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List of American Revolutionary War battles
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American
Revolutionary War
Campaigns and theaters
Boston
Canada
New York and New Jersey
Saratoga
Philadelphia
Western
Northern
Northern (after Saratoga)
Southern
Yorktown
Naval
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v
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Boston campaign
1774–1776
Powder Alarm
Suffolk Resolves
Lexington and Concord
Boston
Thompson's War
Chelsea Creek
Machias
Bunker Hill
Gloucester
Falmouth
Knox artillery train
Dorchester Heights
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Canadian campaign
Ticonderoga
Fort St. Jean
Longue-Pointe
Arnold's expedition
Quebec
Saint-Pierre
The Cedars
Trois-Rivières
Valcour Bay
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Southern theater
1775–1779
Gunpowder Incident
Kemp's Landing
Snow Campaign
Savage's Old Fields
Great Cane Brake
Great Bridge
Norfolk
Moore's Creek Bridge
Rice Boats
Sullivan's Island
Lindley's Fort
Thomas Creek
Alligator Bridge
1st Savannah
Beaufort
Van Creek
Kettle Creek
Brier Creek
Chesapeake raid
Stono Ferry
Charles Town
2nd Savannah
[show]
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Revolutionary War campaigns in New York and New Jersey
1776–1777
Long Island
The Turtle
Staten Island Peace Conference
Kip's Bay
Harlem Heights
Pell's Point
White Plains
Fort Washington
Fort Lee
Geary Ambush
Iron Works Hill
Delaware crossing
Trenton
Assunpink Creek
Princeton
Forage War
Millstone
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Saratoga Campaign
1777
Fort Ticonderoga
Hubbardton
Fort Anne
Slaying of Jane McCrea
Fort Stanwix
Oriskany
Bennington
1st Saratoga (Freeman's Farm)
Forts Clinton and Montgomery
2nd Saratoga (Bemis Heights)
Kingston
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Philadelphia campaign
1777–1778
Bound Brook
Short Hills
Staten Island
Cooch's Bridge
Brandywine
Clouds
Paoli
Germantown
Red Bank
Fort Mifflin
Gloucester
White Marsh
Matson's Ford
Valley Forge
Conway Cabal
Quinton's Bridge
Clow Rebellion
Crooked Billet
Barren Hill
Carlisle Peace Commission
Monmouth
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Northern frontier
after 1777
Cobleskill
Wyoming Valley
Big Runaway
German Flatts
Unadilla and Onaquaga
Carleton's Raid
Cherry Valley
Minisink
Sullivan Expedition
Newtown
Boyd and Parker
Royalton Raid
Klock's Field
Johnstown
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New York City area
after 1777
Baylor Massacre
Edgar's Lane
Stony Point
Paulus Hook
Young's House
Connecticut Farms (NJ)
1st Long Island
Springfield
Bull's Ferry
Pine's Bridge
2nd Long Island
Delaware Bay
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Southern theater
1780–83
Charleston
Moncks Corner
Lenud's Ferry
Waxhaws
Mobley's Meeting House
Ramsour's Mill
Huck's Defeat
Colson's Mill
Rocky Mount
Hanging Rock
Camden
Fishing Creek
Musgrove Mill
Wahab's Plantation
Black Mingo
Charlotte
Kings Mountain
Shallow Ford
Fishdam Ford
Blackstock's Farm
Richmond
Cowpens
Cowan's Ford
Torrence's Tavern
Pyle's Massacre
Wetzell's Mill
Guilford Court House
Fort Watson
Hobkirk's Hill
Fort Motte
Augusta
Ninety-Six
House in the Horseshoe
Eutaw Springs
Lindley's Mill
Videau's Bridge
Wambaw
Combahee River
James Island
Chesapeake Bay
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Western theater
1st Fort Henry
Siege of Boonesborough
Illinois
Vincennes
Treaty of Fort Pitt
Fort Laurens
Chillicothe
Bird's expedition
Piqua
La Balme's Defeat
Coshocton
Lochry's Defeat
Long Run
Gnadenhütten
Little Mountain
Crawford expedition
Bryan Station
Blue Licks
2nd Fort Henry
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Atlantic naval theatre
Nassau
Block Island
Turtle Gut Inlet
Barbados
Yarmouth
Frederica
North Channel
Charles Town
1st Long Island
1st Cape Henry
Cape Split
Cape Breton
Capture of USS Trumbull
Cape Ann
1st Chesapeake
Capture of HMS Savage
1st Delaware Bay
Halifax
2nd Cape Henry
Hudson Bay
2nd Long Island
2nd Delaware Bay
3rd Delaware Bay
2nd Chesapeake Bay
This is a list of military actions in the American Revolutionary War. Actions marked with an asterisk involved no casualties.
Major campaigns, theaters, and expeditions of the war
Boston campaign (1774–76)
Invasion of Quebec (1775–76)
New York and New Jersey campaigns (1776–77)
Saratoga campaign (1777)
Philadelphia campaign (1777–78)
Yorktown campaign (1781)
Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga (1778–81)
Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War (1775–83)
Western theater of the American Revolutionary War (1777–82)
Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War
Battles (in chronological order)[edit]
Battle
Date
Colony/State
Outcome
Powder Alarm* 000000001774-09-01-0000September 1, 1774 Massachusetts British soldiers remove military supplies
Storming of Fort William and Mary* 000000001774-12-14-0000December 14, 1774 New Hampshire Patriots seize powder and shot after brief skirmish.
Battles of Lexington and Concord 000000001775-04-19-0000April 19, 1775 Massachusetts Patriot victory: British forces raiding Concord driven back into Boston with heavy losses.
Siege of Boston 000000001775-04-19-0000April 19, 1775 –
March 17, 1776 Massachusetts Patriot victory: British eventually evacuate Boston after Patriots fortify Dorchester heights
Gunpowder Incident* 000000001775-04-20-0000April 20, 1775 Virginia Virginia governor Lord Dunmore removes powder to a Royal Navy ship, standoff is resolved without violence
Capture of Fort Ticonderoga 000000001775-05-10-0000May 10, 1775 New York Patriot victory: Patriots capture British posts at Ticonderoga and Crown point
Battle of Chelsea Creek 000000001775-05-27-0000May 27-28, 1775 Massachusetts Patriots victory: Patriots capture British ship Diana
Battle of Machias 000000001775-06-11-0000June 11-12, 1775 Massachusetts Patriot forces capture the HM schooner Margaretta
Battle of Bunker Hill 000000001775-06-17-0000June 17, 1775 Massachusetts British victory: British drive Patriot army from the Charlestown peninsula near Boston but suffer heavy losses
Battle of Gloucester 000000001775-08-08-0000August 8, 1775 Massachusetts Patriot victory
Siege of Fort St. Jean 000000002018-09-17-0000September 17 –
November 3, 1775 Quebec Patriot victory: Patriots capture British force and subsequently overrun Montreal and much of Quebec
Burning of Falmouth 000000001775-10-18-0000October 18, 1775 Massachusetts British burn Falmouth
Battle of Kemp's Landing 000000001775-11-14-0000November 14, 1775 Virginia British victory
Siege of Savage's Old Fields 000000001775-11-19-0000November 19-21, 1775 South Carolina Patriot victory: Patriots defeat loyalist force
Battle of Great Bridge 000000001775-12-09-0000December 9, 1775 Virginia Patriot victory: Lord Dunmore's loyalist force is defeated
Snow Campaign 000000001775-12-01-0000December 1775 South Carolina Patriot campaign against loyalists in South Carolina
Battle of Quebec 000000001775-12-31-0000December 31, 1775 Quebec British victory: British repulse Patriot assault on Quebec city
Burning of Norfolk 000000001776-01-01-0000January 1, 1776 Virginia British bombard Norfolk and Patriots destroy what they see as a loyalist stronghold
Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge 000000001776-02-27-0000February 27, 1776 North Carolina Patriot victory: loyalist force of Regulators and Highlanders defeated
Battle of the Rice Boats 000000001776-03-02-0000March 2-3, 1776 Georgia British victory
Battle of Nassau 000000001776-03-03-0000March 3-4, 1776 Bahamas Patriots raid against the Bahamas to obtain supplies
Battle of Saint-Pierre 000000001776-03-25-0000March 25, 1776 Quebec Patriot victory
Battle of Block Island 000000001776-04-06-0000April 6, 1776 Rhode Island British victory
Battle of The Cedars 000000001776-05-18-0000May 18-27, 1776 Quebec British victory
Battle of Trois-Rivières 000000001776-06-08-0000June 8, 1776 Quebec British victory: Patriots forced to evacuate Quebec
Battle of Sullivan's Island 000000001776-06-28-0000June 28, 1776 South Carolina Patriot victory: British attack on Charleston is repulsed
Battle of Turtle Gut Inlet 000000001776-06-29-0000June 29, 1776 New Jersey Patriot victory
Battle of Lindley's Fort 000000001776-07-15-0000July 15, 1776 South Carolina Patriot victory: Native Americans attack repulsed
Battle of Long Island 000000001776-08-27-0000August 27, 1776 New York British victory: in the largest battle of the war the Patriot army is outflanked and routed on Long Island but later manages to evacuate to Manhattan
Landing at Kip's Bay 000000001776-09-15-0000September 15, 1776 New York British victory: British capture New York City
Battle of Harlem Heights 000000001776-09-16-0000September 16, 1776 New York Patriot victory: Patriots repulse British attack on Manhattan
Battle of Valcour Island 000000001776-10-11-0000October 11, 1776 New York British victory: British defeat Patriot naval force on Lake Champlain, but victory comes too late to press the offensive against the Hudson valley
Battle of White Plains 000000001776-10-28-0000October 28, 1776 New York British victory
Battle of Fort Cumberland 000000001776-11-10-0000November 10-29, 1776 Nova Scotia British victory
Battle of Fort Washington 000000001776-11-16-0000November 16, 1776 New York British victory: British capture 3,000 Patriots on Manhattan in one of the most devastating Patriot defeats of the war
Battle of Fort Lee 000000001776-11-20-0000November 20, 1776 New Jersey British victory: Patriots begin general retreat
Ambush of Geary 000000001776-12-14-0000December 14, 1776 New Jersey Patriot victory
Battle of Iron Works Hill 000000001776-12-22-0000December 22-23, 1776 New Jersey British victory
Battle of Trenton 000000001776-12-26-0000December 26, 1776 New Jersey Patriot victory: Patriots capture Hessian detachment at Trenton
Second Battle of Trenton 000000001777-01-02-0000January 2, 1777 New Jersey Patriot victory
Battle of Princeton 000000001777-01-03-0000January 3, 1777 New Jersey Patriot victory: Patriots defeat a small British force, the British decide to evacuate New Jersey
Battle of Millstone 000000001777-01-20-0000January 20, 1777 New Jersey Patriot victory
Forage War January-March 1777 New Jersey Patriots harass remaining British forces in New Jersey
Battle of Punk Hill 000000001777-03-08-0000March 8, 1777 New Jersey Patriot victory
Battle of Bound Brook 000000001777-04-13-0000April 13, 1777 New Jersey British victory
Battle of Ridgefield 000000001777-04-27-0000April 27, 1777 Connecticut British victory
Battle of Thomas Creek 000000001777-05-17-0000May 17, 1777 East Florida British victory
Meigs Raid 000000001777-05-24-0000May 24, 1777 New York Patriot victory
Battle of Short Hills 000000001777-06-26-0000June 26, 1777 New Jersey British victory
Siege of Fort Ticonderoga 000000001777-07-05-0000July 5-6, 1777 New York British victory
Battle of Hubbardton 000000001777-07-07-0000July 7, 1777 Vermont British victory
Battle of Fort Ann 000000001777-07-08-0000July 8, 1777 New York British victory
Siege of Fort Stanwix 000000001777-08-02-0000August 2-23, 1777 New York Patriot victory: British fail to take Fort Stanwix
Battle of Oriskany 000000001777-08-06-0000August 6, 1777 New York British victory
Second Battle of Machias 000000001777-08-13-0000August 13-14, 1777 Massachusetts British victory
Battle of Bennington 000000001777-08-16-0000August 16, 1777 New York Patriot victory
Battle of Staten Island 000000001777-08-22-0000August 22, 1777 New York British victory
Battle of Setauket 000000001777-08-22-0000August 22, 1777 New York British victory
First Siege of Fort Henry September 1 or 21, 1777 Virginia Patriot victory
Battle of Cooch's Bridge 000000001777-09-03-0000September 3, 1777 Delaware British victory
Battle of Brandywine 000000001777-09-11-0000September 11, 1777 Pennsylvania British victory
Battle of the Clouds 000000001777-09-16-0000September 16, 1777 Pennsylvania Battle called off due to rain
Battle of Freeman's Farm 000000001777-09-19-0000September 19, 1777 New York British tactical victory: First of the two Battles of Saratoga
Battle of Paoli 000000001777-09-21-0000September 21, 1777 Pennsylvania British victory
Siege of Fort Mifflin 000000002018-09-26-0000September 26 –
November 15, 1777 Pennsylvania British victory
Battle of Germantown 000000001777-10-04-0000October 4, 1777 Pennsylvania British victory
Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery 000000001777-10-06-0000October 6, 1777 New York British victory
Battle of Bemis Heights 000000001777-10-07-0000October 7, 1777 New York Patriot victory: Second of the two Battles of Saratoga, British under Burgoyne driven back and forced to surrender 10 days later
Battle of Red Bank 000000001777-10-22-0000October 22, 1777 New Jersey Patriot victory
Battle of Gloucester 000000001777-11-25-0000November 25, 1777 New Jersey Patriot victory
Battle of White Marsh 000000001777-12-05-0000December 5-8, 1777 Pennsylvania Patriot victory
Battle of Matson's Ford 000000001777-12-11-0000December 11, 1777 Pennsylvania British victory
Battle of Barbados 000000001778-03-07-0000March 7, 1778 Barbados British victory
Battle of Quinton's Bridge 000000001778-03-18-0000March 18, 1778 New Jersey British victory
North Channel Naval Duel 000000001778-04-24-0000April 24, 1778 Great Britain Patriot victory
Battle of Crooked Billet 000000001778-05-01-0000May 1, 1778 Pennsylvania British victory
Battle of Barren Hill 000000001778-05-20-0000May 20, 1778 Pennsylvania Indecisive
Mount Hope Bay raids 000000001778-05-25-0000May 25-30, 1778 Rhode Island British victory
Battle of Cobleskill 000000001778-05-30-0000May 30, 1778 New York British-Iroquois victory
Battle of Monmouth 000000001778-06-28-0000June 28, 1778 New Jersey Draw: British break off engagement and continue retreat to New York
Battle of Alligator Bridge 000000001778-06-30-0000June 30, 1778 East Florida British victory
Wyoming Massacre 000000001778-07-03-0000July 3, 1778 Pennsylvania British-Iroquois victory
First Battle of Ushant 000000001778-07-27-0000July 27, 1778 Bay of Biscay British victory
Siege of Pondicherry August 21–October 19 1778 India British victory
Battle of Newport 000000001778-08-29-0000August 29, 1778 Rhode Island British victory
Grey's raid 000000001778-09-05-0000September 5-17, 1778 Massachusetts British victory
Invasion of Dominica 000000001778-09-07-0000September 7, 1778 Dominica French victory
Siege of Boonesborough 000000001778-09-07-0000September 7, 1778 Virginia Patriot victory
Attack on German Flatts 000000001778-09-17-0000September 17, 1778 New York British-Iroquois victory
Baylor Massacre 000000001778-09-27-0000September 27, 1778 New Jersey British victory
Raid on Unadilla and Onaquaga 000000001778-10-02-0000October 2-16, 1778 Indian Reserve Patriot victory
Battle of Chestnut Neck 000000001778-10-06-0000October 6, 1778 New Jersey British victory
Little Egg Harbor massacre 000000001778-10-16-0000October 16, 1778 New Jersey British victory
Carleton's Raid October 24-November 14 1778 Vermont British victory
Cherry Valley Massacre 000000001778-11-11-0000November 11, 1778 New York British-Iroquois victory
Battle of St. Lucia 000000001778-12-15-0000December 15, 1778 St. Lucia British victory
Capture of St. Lucia 000000001778-12-18-0000December 18-28, 1778 St. Lucia British victory
Capture of Savannah 000000001778-12-29-0000December 29, 1778 Georgia British victory
Battle of Beaufort 000000001779-02-03-0000February 3, 1779 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Kettle Creek 000000001779-02-14-0000February 14, 1779 Georgia Patriot victory
Siege of Fort Vincennes 000000001779-02-23-0000February 23-25, 1779 Quebec Patriot victory
Battle of Brier Creek 000000001779-03-03-0000March 3, 1779 Georgia British victory
Battle of Chillicothe May 1779 Quebec Patriot victory
Chesapeake raid 000000001779-05-10-0000May 10-24, 1779 Virginia British victory
Capture of Saint Vincent 000000001779-06-16-0000June 16-18, 1779 St. Vincent French victory
Battle of Stono Ferry 000000001779-06-20-0000June 20, 1779 South Carolina British victory
Great Siege of Gibraltar June 24, 1779-February 7, 1783 Gibraltar British victory
Capture of Grenada 000000001779-07-02-0000July 2, 1779 Grenada French victory
Tryon's raid 000000001779-07-05-0000July 5-14, 1779 Connecticut British victory
Battle of Grenada 000000001779-07-06-0000July 6, 1779 Grenada French victory
Battle of Stony Point 000000001779-07-16-0000July 16, 1779 New York Patriot victory
Battle of Minisink 000000001779-07-22-0000July 22, 1779 New York British-Iroquois victory
Penobscot Expedition July 24-August 29, 1779 Massachusetts British victory
Battle of Paulus Hook 000000001779-08-19-0000August 19, 1779 New Jersey Patriot victory
Battle of Newtown 000000001779-08-29-0000August 29, 1779 Indian Reserve Patriot victory
Capture of Fort Bute 000000001779-09-07-0000September 7, 1779 West Florida Patriot-Spanish victory
Battle of Lake Pontchartrain 000000001779-09-10-0000September 10, 1779 West Florida Patriot victory
Boyd and Parker ambush 000000001779-09-13-0000September 13, 1779 Indian Reserve British-Iroquois victory
Action of 14 September 1779 000000001779-09-14-0000September 14, 1779 Azores British victory
Siege of Savannah September 16-October 18, 1779 Georgia British victory
Battle of Baton Rouge 000000001779-09-20-0000September 20-21, 1779 West Florida Patriot-Spanish victory
Battle of Flamborough Head 000000001779-09-23-0000September 23, 1779 Great Britain Patriot victory
Battle of San Fernando de Omoa October 16-November 29, 1779 Guatemala British victory
Action of 11 November 1779 000000001779-11-11-0000November 11, 1779 Portugal British victory
First Battle of Martinique 000000001779-12-18-0000December 18, 1779 Martinique British victory
Action of 8 January 1780 000000001780-01-08-0000January 8, 1780 Spain British victory
Battle of Cape St. Vincent 000000001780-01-16-0000January 16, 1780 Portugal British victory
Battle of Young's House 000000001780-02-03-0000February 3, 1780 New York British victory
San Juan Expedition March-November, 1780 Guatemala Patriot-Spanish victory
Battle of Fort Charlotte 000000001780-03-02-0000March 2-14, 1780 West Florida Patriot-Spanish victory
Siege of Charleston March 29-May 12, 1780 South Carolina British victory: British recapture South Carolina following the battle
Battle of Monck's Corner 000000001780-04-14-0000April 14, 1780 South Carolina British victory
Second Battle of Martinique 000000001780-04-17-0000April 17, 1780 Martinique Patriot victory
Battle of Lenud's Ferry 000000001780-05-06-0000May 6, 1780 South Carolina British victory
Bird's invasion of Kentucky May 25-August 4, 1780 Virginia British victory
Battle of St. Louis 000000001780-05-25-0000May 25, 1780 Louisiana Patriot-Spanish victory
Battle of Waxhaws 000000001780-05-29-0000May 29, 1780 South Carolina British victory
Battle of Connecticut Farms 000000001780-06-07-0000June 7, 1780 New Jersey British victory
Battle of Mobley's Meeting House 000000001780-06-10-0000June 10-12, 1780 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Ramsour's Mill 000000001780-06-20-0000June 20, 1780 North Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Springfield 000000001780-06-23-0000June 23, 1780 New Jersey Patriot victory
Huck's Defeat 000000001780-07-12-0000July 12, 1780 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Bull's Ferry 000000001780-07-20-0000July 20-21, 1780 New Jersey Loyalist victory
Battle of Colson's Mill 000000001780-07-21-0000July 21, 1780 North Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Rocky Mount 000000001780-08-01-0000August 1, 1780 South Carolina Loyalist victory
Battle of Hanging Rock 000000001780-08-06-0000August 6, 1780 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Pekowee 000000001780-08-08-0000August 8, 1780 Quebec Patriot victory
Action of 9 August 1780 000000001780-08-09-0000August 9, 1780 Atlantic Spanish victory
Battle of Camden 000000001780-08-16-0000August 16, 1780 South Carolina British victory
Battle of Fishing Creek 000000001780-08-18-0000August 18, 1780 South Carolina British victory
Battle of Musgrove Mill 000000001780-08-18-0000August 18, 1780 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Black Mingo 000000001780-08-28-0000August 28, 1780 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Wahab's Plantation 000000001780-09-20-0000September 20, 1780 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Charlotte 000000001780-09-26-0000September 26, 1780 North Carolina British victory
Battle of Kings Mountain 000000001780-10-07-0000October 7, 1780 South Carolina Patriot victory: halts first British invasion of North Carolina
Royalton Raid 000000001780-10-16-0000October 16, 1780 Vermont British victory
Battle of Klock's Field 000000001780-10-19-0000October 19, 1780 New York Patriot victory
La Balme's Defeat 000000001780-11-05-0000November 5, 1780 Quebec British-Iroquois victory
Battle of Fishdam Ford 000000001780-11-09-0000November 9, 1780 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Blackstock's Farm 000000001780-11-20-0000November 20, 1780 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Fort St. George 000000001780-11-23-0000November 23, 1780 New York Patriot victory
Battle of Jersey 000000001781-01-06-0000January 6, 1781 Jersey British victory
Battle of Mobile 000000001781-01-07-0000January 7, 1781 West Florida Patriot-Spanish victory
Battle of Cowpens 000000001781-01-17-0000January 17, 1781 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Cowan's Ford 000000001781-02-01-0000February 1, 1781 North Carolina British victory
Capture of Sint Eustatius 000000001781-02-03-0000February 3, 1781 Sint Eustatius British victory
Battle of Haw River 000000001781-02-25-0000February 25, 1781 North Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Wetzell's Mill 000000001781-03-06-0000March 6, 1781 North Carolina British victory
Siege of Pensacola March 9-May 8, 1781 West Florida Patriot-Spanish victory
Battle of Guilford Court House 000000001781-03-15-0000March 15, 1781 North Carolina British victory
Battle of Cape Henry 000000001781-03-16-0000March 16, 1781 Virginia British victory
Siege of Fort Watson 000000001781-04-15-0000April 15-23, 1781 South Carolina Patriot victory
Battle of Porto Praya 000000001781-04-15-0000April 15, 1781 Cape Verde Draw
Battle of Blandford 000000001781-04-25-0000April 25, 1781 Virginia British victory
Battle of Hobkirk's Hill 000000001781-04-25-0000April 25, 1781 South Carolina British victory
Battle of Fort Royal 000000001781-04-29-0000April 29, 1781 Martinique French victory
Action of 1 May 1781 000000001781-05-01-0000May 1, 1781 France British victory
Battle of Fort Motte 000000001781-05-08-0000May 8-12, 1781 South Carolina Patriot victory
Siege of Augusta May 22-June 6, 1781 Georgia Patriot victory
Siege of Ninety-Six May 22-June 6, 1781 South Carolina British victory
Invasion of Tobago May 24-June 2, 1781 Tobago French victory
Action of 30 May 1781 000000001781-05-30-0000May 30, 1781 Barbary Coast British victory
Battle of Spencer's Ordinary 000000001781-06-26-0000June 26, 1781 Virginia British victory
Francisco's Fight July 1781 Virginia Patriot victory
Battle of Green Spring 000000001781-07-06-0000July 6, 1781 Virginia British victory
Naval battle of Louisbourg 000000001781-07-21-0000July 21, 1781 Nova Scotia Franco-Patriot victory
Battle of Dogger Bank 000000001781-08-05-0000August 5, 1781 North Sea British victory
Invasion of Minorca August 19, 1781-February 5, 1782 Minorca Franco-Spanish victory
Lochry's Defeat 000000001781-08-24-0000August 24, 1781 Quebec British-Iroquois victory
Battle of the Chesapeake 000000001781-09-05-0000September 5, 1781 Virginia French victory
Battle of Groton Heights 000000001781-09-06-0000September 6, 1781 Connecticut British victory
Battle of Eutaw Springs 000000001781-09-08-0000September 8, 1781 South Carolina British victory
Battle of Lindley's Mill 000000001781-09-13-0000September 13, 1781 North Carolina Patriot victory
Long Run Massacre 000000001781-09-13-0000September 13, 1781 Virginia British-Iroquois victory
Siege of Yorktown September 28-October 19, 1781 Virginia Franco-Patriot victory: Cornwallis surrenders his force of over 7,000
Battle of Fort Slongo 000000001781-10-03-0000October 3, 1781 New York Patriot victory
Siege of Negapatam October 21-November 11, 1781 India British victory
Battle of Johnstown 000000001781-10-25-0000October 25, 1781 New York Patriot victory
Second Battle of Ushant 000000001781-12-12-0000December 12, 1781 Bay of Biscay British victory
Battle of Videau's Bridge 000000001782-01-02-0000January 2, 1782 South Carolina British victory
Siege of Brimstone Hill January 11-February 13, 1782 St. Christopher Franco-Patriot victory
Capture of Trincomalee 000000001782-01-11-0000January 11, 1782 Ceylon British victory
Capture of Demerara and Essequibo January 22-February 5, 1782 Demerara and Essequibo Franco-Patriot victory
Battle of Saint Kitts 000000001782-01-25-0000January 25-26, 1782 St. Christopher British victory
Battle of Sadras 000000001782-02-17-0000February 17, 1782 India French victory
Capture of Montserrat 000000001782-02-22-0000February 22, 1782 Montserrat French victory
Battle of Wambaw 000000001782-02-24-0000February 24, 1782 South Carolina British victory
Gnadenhütten massacre 000000001782-03-08-0000March 8, 1782 Ohio
Battle of Roatán 000000001782-03-16-0000March 16, 1782 Guatemala Patriot-Spanish victory
Action of 16 March 1782 000000001782-03-16-0000March 16, 1782 Strait of Gibraltar British victory
Battle of Little Mountain 000000001782-03-22-0000March 22, 1782 Virginia British-Iroquois victory
Battle of Delaware Bay 000000001782-04-08-0000April 8, 1782 New Jersey Patriot victory
Battle of the Saintes 000000001782-04-09-0000April 9-12, 1782 Dominica British victory
Battle of Providien 000000001782-04-12-0000April 12, 1782 Ceylon French victory
Battle of the Black River April-August, 1782 Guatemala British victory
Battle of the Mona Passage 000000001782-04-19-0000April 19, 1782 Mona passage British victory
Action of 20–21 April 1782 000000001782-04-20-0000April 20-21, 1782 Bay of Biscay British victory
Capture of the Bahamas 000000001782-05-06-0000May 6, 1782 Bahamas Patriot-Spanish victory
Crawford expedition May 25-June 12, 1782 Quebec British-Iroquois victory
Naval battle off Halifax 000000001782-05-28-0000May 28-29, 1782 Nova Scotia British victory
Raid on Lunenburg 000000001782-07-01-0000July 1, 1782 Nova Scotia Patriot victory
Battle of Negapatam 000000001782-07-06-0000July 6, 1782 Ceylon British victory
Hudson Bay Expedition 000000001782-08-08-0000August 8, 1782 Rupert's Land Franco-Patriot victory
Siege of Bryan Station 000000001782-08-15-0000August 15-17, 1782 Virginia Patriot victory
Battle of Blue Licks 000000001782-08-19-0000August 19, 1782 Virginia British-Iroquois victory
Battle of the Combahee River 000000001782-08-26-0000August 26, 1782 South Carolina British victory
Battle of Trincomalee August 25-September 3, 1782 Ceylon French victory
Siege of Fort Henry 000000001782-09-11-0000September 11-13, 1782 Virginia Patriot victory
Grand Assault on Gibraltar 000000001782-09-13-0000September 13, 1782 Gibraltar British victory
Action of 18 October 1782 000000001782-10-18-0000October 18, 1782 Hispaniola British victory
Action of 6 December 1782 000000001782-12-06-0000December 6, 1782 Martinique British victory
Action of 22 January 1783 000000001783-01-22-0000January 22, 1783 Virginia British victory
See also[edit]
American Revolutionary War portal
United States Army portal
List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War
List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War
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Symbiosis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Symbiology" redirects here. For use of things that represent other things by association, resemblance, or convention, see Symbology.
This article is about the biological phenomenon. For other uses, see Symbiosis (disambiguation).
In a symbiotic mutualistic relationship, the clownfish feeds on small invertebrates that otherwise have potential to harm the sea anemone, and the fecal matter from the clownfish provides nutrients to the sea anemone. The clownfish is additionally protected from predators by the anemone's stinging cells, to which the clownfish is immune. The clownfish also emits a high pitched sound that deters butterfly fish, which would otherwise eat the anemone.[1]
Symbiosis (from Greek συμβίωσις "living together", from σύν "together" and βίωσις "living")[2] is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic. The organisms may be of the same or of different species. In 1879, Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it as "the living together of unlike organisms".
Symbiosis can be obligatory, which means that one or both of the symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival, or facultative (optional) when they can generally live independently.
Symbiosis is also classified by physical attachment; symbiosis in which the organisms have bodily union is called conjunctive symbiosis, and symbiosis in which they are not in union is called disjunctive symbiosis.[3] When one organism lives on another such as mistletoe, it is called ectosymbiosis, or endosymbiosis when one partner lives inside the tissues of another, as in Symbiodinium in corals.[4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
1.1 Obligate versus facultative
2 Physical interaction
3 Mutualism
3.1 Mutualism and endosymbiosis
4 Commensalism
5 Parasitism
6 Amensalism
7 Synnecrosis
8 Evolution
8.1 Vascular plants
8.2 Symbiogenesis
8.3 Co-evolution
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Definition[edit]
In 1877, Albert Bernhard Frank used the term symbiosis which previously had been used to depict people living together in community to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens.[6] In 1879, the German mycologist Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it as "the living together of unlike organisms."[7][8] The definition has varied among scientists with some advocating that it should only refer to persistent mutualisms, while others thought it should apply to any type of persistent biological interaction in other words mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic.[9]
After 130 years of debate,[10] current biology and ecology textbooks use the latter "de Bary" definition or an even broader definition where symbiosis means all species interactions, and the restrictive definition where symbiosis means only mutualism is no longer used.[11]
Obligate versus facultative[edit]
Symbiosis relationships can be obligate, meaning that one or both of the symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival. For example, in lichens, which consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts, the fungal partners cannot live on their own.[7][12][13][14] The algal or cyanobacterial symbionts in lichens, such as Trentepohlia, can generally live independently, and their symbiosis is, therefore, facultative (optional).[citation needed]
Physical interaction[edit]
Main article: Physical interaction
See also: Root microbiome
Alder tree root nodule
Endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly.[5][15] Examples include diverse microbiomes, rhizobia, nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots; actinomycete nitrogen-fixing bacteria called Frankia, which live in alder root nodules; single-celled algae inside reef-building corals; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects.[citation needed]
Ectosymbiosis, also referred to as exosymbiosis, is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the digestive tract or the ducts of exocrine glands.[5][16] Examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice, commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles which attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales, and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish.
Mutualism[edit]
Main article: Mutualism (biology)
Hermit crab, Calcinus laevimanus, with sea anemone.
Mutualism or interspecies reciprocal altruism is a relationship between individuals of different species where both individuals benefit.[17] In general, only lifelong interactions involving close physical and biochemical contact can properly be considered symbiotic. Mutualistic relationships may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both.
Bryoliths document a mutualistic symbiosis between a hermit crab and encrusting bryozoans; Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania
A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora to help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey.[4] This gut flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria living in the herbivores' intestines.[18] Coral reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae which live inside them.[19] Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants, which fix carbon from the air, and mycorrhyzal fungi, which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground.[20]
An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between the ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators. A special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.[21]
A further example is the goby fish, which sometimes lives together with a shrimp. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind, leaving it vulnerable to predators when outside its burrow. In case of danger the goby fish touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it. When that happens both the shrimp and goby fish quickly retreat into the burrow.[22] Different species of gobies (Elacatinus spp.) also exhibit mutualistic behavior through cleaning up ectoparasites in other fish.[23]
Another non-obligate symbiosis is known from encrusting bryozoans and hermit crabs. The bryozoan colony (Acanthodesia commensale) develops a cirumrotatory growth and offers the crab (Pseudopagurus granulimanus) a helicospiral-tubular extension of its living chamber that initially was situated within a gastropod shell.[24]
A spectacular examples of obligate mutualism is between the siboglinid tube worms and symbiotic bacteria that live at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. The worm has no digestive tract and is wholly reliant on its internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane, which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands and have since been found at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world's oceans.[25]
There are many types of tropical and sub-tropical ants that have evolved very complex relationships with certain tree species.[26]
Mutualism and endosymbiosis[edit]
During mutualistic symbioses, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients which the endosymbiont provides. As a result, the host favors endosymbiont's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. These cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensure that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission (heredity).[27]
As the endosymbiont adapts to the host's lifestyle the endosymbiont changes dramatically. There is a drastic reduction in its genome size, as many genes are lost during the process of metabolism, and DNA repair and recombination, while important genes participating in the DNA to RNA transcription, protein translation and DNA/RNA replication are retained. The decrease in genome size is due to loss of protein coding genes and not due to lessening of inter-genic regions or open reading frame (ORF) size. Species that are naturally evolving and contain reduced sizes of genes can be accounted for an increased number of noticeable differences between them, thereby leading to changes in their evolutionary rates. When endosymbiotic bacteria related with insects are passed on to the offspring strictly via vertical genetic transmission, intracellular bacteria go across many hurdles during the process, resulting in the decrease in effective population sizes, as compared to the free living bacteria. The incapability of the endosymbiotic bacteria to reinstate their wild type phenotype via a recombination process is called Muller's ratchet phenomenon. Muller's ratchet phenomenon together with less effective population sizes leads to an accretion of deleterious mutations in the non-essential genes of the intracellular bacteria.[28] This can be due to lack of selection mechanisms prevailing in the relatively "rich" host environment.[29][30]
Commensalism[edit]
Phoretic mites on a fly (Pseudolynchia canariensis).
Main article: Commensalism
Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the English word commensal, which is used of human social interaction. The word derives from the medieval Latin word, formed from com- and mensa, meaning "sharing a table."[17][31]
Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation (phoresy) or for housing (inquilinism), or it may also involve one organism using something another created, after its death (metabiosis). Examples of metabiosis are hermit crabs using gastropod shells to protect their bodies and spiders building their webs on plants.
Parasitism[edit]
Head (scolex) of tapeworm Taenia solium is adapted to parasitism with hooks and suckers to attach to its host.
Main article: Parasitism
A parasitic relationship is one in which one member of the association benefits while the other is harmed.[32] This is also known as antagonistic or antipathetic symbiosis.[3] Parasitic symbioses take many forms, from endoparasites that live within the host's body to ectoparasites that live on its surface. In addition, parasites may be necrotrophic, which is to say they kill their host, or biotrophic, meaning they rely on their host's surviving. Biotrophic parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life. Depending on the definition used, as many as half of all animals have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles, and it is also frequent in plants and fungi. Moreover, almost all free-living animals are host to one or more parasite taxa. An example of a biotrophic relationship would be a tick feeding on the blood of its host.
Amensalism[edit]
Main article: Biological interaction § Amensalism
Amensalism is the type of relationship that exists where one species is inhibited or completely obliterated and one is unaffected by the other. There are two types of amensalism, competition and antibiosis. Competition is where a larger or stronger organism deprives a smaller or weaker one from a resource. Antibiosis occurs when one organism is damaged or killed by another through a chemical secretion. An example of competition is a sapling growing under the shadow of a mature tree. The mature tree can rob the sapling of necessary sunlight and, if the mature tree is very large, it can take up rainwater and deplete soil nutrients. Throughout the process, the mature tree is unaffected by the sapling. Indeed, if the sapling dies, the mature tree gains nutrients from the decaying sapling. Note that these nutrients become available because of the sapling's decomposition, rather than from the living sapling, which would be a case of parasitism. An example of antibiosis is Juglans nigra (black walnut), secreting juglone, a substance which destroys many herbaceous plants within its root zone.[33]
Amensalism is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits to the perpetrator.[34] A clear case of amensalism is where sheep or cattle trample grass. Whilst the presence of the grass causes negligible detrimental effects to the animal's hoof, the grass suffers from being crushed. Amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as has been observed between the Spanish ibex and weevils of the genus Timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it.[35]
Synnecrosis[edit]
Synnecrosis is a rare type of symbiosis in which the interaction between species is detrimental to both organisms involved.[3] It is a short-lived condition, as the interaction eventually causes death. Because of this, evolution selects against synnecrosis and it is uncommon in nature. An example of this is the relationship between some species of bees and victims of the bee sting. Species of bees who die after stinging their prey inflict pain on themselves (albeit to protect the hive) as well as on the victim. This term is rarely used.[36]
Evolution[edit]
Leafhoppers protected by meat ants
Symbiosis is increasingly recognized as an important selective force behind evolution,[4][37] with many species having a long history of interdependent co-evolution.[38] In fact, the evolution of all eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi, and protists) is believed under the endosymbiotic theory to have resulted from a symbiosis between various sorts of bacteria.[4][39][40] This theory is supported by certain organelles dividing independently of the cell, and the observation that some organelles seem to have their own genome.[41]
Vascular plants[edit]
About 80% of vascular plants worldwide form symbiotic relationships with fungi, for example, in arbuscular mycorrhizas.[42]
Symbiogenesis[edit]
Main article: Symbiogenesis
The biologist Lynn Margulis, famous for her work on endosymbiosis, contended that symbiosis is a major driving force behind evolution. She considered Darwin's notion of evolution, driven by competition, to be incomplete and claimed that evolution is strongly based on co-operation, interaction, and mutual dependence among organisms. According to Margulis and Dorion Sagan, "Life did not take over the globe by combat, but by networking."[43]
Co-evolution[edit]
Symbiosis played a major role in the co-evolution of flowering plants and the animals that pollinate them. Many plants that are pollinated by insects, bats, or birds have highly specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is also correspondingly adapted. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive speciation quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and, at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insect groups. Some groups of plants developed nectar and large sticky pollen, while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In some taxa of plants and insects the relationship has become dependent,[44] where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect.[45]
See also[edit]
Anagenesis
Aposymbiotic
Aquaponics
Cheating (biology)
Cleaning symbiosis
Human Microbiome Project
Interspecies friendship
List of symbiotic organisms
List of symbiotic relationships
Microbial consortium
Multigenomic organism
Parabiosis
Saprobiontic
Symbiosis (chemical)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Miller, Allie. "Intricate Relationship Allows the Other to Flourish: the Sea Anemone and the Clownfish". AskNature. The Biomimicry Institute. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
Jump up ^ συμβίωσις, σύν, βίωσις. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
^ Jump up to: a b c "symbiosis." Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Philadelphia: Elsevier Health Sciences, 2007. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012
^ Jump up to: a b c d Moran 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c Paracer & Ahmadjian 2000, p. 12
Jump up ^ "symbiosis". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
^ Jump up to: a b Wilkinson 2001
Jump up ^ Douglas 1994, p. 1
Jump up ^ Douglas 2010, pp. 5–12
Jump up ^ Martin, Bradford D.; Schwab, Ernest (2012), "Symbiosis: 'Living together' in chaos", Studies in the History of Biology, 4 (4): 7–25.
Jump up ^ Martin, Bradford D.; Schwab, Ernest (2013), "Current usage of symbiosis and associated terminology", International Journal of Biology, 5 (1): 32–45., doi:10.5539/ijb.v5n1p32
Jump up ^ Isaac 1992, p. 266
Jump up ^ Saffo 1993
Jump up ^ Douglas 2010, p. 4
Jump up ^ Sapp 1994, p. 142
Jump up ^ Nardon & Charles 2002
^ Jump up to: a b Paracer & Ahmadjian 2000, p. 6
Jump up ^ "symbiosis." The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Toller, Rowan & Knowlton 2001
Jump up ^ Harrison 2005
Jump up ^ Lee 2003
Jump up ^ Facey, Helfman & Collette 1997
Jump up ^ M.C. Soares; I.M. Côté; S.C. Cardoso & R.Bshary (August 2008). "The cleaning goby mutualism: a system without punishment, partner switching or tactile stimulation". Journal of Zoology. 276 (3): 306–312. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00489.x.
Jump up ^ Klicpera, A; PD Taylor; H Westphal (1 Dec 2013). "Bryoliths constructed by bryozoans in symbiotic associations with hermit crabs in a tropical heterozoan carbonate system, Golfe d'Arguin, Mauritania". Mar Biodivers. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. 43 (4): 429–444. doi:10.1007/s12526-013-0173-4. ISSN 1867-1616.
Jump up ^ Cordes et al. 2005
Jump up ^ Piper, Ross (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press.
Jump up ^ Latorre, A.; Durban, A.; Moya, A.; Pereto, J. (2011). The role of symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution. Origins and evolution of life – An astrobiological perspective. pp. 326–339.
Jump up ^ Moran, N. A. (1996). "Accelerated evolution and Muller's ratchet in endosymbiotic bacteria". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93 (7): 2873–2878. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.7.2873. PMC 39726  . PMID 8610134.
Jump up ^ Andersson, Siv G.E; Kurland, Charles G (1998). "Reductive evolution of resident genomes". Trends in Microbiology. 6 (7): 263–8. doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01312-2. PMID 9717214.
Jump up ^ Wernegreen, J.J. (2002). "Genome evolution in bacterial endosymbionts of insects". Nature Reviews Genetics. 3 (11): 850–861. doi:10.1038/nrg931. PMID 12415315.
Jump up ^ Nair 2005
Jump up ^ Paracer & Ahmadjian 2000, p. 7
Jump up ^ The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. (n.d.). Amensalism (biology). Retrieved September 30, 2014, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/19211/amensalism
Jump up ^ Willey, Joanne M.; Sherwood, Linda M.; Woolverton, Cristopher J. (2013). Prescott's Microbiology (9th ed.). pp. 713–38. ISBN 978-0-07-751066-4.
Jump up ^ Gómez, José M.; González-Megías, Adela (2002). "Asymmetrical interactions between ungulates and phytophagous insects: Being different matters". Ecology. 83 (1): 203–11. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[0203:AIBUAP]2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Lidicker, William Z. (August 1979). "A Clarification of Interactions in Ecological Systems". BioScience. 29 (8): 475–7. doi:10.2307/1307540. JSTOR 1307540.
Jump up ^ Wernegreen 2004
Jump up ^ Paracer & Ahmadjian 2000, pp. 3–4
Jump up ^ Brinkman et al. 2002
Jump up ^ Golding & Gupta 1995
Jump up ^ "Symbiosis." Bloomsbury Guide to Human Thought. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd, 1993. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Schüßler, A.; et al. (2001), "A new fungal phylum, the Glomeromycota: phylogeny and evolution", Mycol. Res., 105 (12): 1416, doi:10.1017/S0953756201005196.
Jump up ^ Sagan & Margulis 1986
Jump up ^ Harrison 2002
Jump up ^ Danforth & Ascher 1997
Bibliography[edit]
Cordes, E.E.; Arthur, M.A.; Shea, K.; Arvidson, R.S.; Fisher, C.R. (2005), "Modeling the mutualistic interactions between tubeworms and microbial consortia", PLoS Biol, 3 (3): 1–10, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030077, PMC 1044833  , PMID 15736979
Brinkman, F.S.L.; Blanchard, J.L.; Cherkasov, A.; Av-gay, Y.; Brunham, R.C.; Fernandez, R.C.; Finlay, B.B.; Otto, S.P.; Ouellette, B.F.F.; Keeling, P.J.; et al. (2002), "Evidence That Plant-Like Genes in Chlamydia Species Reflect an Ancestral Relationship between Chlamydiaceae, Cyanobacteria, and the Chloroplast", Genome Research, 12 (8): 1159–1167, doi:10.1101/gr.341802, PMC 186644  , PMID 12176923
Danforth, B.N.; Ascher, J. (1997), "Flowers and Insect Evolution" (PDF), Science, 283 (5399): 143, doi:10.1126/science.283.5399.143a, retrieved 2007-09-25
Douglas, Angela (1994), Symbiotic interactions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-854294-1
Douglas, Angela (2010), The Symbiotic Habit, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-11341-8
Facey, Douglas E.; Helfman, Gene S.; Collette, Bruce B. (1997), The Diversity of Fishes, Oxford: Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-86542-256-7
Golding, RS; Gupta, RS (1995), "Protein-based phylogenies support a chimeric origin for the eukaryotic genome", Mol. Biol. Evol., 12 (1): 1–6, doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040178, PMID 7877484
Harrison, Rhett (2002), "Balanced mutual use (symbiosis)", Quarterly journal Biohistory, 10 (2)
Harrison, Maria J. (2005), "Signaling in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis", Annu. Rev. Microbiol., 59: 19–42, doi:10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123749, PMID 16153162
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Isaac, Susan (1992), Fungal-plant interactions, London: Chapman & Hall, ISBN 0-412-36470-0
Moran, N.A. (2006), "Symbiosis", Current Biology, 16 (20): 866–871, doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.09.019, PMID 17055966
Nardon, P.; Charles, H. (2002), "Morphological aspects of symbiosis", Symbiosis: Mechanisms and Systems. Dordercht/boson/London, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology, 4: 15–44, doi:10.1007/0-306-48173-1_2, ISBN 1-4020-0189-4
Paracer, Surindar; Ahmadjian, Vernon (2000), Symbiosis: An Introduction to Biological Associations, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-511806-5
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Saffo, M.B. (1993), "Coming to terms with a field: Words and concepts in symbiosis", Symbiosis, 14 (1–3)
Sagan, Dorion; Margulis, Lynn (1986), Origins of sex: three billion years of genetic recombination, New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-03340-0
Sapp, Jan (1994), Evolution by association: a history of symbiosis, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-508821-2
Toller, W. W.; Rowan, R.; Knowlton, N. (2001), "Repopulation of Zooxanthellae in the Caribbean Corals Montastraea annularis and M. faveolata following Experimental and Disease-Associated Bleaching", The Biological Bulletin, 201 (3): 360–373, doi:10.2307/1543614, JSTOR 1543614, PMID 11751248
Vinn, O. & Mõtus, M.-A. (2014). "Endobiotic Rugosan Symbionts in Stromatoporoids from the Sheinwoodian (Silurian) of Baltica". PLoS ONE. 9 (2): e90197. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0090197. PMC 3934990  . PMID 24587277. Retrieved 2014-01-09.
Wernegreen, J.J. (2004), "Endosymbiosis: lessons in conflict resolution", PLOS Biology, 2 (3): e68, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020068, PMC 368163  , PMID 15024418
Wilkinson (2001), ?????????
External links[edit]
TED-Education video – Symbiosis: a surprising tale of species cooperation.
Media related to Symbiosis at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of symbiosis at Wiktionary
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