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Minicomputer
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First-generation Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-8 on display at the National Museum of American History
Data General Nova, serial number 1, the first 16-bit minicomputer, on display at the Computer History Museum
A PDP-11, model 40, an early member of DECs 16-bit minicomputer family, on display at the Vienna Technical Museum
A minicomputer, or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that was developed in the mid-1960s[1][2] and sold for much less than mainframe[3] and mid-size computers from IBM and its direct competitors. In a 1970 survey, the New York Times suggested a consensus definition of a minicomputer as a machine costing less than US$25,000, with an input-output device such as a teleprinter and at least four thousand words of memory, that is capable of running programs in a higher level language, such as Fortran or BASIC.[4] The class formed a distinct group with its own software architectures and operating systems. Minis were designed for control, instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as distinct from calculation and record keeping. Many were sold indirectly to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) for final end use application. During the two decade lifetime of the minicomputer class (1965–1985), almost 100 companies formed and only a half dozen remained.[5]
When single-chip CPU microprocessors appeared, beginning with the Intel 4004 in 1971, the term "minicomputer" came to mean a machine that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the smallest mainframe computers and the microcomputers. The term "minicomputer" is little used today; the contemporary term for this class of system is "midrange computer", such as the higher-end SPARC, Power Architecture and Itanium-based systems from Oracle, IBM and Hewlett-Packard.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 1960s: Origin; 1970s: Market entrenchment
1.2 Mid-1980s, 1990s: The minis give way to the micros
1.3 The minicomputer's industrial impact and heritage
2 List of some notable minicomputers
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
1960s: Origin; 1970s: Market entrenchment[edit]
The term "minicomputer" developed in the 1960s to describe the smaller computers that became possible with the use of transistors and core memory technologies, minimal instructions sets and less expensive peripherals such as the ubiquitous Teletype Model 33 ASR. They usually took up one or a few 19-inch rack cabinets, compared with the large mainframes that could fill a room.
The definition of minicomputer is vague with the consequence that there are a number of candidates for the first minicomputer.[6] An early and highly successful minicomputer was Digital Equipment Corporation's (DEC) 12-bit PDP-8, which was built using discrete transistors and cost from US$16,000 upwards when launched in 1964. Later versions of the PDP-8 took advantage of small-scale integrated circuits. The important precursors of the PDP-8 include the PDP-5, LINC, the TX-0, the TX-2, and the PDP-1. DEC gave rise to a number of minicomputer companies along Massachusetts Route 128, including Data General, Wang Laboratories, Apollo Computer, and Prime Computer.
Minicomputers were also known as midrange computers. They grew to have relatively high processing power and capacity. They were used in manufacturing process control, telephone switching and to control laboratory equipment. In the 1970s, they were the hardware that was used to launch the computer-aided design (CAD) industry and other similar industries where a smaller dedicated system was needed.
The 7400 series of TTL integrated circuits started appearing in minicomputers in the late 1960s. The 74181 arithmetic logic unit (ALU) was commonly used in the CPU data paths. Each 74181 had a bus width of four bits, hence the popularity of bit-slice architecture. Some scientific computers, such as the Nicolet 1080,[7] would use the 7400 series in groups of five ICs (parallel) for their uncommon twenty bits architecture. The 7400 series offered data-selectors, multiplexers, three-state buffers, memories, etc. in dual in-line packages with one-tenth inch spacing, making major system components and architecture evident to the naked eye. Starting in the 1980s, many minicomputers used VLSI circuits.
At the launch of the MITS Altair 8800 in 1975, Radio Electronics magazine referred to the system as a "minicomputer", although the term microcomputer soon became usual for personal computers based on single-chip microprocessors. At the time, microcomputers were 8-bit single-user, relatively simple machines running simple program-launcher operating systems like CP/M or MS-DOS, while minis were much more powerful systems that ran full multi-user, multitasking operating systems, such as VMS and Unix, and although the classical mini was a 16-bit computer, the emerging higher performance superminis were 32-bit.
Mid-1980s, 1990s: The minis give way to the micros[edit]
The decline of the minis happened due to the lower cost of microprocessor-based hardware, the emergence of inexpensive and easily deployable local area network systems, the emergence of the 68020, 80286 and the 80386 microprocessors, and the desire of end-users to be less reliant on inflexible minicomputer manufacturers and IT departments or "data centers". The result was that minicomputers and computer terminals were replaced by networked workstations, file servers and PCs in some installations, beginning in the latter half of the 1980s.
During the 1990s, the change from minicomputers to inexpensive PC networks was cemented by the development of several versions of Unix and Unix-like systems that ran on the Intel x86 microprocessor architecture, including Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. Also, the Microsoft Windows series of operating systems, beginning with Windows NT, now included server versions that supported preemptive multitasking and other features required for servers.
As microprocessors have become more powerful, the CPUs built up from multiple components – once the distinguishing feature differentiating mainframes and midrange systems from microcomputers – have become increasingly obsolete, even in the largest mainframe computers.
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) was once the leading minicomputer manufacturer, at one time the second-largest computer company after IBM. But as the minicomputer declined in the face of generic Unix servers and Intel-based PCs, not only DEC, but almost every other minicomputer company including Data General, Prime, Computervision, Honeywell and Wang Laboratories, many based in New England (hence the end of the Massachusetts Miracle), also collapsed or merged. DEC was sold to Compaq in 1998, while Data General was acquired by EMC Corporation.
Today only a few proprietary minicomputer architectures survive. The IBM System/38 operating system, which introduced many advanced concepts, lives on with IBM's AS/400. Realising the importance of the myriad lines of 'legacy code' (programs) written, 'AS' stands for 'Application System'. Great efforts were made by IBM to enable programs originally written for the System/34 and System/36 to be moved to the AS/400. The AS/400 was replaced by the iSeries, which was subsequently replaced by the System i. In 2008, the System i was replaced by the IBM Power Systems. By contrast, competing proprietary computing architectures from the early 1980s, such as DEC's VAX, Wang VS and Hewlett Packard's HP3000 have long been discontinued without a compatible upgrade path. OpenVMS runs HP Alpha and Intel IA64 (Itanium) CPU architectures.
Tandem Computers, which specialized in reliable large-scale computing, was acquired by Compaq, and a few years afterward the combined entity merged with Hewlett Packard. The NSK-based NonStop product line was re-ported from MIPS processors to Itanium-based processors branded as 'HP Integrity NonStop Servers'. As in the earlier migration from stack machines to MIPS microprocessors, all customer software was carried forward without source changes. Integrity NonStop continues to be HP's answer for the extreme scaling needs of its very largest customers. The NSK operating system, now termed NonStop OS, continues as the base software environment for the NonStop Servers, and has been extended to include support for Java and integration with popular development tools like Visual Studio and Eclipse.
The minicomputer's industrial impact and heritage[edit]
A variety of companies emerged that built turnkey systems around minicomputers with specialized software and, in many cases, custom peripherals that addressed specialized problems such as computer aided design, computer aided manufacturing, process control, manufacturing resource planning, and so on. Many if not most minicomputers were sold through these original equipment manufacturers and value-added resellers.
Several pioneering computer companies first built minicomputers, such as DEC, Data General, and Hewlett-Packard (HP) (who now refers to its HP3000 minicomputers as "servers" rather than "minicomputers"). And although today's PCs and servers are clearly microcomputers physically, architecturally their CPUs and operating systems have developed largely by integrating features from minicomputers.[citation needed]
In the software context, the relatively simple OSs for early microcomputers were usually inspired by minicomputer OSs (such as CP/M's similarity to Digital's single user OS/8 and RT-11 and multi-user RSTS time-sharing system). Also, the multiuser OSs of today are often either inspired by, or directly descended from, minicomputer OSs.[citation needed] UNIX was originally a minicomputer OS, while Windows NT kernel—the foundation for all current versions of Microsoft Windows-borrowed design ideas liberally from VMS. Many of the first generation of PC programmers were educated on minicomputer systems.[citation needed]
List of some notable minicomputers[edit]
Control Data's CDC 160A and CDC 1700
DEC PDP and VAX series
Data General Nova
Hewlett-Packard HP 3000 series, HP 2100 series, HP1000 series.
Honeywell-Bull DPS 6/DPS 6000 series
IBM midrange computers
Interdata 7/32 and 8/32
Varian 620 100 series
Norsk Data Nord-1, Nord-10, and Nord-100
Prime Computer Prime 50 series
SDS SDS-92
SEL, one of the first 32-bit real-time computer system manufacturers
Texas Instruments TI-990
Wang Laboratories 2200 and VS series
K-202, first Polish minicomputer
See also[edit]
The Soul of a New Machine – about the development of Data General’s Eclipse/MV minicomputers in the early 1980s
Charles Babbage Institute
History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
Superminicomputer
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Henderson, edited by Rebecca M.; Newell, Richard G. (2011). Accelerating energy innovation : insights from multiple sectors. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 180. ISBN 0226326837. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Huang, Han-Way (2014). The atmel AVR microcontroller : MEGA and XMEGA in assembly and C. Australia ; United Kingdom: Delmar Cengage Learning. p. 4. ISBN 1133607292.
Jump up ^ Estabrooks, Maurice (1995). Electronic technology, corporate strategy, and world transformation. Westport, Conn.: Quorum Books. p. 53. ISBN 0899309690.
Jump up ^ Smith, William D. (April 5, 1970). "Maxi Computers Face Mini Conflict: Mini Trend Reaching Computers". New York Times.
Jump up ^ Bell, Gordon (9 January 2015). "Rise and Fall of Minicomputers". Engineering and Technology History Wiki. Retrieved 28 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Ranging from the CDC 160 circa 1960 to the DEC PDP 8 circa 1965 Lafferty, Stephen H. (January 2014). "Who Built The First Minicomputers?". Retrieved 24 January 2014. .
Jump up ^ Nicolette Instruments Corporation (February 1, 1972). "Nicolette 1080 Series, Data Acquisition and Processing System, Description and Specifications" (PDF). Retrieved May 28, 2016.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Minicomputers.
Early mini computers, still runnable in a German computer museum
A list of Minicomputers
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When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going (song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going"
Standard artwork
Single by Billy Ocean
from the album The Jewel of the Nile Soundtrack and Love Zone
Released
15 November 1985 (US)
January 1986 (UK)
Format
7", 12" single
Recorded
1985
Genre
R&B, funk
Length
5:44 (album version)
4:08 (radio edit)
Label
Jive
Songwriter(s)
Wayne Anton Brathwaite, Barry James Eastmond, Mutt Lange, Billy Ocean
Producer(s)
Barry Eastmond, Wayne Brathwaite
Billy Ocean singles chronology
"Suddenly"
(1985) "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going"
(1985) "There'll Be Sad Songs (To Make You Cry)"
(1986)
"Suddenly"
(1985) "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going"
(1986) "There'll Be Sad Songs (To Make You Cry)"
(1986)
Audio sample
file
help
"When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going" is a song co-written and originally recorded by English singer Billy Ocean in 1985.
Written by Wayne Brathwaite, Barry Eastmond, Mutt Lange and Billy Ocean, the song was used as the theme song for the Michael Douglas film, The Jewel of the Nile, the sequel to the hit blockbuster film, Romancing the Stone. The saxophone solo is by Vernon Jeffrey Smith.[1]
Aided by a video featuring Michael Douglas and co-stars Kathleen Turner and Danny DeVito as lip-synching backup singers, the song became a major international hit reaching number one on the UK Singles Chart for four weeks in February 1986,[2] and number two on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, stalling behind "How Will I Know" by Whitney Houston.
Contents
[hide]
1 12" track listing
2 Chart performance
3 Boyzone version
3.1 Track listing
3.2 Charts
3.2.1 Year-end charts
3.3 Certifications
4 Usage in media
5 References
6 External links
12" track listing[edit]
A1 "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going" (extended version) – 5:43
A2 "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going" (7" version) – 4:08
B1 "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going" (club mix) – 7:35
B2 "When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going" (instrumental) – 5:12[3]
Other Versions
7th Heaven Club Mix - 6:44
7th Heaven Radio Edit - 4:22
Chart performance[edit]
Chart (1986)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[4] 1
Austrian Singles Chart 8
Belgian Singles Chart 1
Canadian Singles Chart 1
Dutch Singles Chart 1
French Singles Chart 6
German Singles Chart 2
Irish Singles Chart 1
New Zealand Singles Chart 3
Norwegian Singles Chart 1
Spain (AFYVE)[5] 2
Swedish Singles Chart 2
Swiss Singles Chart 2
UK Singles Chart[6] 1
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 2
U.S. Billboard Hot Soul Singles 6
U.S. Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary 2
U.S. Billboard Hot Dance Club Play 31
Boyzone version[edit]
"When the Going Gets Tough"
Single by Boyzone
from the album By Request
Released
1 March 1999
Recorded
March 1996
Genre
Pop
Length
5:44 (album version)
4:08 (UK radio edit))
2:59 (US radio edit)
Label
Universal
Songwriter(s)
Billy Ocean
Producer(s)
Mike Mangini, Trevor Steel, Carl Sturken, Nigel Wright, Absolute, Jim Steinman, Ian Curnow, Mark Hudson
Boyzone singles chronology
"I Love the Way You Love Me"
(1998) "When the Going Gets Tough"
(1999) "You Needed Me"
(1999)
"I Love the Way You Love Me"
(1998) "When the Going Gets Tough"
(1999) "You Needed Me"
(1999)
The Irish boyband Boyzone recorded a cover version for the 1999 Comic Relief telethon, shortening the title to "When The Going Gets Tough". Their version reached number #1 on the UK Singles Chart.[6] The song received a platinum certification in the UK.[7] The video included Graham Norton, Jo Brand, Phill Jupitus, Mel Smith, Davina McCall, Harry Hill, Steve Collins, John McCririck, Jimmy White, Mystic Meg, Will Mellor, James Dreyfus, the cast of Emmerdale, Adam Buxton and Joe Cornish, and Ulrika Jonsson and Saracen from Gladiators.
Track listing[edit]
CD1
"When the Going Gets Tough" - 3:35
"What a Wonderful World" (Featuring Alison Moyet) - 4:00
"Love Can Build a Bridge" - 3:59
CD2 (Limited Edition Pop Up Red Nose Digipak)[8]
"When the Going Gets Tough" - 3:35
"I'll Never Not Need You" - 4:07
Charts[edit]
Chart (1999)
Peak
position
Europe (Eurochart Hot 100)[9] 7
French Singles Chart[10] 71
Irish Singles Chart[11] 2
Japanese Singles Chart[12] 91
Scottish Singles Chart[13] 1
UK Singles Chart[14] 1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1999)
Position
UK Singles Chart[citation needed] 10
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
United Kingdom (BPI)[15]
Platinum 600,000^
^shipments figures based on certification alone
Usage in media[edit]
In 1994, the song was used for a clip of the 1986 edition of the BBC documentary The Rock 'n' Roll Years featuring coverage of the People Power Revolution in the Philippines. Three years later, it was also used as a background song in the 1985-86 football season edition of Match of the 80s, during coverage of the challenge Kenny Dalglish faced on his appointment as player-manager of Liverpool F.C..
In the 2008 film Easy Virtue a cover version, in 1920s faux-jazz style, featured in the closing credits performed by Colin Firth, Ben Barnes, Jessica Biel, and Andy Caine.
The song was used in the film Keith Lemon: The Film (2012), as an ongoing theme, highlighting the claim that Billy Ocean was Lemon's father. Ocean himself appears in a cameo role.
In 1986, during the shows Championship Wrestling, Superstars of Wrestling (and occasionally Prime Time Wrestling), the WWE (then called the WWF - World Wrestling Federation) would sometimes play the introduction part of the song while it would show a replay of a finishing move during a wrestling match.
The song that is featured in the teaser trailer of 2005's Chicken Little.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "V. JEFFREY SMITH (TORS-Producer/Sound Engineer)... - The Outlet Radio Show". Theoutletradioshow.tumblr.com. 15 March 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. pp. 458–9. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
Jump up ^ "Billy Ocean - When The Going Gets Tough, The Tough Get Going (Vinyl) at Discogs". Discogs.com. Retrieved 2014-03-30.
Jump up ^ Kent, David (1993). Australian Chart Book 1970–1992 (Illustrated ed.). St. Ives, N.S.W.: Australian Chart Book. p. 221. ISBN 0-646-11917-6. N.B. The Kent Report chart was licensed by ARIA between mid 1983 and 19 June 1988.
Jump up ^ Salaverri, Fernando (September 2005). Sólo éxitos: año a año, 1959–2002 (1st ed.). Spain: Fundación Autor-SGAE. ISBN 84-8048-639-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 631. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
Jump up ^ "British certifications – When the Going Gets Tough". British Phonographic Industry. Enter When the Going Gets Tough in the search field and then press Enter.
Jump up ^ "Boyzone When The Going Gets Tough - Pop Up France CD single (CD5 / 5") (142509)". Eil.com. Retrieved 2014-03-04.
Jump up ^ Nielsen Business Media, Inc (1999-03-20). "Billboard".
Jump up ^ Steffen Hung. "Boyzone - When The Going Gets Tough". dutchcharts.nl. Retrieved 2014-03-04.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20131018042138/http://www.irishcharts.ie/search/placement?page=2. Archived from the original on October 18, 2013. Retrieved January 8, 2012. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "Boyzone ...By Request". Retrieved 2014-03-30.
Jump up ^ "Official Scottish Singles Chart Top 100: 07 March 1999 - 13 March 1999". Retrieved 2014-03-30.
Jump up ^ "ChartArchive - The Chart Archive". Chartstats.com. Retrieved 2014-03-30.
Jump up ^ "British single certifications – Boyzone – When the going gets tough". British Phonographic Industry. Enter When the going gets tough in the search field and then press Enter.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"The Sun Always Shines on T.V." by a-ha UK number-one single (Billy Ocean version)
8 February 1986 - 8 March 1986 Succeeded by
"Chain Reaction" by Diana Ross
Preceded by
"...Baby One More Time" by Britney Spears Scottish Singles Chart (Boyzone version)
7 March 1999 - 28 March 1999 Succeeded by
"Flat Beat" by Mr. Oizo
Preceded by
"...Baby One More Time" by Britney Spears UK number-one single (Boyzone version)
7 March 1999 - 14 March 1999 Succeeded by
"Blame It on the Weatherman" by B*Witched
[show]
v
t
e
Billy Ocean
Studio albums
Billy Ocean
Suddenly
Love Zone
Tear Down These Walls
Time to Move On
Singles
"Love Really Hurts Without You"
"Stay the Night"
"Caribbean Queen (No More Love on the Run)"
"Loverboy"
"Suddenly"
"When the Going Gets Tough, the Tough Get Going"
"There'll Be Sad Songs (To Make You Cry)"
"Love Zone"
"Love Is Forever"
"Get Outta My Dreams, Get into My Car"
"Calypso Crazy"
Related topics
Discography
Book:Billy Ocean
[show]
v
t
e
Boyzone
Keith Duffy
Mikey Graham
Ronan Keating
Shane Lynch
Stephen Gately
Studio albums
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Brother
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By Request
Ballads – The Love Song Collection
Key to My Life: Collection
Back Again... No Matter What
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"Working My Way Back to You"
"Love Me for a Reason"
"Key to My Life"
"So Good"
"Father and Son"
"Coming Home Now"
"Words"
"A Different Beat"
"Isn't It a Wonder"
"Picture of You"
"Mystical Experience"
"Picture of You"
"Baby Can I Hold You"
"All That I Need"
"No Matter What"
"I Love the Way You Love Me"
"When the Going Gets Tough"
"You Needed Me"
"Every Day I Love You"
"Love You Anyway"
"Better"
"Gave It All Away"
"Love Is a Hurricane"
"Love Will Save the Day"
"Light Up the Night"
Books
The Tree of Seasons
Discographies
Boyzone
Ronan Keating
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=When_the_Going_Gets_Tough,_the_Tough_Get_Going_(song)&oldid=812078053"
Categories:
1986 songs
1986 singles
1996 singles
1999 singles
Billy Ocean songs
Boyzone songs
Comic Relief singles
Number-one singles in Australia
Number-one singles in Belgium
RPM Top Singles number-one singles
Dutch Top 40 number-one singles
European Hot 100 Singles number-one singles
Irish Singles Chart number-one singles
Number-one singles in Norway
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
Song recordings produced by Robert John "Mutt" Lange
Songs written by Robert John "Mutt" Lange
Songs written by Billy Ocean
Songs written by Barry Eastmond
Jive Records singles
Funk songs
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