originally dedicated to St. Michael, which he argues is true of several other Pre-Romanesque and early Romanesque westworks. Kruse came to this conclusion also, who found no evidence for the installation of the doors in the course of archaeological investigations of that part of the foundations of St. Michael's in 2006 ( Karl Bernhard Kruse (2008), "Zum Phantom der Westhalle in St. Michaelis, Hildesheim", in Christiane Segers-Glocke; Christiane Segers-Glocke, St. Michaelis in Hildesheim - Forschungsergebnisse zur bauarchäologischen Untersuchung im Jahr 2006 = Arbeitshefte zur Denkmalpflege in Niedersachsen 34, Hameln, pp. 144–159, ISBN 978-3-8271-8034-6 ). The dedication of the west gallery of Hildesheim cathedral to St. Michael is otherwise only attested from the Late Middle Ages.
Jump up ^ Gallistl 2007/2008 p. 75
Jump up ^ Werner Jacobsen; Uwe Lobbedey; Andreas Kleine-Tebbe (1993), "Der Hildesheimer Dom zur Zeit Bernwards", in Michael Brandt, Arne Eggebrecht, Bernward von Hildesheim und das Zeitalter der Ottonen: Ausst. Kat. Dom- und Diözesanmuseum Hildesheim, Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum 1993, 1, =Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, pp. 299–311, here, p. 307, ISBN 3-8053-1567-8
Jump up ^ Karl Bernhard Kruse (2000), Der Hildesheimer Dom. Von der Kaiserkapelle und den Karolingischen Kathedralkirchen bis zur Zerstörung 1945. Grabungen und Bauuntersuchungen auf dem Domhügel 1988 bis 1999, Hannover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung, pp. 109–113, ISBN 3-7752-5644-X
Jump up ^ Werner Jacobsen; Uwe Lobbedey; Andreas Kleine-Tebbe (1993), "Der Hildesheimer Dom zur Zeit Bernwards", in Michael Brandt, Arne Eggebrecht, Bernward von Hildesheim und das Zeitalter der Ottonen: Ausst. Kat. Dom- und Diözesanmuseum Hildesheim, Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum 1993, Band 1, Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, pp. 299–311, here pp. 307–309, ISBN 3-8053-1567-8
Jump up ^ Ulrich Knapp (1999), "Zerstörung und Wiederaufbau des Hildesheimer Domes", in Ulrich Knapp, Der Hildesheimer Dom. Zerstörung und Wiederaufbau, Petersberg: Michael Imhof, pp. 29–92, here pp. 65–71, ISBN 3-932526-48-1
Jump up ^ Ulrich Knapp (1999), "Zerstörung und Wiederaufbau des Hildesheimer Domes", in Ulrich Knapp, Der Hildesheimer Dom. Zerstörung und Wiederaufbau, Petersberg: Michael Imhof, pp. 29–92, here pp. 30–31, ISBN 3-932526-48-1
Jump up ^ Bernhard Gallistl "Bedeutung und Gebrauch der großen Lichterkrone im Hildesheimer Dom." Concilium medii aevi 12 (2009) p. 67 (cf. p. 50)
Jump up ^ Gallistl 2007/2008. p. 84 n. 26
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bernwardstür.
Die Bernwardstür Diocese of Hildesheim
Bernward's door moves into the Roemer- and Pelizaeus-Museum in: Restoration of the World Cultural Heritage Hildesheim Cathedral
Hildesheim’s Medieval Church Treasures at the Met insidethevatican.com
Medieval Treasures from Hildesheim pp. 11–14
Saint Bernward of Hildesheim: Medieval Patron of the Arts Reliquarian 2014
Bernward Doors 2010
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McKinley Tariff
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William McKinley
The Tariff Act of 1890, commonly called the McKinley Tariff, was an act of the United States Congress framed by Representative William McKinley that became law on October 1, 1890. The tariff raised the average duty on imports to almost fifty percent, an act designed to protect domestic industries from foreign competition.[1] Protectionism, a tactic supported by Republicans, was fiercely debated by politicians and condemned by Democrats. The McKinley Tariff was replaced with the Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act in 1894, which promptly lowered tariff rates.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Description
2.1 Tin-plates
2.2 Wool
2.3 Eliminated tariffs
3 Effects
4 Reactions
5 References
Background[edit]
Tariffs, taxes on foreign goods entering a country, served two purposes for the United States in the late 19th century. One was to raise revenue for the federal government, and the other was to protect domestic manufacturers from foreign competition, which is known as protectionism.[3]
In December 1887, President Grover Cleveland, a Democrat, devoted his entire State of the Union Address to the issue of the tariff and called emphatically for the reduction of duties and the abolition of duties on raw materials. The speech succeeded in making the tariff and the idea of protectionism a true party matter. In the 1888 election, the Republicans were victorious with the election of Benjamin Harrison and majorities in both the Senate and the House. For the sake of holding the party line, the Republicans felt obligated to pass stronger tariff legislation.[4]
William McKinley, of Ohio, was defeated by Thomas Brackett Reed to be Speaker of the House after the 1888 elections.[5] McKinley instead became chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee and was responsible for framing a new tariff bill. He believed that a protectionist tariff had been mandated by the people through the election and that it was necessary for America’s wealth and prosperity.[5]
In addition to the protectionist debate, politicians were also concerned about the high revenue accruing from tariffs.[6] After the American Civil War, tariffs remained elevated to raise revenue and to cover the high costs of the war. However, in the early 1880s, the federal government was running a large surplus. Both parties agreed that the surplus needed to lessen but disagreed about whether to raise or to lower tariffs to accomplish the same goal.
The Democrats' hypothesis stated that tariff revenue could be reduced by reducing the tariff rate. Conversely, the Republicans' belief was that by increasing the tariff, imports would be lessened, and total tariff revenue would drop. The debate would be known as the Great Tariff Debate of 1888.[6]
Description[edit]
After 450 amendments, the Tariff Act of 1890 was passed and increased average duties across all imports from 38% to 49.5%.[5] McKinley was known as the "Napoleon of Protection," and rates were raised on some goods and lowered on others, always in an attempt to protect American manufacturing interests. Changes in duties for specific products such as tinplates and wool were the most controversial ones and were emblematic of the spirit of the Tariff of 1890.[7]
However, on certain items, the Act eliminated tariffs altogether, with the threat of reinstatement as an enticement to get other countries to lower their tariffs on items imported from the US.
Tin-plates[edit]
Tin-plates were a major import for the United States; tens of millions of dollars in these goods entered the country each year.[7] In the preceding 20 years, tariff rates had been raised and dropped multiple times on tin-plates with no change in import levels, and domestic production had remained inconsequential. In a last attempt to stimulate the infant domestic tin-plate industry, the Act raised the duty level from 30% to 70%.[8] It also included a unique provision that stated tin-plates should be admitted free of any duty after 1897 unless domestic production in any year reached one third of the imports in that year. The goal was for the duty to be protective or not to exist at all.
Wool[edit]
The new tariff provisions for wool and woolen goods were exceedingly protectionist. Wool was previously taxed based on a schedule: more valuable wool was taxed at a higher rate. Through a multitude of complicated tariff schedule revisions, the Act made almost all woolen goods subject to the maximum duty rate.[9]
Also, the Act increased the tariff on carpet wool, a wool of very low quality not produced in the US. The government wanted to ensure that importers were not declaring higher-quality wool as carpet wool to evade the tariff.[10]
Eliminated tariffs[edit]
The Act removed tariffs on sugar, molasses, tea, coffee and hides but authorized the President to reinstate the tariffs if the items were exported from countries that treated U.S. exports in a "reciprocally unequal and unreasonable" fashion. The idea was "to secure reciprocal trade" by allowing the executive branch to use the mere threat of reimposing tariffs as a means to get other countries to lower their tariffs on U.S. exports. Although that delegation of power had the appearance of being an unconstitutional violation of the nondelegation doctrine, it was upheld by the Supreme Court in Field v. Clark in 1892, as it authorizing the executive to act merely as an "agent" of Congress, rather than a lawmaker itself.[11] The President did not use the delegated power to re-impose tariffs on the five types of imported goods, but he used the threat of doing so to pass 10 treaties in which other countries reduced their tariffs on U.S. goods.[12][13]
Effects[edit]
Douglas Irwin's 1998 paper examines the validity of the opposite tariff hypotheses posed by the Republicans and Democrats in 1890. Irwin looked at historical data to estimate import demand elasticities and export supply elasticities for the US in the years before 1888. He then calculated that tariffs had not reached the maximum revenue rate and that a reduction, not a raise, in the tariff would have reduced revenue and the federal surplus. That confirmed the Democrats' hypothesis and refuted the Republicans'.
After he examined the actual tariff revenue data, he concluded that revenue decreased by about 4% from $225 million to $215 million, after the Tariff of 1890 increased rates. Irwin explains that to be due to a provision for raw sugar be moved to the duty-free list. Sugar was then the item that raised the most tariff revenue and so making it duty-free reduced revenue. If sugar is excluded from import calculations, the tariff revenue increased by 7.8%, from $170 million to $183 million.
Irwin concluded that the tariff hastened the development of domestic tinplate production by about a decade but also that the benefit to the industry was outweighed by the cost to consumers.[14]
Reactions[edit]
The tariff was not well received by Americans who suffered a steep increase in the cost of products. In the 1890 election, Republicans lost their majority in the House with the number of seats they won reduced by nearly half, from 171 to 88.[15] Also, in the 1892 presidential election, Harrison was soundly defeated by Grover Cleveland, and the Senate, House, and Presidency were all under Democratic control. Lawmakers immediately started drafting new tariff legislation, and in 1894, the Wilson-Gorman Tariff passed, which lowered US tariff averages.[16]
The tariff was poorly-received also abroad. Protectionists in the British Empire used it to argue for tariff retaliation and imperial trade preference.[17]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Reitano, Joanne. The Tariff Question in the Gilded Age: The Great Debate of 1888. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, 1994. 129. Print.
Jump up ^ Taussig, F.W. The Tariff History of the United States. 8th ed. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1892. 291. Print
Jump up ^ Irwin, Douglas A. “Higher Tariffs, Lower Revenues? Analyzing the Fiscal Aspects of "The Great Tariff Debate of 1888."” The Journal of economic history, Vol. 58, No. 1 (Mar., 1998), pp. 59–72.
Jump up ^ Taussig 1892, p. 256
^ Jump up to: a b c Reitano 1994, p. 129
^ Jump up to: a b Irwin 1998, p. 59
^ Jump up to: a b Taussig 1892, p. 273
Jump up ^ Taussig 1892, p. 274
Jump up ^ Taussig 1892, p. 262
Jump up ^ Taussig 1892, p. 258
Jump up ^ FindLaw.com Field v. Clark decision text
Jump up ^ The treaties were with Austria–Hungary (May 20, 1892), Brazil (April 1, 1891), the Dominican Republic (Sept. 1, 1891), El Salvador (Feb. 1, 1892), Germany (Feb. 1, 1892), Guatemala (May 30, 1892), Honduras (May 25, 1892), Nicaragua (March 12, 1892), Spain (for Cuba and Puerto Rico, Sept. 1, 1891), and the United Kingdom (for the British West Indies and British Guiana, Feb. 1, 1892).
Jump up ^ "Reciprocity Treaties with Other Countries", The New York Times, Nov 24, 1901
Jump up ^ Irwin, Douglas A. "Did Late-Nineteenth-Century U.S. Tariffs Promote Infant Industries? Evidence from the Tinplate Industry". The Journal of Economic History Vol. 60, No. 2 (Jun., 2000), pp. 335–60
Jump up ^ Reitano 1994, p. 130
Jump up ^ Taussig 1892, p. 291
Jump up ^ Marc-William Palen, “Protection, Federation and Union: The Global Impact of the McKinley Tariff upon the British Empire, 1890–94,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 38: 3 (Sept. 2010): 395–418
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