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Rock Chalk, Jayhawk
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"Rock Chalk, Jayhawk" (a.k.a. the "Rock Chalk" chant) is a chant used at University of Kansas Jayhawks sporting events. The chant is made up of the phrase "Rock chalk, Jayhawk, KU".
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Usage
3 References
4 External links
History[edit]
The chant was first adopted by the university's science club in 1886. Chemistry professor E.H.S. Bailey and his colleagues were returning by train to Lawrence after a conference. During their travel, they discussed a need of a rousing yell. They came up with "Rah, Rah, Jayhawk, Go KU",[1] repeated three times, which later became "Rock Chalk Jayhawk, KU".
By 1889, "Rock Chalk"—a transposition of chalk rock, a type of limestone, that exists in the Cretaceous-age bedrocks of central and western parts of the state as well as on Mount Oread, where the University is located, which is similar to the coccolith-bearing chalk of the white cliffs of Dover—later replaced the two "rahs." Those responsible for the change are unknown, with Bailey himself crediting the geology department,[2] and others an English professor.[3]
Kansas troops have used it in the Philippine-American War in 1899, the Boxer Rebellion, and World War II.[4] In the 1911 Border War football game, over 1,000 fans gathered in downtown Lawrence to listen to a "broadcast" of the game by telegraph and participated in cheers including the Rock Chalk.[5]
In the 1920 Summer Olympics, Albert I of Belgium asked for a typical American college yell, and gathered athletes replied with the chant.[4]
Former United States President Theodore Roosevelt called the Rock Chalk chant the greatest college chant he ever heard.[6]
Usage[edit]
Fans have used the phrase "Rock Chalk" in creative ways, such as Rock "Chocolate" Jayhawk ice cream.
It is best known as being loudly chanted at basketball games at Allen Fieldhouse and football games at University of Kansas Memorial Stadium. During pregame, the refrain of "Rock chalk... Jay-Hawk... KU," is repeated twice slowly, and then three times quickly. It is usually preceded by the Kansas alma mater "Crimson and the Blue,” and followed by the fight song, "I'm a Jayhawk.” Since the early 1990's, Kansas fans have been known to do the slow repetition of "Rock chalk... Jay-Hawk... KU" when the Jayhawks are believed to be safely ahead, and victory is guaranteed.
"Rock chalk" is also often used on campus as a way to say goodbye, with the reply being "Jayhawk.”
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Rock Chalk K-State? Kind of, a century ago". The Topeka Capital-Journal. 2007.
Jump up ^ KUhistory.com - A Swell Yell
Jump up ^ "The Rock Chalk Chant". RockChalk.com. Archived from the original on September 8, 2012. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b DeReus, Bailey and Betsy McLeod (May 20, 2005). "The Land of the Jayhawks". The University Daily Kansan. Archived from the original on March 19, 2006. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ "100 years ago: Football fans enjoy mechanized reproduction of KU-MU game". Lawrence Journal-World. November 27, 2011. Retrieved December 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Chant". KU.edu.
External links[edit]
MP3 of the chant
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List of New Brunswick provincial highways
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Standard highway markers for New Brunswick
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This is a list of numbered provincial highways in the Canadian province of New Brunswick. These provincial highways are maintained by the Department of Transportation and Infrastructure in New Brunswick. For a list of formerly-numbered highways, see List of former New Brunswick provincial highways.
Contents
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1 Arterial highways
2 Collector highways
3 Local highways
4 Other highways
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Arterial highways[edit]
Marked by green signs, these highways are the primary routes in the system, and Routes 1, 2, 7, 8, 11, 15, 16 and 95 are all expressways or freeways for part or all of their length. The speed limit generally ranges from 80 to 110 km/h (50 to 68 mph), with the highest limits on four-lane freeway sections.[citation needed]
Route
Length
(km)
Length
(mi)
Southern / western terminus
Northern / eastern terminus
References
Route 1 237 147 International Avenue to US 1 in Calais Route 2 (TCH) in River Glade [1]
Route 2 (TCH) 514 319 Autoroute 85 (TCH) near Edmundston Highway 104 (TCH) near Fort Lawrence [2]
Route 3 93.9 58.3 Route 1 in St. Stephen Route 2 (TCH) in Longs Creek [3]
Route 4 28.3 17.6 SR 6 in Vanceboro Route 3 in Thomaston Corner [4]
Route 7 96.6 60.0 Route 8 in Fredericton Route 1 near Saint John [5]
Route 8 257 160 Route 2 (TCH) near Fredericton Route 11 near Bathurst [6]
Route 10 144 89 Route 8 in Fredericton Route 1 in Sussex [7]
Route 11 323 201 Route 15 / Route 132 near Shediac Route 132 near Matapédia [8]
Route 15 78.7 48.9 Route 106 / Route 114 in Riverview Route 16 (TCH) / Route 970 near Port Elgin [9]
Route 16 (TCH) 56.1 34.9 Route 2 (TCH) in Aulac Route 1 (TCH) on the Confederation Bridge [10]
Route 17 145 90 Route 2 (TCH) in Saint-Léonard Route 11 in Glencoe [11]
Route 95 14.5 9.0 I-95 at the Houlton–Woodstock Border Crossing Route 2 (TCH) / Route 103 in Woodstock [12]
Collector highways[edit]
Marked by blue signs, these secondary highways are sometimes the old alignments of primary highways or connector routes between towns or to and from primary highways. The speed limit is generally 80 km/h (50 mph).[citation needed]
Route 100 -- Saint John - Rothesay - Quispamsis - Hampton
Route 101 -- Fredericton - Tracy - Fredericton Junction - Welsford
Route 102 -- Pokiok - Kingsclear - Fredericton - Oromocto - Gagetown - Westfield
Route 103 -- Woodstock - Florenceville
Route 104 -- Hartland - Millville - Keswick Ridge
Route 105 -- Grand Falls - Perth-Andover - Bristol - Florenceville - Hartland - Grafton - Nackawic - Mactaquac - Fredericton - Jemseg - Youngs Cove
Route 106 -- Petitcodiac - Salisbury - Moncton - Dieppe - Memramcook - Dorchester - Sackville
Route 107 -- Bristol - Juniper - Stanley - Nashwaak Bridge
Route 108 -- Grand Falls - Plaster Rock - Renous-Quarryville - Miramichi
Route 109 -- Perth-Andover - Plaster Rock
Route 110 -- Florenceville - Centreville - U.S. border at Bridgewater, Maine
Route 111 -- Rothesay - Saint John Airport - St. Martins - Sussex Corner
Route 112 -- Coles Island - Canaan Forks - Salisbury - Riverview
Route 113 -- Pokemouche - Shippagan - Lamèque - Miscou Island
Route 114 -- Sussex - Fundy National Park - Riverside-Albert - Hillsborough - Riverview - Moncton
Route 115 -- Moncton - Saint-Antoine - Bouctouche
Route 116 -- Upper Salmon Creek - Harcourt - Elsipogtog First Nation - Rexton
Route 117 -- Kouchibouguac National Park - Baie-Sainte-Anne - Miramichi
Route 118 -- Blackville - Miramichi
Route 119 -- Quispamsis - Gondola Point
Route 120 -- Edmundston - Baker Brook - Lac-Baker - Quebec border at Saint-Jean-de-la-Lande
Route 121 -- Hampton - Norton - Sussex - Sussex Corner
Route 122 -- Meductic - Canterbury - Fosterville - U.S. border at Orient, Maine
Route 123 -- Chipman - Doaktown
Route 124 -- Evandale - Springfield - Norton
Route 126 -- Moncton - Harcourt - Rogersville - Miramichi
Route 127 -- Lawrence Station - St. Andrews - Digdeguash
Route 128 -- Moncton - Berry Mills
Route 130 -- Grand Falls - Grand Falls Portage - Aroostook - Perth-Andover - Florenceville-Bristol - Hartland - Waterville
Route 132 -- Dieppe - Scoudouc - Shediac
Route 133 -- Shediac - Cap-Pele
Route 134 -- Moncton - Shediac - Bouctouche - Rexton - Richibucto - St-Louis-de-Kent / Allardville - Bathurst - Beresford - Belledune - Charlo - Dalhousie - Campbellton
Route 135 -- Pokeshaw - Paquetville - Saint-Isidore
Route 140 -- Shediac (Ohio Road)
Route 144 -- Edmundston - Saint-Léonard - Grand Falls
Route 145 -- Caraquet - Bas-Caraquet
Route 148 -- Fredericton - Nashwaak Village
Route 150 -- Tracadie-Sheila - Losier Settlement - Six Roads
Route 160 -- Allardville - Saint-Isidore - Losier Settlement
Route 161 -- Caron Brook - Clair
Route 165 -- Woodstock - Meductic
Route 170 -- St. Stephen - Waweig
Route 172 -- St. George - L'Etete
Route 175 -- Pennfield - Lepreau
Route 176 -- Pennfield - Blacks Harbour
Route 177 -- Grand Bay - Westfield
Route 180 -- Saint-Quentin - Bathurst
Route 190 -- Perth-Andover - U.S. border at Fort Fairfield, Maine
Local highways[edit]
Marked by black signs, these are the tertiary routes that fill out the highway network and connect small communities and areas to more important highways. The speed limit is generally 80 km/h (50 mph) or lower depending on road design standards.[13]
Route 205 -- Clair - Saint-François-de-Madawaska - Connors
Route 215 -- Saint-François-de-Madawaska - Lac Unique - Route 289 (Quebec)
Route 218 -- Grand Falls - U.S. border crossing at Hamlin, Maine
Route 255 -- Saint-André - Route 17
Route 260 -- Rang-Douze-Sud - Rang-Quatorze - Limerick - Saint-Martin-de-Restigouche - Thibault - Kedgwick
Route 265 -- Kedgwick River - Six-Milles - Quatre-Milles - Rang-Double-Nord
Route 275 -- Glencoe - Val-Melanson - Saint-Arthur - McKendrick - Maltais - Blair Athol - Upper Balmoral - Balmoral - Selwood - Eel River Crossing - Darlington
Route 280 -- McLeods - Upper Dundee - Shannonvale - Dundee - Eel River Cove - Charlo
Route 303 -- Dugas - Village-des-Poirier - Maisonnette
Route 305 -- Lamèque - Ste-Marie-St-Raphaël - Pigeon Hill
Route 310 -- Lamèque Island (Coteau Road)
Route 313 -- Lamèque - Petite-Lamèque - Petite-Rivière-de-l'Ile - Petit-Shippagan
Route 315 -- Bathurst - Dunlop - Nigadoo - LaPlante - Petit-Rocher
Route 320 -- Grande-Anse - Anse-Bleue - Maisonnette
Route 322 -- Bathurst - Robertville - Saint-Laurent - Nigadoo
Route 325 -- Caraquet -Bertrand - Trudel
Route 330 -- Black Rock - Saint-Léolin - Grande-Anse
Route 335 -- Caraquet - Saint-Simon - Evangeline
Route 340 -- Janeville - Notre-Dame-des-Erables - Paquetville
Route 345 -- Pokemouche - Evangeline - Inkerman Ferry
Route 350 -- Paquetville - Maltampec - Pokemouche
Route 355 -- Bois-Blanc - Sainte-Rose - Six Roads
Route 360 -- Allardville - Middle Landing - Brunswick Mines
Route 363 -- Saint-Sauveur - Butte D'Or - Spruce Brook - Hacheyville
Route 365 -- Saint-Isidore - Tracadie
Route 370 -- Riviere-du-Portage - Pont-Lafrance - Sheila
Route 375 -- Limestone - US border
Route 380 -- Lake Edward - Bell Grove - Three Brooks
Route 385 -- Weaver - Mapleview - Burntland Brook - Oxbow - Everett - Two Brooks - Blue Mountain Bend - Riley Brook - Nictau - Mount Carleton Provincial Park - Route 180 (Saint-Quentin to Bathurst)
Route 390 -- Plaster Rock - Wapske - Odell - Arthurette - Rowena - Tobique Narrows
Route 395 -- Hazedean - Anfield - McLaughlin - Route 109
Route 415 -- Renous-Quarryville - Warwick Settlement - Red Bank
Route 420 -- Derby Junction - Red Bank - Sillikers - Interchange with Route 108 (Renous-Quarryville)
Route 425 -- Red Bank - Sunny Corner - Whitney - Strathadam - Eel Ground - Miramichi
Route 430 -- Miramichi -- Heath Steele—Bathurst Mines -- Bathurst
Route 435 -- Whitney -- Maple Glen
Route 440 -- Rogersville - Shediac Ridge - Rosaireville - St. Margaret's
Route 445 -- Lagacéville - Fairisle - Covedell
Route 450 -- Village-Saint-Laurent - Lagacéville - Lavillette - Route 8
Route 455 -- Neguac - Fairisle - Lavillette
Route 460 -- Neguac - Price Settlement - Gaythorne - Tabusintac
Route 465 -- Coal Branch - Ford's Mills - Smith's Corner
Route 470 -- Ford's Mills - Pine Ridge - Mundleville
Route 475 -- Bouctouche - Baie de Bouctouche - Saint-Édouard-de-Kent - Sainte-Anne-de-Kent
Route 480 -- Kouchibouguac - Acadieville - Acadie Siding
Route 485 -- Canaan - Route 490
Route 490 -- Moncton - Irishtown - McLean Settlement - Pine Ridge - Browns Yard - Bass River
Route 495 -- Rexton - Mundleville - Murphy Settlement - Sainte-Marie-de-Kent
Route 505 -- Sainte-Anne-de-Kent - Richibucto-Village - Rexton
Route 510 -- Mundleville - Browns Yard - Fords Mills
Route 515 -- Hebert - McLean Settlement - Sainte-Marie-de-Kent - Bouctouche
Route 525 -- Sainte-Marie-de-Kent - Saint-Antoine
Route 530 -- Grande-Digue - Caissie Cape - Cocagne
Route 535 -- Notre-Dame - Cocagne - Saint-Francois-de-Kent
Route 540 -- Graham Corner - Debec - Richmond Corner - Belleville
Route 550 -- Woodstock - Bloomfield - Tracey Mills (Route 110)
Route 555 -- Woodstock - Richmond Corner - Route 95
Route 560 -- Woodstock - Lakeville - Centreville - River de Chute (Route 130)
Route 565 -- Upper Kent- Holmesville - Giberson Settlement - Bath
Route 570 -- Gordonsville - Coldstream
Route 575 -- Hartland - Pole Hill - Cloverdale
Route 580 -- Glassville - Lower Windsor
Route 585 -- Woodstock - Grafton - Hawkins Corner
Route 590 -- Jacksonville - Waterville
Route 595 -- Bull Lake - Temperance Vale
Route 605 -- Millville - Nackawic
Route 610 -- Upper Queensbury - Upper Caverhill - Upper Hainesville
Route 615 -- Mactaquac - Springfield -- Upper Caverhill
Route 616 -- Keswick Ridge - Zealand
Route 617 -- Burtts Corner - Birdton - Hamtown Corner
Route 620 -- Fredericton - Tay Creek - Stanley
Route 625 -- Boiestown - Parker Ridge - Cross Creek
Route 628 -- Fredericton - Penniac - Durham Bridge - Taymouth
Route 630 -- Canterbury - Andersonville
Route 635 -- Lower Prince William - Lake George - Magaguadavic - York Mills
Route 636 -- Lake George - Harvey Station
Route 640 -- Fredericton - Hanwell - Acton
Route 645 -- Hurley Corner - Rooth - Tracy
Route 655 -- Nasonworth - Rusagonis-Waasis - Lincoln
Route 670 -- Lakeville Corner - Ripples - Albrights Corner
Route 690 -- Sheffield - Lakeville Corner - Douglas Harbour - Newcastle Creek - Minto
Route 695 -- Springfield - Cambridge-Narrows - Jemseg
Route 705 -- Kars - Wickham - MacDonald Point - Belyeas Cove - Henderson Settlement
Route 710 -- Hatfield Point - Henderson Settlement - Big Cove - Cambridge-Narrows - Codys - Chambers Corner
Route 715 -- Jemseg - Lower Cambridge - Cambridge-Narrows - Coles Island
Route 725 -- St. Stephen - Little Ridge - St. Croix River
Route 730 -- Upper Little Ridge - Scotch Ridge - Basswood Ridge - DeWolfe
Route 735 -- St. Stephen - Scotch Ridge - St. Croix River
Route 740 -- St. Stephen - Basswood Ridge
Route 745 -- Moores Mills - Oak Hill - Canoose - St. Croix River
Route 750 -- Honeydale - Moores Mills - Maxwell Crossing - St. Stephen
Route 755 -- Andersonville - Honeydale - Oak Bay
Route 760 -- Simpson Corner - Waweig - Elmsville - Bethel (Route 1)
Route 770 -- Route 127 - Rollingdam - Clarence Ridge - Bonny River - St. George
Route 772 -- Deer Island
Route 774 -- Campobello Island
Route 776 -- Grand Manan Island
Route 778 -- Pennfield - Beaver Harbour - Blacks Harbour
Route 780 -- St. George - Utopia - Lepreau
Route 785 -- Pennfield - Utopia - Mount Pleasant - Blissville
Route 790 -- Lepreau - Dipper Harbour - Chance Harbour - Musquash
Route 795 -- Lepreau - Wetmore Creek
Route 820 -- Loch Lomond - Upham - Upperton (Route 111)
Route 825 -- Loch Lomond - Garnett Settlement - Gardner Creek - Simonds
Route 845 -- Kingston - Hampton
Route 850 -- Kingston - Urquhart - Erbs Cove - Long Point - Keirsteadville - Springfield
Route 855 -- Midland - Bloomfield
Route 860 -- Saint John - Rothesay (Wells) - French Village - Titusville - Clover Hill
Route 865 -- Norton - Clover Hill - Hillsdale
Route 870 -- Springfield - Belleisle Creek - Kierstead Mountain
Route 875 -- Belleisle Creek - Searsville - Lower Millstream
Route 880 -- Apohaqui - Berwick - Havelock
Route 885 -- Petitcodiac - Havelock - New Canaan
Route 890 -- Sussex - Cornhill - Petitcodiac
Route 895 -- Anagance - Portage Vale - Goshen - Elgin - Little River - Coverdale
Route 905 -- Petitcodiac - Elgin
Route 910 -- Coverdale - Caledonia Mountain - Hillsborough
Route 915 -- Riverside-Albert - Cape Enrage - Alma
Route 925 -- Dieppe - Dover - Memramcook
Route 933 -- Memramcook - Haute-Aboujagane - Barachois
Route 935 -- Dorchester - Johnson's Mills - Sackville
Route 940 -- Sackville - Shemogue
Route 945 -- Haute-Aboujagane - Beaubassin-Est - Cap-Pelé
Route 950 -- Cap-Pelé - Petit-Cap - Shemogue
Route 955 -- Mates Corner - Chapmans Corner - Cadman Corner - Murray Corner - Spence Settlement - Bayfield - Cape Tormentine
Route 960 -- Port Elgin - Upper Cape - Cape Spear - Cape Tormentine
Route 970 -- Port Elgin - Baie Verte - Route 366 (Nova Scotia)
Other highways[edit]
The following roads are designated provincial highways by the New Brunswick Department of Transportation,[citation needed] but have no signed numerical designation:
Deer Island Point Road - Route from Deer Island (New Brunswick) that connects Route 772 to Route 774 on Campobello Island via Cummings Cove to Welshpool Ferry and also from Deer Island (New Brunswick) New Brunswick Route 772 to Maine State Route 190 in Eastport, Maine via Cummings Cove to Eastport Ferry.
Gunningsville Bridge and approaches, Moncton to Riverview (2.2 km)
Palmer Brook Connector (1.6 km): Connector from Route 100 to Route 1 east of Quispamsis, and former alignment of Route 1.
Prospect Street Extension, Fredericton (2.7 km): A former alignment of Route 2 from Hanwell Road (Route 640) to Woodstock Road (Route 102).
Rue Principale, Tracadie-Sheila (7.4 km): A former alignment of Route 11.
Vanier Boulevard, Bathurst (1.7 km): A continuation of Route 180 from Route 11 to St. Peter Boulevard (Route 134).
Westmorland Street Bridge, Fredericton (1.6 km)
See also[edit]
Canada Roads portal
New Brunswick portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 1" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 2" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 3" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 4" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 7" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 8" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 10" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 11" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 15" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 16" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 17" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Google (December 23, 2010). "Route 95" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved December 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Canada, Government of New Brunswick. "New Brunswick Transportation". www2.gnb.ca. Retrieved 2017-06-08.
External links[edit]
Media related to Provincial roads in New Brunswick at Wikimedia Commons
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Expressways and freeways in New Brunswick
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_New_Brunswick_provincial_highways&oldid=790028580"
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In computer security, general access control includes identification, authorization, authentication, access approval, and audit. A more narrow definition of access control would cover only access approval, whereby the system makes a decision to grant or reject an access request from an already authenticated subject, based on what the subject is authorized to access. Authentication and access control are often combined into a single operation, so that access is approved based on successful authentication, or based on an anonymous access token. Authentication methods and tokens include passwords, biometric scans, physical keys, electronic keys and devices, hidden paths, social barriers, and monitoring by humans and automated systems.[citation needed]
those based on capabilities and those based on access control lists (ACLs).
In a capability-based model, holding an unforge-able reference or capability to an object provides access to the object (roughly analogous to how possession of one's house key grants one access to one's house); access is conveyed to another party by transmitting such a capability over a secure channel
In an ACL-based model, a subject's access to an object depends on whether its identity appears on a list associated with the object (roughly analogous to how a bouncer at a private party would check an ID to see if a name appears on the guest list); access is conveyed by editing the list. (Different ACL systems have a variety of different conventions regarding who or what is responsible for editing the list and how it is edited.)[citation needed]
Both capability-based and ACL-based models have mechanisms to allow access rights to be granted to all members of a group of subjects (often the group is itself modeled as a subject).[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Services
2 Authorization
3 Identification and Authentication (I&A)
4 Access approval
5 Accountability
6 Access control models
6.1 Discretionary access control
6.2 Mandatory access control
6.3 Role-based access control
6.4 Intent-based Access Control (IBAC)
6.5 Emotion-based Access Control (EBAC)
6.6 Attribute-based access control
6.7 Break-Glass Access Control Models
6.8 Access control based on the responsibility
6.9 Host-based access control (HBAC)
7 References
Services[edit]
Access control systems provide the essential services of authorization, identification and authentication (I&A), access approval, and accountability where:[citation needed]
authorization specifies what a subject can do
identification and authentication ensure that only legitimate subjects can log on to a system
access approval grants access during operations, by association of users with the resources that they are allowed to access, based on the authorization policy
accountability identifies what a subject (or all subjects associated with a user) did
Authorization[edit]
Authorization involves the act of defining access-rights for subjects. An authorization policy specifies the operations that subjects are allowed to execute within a system.[citation needed]
Most modern operating systems implement authorization policies as formal sets of permissions that are variations or extensions of three basic types of access:[citation needed]
Read (R): The subject can
Read file contents
List directory contents
Write (W): The subject can change the contents of a file or directory with the following tasks:
Add
Update
Delete
Rename
Execute (X): If the file is a program, the subject can cause the program to be run. (In Unix-style systems, the "execute" permission doubles as a "traverse directory" permission when granted for a directory.)
These rights and permissions are implemented differently in systems based on discretionary access control (DAC) and mandatory access control (MAC).
Identification and Authentication (I&A)[edit]
Main article: Authentication
Identification and Authentication[1] (I&A) is the process of verifying that an identity is bound to the entity that makes an assertion or claim of identity. The I&A process assumes that there was an initial validation of the identity, commonly called identity proofing. Various methods of identity proofing are available, ranging from in-person validation using government issued identification, to anonymous methods that allow the claimant to remain anonymous, but known to the system if they return. The method used for identity proofing and validation should provide an assurance level commensurate with the intended use of the identity within the system. Subsequently, the entity asserts an identity together with an authenticator as a means for validation. The only requirements for the identifier is that it must be unique within its security domain.[citation needed]
Authenticators are commonly based on at least one of the following four factors:[citation needed]
Something you know, such as a password or a personal identification number (PIN). This assumes that only the owner of the account knows the password or PIN needed to access the account.
Something you have, such as a smart card or security token. This assumes that only the owner of the account has the necessary smart card or token needed to unlock the account.
Something you are, such as fingerprint, voice, retina, or iris characteristics.
Where you are, for example inside or outside a company firewall, or proximity of login location to a personal GPS device.
Access approval[edit]
Access approval is the function that actually grants or rejects access during operations.[2]
During access approval, the system compares the formal representation of the authorization policy with the access request, to determine whether the request shall be granted or rejected. Moreover, the access evaluation can be done online/ongoing.[3]
Accountability[edit]
Accountability uses such system components as audit trails (records) and logs, to associate a subject with its actions. The information recorded should be sufficient to map the subject to a controlling user. Audit trails and logs are important for[citation needed]
Detecting security violations
Re-creating security incidents
If no one is regularly reviewing your logs and they are not maintained in a secure and consistent manner, they may not be admissible as evidence.[citation needed]
Many systems can generate automated reports, based on certain predefined criteria or thresholds, known as clipping levels. For example, a clipping level may be set to generate a report for the following:[citation needed]
More than three failed logon attempts in a given period
Any attempt to use a disabled user account
These reports help a system administrator or security administrator to more easily identify possible break-in attempts.
Definition of clipping level:[4] a disk's ability to maintain its magnetic properties and hold its content. A high-quality level range is 65–70%; low quality is below 55%.
Access control models[edit]
Access control models are sometimes categorized as either discretionary or non-discretionary. The three most widely recognized models are Discretionary Access Control (DAC), Mandatory Access Control (MAC), and Role Based Access Control (RBAC). MAC is non-discretionary.[citation needed]
Discretionary access control[edit]
Discretionary access control (DAC) is a policy determined by the owner of an object. The owner decides who is allowed to access the object, and what privileges they have.
Two important concepts in DAC are[citation needed]
File and data ownership: Every object in the system has an owner. In most DAC systems, each object's initial owner is the subject that caused it to be created. The access policy for an object is determined by its owner.
Access rights and permissions: These are the controls that an owner can assign to other subjects for specific resources.
Access controls may be discretionary in ACL-based or capability-based access control systems. (In capability-based systems, there is usually no explicit concept of 'owner', but the creator of an object has a similar degree of control over its access policy.)
Mandatory access control[edit]
Mandatory access control refers to allowing access to a resource if and only if rules exist that allow a given user to access the resource. It is difficult to manage, but its use is usually justified when used to protect highly sensitive information. Examples include certain government and military information. Management is often simplified (over what can be required) if the information can be protected using hierarchical access control, or by implementing sensitivity labels. What makes the method "mandatory" is the use of either rules or sensitivity labels.[citation needed]
Sensitivity labels: In such a system subjects and objects must have labels assigned to them. A subject's sensitivity label specifies its level of trust. An object's sensitivity label specifies the level of trust required for access. In order to access a given object, the subject must have a sensitivity level equal to or higher than the requested object.
Data import and export: Controlling the import of information from other systems and export to other systems (including printers) is a critical function of these systems, which must ensure that sensitivity labels are properly maintained and implemented so that sensitive information is appropriately protected at all times.
Two methods are commonly used for applying mandatory access control:[citation needed]
Rule-based (or label-based) access control: This type of control further defines specific conditions for access to a requested object. A Mandatory Access Control system implements a simple form of rule-based access control to determine whether access should be granted or denied by matching:
An object's sensitivity label
A subject's sensitivity label
Lattice-based access control: These can be used for complex access control decisions involving multiple objects and/or subjects. A lattice model is a mathematical structure that defines greatest lower-bound and least upper-bound values for a pair of elements, such as a subject and an object.
Few systems implement MAC; XTS-400 and SELinux are examples of systems that do.
Role-based access control[edit]
Role-based access control (RBAC) is an access policy determined by the system, not by the owner. RBAC is used in commercial applications and also in military systems, where multi-level security requirements may also exist. RBAC differs from DAC in that DAC allows users to control access to their resources, while in RBAC, access is controlled at the system level, outside of the user's control. Although RBAC is non-discretionary, it can be distinguished from MAC primarily in the way permissions are handled. MAC controls read and write permissions based on a user's clearance level and additional labels. RBAC controls collections of permissions that may include complex operations such as an e-commerce transaction, or may be as simple as read or write. A role in RBAC can be viewed as a set of permissions.
Three primary rules are defined for RBAC:
Role assignment: A subject can execute a transaction only if the subject has selected or been assigned a suitable role.
Role authorization: A subject's active role must be authorized for the subject. With rule 1 above, this rule ensures that users can take on only roles for which they are authorized.
Transaction authorization: A subject can execute a transaction only if the transaction is authorized for the subject's active role. With rules 1 and 2, this rule ensures that users can execute only transactions for which they are authorized.
Additional constraints may be applied as well, and roles can be combined in a hierarchy where higher-level roles subsume permissions owned by lower-level sub-roles.
Most IT vendors offer RBAC in one or more products.
Intent-based Access Control (IBAC)[edit]
Intent-based Access Control (IBAC),[5] [6] a novel access control model first proposed by Abdulaziz Almehmadi, is an access control system that detects the intention of the user requesting access answering the question "Why?" access is being requested as opposed to current access control systems that asks "Who?" is requesting access. IBAC is designed to prevent the insider threat as opposed to the current access control systems that are designed to prevent the outsider threat. IBAC is a risk-based access control that assesses risk of access based on the detected intent and the motivation level towards executing that intent. IBAC takes advantage of the robustness of P300-based Concealed Information Test to detect an intent of access and uses the brain signals to detect the motivation level. The access control system has been used on 30 participants with 100% detected intentions of access and all mal-intent users being rejected access before they commit their mal-intended action.
Emotion-based Access Control (EBAC)[edit]
Emotion-based Access Control (EBAC),[7] a novel access control model first proposed by Abdulaziz Almehmadi, is an access control system that detects the emotion of the user requesting access in order to form an access decision. This form of access control adds the sensibility aspect to access control systems to further analyze the risk of granting an authorized user access. A user who has a high level of anger and might cause damage if granted access. As well as denying a malicious authorized user access can be useful, granting a non-authorized user who have good intentions of access can be useful as well (e.g. granting firefighters access to a facility in order to suppress damage).
In some cases, we would wish to deny access to authorized personals in the case that they request access to cause damage. On the other hand, we would wish to grant access to unauthorized individuals. who may suppress damage or prevent catastrophic incidents
EBAC uses emotion detection technology to supplement the access control systems by detecting the emotion of the person requesting access and using it as an additional authentication factor along with the recognized identity of the user as needed. The novelty of the approach is that access is granted based on the actual feelings of the users with regards to the requested resources. The approach is based on the detection of emotion based on the involuntary brain signals that are extremely hard to control or circumvent, and on using the detected emotion in the context of access control.
The EBAC system flow starts with the EEG signal acquisition. The EEG signals are sent via the Emotiv EPOC headset to a listener in the EBAC application. Signals are then analyzed and the emotion is detected with correspondence to the emotion level. The emotion and its rate are then categorized to be either positive or negative. Then data is sent to the decision maker to deny or grant access to the entity.
Attribute-based access control[edit]
In attribute-based access control (ABAC),[8][9] access is granted not based on the rights of the subject associated with a user after authentication, but based on attributes of the user. The user has to prove so-called claims about his attributes to the access control engine. An attribute-based access control policy specifies which claims need to be satisfied in order to grant access to an object. For instance the claim could be "older than 18". Any user that can prove this claim is granted access. Users can be anonymous when authentication and identification are not strictly required. One does, however, require means for proving claims anonymously. This can for instance be achieved using anonymous credentials.[citation needed] XACML (extensible access control markup language) is a standard for attribute-based access control. XACML 3.0 was standardized in January 2013.[10]
Break-Glass Access Control Models[edit]
Traditionally, access has the purpose of restricting access, thus most access control models follow the "default deny principle", i.e. if a specific access request is not explicitly allowed, it will be denied. This behavior might conflict with the regular operations of a system. In certain situations, humans are willing to take the risk that might be involved in violating an access control policy, if the potential benefit that can be achieved outweighs this risk. This need is especially visible in the health-care domain, where a denied access to patient records can cause the death of a patient. Break-Glass (also called break-the-glass) try to mitigate this by allowing users to override access control decision. Break-Glass can either be implemented in an access control specific manner (e.g. into RBAC),[11] or generic (i.e., independent from the underlying access control model).[12]
Access control based on the responsibility[edit]
In Aligning Access Rights to Governance Needs with the Responsibility MetaModel (ReMMo) in the Frame of Enterprise Architecture[13] an expressive Responsibility metamodel has been defined and allows representing the existing responsibilities at the business layer and, thereby, allows engineering the access rights required to perform these responsibilities, at the application layer. A method has been proposed to define the access rights more accurately, considering the alignment of the responsibility and RBAC.
Host-based access control (HBAC)[edit]
The initialism HBAC stands for "host-based access control".[14]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Unifying identity management and access control". sourcesecurity.com. Retrieved 15 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Dieter Gollmann. Computer Security, 3rd ed. Wiley Publishing, 2011, p. 387, bottom
Jump up ^ Marcon, A. L.; Olivo Santin, A.; Stihler, M.; Bachtold, J., "A UCONabc Resilient Authorization Evaluation for Cloud Computing," Parallel and Distributed Systems, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 457–467, Feb. 2014 doi: 10.1109/TPDS.2013.113, bottom
Jump up ^ "Definition of: clipping level". PC Magazine.
Jump up ^ Abdulaziz Almehmadi and Khalil El-Khatib, "On the Possibility of Insider Threat Prevention Using Intent-Based Access Control (IBAC)", Systems Journal, IEEE , vol. PP, no. 99, pp. 1, 12, doi: 10.1109/JSYST.2015.2424677 URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=7103286&isnumber=4357939
Jump up ^ Abdulaziz Almehmadi "Insider Threats Meet Access Control", URL: https://www.amazon.com/gp/aw/d/1539772012/ref=mp_s_a_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1477837714&sr=8-1&pi=AC_SX280_SY350_FMwebp_QL65&keywords=almehmadi&dpPl=1&dpID=518-g2uTc0L&ref=plSrch
Jump up ^ Abdulaziz Almehmadi and Khalil El-Khatib. 2013. "Authorized! access denied, unauthorized! access granted". In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Security of Information and Networks (SIN '13).
Jump up ^ Jin, Xin, Ram Krishnan, and Ravi Sandhu. "A unified attribute-based access control model covering dac, mac and rbac." Data and Applications Security and Privacy XXVI. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. 41–55.
Jump up ^ Hu, Vincent C.; Ferraiolo, David; Kuhn, Rick; Schnitzer, Adam; Sandlin, Kenneth; Miller, Robert; Scarfone, Karen. "Guide to Attribute Based Access Control (ABAC) Definition and Considerations" (PDF).
Jump up ^ eXtensible Access Control Markup Language (XACML) V3.0 approved as an OASIS Standard, eXtensible Access Control Markup Language (XACML) V3.0 approved as an OASIS Standard.
Jump up ^ Ferreira, Ana; Chadwick, David; Farinha, Pedro; Correia, Ricardo; Zao, Gansen; Chiro, Rui; Antunes, Luis (2009). "How to Securely Break into RBAC: The BTG-RBAC Model". Computer Security Applications Conference (ACSAC). IEEE. pp. 23–31. doi:10.1109/ACSAC.2009.12.
Jump up ^ Brucker, Achim D.; Petritsch, Helmut (2009). "Extending Access Control Models with Break-glass.". ACM symposium on access control models and technologies (SACMAT). ACM Press. pp. 197–206. doi:10.1145/1542207.1542239.
Jump up ^ Feltus C. (2014). Aligning Access Rights to Governance Needs with the Responsibility MetaModel (ReMMo) in the Frame of Enterprise Architecture. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-07-24.
Jump up ^ Ballard, Ella Deon (2013). "Identity Management Guide: Managing Identity and Authorization Policies for Linux-Based Infrastructures". Red Hat. Retrieved 2014-01-06. Any PAM service can be identified as to the host-based access control (HBAC) system in IdM.
Authority control
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