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Shang dynasty
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"Shang" redirects here. For other uses, see Shang (disambiguation).
Shang
商
Kingdom
c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC
Remnants of advanced, stratified societies dating back to the Shang period have been found in the Yellow River Valley.
Capital Yin (modern Anyang)
Languages Old Chinese
Religion Chinese folk religion
Government Monarchy
Historical era Bronze Age
• Established c. 1600 BC
• Zhou conquest c. 1046 BC
Area
• 1122 BC est.[1] 1,250,000 km2 (480,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by
Xia dynasty
Zhou dynasty
Today part of China
Shang
"Shang" in oracle bone script (top left), bronze script (top right), seal script (bottom left), and regular (bottom right) Chinese characters
Chinese
商
[show]Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
Shāng
Wade–Giles
Shang1
IPA
[ʂáŋ]
Wu
Suzhounese
Saon
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
Sēung
IPA
[sœ́ːŋ]
Jyutping
Soeng1
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ
Siong
Old Chinese
Baxter–Sagart (2014)
*s-tang
Alternative Chinese name
Chinese
殷代
Literal meaning
Yin era
[show]Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
Yīn dài
Wade–Giles
Yin tai
Wu
Romanization
In de
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
Yān doih
Jyutping
Jan1 doi6
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ
Ûn tāi
Old Chinese
Baxter–Sagart (2014)
*ʔər m-traw
History of China
ANCIENT
Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BC
Xia dynasty c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC
Shang dynasty c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC
Zhou dynasty c. 1046 – 256 BC
Western Zhou
Eastern Zhou
Spring and Autumn
Warring States
IMPERIAL
Qin dynasty 221–206 BC
Han dynasty 206 BC – 220 AD
Western Han
Xin dynasty
Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin dynasty 265–420
Western Jin
Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms
Northern and Southern dynasties
420–589
Sui dynasty 581–618
Tang dynasty 618–907
(Second Zhou dynasty 690–705)
Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms
907–960 Liao dynasty
907–1125
Song dynasty
960–1279
Northern Song Western Xia
Southern Song Jin
Yuan dynasty 1271–1368
Ming dynasty 1368–1644
Qing dynasty 1644–1912
MODERN
Republic of China 1912–1949
People's Republic of China 1949–present
Related articles [show]
Chinese historiography
Timeline of Chinese history
Dynasties in Chinese history
Linguistic history
Art history
Economic history
Education history
Science and technology history
Legal history
Media history
Military history
Naval history
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The Shang dynasty (Chinese: 商朝; pinyin: Shāng cháo) or Yin dynasty (殷代; Yīn dài), according to traditional historiography, ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Zhou dynasty. The classic account of the Shang comes from texts such as the Book of Documents, Bamboo Annals and Records of the Grand Historian. According to the traditional chronology based on calculations made approximately 2,000 years ago by Liu Xin, the Shang ruled from 1766 to 1122 BC, but according to the chronology based upon the "current text" of Bamboo Annals, they ruled from 1556 to 1046 BC. The Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project dated them from c. 1600 to 1046 BC.
The Shang dynasty is the earliest dynasty of traditional Chinese history supported by archaeological evidence. Excavation at the Ruins of Yin (near modern-day Anyang), which has been identified as the last Shang capital, uncovered eleven major royal tombs and the foundations of palaces and ritual sites, containing weapons of war and remains from both animal and human sacrifices. Tens of thousands of bronze, jade, stone, bone, and ceramic artifacts have been found.
The Anyang site has yielded the earliest known body of Chinese writing, mostly divinations inscribed on oracle bones – turtle shells, ox scapulae, or other bones. More than 20,000 were discovered in the initial scientific excavations during the 1920s and 1930s, and over four times as many have been found since. The inscriptions provide critical insight into many topics from the politics, economy, and religious practices to the art and medicine of this early stage of Chinese civilization.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Traditional accounts
1.1 Course of the dynasty
2 Early Bronze Age archaeology
2.1 Yellow River valley
2.1.1 Yinxu site
2.1.2 Huanbei site
2.1.3 Zhengzhou Shang City
2.1.4 Yanshi
2.2 Panlongcheng site
2.3 Background
2.4 Related and contemporary sites
2.5 Genetic studies
3 Late Shang at Anyang
3.1 Court life
3.2 Religion
3.3 Bronze working
3.4 Military
4 Kings
5 Descendants of the Shang royal family
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Traditional accounts[edit]
Many events concerning the Shang dynasty are mentioned in various Chinese classics, including the Book of Documents, the Mencius and the Zuo Zhuan. Working from all the available documents, the Han dynasty historian Sima Qian assembled a sequential account of the Shang dynasty as part of his Records of the Grand Historian. His history describes some events in detail, while in other cases only the name of a king is given.[3] A closely related, but slightly different, account is given by the Bamboo Annals. The Annals were interred in 296 BC, but the text has a complex history and the authenticity of the surviving versions is controversial.[4]
The name Yīn (殷) is used by Sima Qian for the dynasty, and in the "current text" version of the Bamboo Annals for both the dynasty and its final capital. It has been a popular name for the Shang throughout history. Since the Records of Emperors and Kings by Huangfu Mi (3rd century AD), it has often been used specifically to describe the later half of the Shang dynasty. In Japan and Korea, the Shang are still referred to almost exclusively as the Yin (In) dynasty. However it seems to have been a Zhou name for the earlier dynasty. The word does not appear in the oracle bones, which refer to the state as Shāng (商), and the capital as Dàyì Shāng (大邑商 "Great Settlement Shang").[5] It also does not appear in securely-dated Western Zhou bronze inscriptions.[6]
Course of the dynasty[edit]
Sima Qian's Annals of the Yin begins by describing the predynastic founder of the Shang lineage, Xie (偰) — also appearing as Qi (契) — as having been miraculously conceived when Jiandi, a wife of Emperor Ku, swallowed an egg dropped by a black bird. Xie is said to have helped Yu the Great to control the Great Flood and for his service to have been granted a place called Shang as a fief.[7]
Sima Qian relates that the dynasty itself was founded 13 generations later, when Xie's descendant Tang overthrew the impious and cruel final Xia ruler in the Battle of Mingtiao. The Records recount events from the reigns of Tang, Tai Jia, Tai Wu, Pan Geng, Wu Ding, Wu Yi and the depraved final king Di Xin, but the rest of the Shang rulers are merely mentioned by name. According to the Records, the Shang moved their capital five times, with the final move to Yin in the reign of Pan Geng inaugurating the golden age of the dynasty.[8]
Di Xin, the last Shang king, is said to have committed suicide after his army was defeated by Wu of Zhou. Legends say that his army and his equipped slaves betrayed him by joining the Zhou rebels in the decisive Battle of Muye. According to the Yi Zhou Shu and Mencius the battle was very bloody. The classic, Ming-era novel Fengshen Yanyi retells the story of the war between Shang and Zhou as a conflict where rival factions of gods supported different sides in the war.
After the Shang were defeated, King Wu allowed Di Xin's son Wu Geng to rule the Shang as a vassal kingdom. However, Zhou Wu sent three of his brothers and an army to ensure that Wu Geng would not rebel.[9][10][11] After Zhou Wu's death, the Shang joined the Rebellion of the Three Guards against the Duke of Zhou, but the rebellion collapsed after three years, leaving Zhou in control of Shang territory.
Early Bronze Age archaeology[edit]
Main article: Shang archaeology
Further information: History of Chinese archaeology
Fragments; shards Wheel-thrown earthenware with carved designs China, Shang dynasty, about 1700-1023 B.C.
Before the 20th century, the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) was the earliest Chinese dynasty that could be verified from its own records. However, during the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), antiquarians collected bronze ritual vessels attributed to the Shang era, some of which bore inscriptions.[12] These types of early inscriptions were later traced to the Yinxu site in the Yellow River valley.
Yellow River valley[edit]
There are several important Shang sites in the Yellow River valley.
Yinxu site[edit]
In 1899, several scholars noticed that Chinese pharmacists were selling "dragon bones" marked with curious and archaic characters.[12] These were finally traced back in 1928 to a site (now called Yinxu) near Anyang, north of the Yellow River in modern Henan province, where the Academia Sinica undertook archeological excavation until the Japanese invasion in 1937.[12]
Archaeologists focused on the Yellow River valley in Henan as the most likely site of the states described in the traditional histories.
Huanbei site[edit]
The remains of a walled city of about 470 hectares (1,200 acres) were discovered in 1999 across the Huan River from the well explored Yinxu site. The city, now known as Huanbei, was apparently occupied for less than a century and destroyed shortly before the construction of the Yinxu complex.[13][14]
Zhengzhou Shang City[edit]
After 1950, the remnants of the earlier walled settlement of Shang City were discovered near Zhengzhou.[12] It has been determined that the earth walls at Zhengzhou, erected in the 15th century BC, would have been 20 m (66 ft) wide at the base, rising to a height of 8 m (26 ft), and formed a roughly rectangular wall 7 km (4 mi) around the ancient city.[15][16] The rammed earth construction of these walls was an inherited tradition, since much older fortifications of this type have been found at Chinese Neolithic sites of the Longshan culture (c. 3000–2000 BC).[15]
Yanshi[edit]
There are two important archaeological sites near the modern city of Yanshi on the Luo River, a tributary of the Yellow River.
In 1959, the site of the Erlitou culture was found in Yanshi, south of the Yellow River near Luoyang.[15] Radiocarbon dating suggests that the Erlitou culture flourished ca. 2100 BC to 1800 BC. They built large palaces, suggesting the existence of an organized state.[17]
In 1983, Yanshi Shang City was discovered 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) north-east of the Erlitou site in Yanshi's Shixianggou Township. This was a large walled city dating from 1600 BC. It had an area of nearly 200 hectares (490 acres) and featured pottery characteristic of the Erligang culture.
Panlongcheng site[edit]
The Panlongcheng site in the middle Yangtze valley was an important regional center of the Erligang culture.[18]
Background[edit]
Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, and readily identified the Erligang and Erlitou sites with the early Shang and Xia dynasty of traditional histories.
The actual political situation in early China may have been more complicated, with the Xia and Shang being political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou, who established the successor state of the Shang, are known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.[19] It has also been suggested the Xia legend originated during the Shang dynasty, the Shang having a myth of a people preceding them who were their inverse.[20]
Related and contemporary sites[edit]
Erlitou
Zhengzhou
Panlongcheng
Anyang
Sanxingdui
Wucheng
Major archaeological sites of the second millennium BC in north and central China
The Erligang culture represented by the Yellow River sites is found across a wide area of China, even as far northeast as the area of modern Beijing, where at least one burial in this region during this period contained both Erligang-style bronzes and local-style gold jewelry.[19] The discovery of a Chenggu-style ge dagger-axe at Xiaohenan demonstrates that even at this early stage of Chinese history, there were some ties between the distant areas of north China.[19]
Accidental finds elsewhere in China have revealed advanced civilizations contemporaneous with but culturally unlike the settlement at Anyang, such as the walled city of Sanxingdui in Sichuan. Western scholars are hesitant to designate such settlements as belonging to the Shang dynasty.[21] Also unlike the Shang, there is no known evidence that the Sanxingdui culture had a system of writing.
In contrast, the earliest layers of the Wucheng site, pre-dating Anyang, have yielded pottery fragments containing short sequences of symbols, suggesting that they may be a form of writing quite different in form from oracle bone characters, but the sample is too small for decipherment.[22][23][24]
Genetic studies[edit]
A study of mitochondrial DNA (inherited in the maternal line) from Yinxu graves showed similarity with modern northern Han Chinese, but significant differences from southern Han Chinese.[25]
Late Shang at Anyang[edit]
Oracle bones pit at Yin
The oldest extant direct records date from around 1200 BC at Anyang, covering the reigns of the last nine Shang kings. The Shang had a fully developed system of writing, preserved on bronze inscriptions and a small number of other writings on pottery, jade and other stones, horn, etc., but most prolifically on oracle bones.[26] The complexity and sophistication of this writing system indicates an earlier period of development, but direct evidence of that development is still lacking. Other advances included the invention of many musical instruments and observations of Mars and various comets by Shang astronomers.[27]
Their civilization was based on agriculture and augmented by hunting and animal husbandry.[28] In addition to war, the Shang also practiced human sacrifice.[29] Crania of sacrificial victims have been found to be similar to modern Chinese ones (based on comparisons with remains from Hainan and Taiwan).[30][31] Cowry shells were also excavated at Anyang, suggesting trade with coast-dwellers, but there was very limited sea trade in ancient China since China was isolated from other large civilizations during the Shang period.[32] Trade relations and diplomatic ties with other formidable powers via the Silk Road and Chinese voyages to the Indian Ocean did not exist until the reign of Emperor Wu during the Han dynasty (206 BC–221 AD).[33][34]
Court life[edit]
Oracle shell with inscriptions.
Bronzewares from the excavated tomb of Fu Hao
At the excavated royal palace of Yinxu, large stone pillar bases were found along with rammed earth foundations and platforms, which according to Fairbank, were "as hard as cement".[12] These foundations in turn originally supported 53 buildings of wooden post-and-beam construction.[12] In close proximity to the main palatial complex, there were underground pits used for storage, servants' quarters, and housing quarters.[12]
Many Shang royal tombs had been tunneled into and ravaged by grave robbers in ancient times,[35] but in the spring of 1976, the discovery of Tomb 5 at Yinxu revealed a tomb that was not only undisturbed, but one of the most richly furnished Shang tombs that archaeologists had yet come across.[36] With over 200 bronze ritual vessels and 109 inscriptions of Lady Fu Hao's name, Zheng Zhenxiang and other archaeologists realized they had stumbled across the tomb of King Wu Ding's most famous consort, Fu Hao, who is mentioned in 170 to 180 Shang oracle bone inscriptions, and who was also renowned as a military general.[37] Along with bronze vessels, stoneware and pottery vessels, bronze weapons, jade figures and hair combs, and bone hairpins were found.[38][39][40] Historian Robert L. Thorp states that the large assortment of weapons and ritual vessels in her tomb correlate with the oracle bone accounts of her military career and involvement in Wu Ding's ritual ancestral sacrifices.[41]
The capital was the center of court life. Over time, court rituals to appease spirits developed, and in addition to his secular duties, the king would serve as the head of the ancestor worship cult. Often, the king would even perform oracle bone divinations himself, especially near the end of the dynasty. Evidence from excavations of the royal tombs indicates that royalty were buried with articles of value, presumably for use in the afterlife. Perhaps for the same reason, hundreds of commoners, who may have been slaves, were buried alive with the royal corpse.
A line of hereditary Shang kings ruled over much of northern China, and Shang troops fought frequent wars with neighboring settlements and nomadic herdsmen from the inner Asian steppes. The Shang king, in his oracular divinations, repeatedly shows concern about the fang groups, the barbarians living outside of the civilized tu regions, which made up the center of Shang territory.[clarification needed] In particular, the tufang group of the Yanshan region were regularly mentioned as hostile to the Shang.[19]
Apart from their role as the head military commanders, Shang kings also asserted their social supremacy by acting as the high priests of society and leading the divination ceremonies.[42] As the oracle bone texts reveal, the Shang kings were viewed as the best qualified members of society to offer sacrifices to their royal ancestors and to the high god Di, who in their beliefs was responsible for the rain, wind, and thunder.[42]
Religion[edit]
Chinese Shang dynasty bronze face masks, 16th–14th century BC
Shang religious rituals featured divination and sacrifice. The degree to which shamanism was a central aspect of Shang religion is a subject of debate.[43][44]
There were six main recipients of sacrifice: (1) Di, the High God, (2) nature powers like the sun and mountain powers, (3) former lords, deceased humans who had been added to the dynastic pantheon, (4) predynastic ancestors, (5) dynastic ancestors, and (6) dynastic ancestresses such as the concubines of a past emperor.[45]
The Shang believed that their ancestors held power over them and performed divination rituals to secure their approval for planned actions.[45] Divination involved cracking a turtle carapace or ox scapula to answer a question, and to then record the response to that question on the bone itself.[43] It is unknown what criteria the diviners used to determine the response, but it is believed to be the sound or pattern of the cracks on the bone.[citation needed]
The Shang also seem to have believed in an afterlife, as evidenced by the elaborate burial tombs built for deceased rulers. Often "carriages, utensils, sacrificial vessels, [and] weapons" would be included in the tomb.[46] A king's burial involved the burial of up to several hundred humans and horses as well to accompany the king into the afterlife, in some cases even numbering four hundred.[46] Finally, tombs included ornaments such as jade, which the Shang may have believed to protect against decay or confer immortality.
The Shang religion was highly bureaucratic and meticulously ordered. Oracle bones contained descriptions of the date, ritual, person, ancestor, and questions associated with the divination.[43] Tombs displayed highly ordered arrangements of bones, with groups of skeletons laid out facing the same direction.
Bronze working[edit]
Main article: Chinese ritual bronzes
Chinese bronze casting and pottery advanced during the Shang dynasty, with bronze typically being used for ritually significant, rather than primarily utilitarian, items. As far back as c. 1500 BC, the early Shang dynasty engaged in large-scale production of bronze-ware vessels and weapons.[47] This production required a large labor force that could handle the mining, refining, and transportation of the necessary copper, tin, and lead ores. This in turn created a need for official managers that could oversee both hard-laborers and skilled artisans and craftsmen.[47] The Shang royal court and aristocrats required a vast number of different bronze vessels for various ceremonial purposes and events of religious divination.[47] Ceremonial rules even decreed how many bronze containers of each type a nobleman or noblewoman of a certain rank could own. With the increased amount of bronze available, the army could also better equip itself with an assortment of bronze weaponry. Bronze was also used for the fittings of spoke-wheeled chariots, which appeared in China around 1200 BC.[42]
A Shang dynasty bronze ding vessel
The Shang dynasty Houmuwu Ding is the heaviest piece of bronze work found in China so far.
A late Shang dynasty bronze ding vessel with taotie motif
Bronze gū ritual wine vessel
Military[edit]
A bronze axe of the Shang dynasty
Bronze weapons were an integral part of Shang society.[48] Shang infantry were armed with a variety of stone and bronze weaponry, including máo (矛) spears, yuè (鉞) pole-axes, gē (戈) pole-based dagger-axes, composite bows, and bronze or leather helmets.[49][50]
The chariot first appeared in China around 1200 BC, during the reign of Wu Ding. There is little doubt that the chariot entered China through the Central Asia and the Northern Steppe, possibly indicating some form of contact with the Indo-Europeans.[51] Recent archaeological finds have shown that the late Shang used horses, chariots, bows and practiced horse burials that are similar to the steppe peoples to the west.[52] These influences led Christopher I. Beckwith to speculate that Indo-Europeans "may even have been responsible for the foundation of the Shang Dynasty", though he admits there is no direct evidence.[53] Oracle bone inscriptions suggest that the Shang used chariots in royal hunts and in battle only as mobile command vehicles.[54] In contrast, the western enemies of the Shang, such as the Zhou, began to use limited numbers of chariots in battle towards the end of the Shang period.[55]
Although the Shang depended upon the military skills of their nobility, Shang rulers could mobilize the masses of town-dwelling and rural commoners as conscript laborers and soldiers for both campaigns of defense and conquest.[56] Aristocrats and other state rulers were obligated to furnish their local garrisons with all necessary equipment, armor, and armaments. The Shang king maintained a force of about a thousand troops at his capital and would personally lead this force into battle.[57] A rudimentary military bureaucracy was also needed in order to muster forces ranging from three to five thousand troops for border campaigns to thirteen thousand troops for suppressing rebellions against the Shang dynasty.
Kings[edit]
See also: List of monarchs and The family tree of the Shang kings
The earliest records are the oracle bones inscribed during the reigns of the Shang kings from Wu Ding.[58] The oracle bones do not contain king lists, but they do record the sacrifices to previous kings and the ancestors of the current king, which follow a standard schedule that scholars have reconstructed. From this evidence, scholars have assembled the implied king list and genealogy, finding that it is in substantial agreement with the later accounts, especially for later kings.[59]
The Shang kings were referred to in the oracle bones by posthumous names. The last character of each name is one of the 10 celestial stems, which also denoted the day of the 10-day Shang week on which sacrifices would be offered to that ancestor within the ritual schedule. There were more kings than stems, so the names have distinguishing prefixes such as 大 Dà (greater), 中 Zhōng (middle), 小 Xiǎo (lesser), 卜 Bǔ (outer), 祖 Zǔ (ancestor) and a few more obscure names.[60]
The kings, in the order of succession derived from the oracle bones, are here grouped by generation. Later reigns were assigned to oracle bone diviner groups by Dong Zuobin:[61]
Generation
Older brothers
Main line of descent
Younger brothers
Diviner group
1 大乙 Dà Yǐ[i] [ii]
2 大丁 Dà Dīng[iii]
3 大甲 Dà Jiǎ 卜丙 Bǔ Bǐng[iv]
4 [v] 大庚 Dà Gēng 小甲 Xiǎo Jiǎ[vi]
5 大戊 Dà Wù 呂己 Lǚ Jǐ[vii]
6 中丁 Zhōng Dīng[viii] 卜壬 Bǔ Rén
7 戔甲 Jiān Jiǎ 祖乙 Zǔ Yǐ
8 祖辛 Zǔ Xīn 羌甲 Qiāng Jiǎ[ix]
9 祖丁 Zǔ Dīng 南庚 Nán Gēng[x]
10 象甲 Xiàng Jiǎ 盤庚 Pán Gēng 小辛 Xiǎo Xīn 小乙 Xiǎo Yǐ
11 武丁 Wǔ Dīng I
12 [xi] 祖庚 Zǔ Gēng 祖甲 Zǔ Jiǎ II
13 廩辛 Lǐn Xīn[xii] 康丁 Gēng Dīng III
14 武乙 Wǔ Yǐ IV
15 文武丁 Wén Wǔ Dīng
16 帝乙 Dì Yǐ[xiii] V
17 帝辛 Dì Xīn[xiv]
Notes
Jump up ^ The first king is known as Tang in the Historical Records. The oracle bones also identify six pre-dynastic ancestors: 上甲 Shàng Jiǎ, 報乙 Bào Yǐ, 報丙 Bào Bǐng, 報丁 Bào Dīng, 示壬 Shì Rén and 示癸 Shì Guǐ.
Jump up ^ There is no firm evidence of oracle bone inscriptions before the reign of Wu Ding.
Jump up ^ According to the Historical Records and the Mencius, Da Ding (there called Tai Ding) died before he could ascend to the throne. However in the oracle bones he receives rituals like any other king.
Jump up ^ According to the Historical Records, Bu Bing (there called Wai Bing) and 仲壬 Zhong Ren (not mentioned in the oracle bones) were younger brothers of Dai Ting and preceded Da Jia (also known as Dai Jia). However the Mencius, the Commentary of Zuo and the Book of History state that he reigned after Da Jia, as also implied by the oracle bones.
Jump up ^ The Historical Records include a king Wo Ding not mentioned in the oracle bones.
Jump up ^ The Historical Records have Xiao Jia as the son of Da Geng (known as Tai Geng) in the "Annals of Yin", but as a younger brother (as implied by the oracle bones) in the "Genealogical Table of the Three Ages".
Jump up ^ According to the Historical Records, Lü Ji (there called Yong Ji) reigned before Da Wu (there called Tai Wu).
Jump up ^ The kings from Zhong Ding to Nan Geng are placed in the same order by the Historical Records and the oracle bones, but there are some differences in genealogy, as described in the articles on individual kings.
Jump up ^ The status of Qiang Jia varies over the history of the oracle bones. During the reigns of Wu Ding, Di Yi and Di Xin, he was not included in the main line of descent, a position also held by the Historical Records, but in the intervening reigns he was included as a direct ancestor.
Jump up ^ According to the Historical Records, Nan Geng was the son of Qiang Jia (there called Wo Jia).
Jump up ^ The oracle bones and the Historical Records include an older brother 祖己 Zǔ Jǐ who did not reign.
Jump up ^ Lin Xin is named as a king in the Historical Records and oracle bones of succeeding reigns, but not those of the last two kings.[62]
Jump up ^ There are no ancestral sacrifices to the last two kings on the oracles bones, due to the fall of Shang. Their names, including the character 帝 Dì "emperor", come from the much later Bamboo Annals and Historical Records.[63]
Jump up ^ also referred to as Zhòu (紂), Zhòu Xīn (紂辛) or Zhòu Wáng (紂王) or by adding "Shāng" (商) in front of any of these names.
Descendants of the Shang royal family[edit]
After Shang's collapse, Zhou's rulers forcibly relocated "Yin diehards" (殷頑) and scattered them throughout Zhou territory.[64] Some surviving members of the Shang royal family collectively changed their surname from the ancestral name Zi (子) to the name of their fallen dynasty, Yin. The family retained an aristocratic standing and often provided needed administrative services to the succeeding Zhou dynasty. The Records of the Grand Historian states that King Cheng of Zhou, with the support of his regent and uncle, the Duke of Zhou, enfeoffed Weiziqi (微子啟), a brother of Di Xin, as the Duke of Song, with its capital at Shangqiu. This practice was referred to[by whom?] as 二王三恪. The Dukes of Song would maintain rites honoring the Shang kings until Qi conquered Song in 286 BC. Confucius was a descendant of the Shang Kings through the Dukes of Song.[65][66][67][need quotation to verify]
The Eastern Han dynasty bestowed the title of Duke of Song and "Duke Who Continues and Honours the Yin" (殷紹嘉公) upon Kong An (孔安 (東漢)) because he was part of the Shang dynasty's legacy.[68][69] This branch of the Confucius family is a separate branch from the line that held the title of Marquis of Fengsheng village and later Duke Yansheng.
Another remnant of the Shang established the vassal state of Guzhu (located in present-day Tangshan), which Duke Huan of Qi destroyed.[70][71][72] Many Shang clans that migrated northeast after the dynasty's collapse were integrated into Yan culture during the Western Zhou period. These clans maintained an élite status and continued practicing the sacrificial and burial traditions of the Shang.[19]
Both Korean and Chinese legends, including reports in the Book of Documents and the Bamboo Annals, state that a disgruntled Shang prince named Jizi, who had refused to cede power to the Zhou, left China with a small army. According to these legends, he founded a state known as Gija Joseon in northwest Korea during the Gojoseon period of ancient Korean history. However, scholars debate the historical accuracy of these legends.
See also[edit]
Chinese sovereign
Chinese mythology
Historical capitals of China
Women in ancient and imperial China
References[edit]
Citations
Jump up ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires and Modern States". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 219–229. ISSN 1076-156X.
Jump up ^ Keightley (2000).
Jump up ^ Keightley (1999), pp. 233–235.
Jump up ^ Keightley (1978b).
Jump up ^ Keightley (1999), p. 232.
Jump up ^ Keightley (1978a), p. xiv.
Jump up ^ Keightley (1999), p. 233, with additional details from the Historical Records.
Jump up ^ Keightley (1999), p. 233.
Jump up ^ 邶、鄘二國考 (Bei, Yong two national test)
Jump up ^ 周初"三监"与邶、鄘、卫地望研究 (Bei, Yong, Wei – looking at the research)
Jump up ^ "三监"人物疆地及其地望辨析 ——兼论康叔的始封地问题 Archived 9 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine. (breaking ground on Kangshu problem)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Fairbank & Goldman (2006), p. 33.
Jump up ^ Harrington, Spencer P.M. (May–June 2000). "Shang City Uncovered". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute of America. 53 (3).
Jump up ^ Tang, Jigen; Jing, Zhichun; Liu, Zhongfu; Yue, Zhanwei (2004). "Survey and Test Excavation of the Huanbei Shang City in Anyang" (PDF). Chinese Archaeology. 4: 1–20.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fairbank & Goldman (2006), p. 34.
Jump up ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 43.
Jump up ^ Fairbank & Goldman (2006), pp. 34–35.
Jump up ^ Bagley (1999), pp. 168–171.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Sun (2006).
Jump up ^ Shape of the Turtle, The: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China
Jump up ^ Bagley (1999), pp. 124–125.
Jump up ^ Wilkinson (2013), p. 669.
Jump up ^ Wagner (1993), p. 20.
Jump up ^ Cheung (1983).
Jump up ^ Zeng, Wen; Li, Jiawei; Yue, Hongbin; Zhou, Hui; Zhu, Hong (2013). "Poster: Preliminary Research on Hereditary Features of Yinxu Population".
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Jump up ^ A Short History of China.
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Jump up ^ Flad, Dr. Rowan (28 Feb 2010). "Shang Dynasty Human Sacrifice". NGC Presents. National Geographic. Retrieved 3 Mar 2010.
Jump up ^ Pietrusewsky, Michael (2005). "The physical anthropology of the Pacific, East Asia and Southeast Asia: a multivariate craniometric analysis". In Sagart, Laurent; Blench, Roger; Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia. The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. RoutledgeCurzon. pp. 201–229. ISBN 978-0-415-32242-3, page 203.
Jump up ^ Howells, William (1983). "Origins of the Chinese People: Interpretations of recent evidence". In Keightley, David N. The Origins of Chinese Civilization. University of California Press. pp. 297–319. ISBN 978-0-520-04229-2, pages 312–313.
Jump up ^ Fairbank & Goldman (2006), p. 35.
Jump up ^ Sun (1989), pp. 161–167.
Jump up ^ Chen (2002), pp. 67–71.
Jump up ^ Thorp (1981), p. 239.
Jump up ^ Thorp (1981), p. 240.
Jump up ^ Thorp (1981), pp. 240, 245.
Jump up ^ Thorp (1981), pp. 242, 245.
Jump up ^ Li (1980), pp. 393–394.
Jump up ^ Lerner et al. (1985), p. 77.
Jump up ^ Thorp (1981), p. 245.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 14.
^ Jump up to: a b c Chang (1994).
Jump up ^ Keightley (1998).
^ Jump up to: a b Keightley (2004).
^ Jump up to: a b Smith (1961).
^ Jump up to: a b c Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006), p. 17.
Jump up ^ Sawyer & Sawyer (1994).
Jump up ^ Wang (1993).
Jump up ^ Sawyer & Sawyer (1994), p. 35.
Jump up ^ Shaughnessy (1988), p. 190.
Jump up ^ Mair (2011), p. 100.
Jump up ^ Beckwith (2009), pp. 43–48.
Jump up ^ Shaughnessy (1988), pp. 213–221.
Jump up ^ Shaughnessy (1988), pp. 218–221.
Jump up ^ Sawyer & Sawyer (1994), p. 33.
Jump up ^ Sawyer & Sawyer (1994), p. 34.
Jump up ^ Wilkinson (2013), p. 684.
Jump up ^ Keightley (1999), p. 235.
Jump up ^ Smith (2011), pp. 3–5.
Jump up ^ Keightley (1999), pp. 234–235, 240–241.
Jump up ^ Keightley (1978a), p. 187.
Jump up ^ Keightley (1978a), pp. 187, 207, 209.
Jump up ^ 一 被剥削者的存在类型 (Expoited by the presence of...)
Jump up ^ Xinzhong Yao (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0521644305.
Jump up ^ Xinzhong Yao (1997). Confucianism and Christianity: A Comparative Study of Jen and Agape. Sussex Academic Press. p. 29. ISBN 1898723761.
Jump up ^ Lee Dian Rainey (2010). Confucius & Confucianism: The Essentials. John Wiley & Sons. p. 66. ISBN 1405188413.
Jump up ^ Rafe de Crespigny (28 December 2006). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD). BRILL. pp. 389–. ISBN 978-90-474-1184-0.
Jump up ^ 《汉书·杨胡朱梅云传》：初，武帝时，始封周后姬嘉为周子南君，至元帝时，尊周子南君为周承休侯，位次诸侯王。使诸大夫博士求殷后，分散为十余姓，郡国往往得其大家，推求子孙，绝不能纪。时，匡衡议，以为“王者存二王后，所以尊其先王而通三统也。其犯诛绝之罪者绝，而更封他亲为始封君，上承其王者之始祖。《春秋》之义，诸侯不能守其社稷者绝。今宋国已不守其统而失国矣，则宜更立殷后为始封君，而上承汤统，非当继宋之绝侯也，宜明得殷后而已。今之故宋，推求其嫡，久远不可得；虽得其嫡，嫡之先已绝，不当得立。《礼记》孔子曰：‘丘，殷人也。’先师所共传，宜以孔子世为汤后。”上以其语不经，遂见寝。
Jump up ^ 中国孤竹文化网 Archived 1 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine. (Chinese Guzhu Cultural Network)
Jump up ^ 解开神秘古国 ——孤竹之谜 (unlocking the ancient mystery of Guzhu)
Jump up ^ 孤竹析辨 (Guzhu analysis identified)
Works cited
Bagley, Robert (1999), "Shang archaeology", in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L., The Cambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 124–231, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
Beckwith, Christopher I. (16 March 2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN 14008-29941. Retrieved 30 December 2014.
Chang, Kwang-Chih (1994), "Shang Shamans", in Peterson, Willard J., The Power of Culture: Studies in Chinese Cultural History, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, pp. 10–36, ISBN 978-962-201-596-8.
Chen, Yan (2002), Maritime Silk Route and Chinese-Foreign Cultural Exchanges, Beijing: Peking University Press, ISBN 978-7-301-03029-5.
Cheung, Kwong-yue (1983), "Recent archaeological evidence relating to the origin of Chinese characters", in Keightley, David N.; Barnard, Noel, The Origins of Chinese Civilization, trans. Noel Barnard, University of California Press, pp. 323–391, ISBN 978-0-520-04229-2.
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006), East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 978-0-618-13384-0.
Fairbank, John King; Goldman, Merle (2006), China: A New History (2nd ed.), Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-03665-9.
Keightley, David N. (1978a), Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China, Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-02969-0; A 1985 paperback 2nd edition is still in print, ISBN 0-520-05455-5.
—— (1978b), "The Bamboo Annals and Shang-Chou Chronology", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 38 (2): 423–438, JSTOR 2718906.
—— (1998), "Shamanism, Death, and the Ancestors: Religious Mediation in Neolithic and Shang China (ca. 5000–1000 B.C.)", Asiatische Studien, 52 (3): 763–831, doi:10.5169/seals-147432.
—— (1999), "The Shang: China's first historical dynasty", in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L., The Cambridge History of Ancient China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 232–291, ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8.
—— (2000), The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China (ca. 1200–1045 B.C.), China Research Monograph, 53, Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, ISBN 978-1-55729-070-0.
—— (2004), "The Making of the Ancestors: Late Shang Religion and Its Legacy", in Lagerwey, John, Chinese Religion and Society: The Transformation of a Field, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, pp. 3–63, ISBN 978-962-99612-3-7.
Mair, Victor H. (2011), "Religious formations and intercultural contacts in early China", in Krech, Volkhard; Steinicke, Marian, Dynamics in the History of Religions between Asia and Europe: Encounters, Notions, and Comparative Perspectives, Brill, pp. 85–110, ISBN 978-90-04-22535-0.
Lerner, Martin; Murck, Alfreda; Ford, Barbara B.; Hearn, Maxwell; Valenstein, Suzanne G. (1985), "Asian Art", Recent Acquisitions (Metropolitan Museum of Art): 72–88, JSTOR 1513695.
Li, Chu-tsing (1980), "The Great Bronze Age of China", Art Journal, 40 (1/2): 390–395, JSTOR 776607.
Qiu, Xigui (2000), Chinese writing, trans. by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman, Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China and The Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, ISBN 978-1-55729-071-7. (English translation of Wénzìxué Gàiyào 文字學概要, Shangwu, 1988.)
Sawyer, Ralph D.; Sawyer, Mei-chün Lee (1994), Sun Tzu's The Art of War, New York: Barnes and Noble, ISBN 978-1-56619-297-2.
Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1988), "Historical Perspectives on The Introduction of The Chariot Into China", Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 48 (1): 189–237, JSTOR 2719276.
Smith, Adam Daniel (2011), "The Chinese Sexagenary Cycle and the Ritual Origins of the Calendar", in Steele, John M., Calendars and Years II: Astronomy and time in the ancient and medieval world, Oxbow Books, pp. 1–37, ISBN 978-1-84217-987-1.
Smith, Howard (1961), "Chinese Religion in the Shang Dynasty", International Review for the History of Religions, 8 (2): 142–150, doi:10.1163/156852761x00090, JSTOR 3269424.
Sun, Guangqi (1989), 中国古代航海史 [History of Navigation in Ancient China], Beijing: Ocean Press, ISBN 978-7-5027-0532-9.
Sun, Yan (2006), "Colonizing China's Northern Frontier: Yan and Her Neighbors During the Early Western Zhou Period", International Journal of Historical Archaeology, 10 (2): 159–177, doi:10.1007/s10761-006-0005-3.
Thorp, Robert L. (1981), "The Date of Tomb 5 at Yinxu, Anyang: A Review Article", Artibus Asiae, 43 (3): 239–246, JSTOR 3249839.
Wagner, Donald B. (1993), Iron and Steel in Ancient China, BRILL, ISBN 978-90-04-09632-5.
Wang, Hongyuan 王宏源 (1993), 漢字字源入門 [The Origins of Chinese Characters], Beijing: Sinolingua, ISBN 978-7-80052-243-7.
Wilkinson, Endymion (2013), Chinese History: A New Manual, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ Asia Center, ISBN 978-0-674-06715-8.
Further reading[edit]
Allan, Sarah (1991), The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-9449-3.
Allen, Herbert J. (translator) (1895), "Ssŭma Ch'ien's Historical Records, Chapter III – The Yin Dynasty", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 27 (3): 601–615, doi:10.1017/S0035869X00145083.
Chang, Kwang-Chih (1980), Shang Civilization, Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-02885-7.
Duan, Chang-Qun; Gan, Xue-Chun; Wang, Jeanny; Chien, Paul K. (1998), "Relocation of Civilization Centers in Ancient China: Environmental Factors", Ambio, 27 (7): 572–575, JSTOR 4314793.
Legge, James (translator) (1865), "The Annals of the Bamboo Books: The Dynasty of Shang", The Chinese Classics, volume 3, part 1, pp. 128–141.
Lee, Yuan-Yuan; Shen, Sin-yan (1999), Chinese Musical Instruments, Chinese Music Monograph Series, Chinese Music Society of North America Press, ISBN 1-880464-03-9.
Needham, Joseph (1971), Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-07060-7.
Shen, Sinyan (1987), "Acoustics of Ancient Chinese Bells", Scientific American, 256: 94, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0487-104.
Timperley, Harold J. (1936), The Awakening of China in Archaeology; Further Discoveries in Ho-Nan Province, Royal Tombs of the Shang Dynasty, Dated Traditionally from 1766 to 1122 B.C..
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Disha Vakani
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Disha Vakani
Vakani in 2012
Born
( 1978-08-17) 17 August 1978 (age 39)[1][2]
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India[3]
Residence
Kandivli, Mumbai, India
Nationality
Indian
Alma mater
Gujarat College, Ahmedabad
Occupation
Actress
Years active
1997–present
Known for
Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah
Spouse(s)
Mayur Padia (m. 2015)
Relatives
Bhim Vakani (father)
Mayur Vakani (brother)[4]
Website
twitter.com/dishavakani
Disha Vakani (born 17 August 1978)[1] is an Indian film and television actress. She made her career as a stage actress in Gujarati plays like Kamal Patel v/s Dhamal Patel and Lali Lila.[5] She has appeared in supporting roles in films like Devdas (2002) and Jodha Akbar (2008).[6] She plays lead role of Daya Jethalal Gada in SAB TV's comedy show Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah since 2008.[7][8][9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Personal life
2 Filmography
3 Television
4 Awards
5 References
6 External links
Personal life[edit]
Disha Vakani was born in a Gujarati family in Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Disha graduated in the Dramatic arts from Gujarat College in Ahmedabad.[5] She married a Mumbai-based chartered accountant named Mayur Padia on 24 November 2015.[10][2] On November 30 2017, she gave birth to a girl. Her brother Mayur Vakani also plays her on-screen brother Sundar in television serial Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah.
Filmography[edit]
Year
Film
Role
Notes
1997 Kamsin:The Untouched
1999 Phool Aur Aag
2002 Devdas Sakhi 1
2005 Mangal Pandey: The Rising Yasmin
2006 Jaana... Let's Fall in Love Salma Disa
2008 Jodha Akbar Madhavi
2008 C Kkompany Widow of Railway Employee
2008 Love Story 2050 Maid
Television[edit]
Year
Show
Role
Notes
2004 Khichdi Guest appearance
2008-present Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Daya Jethalal Gada/Dayaben
2014 C.I.D. Daya Jethalal Gada/Dayaben 4 Episodes - crossover
Awards[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Show
Result
2009 9th Indian Telly Awards Best Actor in a Comic Role – Female (Popular) Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah Won[5]
Indian Television Academy Awards Best Actress - Comedy
2010 3rd Zee Gold Awards Best Comic Actor (Popular)
10th Indian Telly Awards Best Actor in a Comic Role – Female (Popular)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Daya Ben aka Disha Vakani turns a year older". The Times Of India. 17 August 2015. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "TV actress Disha Vakani ties the knot!". India Today. 24 November 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Disha Vakani misses theatre". The Times of India. 5 Nov 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Unknown facts of Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah cast". The Times Of India. 30 January 2016. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "I enjoy acting: Disha Vakani". Mumbai Mirror. 30 Dec 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Jhumari Nigam-Misra (12 November 2009). "Pretty women". Retrieved 14 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Comedy Inc". 1 Jul 2010. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Character's the KING". Indian Express. 25 Nov 2010. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Funny female bone". The Times of India. 21 Jun 2009. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Dayaben of 'Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah' aka Disha Vakani ties the knot". Daily News and Analysis. 25 November 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Disha Vakani.
Disha Vakani on IMDb
An Interview with Disha Vakani in Gujarati
[show]
Awards for Disha Vakani
[show]
v
t
e
Indian Telly Award for Best Actress in a Comic Role
Popular
Reema Lagoo (2002)
Supriya Pathak (2003)
Manini Mishra (2004)
Supriya Pathak (2005)
Suchita Trivedi (2006)
Snehal Sahay (2007)
Suchita Trivedi (2008)
Disha Vakani (2009)
Disha Vakani (2010)
Kavita Kaushik (2012)
Giaa Manek (2013)
Disha Vakani (2014)
Jury
Kavita Kaushik (2010)
Disha Vakani (2012)
Disha Vakani (2013)
Bharti Singh
Shubhangi Gokhale (2014)
[show]
v
t
e
Indian Television Academy Award for Best Actress in a Comic Role
Jury
Archana Puran Singh (2001)
Supriya Pilgaonkar (2002)
Farida Jalal (2003)
Supriya Pathak (2004)
Ratna Pathak (2005)
Divya Dutta (2006)
Suchita Trivedi (2007)
Supriya Pathak
Disha Vakani (2008)
Disha Vakani (2009)
Kavita Kaushik (2010)
Kavita Kaushik (2011)
Kavita Kaushik (2012)
Kavita Kaushik (2013)
Disha Vakani (2014)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disha_Vakani&oldid=821811801"
Categories:
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Flathead engine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Harley-Davidson flathead engine
Engine block and head of a 1915 Cadillac V8 engine, with the head removed
T head sidevalve arrangement
The usual L-head arrangement
A flathead engine (a.k.a. sidevalve engine (SV), flathead, or flatty)[1] is an internal combustion engine with valves placed in the engine block beside the piston, instead of in the cylinder head, as in an overhead valve engine. As the cylinder cross-section has the shape of an inverted L, other names such as L-block or L-head are also common.
The sidevalve's poppet valves are usually sited on one side of the cylinder(s). A recess in the cylinder head creates a corridor connecting the valves and the combustion chamber. The valve gear comprises a camshaft which operates the valves via simple tappets, most commonly without any further valvetrain components (such as pushrods, rocker arms, overhead valves or overhead camshafts). Indian, however, employs both rocker arms and pushrods to transmit motion from the cam lobes to the valve stems.
The sidevalve arrangement was once the most common across all motor industries (automotive, agricultural, marine, aviation, and others), but it has since fallen from favor in most multicylinder applications, such as automotive and aviation, having been displaced by overhead valve designs. Flathead designs are still commonly built new for many small engine applications of one and two cylinders, such as lawnmowers, rotary tillers, and two-wheel tractors.
Contents
[hide]
1 Advantages
2 Disadvantages
3 Potentials
4 History and applications
5 Motorcycle engines
5.1 Harley-Davidson models
5.1.1 Model W, singles, and 45s (DL, RL, and WL)
5.1.2 K-series and developments
5.1.3 Flathead big twins
6 See also
7 Notes
8 External links
Advantages[edit]
The main advantages of a sidevalve engine are simplicity, reliability, low cost, compactness, responsive low-speed power, low mechanical engine noise, and insensitivity to low-octane fuel. The absence of a complicated valvetrain allows a compact engine that is less expensive to manufacture, as the cylinder head may be little more than a simple metal casting. These advantages may explain why overhead valve designs were first adopted only in high-performance applications such as aircraft, luxury cars, and sports cars, while economy cars, trucks, and agricultural engines continued to use flathead engines for some time. Even today, flatheads are common in lawnmowers, and basic farm machinery.
An important benefit of the sidevalve design is that, if a valve should seize in its guide (remain partially open), only limited damage to that individual cylinder would occur, and an engine can often operate safely on its other cylinders with a seized valve. If a valve head breaks off, it may become lodged between the piston and the head causing severe damage.
At top dead centre, the piston gets very close to the flat portion of the cylinder head above, and the resultant turbulence produces excellent mixing of the fuel and air.
The typical flathead engine has its valves adjacent, but the "T-head" variant acts as a "cross-flow" head.
Disadvantages[edit]
The main disadvantages of a sidevalve engine are poor gas flow, poor combustion chamber shape, and low compression ratio, all of which result in a low power output.
The sidevalve configuration makes intake and exhaust gases follow a circuitous route, with low volumetric efficiency, or "poor breathing". Although a sidevalve engine can safely operate at high speed, its volumetric efficiency swiftly deteriorates, so that high power outputs are not feasible at speed. High volumetric efficiency was less important for early cars because their engines rarely sustained extended high speeds, but designers seeking higher power outputs had to abandon the sidevalve. A compromise used by Willys (Jeep), Rover, and Rolls-Royce in the 1950s was the F-head (a.k.a. intake-over-exhaust configuration), in which there is one side valve and one overhead valve per cylinder.[2]
An advance in flathead technology resulted from experimentation in the 1920s by Sir Harry Ricardo, who improved their efficiency after studying the gas-flow characteristics of sidevalve engines.[3]
Because the exhaust follows a lengthy path to leave the engine, there is a tendency for the engine to overheat. In a T-head engine, the sidevalve pairs have a crossflow configuration, so exhaust gases leave on the opposite side of the cylinder from the intake valve. American LaFrance powered their fire engines with T-head engines from the 1920s to the 1950s. The Cleveland Motorcycle Manufacturing Company produced a T-head four-cylinder in-line motorcycle engine in the 1920s, and early Stutz engines were T heads.
Potentials[edit]
Pop-up pistons may be used to increase compression ratio
Although both OHV and OHC engines have proved to be more efficient than flatheads, there is some potential to give flatheads better performance via advanced design features, such as:
Pop-up pistons may be used with compatible heads to increase compression ratio and improve the combustion chamber's shape to prevent knocking.[4]
Turbulence grooves may increase swirl inside the combustion chamber, thus increasing torque, especially at low rpm. Better mixing of the fuel/air charge improves combustion and helps to prevent knocking.[5][6][7][8]
The traditional flathead engine suffers from its flat and elongated combustion chamber, which is prone to knocking if compression ratio is increased. Using improved ignition system such as laser ignition or microwave enhanced ignition could speed up the combustion and prevent knocking.[9]
History and applications[edit]
Flathead inline 4- and 6-cylinder engines were frequently used for automobiles (as with the famous Ford Model T), tractors, and other products from the beginning of the automotive industry until the 1950s, when overhead valve designs began to outnumber flathead designs in production numbers. Flathead designs are still commonly built new for applications such as lawnmowers, rotary tillers, two-wheel tractors, and other one- and two-cylinder equipment.
Some of the most famous automotive flathead engines were ones whose common nicknames reflected their flathead nature, such as the Ford flathead V8 engine and the Ford Sidevalve engine.
Due to cooling and efficiency problems, flathead engines fell out of favor in "high power" applications, such as aircraft engines, prior to World War I, with rare exceptions like the American Aeronca E-107 opposed twin aero engine of 1930. However, they lived on for some time in the automotive world and were used on the Jeep, for instance. Flatheads are no longer in common use for automobiles (except in some rodding and customizing circles,[1][10] that most often use restored and reproduction examples of the classic 1932–1953 "model years" Ford flathead V8 engine), with the flathead valve configuration still used for some small-engine applications like lawnmowers. Because of their design, the size of valves and the compression ratio are limited, which in turn reduces available power and economy.[11]
Cadillac produced V-16 flathead engines for their Series 90 luxury cars during 1938–1940. They were known of their almost silent idle and very smooth torque.[12]
A new arrival is the Belgian D-Motor LF26, a compact 2.7-litre flat-four aero-engine that has direct drive to a propeller, rather than a reduction gearbox.[13] As the engine was designed to produce peak power of 90 bhp at only 2800 rpm, this very low engine speed meant the designers could dispense with the complexity of an ohv valvetrain. The resulting simplicity, lightness, compactness and reliability are ideal in an aero-engine.[14] D-Motor has developed a 125 bhp 6-cylinder version, the D-Motor LF39.[15]
Motorcycle engines[edit]
Harley-Davidson models[edit]
Model W, singles, and 45s (DL, RL, and WL)[edit]
The flathead engine saw service in Harley-Davidson motorcycles beginning with the Model W's flat-twin, produced from 1919 to 1923,[16] and continuing in 1924 with single-cylinder export-model 21-cubic-inch (340 cc) and 30.5-cubic-inch (500 cc) singles and continued in Servi-Cars until 1973. In the domestic U.S. market, the 45-cubic-inch (740 cc) (primary VIN letter) D model (1929 to 1931) and its technical descendant, the (primary VIN letter) R model (1932 to 1936), started Harley's side-valve tradition in the 45-cubic-inch displacement class. The D and R models featured a total-loss oiling system and were succeeded in 1937 by the (primary VIN letter) W 45, which had recirculating oil lubrication. The WLA (W = return oil, L = performance, A = army) went on to serve in World War II as the U.S. and Canadian Army's WLC (C = Canada) primary two-wheeled mount and subsequently as a civilian middleweight through 1952. The engine continued virtually unchanged with 2.745" bore and 3.8125" stroke with various G-based designations in the three-wheeled Servi-Car until production ceased in 1973.
K-series and developments[edit]
In 1952, the K series flatheads was introduced with the same bore and stroke, selling in parallel with the W series (which was discontinued after 1952), designed to compete with British sporting motorcycles of the time. The K models featured a 750cc unit construction engine and transmission case, right side foot shift and left side foot brake. From 1954 to 1956, the KH received an increase in stroke to 4-9/16" to bring displacement to 888cc (54 cubic inches). [17] The K series was replaced by the overhead valve Sportster series in the retail market in 1957. [18]
The American Motorcycle Association (AMA) class C rules of 1952 allowed sidevalves of 750cc to compete against 500cc overhead valve bikes. The 750cc KR factory racer was highly competitive in dirt track and road racing, and was produced in limited numbers until 1969 [19] , when the AMA changed the rules by increasing the Class C displacement limit to 750 cc. Without the displacement advantage, the KR flatheads were not competitive against 750 cc overhead valve bikes. [20]
Flathead big twins[edit]
In 1930, the 74-cubic-inch (1,210 cc) VL flathead replaced the JD Big Twin, which had featured intake-over-exhaust (IoE) valve configuration. The VL had a single downtube frame and total loss oiling, culminating in an 80-cubic-inch (1,300 cc) version (VLH) in 1935. In 1937, that engine was redesigned to include a recirculating lubrication system, and designated the model U, and it went into the same frame and running gear configuration as the model E Knucklehead, which had originated in 1936. The U continued to be produced in varying configurations as a 74 cubic inch U & UL (1937 to 1948), and 80 cubic inch UH & ULH engine (1937 to 1941). By that time, the first year of the aluminum-head Panhead, it had been thoroughly superseded and outsold in the marketplace by the superior performance of the overhead valve model Big Twins.
See also[edit]
Harley-Davidson engine timeline
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b American Rodder, 6/94, pp.45 & 93.
Jump up ^ Road and Track, some time in the 1960s
Jump up ^ The internal-combustion engine by Harry Ralph Ricardo, Blackie and Son Limited.
Jump up ^ Davis, Marlan (September 29, 2006). "Ford Flathead V8 – The Flathead Guide of Death". Hotrod.com. Hot Rod Magazine. Combustion Chamber. Retrieved 2014-04-08. Trying to gain back compression ratio by using popup pistons may improve airflow provided proper attention is paid to the transfer area and overall piston-to-combustion chamber interface. The best balance has been the subject of debate for over 60 years. Currently the most popular approach is running a big popup piston, but with a scallop on the side adjacent to the valves to keep the transfer area clear between the valves and the cylinder bore. Recommended bottom-line street-gas-friendly compression ratios are between 7.5–8:1 on naturally aspirated engines and 6.5–7.0:1 with a blower.
Jump up ^ Patent US 6237579 Somender Singh: "Design to improve turbulence in combustion chambers"
Jump up ^ amrelweekil (September 14, 2009). "Engine modify by Somender Singh". YouTube. Grooved flathead at 1:31–1:38. Retrieved 2014-04-09.
Jump up ^ Graeber, Charles (September 23, 2004). "Obsession: Mr. Singh's Search for the Holy Grail". Popular Science. Bonnier. Retrieved 2014-07-03. In November 2002 Singh actually received one such permission from a manufacturer to test his modification on its engines. The manufacturer was Briggs and Stratton, and the engines were two 149cc side valves.
Jump up ^ Pirangute, V. G.; N.V.Marathe (January 14, 2002). Full throttle performance (PDF) (Technical report). ARAI. PUS/2407/Garuda/52(d). The test report reveals that fuel consumption and temperatures decreased at low engine speed while torque increased.
Jump up ^ Ikeda, Yuji; Nishiyama, Atsushi; Kaneko, Masashi (January 5–8, 2009). Microwave Enhanced Ignition Process for Fuel Mixture at Elevated Pressure of 1MPa (PDF). 47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-07-25. Retrieved 2014-07-03. With plasma-enhanced combustion, a large flame kernel formed and the flame propagation speed increased. In the single-cylinder engine, the combustion stability improved and the microwave-enhanced ignition increased the lean limit from 19.3 to 24.1.
Jump up ^ "Street Rodder, 1/85, p.72.
Jump up ^ "A critique of the flathead or side valve engine". Retrieved 2015-08-22.
Jump up ^ LaChance, David (February 2007). "Reignmaker – 1939 Cadillac Series 39-90". Hemmings Motor News. American City Business Journals. Retrieved November 17, 2015. Mechanically, the Series 90 cars shared the advances of the Series 75. The V-8 car's three-speed manual transmission was deemed up to the task of handing the torque of the V-16, in part because the larger engine delivered its impulses so smoothly.
Jump up ^ "Kapelstraat 198 8540 Deerlijk – Recent information". D-motor.eu. Archived from the original on March 28, 2012. Retrieved December 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Kapelstraat 198 8540 Deerlijk – Product / Produit". D-motor1.vpweb.be. Retrieved 2011-12-06. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Tacke, Willi; Marino Boric; et al: World Directory of Light Aviation 2015-16, pages 256-257. Flying Pages Europe SARL, 2015. ISSN 1368-485X
Jump up ^ Wagner, Herbert; Mitchell, Mark (May 1999). "Chapter 6: The Gang's All Here". Classic Harley-Davidson, 1903–1941. Enthusiast Color. Motorbooks International. pp. 46–47. ISBN 0-7603-1805-0. Retrieved 2012-08-05. The Sport Model engine was Harley's first side-valve.
Jump up ^ OSKRG. "History of the Model K". Retrieved 2017-11-16.
Jump up ^ "Flathead HD Style". Retrieved 2015-08-22.
Jump up ^ OSKRG. "K-model production figures, summarized from Harley-Davidson's The Legend Begins". Retrieved 2017-11-16.
Jump up ^ "AMA pro racing dirt track timeline". Retrieved 2017-11-16.
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