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Blood sugar level
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The fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone insulin (blue) in humans during the course of a day with three meals. One of the effects of a sugar-rich vs a starch-rich meal is highlighted.[1]
The blood sugar level, blood sugar concentration, or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of humans and other animals. Glucose is a simple sugar and approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of humans at all times.[2] The body tightly regulates blood glucose levels as a part of metabolic homeostasis.[2] Glucose is stored in skeletal muscle and liver cells in the form of glycogen;[2] in fasted individuals, blood glucose is maintained at a constant level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle.[2]
In humans, glucose is the primary source of energy and is critical for normal function in a number of tissues,[2] particularly the human brain which consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.[2] Glucose can be transported from the intestines or liver to other tissues in the body via the bloodstream;[2] its uptake by cells is regulated in part by the hormone insulin, which is produced by the pancreas.[2]
Glucose levels are usually lowest in the morning, before the first meal of the day, and rise after meals for an hour or two by a few millimoles. Blood sugar levels outside the normal range may be an indicator of a medical condition. A persistently high level is referred to as hyperglycemia; low levels are referred to as hypoglycemia. Diabetes mellitus is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia from any of several causes, and is the most prominent disease related to failure of blood sugar regulation. There are different methods of testing and measuring blood sugar levels.
The intake of alcohol causes an initial surge in blood sugar, and later tends to cause levels to fall. Also, certain drugs can increase or decrease glucose levels.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Units
2 Normal values in humans
3 Animals
4 Regulation
5 Abnormality in blood sugar levels
5.1 High blood sugar
5.2 Low blood sugar
6 Glucose measurement
6.1 Sample source
6.2 Sample type
6.3 Measurement techniques
6.4 Clinical correlation
7 Etymology and use of term
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Units[edit]
The international standard way of measuring blood glucose levels is in terms of a molar concentration, measured in mmol/L (millimoles per litre; or millimolar, abbreviated mM). In the United States, West-Germany and other countries mass concentration is measured in mg/dL (milligrams per decilitre).[4]
Since the molecular weight of glucose C6H12O6 is 180, the difference between the two units is a factor of 18, so that 1 mmol/L of glucose is equivalent to 18 mg/dL.[5]
Normal values in humans[edit]
Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Many factors affect a person's blood sugar level. The body's homeostatic mechanism of blood sugar regulation (known as glucose homeostasis), when operating normally, restores the blood sugar level to a narrow range of about 4.4 to 6.1 mmol/L (79.2 to 110 mg/dL) (as measured by a fasting blood glucose test).[6]
The normal blood glucose level (tested while fasting) for non-diabetics, should be between 3.9 and 5.5 mmol/L (70 to 100 mg/dL). The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL);[5] however, this level fluctuates throughout the day. Blood sugar levels for those without diabetes and who are not fasting should be below 6.9 mmol/L (125 mg/dL).[7] The blood glucose target range for diabetics, according to the American Diabetes Association, should be 5.0–7.2 mmol/l (90–130 mg/dL) before meals, and less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) after meals (as measured by a blood glucose monitor).[8]
Despite widely variable intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load, human blood glucose levels tend to remain within the normal range. However, shortly after eating, the blood glucose level may rise, in non-diabetics, temporarily up to 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) or slightly more. For people with diabetes maintaining 'tight diabetes control', the American Diabetes Association recommends a post-meal glucose level of less than 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) and a fasting plasma glucose of 3.9 to 7.2 mmol/L (70–130 mg/dL).[9]
The actual amount of glucose in the blood and body fluids is very small. In a healthy adult male of 75 kg with a blood volume of 5 liters, a blood glucose level of 5.5 mmol/L (100 mg/dL) amounts to 5g, equivalent to about a teaspoonful of sugar.[10] Part of the reason why this amount is so small is that, to maintain an influx of glucose into cells, enzymes modify glucose by adding phosphate or other groups to it.
Animals[edit]
In general, ranges of blood sugar in common domestic ruminants are lower than in many monogastric mammals.[11] However this generalization does not extend to wild ruminants or camelids. For serum glucose in mg/dL, reference ranges of 42 to 75 for cows, 44 to 81 for sheep, and 48 to 76 for goats, but 61 to 124 for cats; 62 to 108 for dogs, 62 to 114 for horses, 66 to 116 for pigs, 75 to 155 for rabbits, and 90 to 140 for llamas have been reported.[12] A 90 percent reference interval for serum glucose of 26 to 181 mg/dL has been reported for captured mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), where no effects of the pursuit and capture on measured levels were evident.[13] For beluga whales, the 25–75 percent range for serum glucose has been estimated to be 94 to 115 mg/dL.[14] For the white rhinoceros, one study has indicated that the 95 percent range is 28 to 140 mg/dL.[15] For harp seals, a serum glucose range of 4.9 to 12.1 mmol/L [i.e. 88 to 218 mg/dL] has been reported; for hooded seals, a range of 7.5 to 15.7 mmol/L [i.e. about 135 to 283 mg/dL] has been reported.[16]
Regulation[edit]
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Main article: Blood sugar regulation
The body's homeostatic mechanism keeps blood glucose levels within a narrow range. It is composed of several interacting systems, of which hormone regulation is the most important.
There are two types of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:
catabolic hormones (such as glucagon, cortisol and catecholamines) which increase blood glucose;[17]
and one anabolic hormone (insulin), which decreases blood glucose.
These hormones are secreted from pancreatic islets which are bundles of endocrine tissues. There are four types of pancreatic islets, alpha (A) cells, beta (B) cells, Delta (D) cells and F cells. Glucagon is secreted from alpha cells, while insulin is secreted by beta cells. Together they regulate the blood-glucose levels through negative feedback, a process where the end product of one reaction stimulates the beginning of another reaction. In blood-glucose levels, insulin lowers the concentration of glucose in the blood. The lower blood-glucose level (a product of the insulin secretion) triggers glucagon to be secreted, and repeats the cycle. [18]
In order for blood glucose to be kept stable, modifications to insulin, glucagon, epinephrine and cortisol are made. Each of these hormones have a different responsibility to keep blood glucose regulated; when blood sugar is too high, insulin tells muscles to take up excess glucose for storage. Glucagon responds to too low of blood glucose level, it informs the tissue to produce more glucose. Epinephrine prepares the muscles and respiratory system for activity in the case of a "fight and flight" response. Lastly, cortisol supplies the body with fuel in times of heavy stress.[19]
Abnormality in blood sugar levels[edit]
High blood sugar[edit]
Main article: hyperglycemia
If blood sugar levels remain too high the body suppresses appetite over the short term. Long-term hyperglycemia causes many of the long-term health problems including heart disease, eye, kidney, and nerve damage.
The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes. When diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic medication as treatment. From the perspective the majority of patients, treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will be the safest, most effective, least expensive, most comfortable route to managing the condition.[20] Diet changes and exercise implementation may also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes.
Fasting blood glucose levels may be higher than the post meal blood glucose in many of the healthy subjects. Such individuals may be said to have physiological insulin resistance and may develop diabetes mellitus as long term complication. In clinical and laboratory practices, many of the time a healthy normal subject will present a fasting blood glucose value higher than the post meal blood glucose value. This creates confusion since there is a common perception that in blood, postprandial (PP) glucose level should be higher than fasting (F) glucose level. The repeated investigation subsequently yields somewhat similar type of result.[21]
Low blood sugar[edit]
Main article: hypoglycemia
If blood sugar levels drop too low, a potentially fatal condition called hypoglycemia develops. Symptoms may include lethargy, impaired mental functioning; irritability; shaking, twitching, weakness in arm and leg muscles; pale complexion; sweating; loss of consciousness.
Mechanisms that restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after extreme hypoglycemia (below 40 mg/dl) must be quick and effective to prevent extremely serious consequences of insufficient glucose: confusion or unsteadiness and, in the extreme (below 15 mg/dl) loss of consciousness and seizures. Without discounting the potentially quite serious conditions and risks due to or oftentimes accompanying hyperglycemia, especially in the long-term (diabetes or pre-diabetes, obesity or overweight, hyperlipidemia, hypertension, etc.), it is still generally more dangerous to have too little glucose- especially if levels are very low- in the blood than too much, at least temporarily, because glucose is so important for metabolism and nutrition and the proper functioning of the body's organs. This is especially the case for those organs that are metabolically active or that require a constant, regulated supply of blood sugar (the liver and brain are examples). In healthy individuals, blood glucose-regulating mechanisms are generally quite effective, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally found only in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacological treatment, and in starvation or severe malnutrition or malabsorption (of various causes), and conditions such as anorexia[dubious – discuss]. Hypoglycemic episodes can vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in severity and swiftness of onset. For severe cases, prompt medical assistance is essential, as damage to brain and other tissues and even death will result from sufficiently low blood-glucose levels.
Glucose measurement[edit]
Further information: Blood glucose monitoring and Glucose meter
Sample source[edit]
Glucose testing in a fasting individual, show comparable levels of glucose in arterial, venous, and capillary blood. But following meals, capillary and arterial blood glucose levels can be significantly higher than venous levels. This is because tissue cells consume some of the glucose in the blood as it passes from arteries through the capillary bed and into the veins.[22] Although these differences vary widely, one study found that following the consumption of 50 grams of glucose, "the mean capillary blood glucose concentration is higher than the mean venous blood glucose concentration by 35%."[22][23][24]
Sample type[edit]
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Glucose is measured in whole blood, plasma or serum. Historically, blood glucose values were given in terms of whole blood, but most laboratories now measure and report plasma or serum glucose levels. Because red blood cells (erythrocytes) have a higher concentration of protein (e.g., hemoglobin) than serum, serum has a higher water content and consequently more dissolved glucose than does whole blood. To convert from whole-blood glucose, multiplication by 1.14[25] has been shown to generally give the serum/plasma level.
Collection of blood in clot tubes for serum chemistry analysis permits the metabolism of glucose in the sample by blood cells until separated by centrifugation.[26] Red blood cells, for instance, do not require insulin to intake glucose from the blood. Higher than normal amounts of white or red blood cell counts can lead to excessive glycolysis in the sample, with substantial reduction of glucose level if the sample is not processed quickly. Ambient temperature at which the blood sample is kept prior to centrifuging and separation of plasma/serum also affects glucose levels. At refrigerator temperatures, glucose remains relatively stable for several hours in a blood sample. Loss of glucose can be prevented by using Fluoride tubes (i.e., gray-top) since fluoride inhibits glycolysis. However, these should only be used when blood will be transported from one hospital laboratory to another for glucose measurement. Red-top serum separator tubes also preserve glucose in samples after being centrifuged isolating the serum from cells.
To prevent contamination of the sample with intravenous fluids, particular care should be given to drawing blood samples from the arm opposite the one in which an intravenous line is inserted. Alternatively, blood can be drawn from the same arm with an IV line after the IV has been turned off for at least 5 minutes, and the arm has been elevated to drain infused fluids away from the vein. Inattention can lead to large errors, since as little as 10% contamination with a 5% glucose solution (D5W) will elevate glucose in a sample by 500 mg/dL or more. Remember that the actual concentration of glucose in blood is very low, even in the hyperglycemic.
Measurement techniques[edit]
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Two major methods have been used to measure glucose. The first, still in use in some places, is a chemical method exploiting the nonspecific reducing property of glucose in a reaction with an indicator substance that changes color when reduced. Since other blood compounds also have reducing properties (e.g., urea, which can be abnormally high in uremic patients), this technique can produce erroneous readings in some situations (5–15 mg/dL has been reported). The more recent technique, using enzymes specific to glucose, is less susceptible to this kind of error. The two most common employed enzymes are glucose oxidase and hexokinase.[27] Average blood glucose concentrations can also be measured. This method measures the level of glycated hemoglobin, which is representative of the average blood glucose levels over the last, approximately, 120 days.[27]
In either case, the chemical system is commonly contained on a test strip which is inserted into a meter, and then has a blood sample applied. Test-strip shapes and their exact chemical composition vary between meter systems and cannot be interchanged. Formerly, some test strips were read (after timing and wiping away the blood sample) by visual comparison against a color chart printed on the vial label. Strips of this type are still used for urine glucose readings, but for blood glucose levels they are obsolete. Their error rates were, in any case, much higher. Errors when using test strips were often caused by the age of the strip or exposure to high temperatures or humidity.[28] More precise blood glucose measurements are performed in a medical laboratory, using hexokinase, glucose oxidase, or glucose dehydrogenase enzymes.
Urine glucose readings, however taken, are much less useful. In properly functioning kidneys, glucose does not appear in urine until the renal threshold for glucose has been exceeded. This is substantially above any normal glucose level, and is evidence of an existing severe hyperglycemic condition. However, as urine is stored in the bladder, any glucose in it might have been produced at any time since the last time the bladder was emptied. Since metabolic conditions change rapidly, as a result of any of several factors, this is delayed news and gives no warning of a developing condition. Blood glucose monitoring is far preferable, both clinically and for home monitoring by patients. Healthy urine glucose levels were first standardized and published in 1965[29] by Hans Renschler.
I. CHEMICAL METHODS
A. Oxidation-reduction reaction
G l u c o s e + A l k a l i n e c o p p e r t a r t a r a t e → R e d u c t i o n C u p r o u s o x i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ copper\ tartarate} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Reduction} }}\mathrm {Cuprous\ oxide} }
1. Alkaline copper reduction
Folin-Wu method
C u + + + P h o s p h o m o l y b d i c a c i d → O x i d a t i o n P h o s p h o m o l y b d e n u m o x i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{++}+\mathrm {Phosphomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Phosphomolybdenum\ oxide} } Blue end-product
Benedict's method
Modification of Folin–Wu method for qualitative urine glucose
Nelson–Somogyi method
C u + + + A r s e n o m o l y b d i c a c i d → O x i d a t i o n A r s e n o m o l y b d e n u m o x i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{++}+\mathrm {Arsenomolybdic\ acid} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Arsenomolybdenum\ oxide} } Blue end-product
Neocuproine method
C u + + + N e o c u p r o i n e → O x i d a t i o n C u + + n e o c u p r o i n e c o m p l e x {\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu} ^{++}+\mathrm {Neocuproine} {\xrightarrow {\mathrm {Oxidation} }}\mathrm {Cu} ^{++}\mathrm {neocuproine\ complex} } * Yellow-orange color neocuproine[30]
Shaeffer–Hartmann–Somogyi
Uses the principle of iodine reaction with cuprous byproduct.
Excess I2 is then titrated with thiosulfate.
2. Alkaline Ferricyanide Reduction
Hagedorn–Jensen
G l u c o s e + A l k a l i n e f e r r i c y a n i d e ⟶ F e r r o c y a n i d e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {Alkaline\ ferricyanide} \longrightarrow \mathrm {Ferrocyanide} } Colorless end product; other reducing substances interfere with reaction
B. Condensation
Ortho-toluidine method
Uses aromatic amines and hot acetic acid
Forms Glycosylamine and Schiff's base which is emerald green in color
This is the most specific method, but the reagent used is toxic
Anthrone (phenols) method
Forms hydroxymethyl furfural in hot acetic acid
II. ENZYMATIC METHODS
A. Glucose oxidase
G l u c o s e + O 2 → O x i d a t i o n g l u c o s e o x i d a s e D-glucono-1,5-lactone + H 2 O 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {O} _{2}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {glucose\ oxidase} }}{\textrm {D-glucono-1,5-lactone}}+\mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} }
Saifer–Gerstenfeld method
H 2 O 2 + O -dianisidine → O x i d a t i o n p e r o x i d a s e H 2 O + o x i d i z e d c h r o m o g e n {\displaystyle \mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}} +{\textit {O}}{\text{-dianisidine}}{\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\mathrm {peroxidase} }}\mathrm {H_{2}O} +\mathrm {oxidized\ chromogen} } Inhibited by reducing substances like BUA, bilirubin, glutathione, ascorbic acid
Trinder method
uses 4-aminophenazone oxidatively coupled with phenol
Subject to less interference by increases serum levels of creatinine, uric acid or hemoglobin
Inhibited by catalase
Kodak Ektachem
A dry chemistry method
Uses spectrophotometry to measure the intensity of color through a lower transparent film
Glucometer
Home monitoring blood glucose assay method
Uses a strip impregnated with a glucose oxidase reagent
B. Hexokinase
G l u c o s e + A T P → P h o s p h o r y l a t i o n H e x o k i n a s e + M g + + G-6PO 4 + A D P G-6PO 4 + N A D P → O x i d a t i o n G-6PD 6-Phosphogluconate + N A D P H + H + {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}&\mathrm {Glucose} +\mathrm {ATP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Phosphorylation} }]{\mathrm {Hexokinase} +\mathrm {Mg} ^{++}}}{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {ADP} \\&{\textrm {G-6PO}}_{4}+\mathrm {NADP} {\xrightarrow[{\mathrm {Oxidation} }]{\textrm {G-6PD}}}{\textrm {6-Phosphogluconate}}+\mathrm {NADPH} +\mathrm {H} ^{+}\\\end{alignedat}}}
NADP as cofactor
NADPH (reduced product) is measured in 340 nm
More specific than glucose oxidase method due to G-6PO4, which inhibits interfering substances except when sample is hemolyzed
Clinical correlation[edit]
The fasting blood glucose level, which is measured after a fast of 8 hours, is the most commonly used indication of overall glucose homeostasis, largely because disturbing events such as food intake are avoided. Conditions affecting glucose levels are shown in the table below. Abnormalities in these test results are due to problems in the multiple control mechanism of glucose regulation.
The metabolic response to a carbohydrate challenge is conveniently assessed by a postprandial glucose level drawn 2 hours after a meal or a glucose load. In addition, the glucose tolerance test, consisting of several timed measurements after a standardized amount of oral glucose intake, is used to aid in the diagnosis of diabetes.
Error rates for blood glucose measurements systems vary, depending on laboratories, and on the methods used. Colorimetry techniques can be biased by color changes in test strips (from airborne or finger borne contamination, perhaps) or interference (e.g., tinting contaminants) with light source or the light sensor. Electrical techniques are less susceptible to these errors, though not to others. In home use, the most important issue is not accuracy, but trend. Thus if a meter / test strip system is consistently wrong by 10%, there will be little consequence, as long as changes (e.g., due to exercise or medication adjustments) are properly tracked. In the US, home use blood test meters must be approved by the federal Food and Drug Administration before they can be sold.
Finally, there are several influences on blood glucose level aside from food intake. Infection, for instance, tends to change blood glucose levels, as does stress either physical or psychological. Exercise, especially if prolonged or long after the most recent meal, will have an effect as well. In the typical person, maintenance of blood glucose at near constant levels will nevertheless be quite effective. [clarification needed]
Causes of abnormal glucose levels
Persistent hyperglycemia
Transient hyperglycemia
Persistent hypoglycemia
Transient hypoglycemia
Reference range, FBG: 70–110 mg/dL
Diabetes mellitus Pheochromocytoma Insulinoma Acute alcohol ingestion
Adrenal cortical hyperactivity Cushing's syndrome Severe liver disease Adrenal cortical insufficiency Addison's disease Drugs: salicylates, antituberculosis agents
Hyperthyroidism Acute stress reaction Hypopituitarism Severe liver disease
Acromegaly Shock Galactosemia Several glycogen storage diseases
Obesity Convulsions Ectopic insulin production from tumors Hereditary fructose intolerance
Etymology and use of term[edit]
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In a physiological context, the term is a misnomer because it refers to glucose, yet other sugars besides glucose are always present. Food contains several different types (e.g., fructose (largely from fruits/table sugar/industrial sweeteners), galactose (milk and dairy products), as well as several food additives such as sorbitol, xylose, maltose, etc.). But because these other sugars are largely inert with regard to the metabolic control system (i.e., that controlled by insulin secretion), since glucose is the dominant controlling signal for metabolic regulation, the term has gained currency, and is used by medical staff and lay folk alike. The table above reflects some of the more technical and closely defined terms used in the medical field.
See also[edit]
Saccharide recognition by boronic acids
Blood glucose monitoring
Glucagon
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Daly, Mark E; Vale, C; Walker, M; Littlefield, A; Alberti, KG; Mathers, JC (1998). "Acute effects on insulin sensitivity and diurnal metabolic profiles of a high-sucrose compared with a high starch diet" (PDF). Am J Clin Nutr. American Society for Clinical Nutrition. 67 (6): 1186–1196. PMID 9625092. Retrieved 2011-02-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Wasserman DH (January 2009). "Four grams of glucose". American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 296 (1): E11–21. PMC 2636990  . PMID 18840763. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.90563.2008. Four grams of glucose circulates in the blood of a person weighing 70 kg. This glucose is critical for normal function in many cell types. In accordance with the importance of these 4 g of glucose, a sophisticated control system is in place to maintain blood glucose constant. Our focus has been on the mechanisms by which the flux of glucose from liver to blood and from blood to skeletal muscle is regulated. ... The brain consumes ∼60% of the blood glucose used in the sedentary, fasted person. ... The amount of glucose in the blood is preserved at the expense of glycogen reservoirs (Fig. 2). In postabsorptive humans, there are ∼100 g of glycogen in the liver and ∼400 g of glycogen in muscle. Carbohydrate oxidation by the working muscle can go up by ∼10-fold with exercise, and yet after 1 h, blood glucose is maintained at ∼4 g. ... It is now well established that both insulin and exercise cause translocation of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane. Except for the fundamental process of GLUT4 translocation, [muscle glucose uptake (MGU)] is controlled differently with exercise and insulin. Contraction-stimulated intracellular signaling (52, 80) and MGU (34, 75, 77, 88, 91, 98) are insulin independent. Moreover, the fate of glucose extracted from the blood is different in response to exercise and insulin (91, 105). For these reasons, barriers to glucose flux from blood to muscle must be defined independently for these two controllers of MGU.
Jump up ^ Rosemary Walker & Jill Rodgers Type 2 Diabetes – Your Questions Answered, Dorling Kindersley, 2006, ISBN 1-74033-550-3.
Jump up ^ Diabetes FAQs – Blood Glucose Measurement Units – Abbott Diabetes Care
^ Jump up to: a b What are mg/dl and mmol/l? How to convert? Glucose? Cholesterol? Advameg, Inc.
Jump up ^ "Screening for Type 2 Diabetes". Clinical Diabetes. 18 (2). 2000.
Jump up ^ Glucose test – blood. NIH – National Institutes of Health.
Jump up ^ Davidson, Nancy Klobassa and Moreland, Peggy (July 26, 2011) Living with diabetes blog. mayoclinic.com.
Jump up ^ American Diabetes Association (2006). "January 2006 Diabetes Care". Diabetes Care. 29 (Supplement 1): 51–580. PMID 16373931. Standards of Medical Care-Table 6 and Table 7, Correlation between A1C level and Mean Plasma Glucose Levels on Multiple Testing over 2–3 months
Jump up ^ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009)
Jump up ^ Eiler, H. (2004). "Endocrine glands". In Reese, W. O. Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals (12th ed.). Ithaca, NY: Comstock. pp. 621–669. ISBN 0801442389.
Jump up ^ Kahn, C. M., ed. (2005). Merck Veterinary Manual (9th ed.). Whitehouse Station: Merck & Co. ISBN 0911910506.
Jump up ^ Rice, C. G.; Hall, B. (2007). "Hematologic and biochemical reference intervals for mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus): effects of capture conditions". Northwest Science. 81 (3): 206. doi:10.3955/0029-344X-81.3.206.
Jump up ^ Cornell, LH; Duffield, DS; Joseph, BE; Stark, B (1988). "Hematology and serum chemistry values in the beluga (Delphinapterus leucas)". Journal of wildlife diseases. 24 (2): 220–4. PMID 3373628. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-24.2.220.
Jump up ^ Seal, U. S.; Barton, R.; Mather, L.; Gray, C. W. (1976). "Baseline Laboratory Data for the White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)" (PDF). The Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine. 7 (1): 11–17. JSTOR 20094341.
Jump up ^ Boily, F; Beaudoin, S; Measures, LN (2006). "Hematology and serum chemistry of harp (Phoca groenlandica) and hooded seals (Cystophora cristata) during the breeding season, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada". Journal of wildlife diseases. 42 (1): 115–32. PMID 16699154. doi:10.7589/0090-3558-42.1.115.
Jump up ^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017). Lehininger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freedom. p. 934. ISBN 9781319117689.
Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerard (December 2016). Principles Anatomy and Physiology (15 ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. Chapter 18. ISBN 9781119343738. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Lehninger, Albert; Nelson, David; Cox, Michael (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (7th ed.). New York: W.H.Freeman. p. 930. ISBN 9781319117689.
Jump up ^ Consumer Reports Health Best Buy Drugs. "The Oral Diabetes Drugs: Treating Type 2 Diabetes" (PDF). Best Buy Drugs. Consumer Reports: 2. Retrieved September 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Warade, Jayesh Prabhakar (2014). "Fasting blood glucose level higher than post-meal in healthy subjects: a study of 738 subjects" (PDF). World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 3 (4). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-04-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Yang, Chiaohsin (2012). "A Comparison between Venous and Finger-Prick Blood Sampling on Values of Blood Glucose" (PDF). International Proceedings of Chemical, Biological and Environmental Engineering. 39: 236.
Jump up ^ Somogyi, Michael (1948). "Studies of Arteriovenous Differences in Blood Sugar" (PDF). J. Biol. Chem. 174 (1): 189–200. PMID 18914074.
Jump up ^ Roe, Jeffrey. "Glucose Concentration Difference Between Arterial, Capillary, and Venous Blood."
Jump up ^ Cox, David L. Nelson, Michael M. (2013). Lehninger principles of biochemistry (6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 950. ISBN 9781429234146. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Cox, David L. Nelson, Michael M. (2013). Lehninger principles of biochemistry (6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 950. ISBN 9781429234146.
^ Jump up to: a b Cox, Michael M.; Lehninger, Albert L.; Nelson, David L. (2017). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. New York: W.H. Freeman. pp. 248–249. ISBN 9781319117689.
Jump up ^ Ginsberg, Barry H. (1 July 2009). "Factors Affecting Blood Glucose Monitoring: Sources of Errors in Measurement". Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology. pp. 903–913. doi:10.1177/193229680900300438. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Renschler, HE; Weicker, H; Von Baeyer, H (1965). "The upper limit of glucose concentration in the urine of healthy subjects". Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. 90 (53): 2349–53. PMID 5851934.
Jump up ^ Neocuproine MSDS. hazard.com
Further reading[edit]
Henry, John Bernard (2001). Clinical diagnosis and Management by Laboratory Methods (20th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 0721688640.
Levine R (1986). "Monosaccharides in Health and Disease". Annu. Rev. Nutr. 6: 211–224. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Röder PV, Wu B, Liu Y, Han W (2016). "Pancreatic Regulation of Glucose Homeostasis". Exp. Mol. Med. 48 (3, March): e219ff. PMC 4892884  . doi:10.1038/emm.2016.6.
External links[edit]
Glucose at Lab Tests Online
Glucose (blood, serum, plasma): analyte monograph – The Association for Clinical Biochemistry and Laboratory Medicine
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Ross Geller
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Ross Geller
Friends character
Portrayed by
David Schwimmer
Duration
1994–2004
First appearance
"The Pilot"
Last appearance
"The Last One"
Created by
David Crane
Marta Kauffman
Profile
Occupation
Paleontologist
College professor
[show]Family
Father
Jack Geller
Mother
Judy Geller
Sisters
Monica Geller
Wife
Carol Willick (1989–94)
Emily Waltham (1998–99)
Rachel Green (1999)
Sons
Ben Geller
Daughters
Emma Geller-Green
Grandmothers
Althea
Uncles
Freddie
Murray
Ed
Aunts
Sylvia
Lillian
Iris
Phyllis
Nephews
Jack Bing (adoptive)
Nieces
Erica Bing (adoptive)
First cousins
Cassie Geller
Charlie
Maureen
Dr. Ross Eustace Geller, Ph.D.[1], is a fictional character from the NBC sitcom Friends, portrayed by David Schwimmer Ross is considered by many to be the most intelligent member of the group and is noted for his goofy, pathetic but lovable demeanor.[2] He is a compulsive liar to avoid arguments or situations with conflict, often leading to an arcing storyline within a show. His relationship with Rachel Green was included in TV Guide's list of the best TV couples of all time, as well as Entertainment Weekly's "30 Best 'Will They/Won't They?' TV Couples".[3] Kevin Bright, one of the executive producers of the show had worked with Schwimmer before, so the writers were already developing Ross’s character in Schwimmer’s voice. And hence, Schwimmer was the first person to be cast on the show.
Contents
[hide]
1 Appearances
2 Relationships
2.1 Rachel Green
2.2 Emily Waltham
3 Reception
4 References
Appearances[edit]
Ross is a paleontologist and has a Ph.D. from Columbia University. He is known to refer to himself as "Dr. Ross Geller." An ongoing theme of his narrative arc is his romantic feelings toward Rachel Green, an infatuation that began in high school. A theme of Friends is their on-again, off-again romantic relationship.
Born on October 18, 1967, and raised on Long Island, Ross is the elder brother of Monica Geller. Ross and Monica are Jewish and see themselves as at least cultural Jews, with Ross taking a more active role in wanting to teach his son, Ben, about the faith. Ross gets divorced and is newly single in the very first episode because his wife, Carol, has realized she's lesbian. Later he dates Rachel but it results in a break-up. Afterward, Ross gets married to Emily which doesn't last long. Also, he marries Rachel in Las Vegas when the two are drunk and then ultimately that too results in a divorce. In the whole series, Ross gets divorced 3 times.
A running theme in Ross's narrative is his competition with his younger sister, manifested through wrestling and paranoia. As children, they took part in a football match for the Geller Cup every Thanksgiving. This ended in its sixth year after Monica "accidentally" broke Ross's nose. The siblings came up with a dance in primary school called "The Routine", which later on allowed them to perform in a New Year's Eve TV broadcast.[4]
When they were kids, Monica used to hate Ross because he always had his way and he was loved more than her as he was their parents’ first child. But eventually as the time passed and they grew up, she started loving him more than she used to and they also grew closer to each other though the competition between them was still visible as seen in The One with the football.
Ross often comes into conflict with his close friend, Phoebe Buffay. His rationality and Phoebe's eccentricity lead to conflict over evolution, gravity, and whether Phoebe's mother was reincarnated as a cat. It is also revealed that Phoebe once mugged Ross (stealing a copy of the comic book Science Boy that Geller had created) when they were teenagers. The two are roommates for a few weeks when a fire forces Phoebe to move into Chandler Bing and Monica's apartment and Phoebe want to give the newly engaged couple some privacy. In a "flashback" episode, they are alone at the bar and start kissing, but the moment quickly passes when Ross keeps bumping his head. Phoebe also helps Ross on numerous occasions, ultimately making him realize that he loves Rachel and they both are meant to be together.
Ross's best friend since college is Chandler. In college, they were in a band called Way/No Way, and Ross blamed Chandler when he was caught smoking marijuana. Chandler becomes Ross's brother-in-law after he marries Monica. Though they are best friends, at times Chandler gets annoyed with Ross’s geeky behaviour.
Ross is friends with Rachel Green, whom he has a crush on since high school. Rachel viewed Ross as ‘Monica’s geeky older brother’ during high school. Despite having a huge crush on her, he never told her and eventually let go of his feelings for her. But he again discovers feelings for her in the first episode of the series. They get close to each other and have on and off relationship. In the final season of the show, Rachel tells him that he means more to her than any other member of their group.
He is also close friends with Joey Tribbiani and helps him with movie and stage auditions. He kisses Joey once in order to help him practice a role as a gay man, only to find out that Joey had already done the audition and didn't get the part. Joey and Ross also briefly try to cut Chandler out of their friend group after he ignores them. Joey and Ross fall asleep together on the couch after watching Die Hard. Toward the end of the series, however, Ross and Joey are seen to become closer friends, often hanging out together after Chandler gets married.
Ross often tries to bring out the best of his friends in difficult situations. For instance, in season 2, he encourages Joey to audition for Another World after being fired from Days of Our Lives, despite Joey's refusal to present himself for a two-line part of a secondary character, in season 7, he buys Phoebe the bike of her dreams but threatens to take it away from her because of her reluctance to learn how to ride it. Also, when he discovers that Joey has a crush on Rachel, he tells him to tell her about it and go for it instead of hiding it, even though he has problems with the idea of Joey and Rachel being together. Above all Ross is a very sweet, loving and adorable guy who is always looking out for everyone's best interests and often the most mature compared to the rest of the gang, despite his ego, outbursts, and paranoia.
He has two children. Ross's son, Ben, was conceived while Ross and Carol were still married and born at the end of Season 1. Ross shares a joint custody of Ben with his ex-wife Carol and her wife Susan.
Ben appeared in a total 16 (17) episodes and was played chronologically: as an infant by Michael Gunderson Season 1 to 2, by brothers Charles Thomas Allen and John Christopher Allen from Season 3 to 5, and by Cole Sprouse from Season 6 to 8.
Ross's daughter with Rachel, Emma Geller-Green, was born at the end of Season 8. Rachel's pregnancy was originally revealed in the season finale of Season 7. The conception of Emma, was predominantly, a result of a one-night stand, which was later revealed in the Season 8 episode, "The One With The Videotape".
At one time, Ross claims to have, "given up a career in basketball," to become a palaeontologist and claims to have had the idea for Jurassic Park and Die Hard stolen from him. He also had major interest in music when he used to play keyboard for hours in the basement of their house in Long Island.
Ross also had a pet in the earlier seasons of the show; a White-headed capuchin monkey named "Marcel".
Relationships[edit]
Over the course of the show, Ross dates a considerable number of women. He married three times and is divorced three times. His proclivity to marry and divorce is a running gag within the series.
Carol Willick. Ross's first wife. The mother of his son Ben. In the very first episode, Carol has just moved out of their apartment after revealing that she is lesbian and leaving Ross for a woman named Susan Bunch, who she later marries. But, the two are on good terms with each other.
Julie. Portrayed by (Lauren Tom), an old graduate school colleague. She first appears in the final scene of the season 1 finale. They start dating in season 2 but break up after Ross discovers Rachel's feelings for him and he decides he wants to be with her instead.
Bonnie. (played by Christine Taylor) A love interest introduced to Ross by Phoebe, Bonnie is formerly a militant bald woman who no longer shaves her head. She enjoyed a sex-filled relationship with Ross, until a conniving Rachel broke them up by first setting Bonnie up to shave her head again, and later by revealing she was interested in reuniting with Ross.
Mona. A love interest portrayed by Bonnie Somerville he met at a wedding who later broke up with him when she found out that his roommate, Rachel Green, was pregnant with Ross's child.
Chloe. Ross's only relationship with Chloe was a one-night stand during the break with his relationship with Rachel Green. This relationship messes his history with Rachel.
Janice. Ross has a brief fling with Janice, Chandler's ex-girlfriend, in season 5. Phoebe said they would have very hairy children. Janice ends up dumping Ross because she thinks he whines too much. Ross, worried about how he would react, tells Chandler, who, to his surprise, laughs.
Elizabeth Stevens. A young, pretty student who Ross teaches during his first year as a professor. They break up due to her immaturity.
Charlie Wheeler. Ross meets Charlie (Aisha Tyler) in "The One With The Soap Opera Party".[5] She is a paleontologist who has recently joined Ross' department. She initially dates Joey before breaking up with him and gravitating toward Ross, after realizing she has more things in common with Ross. She eventually reconciles with her ex-boyfriend, so she and Ross break up.
Emily Waltham. Helen Baxendale is a British girl who appears in the fourth season. Ross takes her out on a date, and ends up marrying her in the end of season 4. They later get divorced because Emily does not trust Ross to refrain from being close with Rachel.
Rachel Green[edit]
Rachel is Ross's most significant relationship during the series. His attraction to her is established early on; Ross met Rachel through his sister Monica, who was Rachel's best friend in high school. He developed an unrequited crush on her, but never followed through on it. After leaving college, Ross married Carol, whom he had met at college, and had seemingly put his feelings for Rachel aside before he met her again in The Pilot.
They have an on-again, off-again dynamic throughout most of the show.
In the Season 1 finale Ross has to go to China for his work. So he asks Chandler to give Rachel a present on her birthday which he had bought for her. While, Chandler does give the present to Rachel during her birthday celebration while Ross is in China, he lets out that Ross loves Rachel prompting Rachel to panic and start thinking about Ross in a romantic way. After Ross arrives back from China, Rachel goes to the airport to receive him on realising that she likes him, but she sees him with Julie and backs off.
In Season 2 episode The One Where Ross Finds Out, Rachel is on a date with a guy when she confesses to Ross over the phone in a drunken state that she had feelings for him but now she was over him. Ross hears it on the phone only the next day at Monica’s apartment with Rachel begging him not to check his messages. Later, in the same episode they share a passionate kiss at the doors of Central Perk. Later he breaks up with Julie but Rachel decides she doesn't want to be with him after finding out that he had made a list, on the insistence of Chandler, comparing the good and bad qualities about her and Julie.
The two begin dating each other only from Episode 15 of Season 2 after in the earlier episode The One with the Prom Video it is revealed that Ross despite being two years senior to Rachel had decided to be her date on her and Monica’s prom, as Rachel's date had not arrived, only to be left disappointed as her date arrives and they both along with Monica and her date take off for the prom. Rachel famously kisses Ross on learning this revelation. However, they break up on their one-year anniversary together. They get together again at the end of Season 3 but again break up at the start of Season 4. Some of the later episodes show them to be still in love with each other.
Ross and Rachel also marry each other after getting heavily drunk in Las Vegas. This marriage ends in a divorce.
In the 8th season, Ross has a daughter with Rachel named Emma Geller-Green, the result of their one night stand prior to Chandler and Monica’s wedding.
In the final episode of the show it is shown that when Rachel is moving to Paris for her job with a new fashion brand, Ross tells her at the airport that he loves her and asks not to leave. But she doesn’t heed to his feelings. Eventually, when the plane is just about to take off she does realize that she loves him too and she ‘gets off the plane’. They profess their love for each other and decide to be together once and for all.
Emily Waltham[edit]
During the fourth season, Ross meets and falls in love with Emily Waltham (Helen Baxendale), a British woman who is set up with Ross by Rachel. Ross spontaneously asks Emily to move in with him. This escalates into a marriage proposal. The two plan a wedding in London, to which Rachel is invited.
During the ceremony, Ross, upon seeing Rachel, has a slip of the tongue and says Rachel's name instead of Emily's during his vows. Emily is furious and exits her own marriage. Emily however decides to forgive Ross, and reaches the airport but is annoyed to see Rachel and Ross boarding the plane together. She flees away again, and Ross follows her only to lose her and also Rachel goes to the place alone. Emily, later, calls Ross only to confront him by saying that he has to stop calling / harassing her relatives, but Ross makes her reveal her love for him. She said that she will return only if Ross stops being friends with Rachel. Unable to do so, Ross ends his marriage with Emily.
Reception[edit]
Ross Geller has become a well-known figure in pop culture, in particular due to his relationship with Rachel Green and his love for Dinosaurs. He is arguably the most polarizing of the Friends characters, appearing as a figure of controversy.
In 2015, a play titled Ross & Rachel debuted at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival.[6]
In October, 2016, Ross Geller was voted "the Best Friends Character" in an international poll held by Comedy Central, during six weeks of "FriendsFest" on the channel.[7]
References[edit]
Friends portal
Jump up ^ Galindo, Buzz (August 7, 2013). "25 Fascinating Facts You Might Not Know About "Friends"". BuzzFeed. BuzzFeed, Inc. Archived from the original on March 15, 2015. Retrieved August 11, 2015. The full names of the characters are ... Ross Eustace Geller.
Jump up ^ Couric, Katie (May 5, 2004). "Dateline NBC - Newsmakers - NBCNews.com". MSNBC. Retrieved September 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bierly, Mandi; Fog, Henning (July 25, 2013). "30 Best 'Will They/Won't They?' TV Couples | Photo 24 of 30". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. Retrieved July 7, 2012.
Jump up ^ Anonymous. "Plot Summary for "Friends" The One with the Routine (1999)".
Jump up ^ Sonia Saraiya. "David Schwimmer puts in the work: On learning wine, waiting tables and why he "campaigned for years for a black girlfriend" for Ross Geller". Salon. Retrieved May 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ross & Rachel - Assembly Festival – Edinburgh Fringe". www.assemblyfestival.com. Retrieved 2016-05-24.
Jump up ^ "It’s Official: Ross Geller Is The Best Friend".
[show]
v
t
e
Friends
Characters
Chandler Bing
Phoebe Buffay
Monica Geller
Ross Geller
Rachel Green
Joey Tribbiani
Episodes
Season 1
"The Pilot" (1.01)
"The One with the Sonogram at the End" (1.02)
"The One with George Stephanopoulos" (1.04)
Season 2
"The One with the Lesbian Wedding" (2.11)
"The One After the Superbowl" (2.12–2.13)
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Statue of Freedom
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Statue of Liberty.
Statue of Freedom (1857–62)
The Statue of Freedom, also known as Armed Freedom or simply Freedom, is a bronze statue designed by Thomas Crawford (1814–1857) that, since 1863, has crowned the dome of the U.S. Capitol building in Washington, D.C. Originally named Freedom Triumphant in War and Peace, a U.S. government publication now states that the statue "is officially known as the Statue of Freedom".[1] The statue depicts a female figure wearing a military helmet and holding a sheathed sword in her right hand and a laurel wreath and shield in her left.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 History
2.1 Design
2.2 Execution
2.3 Restoration
3 Use of Freedom's image
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Description[edit]
The Statue of Freedom is a colossal bronze standing figure 19 1⁄2 feet (5.9 m) tall and weighing approximately 15,000 pounds (6,800 kg). Her crest peaks at 288 feet (88 m) above the east front plaza of the U.S. Capitol.[3] She is a female, allegorical figure whose right hand holds the hilt of a sheathed sword, while a laurel wreath of victory and the Shield of the United States are clasped in her left hand. Her chiton is secured by a brooch inscribed "U.S." and is partially covered by a heavy, Native American–style fringed blanket thrown over her left shoulder. She faces east[4] towards the main entrance of the building and the rising Sun.[5] She wears a military helmet adorned with stars and an eagle's head which is itself crowned by an umbrella-like crest of feathers. Although not actually called "Columbia", she shares many of her iconic characteristics.[6][7] Freedom stands atop a cast-iron globe encircled with one of the national mottoes, E pluribus unum. The lower part of the base is decorated with fasces and wreaths. Ten bronze points tipped with platinum are attached to her headdress, shoulders, and shield for protection from lightning.
History[edit]
Design[edit]
A monumental statue for the top of the national Capitol appeared in architect Thomas U. Walter's original drawing for the new cast-iron dome, which was authorized in 1855. Walter's drawing showed the outline of a statue representing the Goddess of Liberty; Crawford proposed instead an allegorical figure of Freedom Triumphant in War and Peace.
Crawford was commissioned to design Freedom in 1854 and executed the plaster model for the statue in his studio in Rome. Mississippian U.S. Senator and U.S. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis (who would later become President of the Confederacy) was in charge of the Capitol construction and its decorations. According to David Hackett Fischer in his book Liberty and Freedom, Crawford’s statue was…
…very close to Jefferson Davis’s ideas in every way but one…. Above the crown he [had] added a liberty cap, the old Roman symbol of an emancipated slave. It seemed a direct affront to a militant slaveholder, and Jefferson Davis exploded with rage. The northern sculptor and the southern slaveholder had already clashed over a liberty cap in the interior decoration of the Capitol.[8]
Davis sent his aide, Captain Montgomery Meigs, with orders to remove the cap, saying that "its history renders it inappropriate to a people who were born free and would not be enslaved".[9] A military helmet, with an American eagle head and crest of feathers, replaced the cap in the sculpture's final version. (Today many casual observers take the statue, with its eagle and feathers, to be a Native American.[10])
Execution[edit]
Crawford died in 1857 before the full-size plaster model left his studio. The model, packed into six crates, was shipped from Italy in a small sailing vessel in the spring of 1858. During the voyage, the ship began to leak and stopped in Gibraltar for repairs. After leaving Gibraltar, the ship began leaking again to the point that it could go no farther than Bermuda, where the model was stored until other transportation could be arranged. Half of the crates finally arrived in New York City in December, but all sections were not in Washington, D.C. until late March 1859.
Beginning in 1860, the statue was cast in five main sections by Clark Mills, whose bronze foundry was located on the outskirts of Washington. Work was halted in 1861 because of the Civil War, but by the end of 1862, the statue was finished and temporarily displayed on the Capitol grounds. The cost of the statue, exclusive of installation, was $23,796.82.
While Freedom was being cast at Mills' foundry, the foreman in charge of the casting went on strike. Instead of paying him the higher wages he demanded, Mills turned the project over to Philip Reid, one of the slaves working at the facility. Reid presided over the rest of the casting and assembly of the figure.[11] Late in 1863, construction of the dome was sufficiently advanced for the installation of the statue, which was hoisted by former slaves in sections and assembled atop the cast-iron pedestal. The final section, the figure's head and shoulders, was raised on December 2, 1863, to a salute of 35 guns answered by the guns of the 12 forts around Washington, D.C.[12]
Restoration[edit]
The Statue of Freedom was removed from the dome for five months in 1993.
President Bill Clinton during the ceremony for the returning of the Statue of Freedom to the top of the Capitol
On May 9, 1993, after being in place almost 130 years, the statue was brought down from its pedestal by helicopter for restoration, giving tourists a chance to see the statue up close. The work was needed because of extensive pitting and corrosion on the surface of the bronze and because of a crack and rusting on the cast-iron pedestal. The United States Capitol Preservation Commission provided the $780,000 in privately raised funds. The work was performed by New Arts Foundry of Baltimore, Maryland.
The cast-iron pedestal was restored in place atop the dome. The metal was stripped of paint, and the wreaths and fasces were removed to ensure that they were thoroughly cleaned and coated. The crack was permanently repaired, and the entire pedestal was primed and painted with a color specially mixed to match the statue.
Statue of Freedom's plaster model in the Capitol Visitor Center.
Restoration of the statue and the pedestal was completed in approximately four months. The Statue of Freedom was returned to its pedestal by helicopter on October 23, 1993, amid the celebration of the bicentennial of the U.S. Capitol. Since then, every 2–3 years, the statue undergoes two weeks of cleaning and recoating as necessary.
The plaster model of the statue, in storage for 25 years, was reassembled and restored in the basement rotunda of the Russell Senate Office Building, where it was returned to permanent public display in January 1993. The plaster model was relocated to the Emancipation Hall of the Capitol Visitor Center, which provides more visitors access to look at the statue’s details.[13]
Use of Freedom's image[edit]
The well-known Statue of Freedom has appeared on several official designs, akin to the Statue of Liberty. The head of the statue is depicted on a postage stamp (1923, USA Scott No. 573), which was re-issued in 2006. The entire statue is depicted on a stamp commemorating the 150th anniversary of Washington, D.C. (1950, USA Scott No. 989).
It can also be found on the reverse side of the Iraq Campaign Medal decoration authorized to be awarded to members of the U.S. military who deploy to Iraq in direct support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The Global War on Terrorism Civilian Service Medal also depicts the statue on the obverse (front face) of the medal.
USA $5 postage, 1923.
Iraq Campaign Medal, 2004.
Series 1862 $5-note
See also[edit]
List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 6
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the Architect of the Capitol website http://www.aoc.gov/capitol-hill/other-statues/statue-freedom.
Jump up ^ United States Architect of the Capitol (1965). Compilation of Works of Art and Other Objects in the United States Capitol. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. p. 364.
Jump up ^ http://www.aoc.gov/capitol-hill/other-statues/statue-freedom
Jump up ^ "Statue of Freedom". Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved 2009-08-23.
Jump up ^ "Capitol Hill Facts | Architect of the Capitol | U.S. Capitol Building". Aoc.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-02.
Jump up ^ "Architect of the Capitol Frequently Asked Questions". Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved 2009-01-21.
Jump up ^ "The Statue of Freedom".
Jump up ^ Literata (2011). "Columbia". The Order of the White Moon Goddess Gallery. Retrieved February 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Fischer, David Hackett (2005), Liberty and Freedom, Oxford University Press, p. 299.
Jump up ^ Meigs to Crawford, cited in Fryd, Vivien Green (1992), Art and Empire: The Politics of Ethnicity in the United States Capitol, 1815-1860, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press.
Jump up ^ "PBS News Hour on Jan 16, 2009". 2009-01-16. Retrieved 2013-12-05.
Jump up ^ http://www.aoc.gov/philip-reid-and-statue-freedom
Jump up ^ Gale, Robert L. Thomas Crawford: American Sculptor. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 1964, p. 190.
Jump up ^ "AOC To Begin Move of Statue of Freedom Model into Capitol Visitor Center" (Press release). Architect of the Capitol. 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
External links[edit]
Aoc.gov: The Statue of Freedom webpage — by the Architect of the Capitol.
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Potter's wheel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the magazine named The Potter's Wheel, see The Potters (artists group).
Classic potter's kick-wheel in Erfurt, Germany
In pottery, a potter's wheel is a machine used in the shaping (known as throwing) of round ceramic ware. The wheel may also be used during the process of trimming the excess body from dried ware, and for applying incised decoration or rings of colour. Use of the potter's wheel became widespread throughout the Old World but was unknown in the Pre-Columbian New World, where pottery was handmade by methods that included coiling and beating.
A potter's wheel may occasionally be referred to as a "potter's lathe". However, that term is better used for another kind of machine that is used for a different shaping process, turning, similar to that used for shaping of metal and wooden articles.
The techniques of jiggering and jolleying can be seen as extensions of the potter's wheel: in jiggering, a shaped tool is slowly brought down onto the plastic clay body that has been placed on top of the rotating plaster mould. The jigger tool shapes one face, the mould the other. The term is specific to the shaping of flat ware, such as plates, whilst a similar technique, jolleying, refers to the production of hollow ware, such as cups.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Techniques of throwing
3 The potter's wheel in myth and legend
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
A graphic representation of a primitive rotating pottery wheel made of clay and positioned on the ground, based on archaeological finds in Romania
A graphic depiction of an ancient potter's wheel proposed by archaeologist Ștefan Cucoș, based on the findings in Valeni (ro), Feliceni and Ghelăiești in Romania
Much early ceramic ware was hand-built using a simple coiling technique in which clay was rolled into long threads that were then pinched and beaten together to form the body of a vessel. In the coiling method of construction, all the energy required to form the main part of a piece is supplied indirectly by the hands of the potter. Early ceramics built by coiling were often placed on mats or large leaves to allow them to be worked more conveniently. The evidence of this lies in mat or leaf impressions left in the clay of the base of the pot. This arrangement allowed the potter to rotate the vessel during construction, rather than walk around it to add coils of clay.
The earliest forms of the potter's wheel (called tourneys or slow wheels) were probably developed as an extension to this procedure. Tournettes, in use around 4500 BC in the Near East, were turned slowly by hand or by foot while coiling a pot. Only a small range of vessels were fashioned on the tournette, suggesting that it was used by a limited number of potters.[1] The introduction of the slow wheel increased the efficiency of hand-powered pottery production.
In the mid to late 3rd millennium BCE the fast wheel was developed, which operated on the flywheel principle. It utilised energy stored in the rotating mass of the heavy stone wheel itself to speed the process. This wheel was wound up and charged with energy by kicking, or pushing it around with a stick, providing a centrifugal force. The fast wheel enabled a new process of pottery-making to develop, called throwing, in which a lump of clay was placed centrally on the wheel and then squeezed, lifted and shaped as the wheel turned. The process tends to leave rings on the inside of the pot and can be used to create thinner-walled pieces and a wider variety of shapes, including stemmed vessels, so wheel-thrown pottery can be distinguished from handmade. Potters could now produce many more pots per hour, a first step towards industrialization.
Potter in Guatil, Costa Rica, using a hand-powered wheel, 2003
Many modern scholars suggest that the first potter's wheel was first developed by the ancient Sumerians in Mesopotamia.[2] A stone potter's wheel found at the Sumerian city of Ur in modern-day Iraq has been dated to about 3129 BC,[3] but fragments of wheel-thrown pottery of an even earlier date have been recovered in the same area.[3] However, southeastern Europe[4] and China[5] have also been claimed as possible places of origin. Furthermore, the wheel was also in popular use by potters starting around 3500 BC in major cities of the Indus Valley civilization in South Asia, namely Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (Kenoyer, 2005). Others consider Egypt as "being the place of origin of the potter's wheel. It was here that the turntable shaft was lengthened about 3000 BC and a flywheel added. The flywheel was kicked and later was moved by pulling the edge with the left hand while forming the clay with the right. This led to the counterclockwise motion for the potter's wheel which is almost universal."[6] Hence the exact origin of the wheel is not wholly clear yet.
A potter shapes pottery with his hands while operating a mechanical potter's wheel with his foot, 1902
In the Iron Age, the potter's wheel in common use had a turning platform about one metre (3 feet) above the floor, connected by a long axle to a heavy flywheel at ground level. This arrangement allowed the potter to keep the turning wheel rotating by kicking the flywheel with the foot, leaving both hands free for manipulating the vessel under construction. However, from an ergonomic standpoint, sweeping the foot from side to side against the spinning hub is rather awkward. At some point, an alternative solution was invented that involved a crankshaft with a lever that converted up-and-down motion into rotary motion.
The use of the motor-driven wheel has become common in modern times, particularly with craft potters and educational institutions, although human-powered ones are still in use and are preferred by some studio potters.
Techniques of throwing[edit]
Hand positions used during wheel-throwing
There are many techniques in use for throwing ceramic containers, although this is a typical procedure:
A round, moist lumpy clump of clay body is thrown at a wheelhead or a bat attached to it. (The term "bat" refers to a secondary disc or square, made of wood – or more recently plastic – to which the lump of clay is attached instead of the wheel head, thereby permitting the finished piece to be more easily lifted from the wheel.) The lump or clump is made even and forced to the centre of the wheel by applying pressure with the hands. The thrower finds the centre of the clay by moving a thumb across the lump until no more friction is felt. The thumb is pressed into the centre of the lump, stopping about 5 mm (1⁄4 inch) from the wheel head. The hole made is widened. The sides thus defined are pulled up and made thinner by pressure between the hands. The vessel is shaped, and the mouth is smoothed. The vessel is cut from the wheelhead or bat with a cheese wire and left to stiffen. Sometimes the stiffened vessel is inverted on the wheel and trimmed with a sharp tool.
The process of throwing a round pot
The clay is centred on the spinning wheel.
A depression is made in the centre, forming walls.
The walls are drawn up with the hands...
...and shaped into the desired form.
The finished pot.
1836 pottery wheel demonstration at Conner Prairie living historical museum
A skilled potter can quickly throw a vessel from up to 15 kg (30 lb) of clay.[7] Alternatively, by throwing and adding coils of clay then throwing again, pots up to four feet high may be made, the heat of a blowlamp being used to firm each thrown section before adding the next coil. In Chinese manufacture, very large pots are made by two throwers working simultaneously.
The potter's wheel in myth and legend[edit]
In Ancient Egyptian mythology, the deity Khnum was said to have formed the first humans on a potter's wheel.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Roux, Valentine; Miroschedji, Pierre (2009). "Revisiting the History of the Potter's Wheel in the Southern Levant". Levant. 41 (2): 155–173.
Jump up ^ Kramer, Samuel Noah (1963). The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. p. 290. ISBN 0-226-45238-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Moorey, Peter Roger Stuart (1999) [1994]. Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. p. 146. ISBN 9781575060422.
Jump up ^ Cucoș, Ștefan (1999). "Faza Cucuteni B în zona subcarpatică a Moldovei" [Cucuteni B period in the lower Carpathian region of Moldova]. Bibliotheca Memoriae antiquitatis (BMA) (Memorial Library antiquities) (in Romanian). Piatra Neamț, Romania: Muzeul de Istorie Piatra Neamț (Historical Museum Piatra Neamț). 6. OCLC 223302267.
Jump up ^ "萧山日报-数字报纸".
Jump up ^ Hamer, Frank; Hamer, Janet (2004). The Potter's Dictionary of Materials and Techniques. p. 383.
Jump up ^ "Isaac Button – Country Potter (1965)". Film & TV Database. BFI.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Potter's wheel.
Pottery (video on Internet Archive)
Earliest Depiction of a Kick-Wheel in Egypt
Isaac Button, Soil Hill Pottery near Halifax, England; Lakeside Pottery
The last Iranian woman potter using the ancient technique. Location: Pirtaj village in Chang-almas region in western Iran; Lakeside Pottery
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...and shaped into the desired form.

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The finished pot.

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