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Fertile Crescent
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Map showing the generally defined area of the Fertile Crescent in red
The Fertile Crescent (also known as the "cradle of civilization") is a crescent-shaped region where agriculture and early human civilizations like the Sumer and Ancient Egypt flourished due to inundations from the surrounding Nile, Euphrates, and Tigris rivers.[1] Technological advances in the region include the development of writing, glass, the wheel, agriculture, and the use of irrigation.
Modern-day countries with significant territory within the Fertile Crescent are Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Cyprus, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Egypt, as well as the southeastern fringe of Turkey and the western fringes of Iran.[2][3] The term is also used in international geopolitics and diplomatic relations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Biodiversity and climate
3 History
3.1 Early domestications
4 Languages
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 Bibliography
8 Further reading
9 External links
Terminology[edit]
The term "Fertile Crescent" was popularized by archaeologist James Henry Breasted in Outlines of European History (1914) and Ancient Times, A History of the Early World (1916).[4][5][6][7][8][9] Breasted wrote:[4]
This fertile crescent is approximately a semicircle, with the open side toward the south, having the west end at the southeast corner of the Mediterranean, the center directly north of Arabia, and the east end at the north end of the Persian Gulf (see map, p. 100). It lies like an army facing south, with one wing stretching along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and the other reaching out to the Persian Gulf, while the center has its back against the northern mountains. The end of the western wing is Palestine; Assyria makes up a large part of the center; while the end of the eastern wing is Babylonia.

This great semicircle, for lack of a name, may be called the Fertile Crescent.1 It may also be likened to the shores of a desert-bay, upon which the mountains behind look down—a bay not of water but of sandy waste, some eight hundred kilometres across, forming a northern extension of the Arabian desert and sweeping as far north as the latitude of the northeast corner of the Mediterranean. This desert-bay is a limestone plateau of some height—too high indeed to be watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, which have cut cañons obliquely across it. Nevertheless, after the meager winter rains, wide tracts of the northern desert-bay are clothed with scanty grass, and spring thus turns the region for a short time into grasslands. The history of Western Asia may be described as an age-long struggle between the mountain peoples of the north and the desert wanderers of these grasslands—a struggle which is still going on—for the possession of the Fertile Crescent, the shores of the desert-bay.

1 There is no name, either geographical or political, which includes all of this great semicircle (see map, p. 100). Hence we are obliged to coin a term and call it the Fertile Crescent.
In current usage, the Fertile Crescent includes Iraq, Kuwait, and surrounding portions of Iran and Turkey, as well as the rest of the Levantine coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Syria, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. Water sources include the Jordan River. The inner boundary is delimited by the dry climate of the Syrian Desert to the south. Around the outer boundary are the Anatolian highlands to the north and the Sahara Desert to the west.
Biodiversity and climate[edit]
As crucial as rivers and marshlands were to the rise of civilization in the Fertile Crescent, they were not the only factor. The area is geographically important as the "bridge" between Africa and Eurasia, which has allowed it to retain a greater amount of biodiversity than either Europe or North Africa, where climate changes during the Ice Age led to repeated extinction events when ecosystems became squeezed against the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. The Saharan pump theory posits that this Middle Eastern land-bridge was extremely important to the modern distribution of Old World flora and fauna, including the spread of humanity.
The area has borne the brunt of the tectonic divergence between the African and Arabian plates and the converging Arabian and Eurasian plates, which has made the region a very diverse zone of high snow-covered mountains.
The Fertile Crescent had many diverse climates, and major climatic changes encouraged the evolution of many "r" type annual plants, which produce more edible seeds than "K" type perennial plants. The region's dramatic variety in elevation gave rise to many species of edible plants for early experiments in cultivation. Most importantly, the Fertile Crescent was home to the eight Neolithic founder crops important in early agriculture (i.e., wild progenitors to emmer wheat, einkorn, barley, flax, chick pea, pea, lentil, bitter vetch), and four of the five most important species of domesticated animals—cows, goats, sheep, and pigs; the fifth species, the horse, lived nearby.[10] The Fertile Crescent flora comprises a high percentage of plants that can self-pollinate, but may also be cross-pollinated.[11] These plants, called "selfers", were one of the geographical advantages of the area because they did not depend on other plants for reproduction.[10]
History[edit]
Further information: History of the Middle East
The ancient Near East
Regions and states
Fertile Crescent
Mesopotamia
Akkadian Empire
Assyria
Babylonia
Neo-Assyrian Empire
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Sumer
Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Persia
Achaemenid Empire
Elam
Medes
Anatolia
Hittites
Hurrians
Neo-Hittite states
Urartu
The Levant
Ancient Israel
Phoenicia
Archaeological periods
Chronology
Bronze Age
Bronze Age collapse
Iron Age
Languages
Akkadian
Aramaic
Assyriology
Cuneiform script
Elamite
Hebrew
Hittite
Hurrian
Phoenician
Sumerian
Urartian
Literature
Babylonian
Hittite texts
Sumerian
Mythology
Babylonian
Hittite
Mesopotamian
Egyptian
Other topics
Cradle of civilization
Assyrian law
Babylonian astronomy
Babylonian law
Babylonian mathematics
Cuneiform law
History of the Middle East
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As well as possessing many sites with the skeletal and cultural remains of both pre-modern and early modern humans (e.g., at Tabun and Es Skhul caves in Israel), later Pleistocene hunter-gatherers, and Epipalaeolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers (the Natufians); the Fertile Crescent is most famous for its sites related to the origins of agriculture. The western zone around the Jordan and upper Euphrates rivers gave rise to the first known Neolithic farming settlements (referred to as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), which date to around 9,000 BCE (and includes sites such as Göbekli Tepe and Jericho).
This region, alongside Mesopotamia (which lies to the east of the Fertile Crescent, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates), also saw the emergence of early complex societies during the succeeding Bronze Age. There is also early evidence from the region for writing and the formation of hierarchical statelevel societies. This has earned the region the nickname "The cradle of civilization".
It is in this region where the first libraries appeared, some 5,000 years ago. The oldest known library was found in northern Syria, in the ruins of Ebla, a major commercial center that was destroyed around 1650 BCE.[12]
Both the Tigris and Euphrates start in the Taurus Mountains of what is modern-day Turkey. Farmers in southern Mesopotamia had to protect their fields from flooding each year, except northern Mesopotamia which had just enough rain to make some farming possible. To protect against flooding, they made levees.[13]
Since the Bronze Age, the region's natural fertility has been greatly extended by irrigation works, upon which much of its agricultural production continues to depend. The last two millennia have seen repeated cycles of decline and recovery as past works have fallen into disrepair through the replacement of states, to be replaced under their successors. Another ongoing problem has been salination — gradual concentration of salt and other minerals in soils with a long history of irrigation.
Early domestications[edit]
Prehistoric seedless figs were discovered at Gilgal I in the Jordan Valley, suggesting that fig trees were being planted some 11,400 years ago.[14] Cereals were already grown in Syria as long as 9,000 years ago.[15] Small cats (Felis silvestris) also were domesticated in this region.[16]

Languages[edit]
Linguistically, the Fertile Crescent was a region of great diversity. Historically, Semitic languages generally prevailed in the lowlands, whilst in the mountainous areas to the east and north a number of generally unrelated languages were found including Elamite, Kassite, and Hurro-Urartian. The precise affiliation of these, and their date of arrival, remain topics of scholarly discussion. However, given lack of textual evidence for the earliest era of prehistory, this debate is unlikely to be resolved in the near future.
The evidence which does exist suggests that by the third millennium BCE and into the second, several language groups already existed in the region. These included:[17][18]
Proto-Euphratean language – a non-Semitic language considered to be the substratum language of the people that introduced farming into Southern Iraq in the Early Ubaid period (5300-4700 BC).
Sumerian – a non-Semitic language which displays a Sprachbund-type relationship with neighbouring Akkadian
Semitic languages – Akkadian, Amorite, Aramaic, Ugaritic, Canaanite.
Hurro-Urartian languages – a small family. (The otherwise isolated Kassite language may be related.)
Hattic – a language isolate, spoken originally in central Anatolia.
Indo-European languages – generally believed to be later intrusive languages, such as Hittite and the Indo-Aryan material attested in the Mittani civilization.
Links between Hurro-Urartian and Hattic and the indigenous languages of the Caucasus have frequently been suggested, but are not generally accepted.
See also[edit]
Hilly Flanks
History of Mesopotamia
History of agriculture
Hydraulic empire
Near East
Beth Nahrain
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ "Fertile Crescent". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Haviland, William A., et. al (2013). The Essence of Anthropology (3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth. p. 104. ISBN 1111833443.
Jump up ^ Ancient Mesopotamia/India. Culver City, California: Social Studies School Service. 2004. p. 4. ISBN 1560041668.
^ Jump up to: a b Abt, Jeffrey (2011). American Egyptologist: the life of James Henry Breasted and the creation of his Oriental Institute. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 193–194, 436. ISBN 978-0-226-0011-04.
Jump up ^ Goodspeed, George Stephen (1904). A History of the ancient world: for high schools and academies. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 5–6.
Jump up ^ Breasted, James Henry (1914). "Earliest man, the Orient, Greece, and Rome". In Robinson, James Harvey; Breasted, James Henry; Beard, Charles A. Outlines of European history, Vol. 1 (PDF). Boston: Ginn. pp. 56–57. "The Ancient Orient" map is inserted between pages 56 and 57.
Jump up ^ Breasted, James Henry (1916). Ancient times, a history of the early world: an introduction to the study of ancient history and the career of early man (PDF). Boston: Ginn. pp. 100–101. "The Ancient Oriental World" map is inserted between pages 100 and 101.
Jump up ^ Clay, Albert T. (1924). "The so-called Fertile Crescent and desert bay". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 44: 186–201. doi:10.2307/593554. JSTOR 593554.
Jump up ^ Kuklick, Bruce (1996). "Essay on methods and sources". Puritans in Babylon: the ancient Near East and American intellectual life, 1880–1930. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-691-02582-7. Textbooks...The true texts brought all of these strands together, the most important being James Henry Breasted, Ancient Times: A History of the Early World (Boston, 1916), but a predecessor, George Stephen Goodspeed, A History of the Ancient World (New York, 1904), is outstanding. Goodspeed, who taught at Chicago with Breasted, antedated him in the conception of a 'crescent' of civilization.
^ Jump up to: a b Diamond, Jared. (March 1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
Jump up ^ Diamond, Jared. (March 1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03891-2.
Jump up ^ Murray, S. (2009). The Library: An Illustrated History. New York, NY : Skyhorse Pub., 2009.
Jump up ^ Beck, Roger B.; Black, Linda; Krieger, Larry S.; Naylor, Phillip C.; Shabaka, Dahia Ibo (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274-X.
Jump up ^ Norris, Scott (1 June 2006). "Ancient Fig Find May Push Back Birth of Agriculture". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Genographic Project: The Development of Agriculture", Archived 2016-04-14 at the Wayback Machine. National Geographic
Jump up ^ Driscoll, et al., "The near eastern origin of cat domestication", Science 2007;317:519-23
Jump up ^ Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia. Ed. Steadman & McMahon. 2011. Pg 233, 522, 556.
Jump up ^ A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Ed: T Potts, 2012. Pg 28, 570, 584.
Bibliography[edit]
Jared Diamond, Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13'000 years, 1997.
Library resources about
Fertile Crescent
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Further reading[edit]
Anderson, Clifford Norman. The Fertile Crescent: Travels In the Footsteps of Ancient Science. 2d ed., rev. Fort Lauderdale: Sylvester Press, 1972.
Deckers, Katleen. Holocene Landscapes Through Time In the Fertile Crescent. Turnhout: Brepols, 2011.
Ephʻal, Israel. The Ancient Arabs: Nomads On the Borders of the Fertile Crescent 9th-5th Centuries B.C. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1982.
Kajzer, Małgorzata, Łukasz Miszk, and Maciej Wacławik. The Land of Fertility I: South-East Mediterranean Since the Bronze Age to the Muslim Conquest. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016.
Kozłowski, Stefan Karol. The Eastern Wing of the Fertile Crescent: Late Prehistory of Greater Mesopotamian Lithic Industries. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1999.
Thomas, Alexander R. The Evolution of the Ancient City: Urban Theory and the Archaeology of the Fertile Crescent. Lanham: Lexington Books/Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fertile Crescent.
Ancient Fertile Crescent Almost Gone, Satellite Images Show – from National Geographic News, May 18, 2001.
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Coordinates: 36°N 40°E / 36°N 40°E / 36; 40
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text:
United States declaration of war on Japan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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President Roosevelt, wearing a black armband, signs the Declaration of War on Japan on December 8, 1941
On December 8, 1941, the United States Congress declared war (Public Law 77-328, 55 STAT 795) on the Empire of Japan in response to that country's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor the prior day. It was formulated an hour after the Infamy Speech of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Japan had sent a message for the United States to its embassy in Washington earlier, but because of problems at the embassy in decoding the very long message – the high security level assigned to the declaration meant that only personnel with very high clearances could decode it, which slowed down the process – it was not delivered to the U.S. Secretary of State until after the Pearl Harbor attack. Following the U.S. declaration, Japan's allies, Germany and Italy, declared war on the United States, bringing the United States fully into World War II.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Vote and Presidential signature
3 Text of the declaration
4 See also
5 References
Background[edit]
The attack on Pearl Harbor took place before a declaration of war by Japan, but that was not the intent of the Japanese leadership. It was originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that it was withdrawing from further peace negotiations.[1][2] It was the intent of the Japanese to uphold the conventions of war while still achieving surprise, but the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5,000-word notification (known as the "14-Part Message") in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. However, decoding and translation took too long for the ambassador to deliver it in time. Even so, the notification was worded so that it actually neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations.[3]
The United Kingdom declared war on Japan nine hours before the US did, partially due to Japanese attacks on the British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong; and partially due to Winston Churchill's promise to declare war "within the hour" of a Japanese attack on the United States.[4]
Vote and Presidential signature[edit]
President Roosevelt formally requested the declaration in his Infamy Speech, addressed to a joint session of Congress and the nation at 12:30 p.m. on December 8.[5] The declaration was quickly brought to a vote; it passed the Senate, and then passed the House at 1:10 p.m.[5] The vote was 82 – 0 in the Senate and 388 – 1 in the House. Jeannette Rankin, a pacifist and the first woman elected to Congress (in 1916), cast the only vote against the declaration, eliciting hisses from some of her peers. Several colleagues requested she change her vote to make the resolution unanimous—or at least to abstain—but she refused.[6][7] "As a woman, I can't go to war," she said, "and I refuse to send anyone else." Nine other women held Congressional seats at the time. After the vote, an angry mob followed her from the Capitol building, forcing her to take refuge in a telephone booth until United States Capitol Police could rescue her. Two days later a similar war declaration against Germany and Italy came to vote; Rankin abstained. Nine other women voted in favor of the declaration of war.
Roosevelt signed the declaration at 4:10 p.m the same day.[5] The power to declare war is assigned exclusively to Congress in the United States Constitution, making it an open question whether his signature was technically necessary.[5] However, his signature was symbolically powerful and resolved any doubts.
Text of the declaration[edit]
JOINT RESOLUTION Declaring that a state of war exists between the Imperial Government of Japan and the Government and the people of the United States and making provisions to prosecute the same.
Whereas the Imperial Government of Japan has committed unprovoked acts of war against the Government and the people of the United States of America:
Therefore be it Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the state of war between the United States and the Imperial Government of Japan which has thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared; and the President is hereby authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial Government of Japan; and, to bring the conflict to a successful termination, all the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States.[8]
See also[edit]
World War II portal
Japanese declaration of war on the United States and the British Empire
United States declaration of war upon Germany (1941)
United States declaration of war upon Italy
Declaration of war by the United States
Kellogg–Briand Pact
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Hixson, Walter L. (2003), The American Experience in World War II: The United States and the road to war in Europe, Taylor & Francis, p. 73, ISBN 978-0-415-94029-0
Jump up ^ Calvocoressi, Peter; Wint, Guy & Pritchard, John (1999) The Penguin History of the Second World War, London: Penguin. p.952
Jump up ^ Prange, Gordon W. (1982) At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor, Dillon. pp.424, 475, 493-94
Jump up ^ Staff (December 15, 1941) "The U.S. At War, The Last Stage" Time
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kluckhorn, Frank L.(December 9, 1941) "U.S. Declares War, Pacific Battle Widens" The New York Times p.A1. Retrieved January 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ Staff (April 1, 2014) "Jeannette Rankin: Suffragist, Congresswoman, Pacifist" Women's History Matters
Jump up ^ Luckowski, Jean and Lopach, James (ndg) "A Chronology and Primary Sources for Teaching about Jeannette Rankin" Montana.gov
Jump up ^ "Declaration of War with Japan" Retrieved 2010-15-7
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1941 (1979)
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Prisons in India
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Prisons in India, and their administration, is a state subject covered by item 4 under the State List in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. The management and administration of prisons falls exclusively in the domain of the State governments, and is governed by the Prisons Act, 1894 and the Prison manuals of the respective state governments. Thus, the states have the primary role, responsibility and authority to change the current prison laws, rules and regulations.[1] The Central Government provides assistance to the states to improve security in prisons, for the repair and renovation of old prisons, medical facilities, development of borstal schools, facilities to women offenders, vocational training, modernization of prison industries, training to prison personnel, and for the creation of high security enclosures.
The Supreme Court of India, in its judgements on various aspects of prison administration, has laid down 3 broad principles regarding imprisonment and custody. Firstly, a person in prison does not become a non-person. Secondly, a person in prison is entitled to all human rights within the limitations of imprisonment. Lastly, there is no justification for aggravating the suffering already inherent in the process of incarceration.
Contents
[hide]
1 Types of prisons
2 Central jail
2.1 District jail
2.2 Sub jail
2.3 Women's Jail
2.4 Borstal School
2.5 Open jail
2.6 Special jail
2.7 Other jails
3 Expenditure
4 Prison population statistics
4.1 Types of prison inmates
4.2 Population
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Types of prisons[edit]
Entrance to the Central Prison in Viyyur, Thrissur district, Kerala.
The Central Prison in Puzhal, Chennai.
A section of the Madras Central Prison before demolition in 2009.
Prison establishments in India comprise 8 categories of jails. The most common and standard jail institutions are Central Jails, District Jails and Sub Jails. The other types of jail establishments are Women Jails, Borstal Schools, Open Jails and Special Jails.
Type
Number
Total Capacity[2]
Central Jails 134 159,158
District Jails 379 137,972
Sub Jails 741 46,368
Women Jails 18 4,748
Open Jails 63 5,370
Borstal Schools 20 1,830
Special Jails 43 10,915
Other Jails 3 420
Total
1387
366,781
Central jail[edit]
The criteria for a jail to be categorised as a Central Jail varies from state to state. However, the common feature observed throughout India is that prisoners sentenced to imprisonment for a long period (more than 2 years) are confined in the Central Jails, which have larger capacity in comparison to other jails. These jails also have rehabilitation facilities.
Madhya Pradesh has the highest number of 11 Central Jails followed by Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu with 9 each. Karnataka and Delhi each have 8 Central Jails.[3]
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu & Lakshadweep do not have any Central Jails.[3]
District jail[edit]
District jails serve as the main prisons in States/UTs where there are no Central Jails.
District old jail Bhopal
States which have considerable number of District Jails are Uttar Pradesh(57), Madhya Pradesh(39), Bihar(31), Maharashtra(28), Rajasthan(24), Assam (22), Karnataka (19), Jharkhand (17) and Haryana (16), Kerala (11), West Bengal (12), Chhattisgarh (11), Jammu & Kashmir and Nagaland (10 each).[4]
Sub jail[edit]
Sub jails are smaller institutions situated at a sub-divisional level in the States.
9 states have reported comparatively higher number of sub-jails revealing a well-organized prison set-up even at lower formation. These states are Maharashtra (100), Andhra Pradesh (99), Tamil Nadu (96), Madhya Pradesh (72), Karnataka (70), Odisha (73), Rajasthan (60), Telangana and West Bengal (33 each). Odisha had the highest capacity of inmates in various Sub-Jails.[4]
7 States/UTs have no sub-jails namely Arunachal Pradesh, Haryana, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Chandigarh and Delhi.[4]
Women's Jail[edit]
Jails built to exclusively house women prisoners. Most of the staff in such jails are usually women.
Maharashtra has 5 women jails. Kerala and Tamil Nadu each have 3 women jails.[4]
Borstal School[edit]
Borstal Schools are a type of youth detention centre and are used exclusively for the imprisonment of minors or juveniles. The primary objective of Borstal Schools is to ensure care, welfare and rehabilitation of young offenders in an environment suitable for children and keep them away from contaminating atmosphere of the prison. The juveniles in conflict with law detained in Borstal Schools are provided various vocational training and education with the help of trained teachers. The emphasis is given on the education, training and moral influence conducive for their reformation and prevention of crime.
Nine States namely, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Telangana have borstal schools in their respective jurisdictions.[3] Tamil Nadu had the highest capacity for keeping 678 inmates.[5] Himachal Pradesh and Kerala are the only states that have the capacity to lodge female inmates in 2 of their Borstal Schools.[5] There are no borstal schools in any of the UTs at the end of 2015.
Open jail[edit]
Open jails are minimum security prisons. Prisoners with good behaviour satisfying certain norms prescribed in the prison rules are admitted in open prisons. Prisoners, here, are engaged in agricultural activities.
Seventeen states have functioning Open Jails in their jurisdiction. Rajasthan reported the highest number of 29 open jails. There are no Open Jails in any of the UTs at the end of 2015.[4]
Special jail[edit]
Special jails are high security facilities that have specialized arrangements for keeping offenders and prisoners who are convicted of terrorism, insurgency and violent crimes. Special jail means any prison provided for the confinement of a particular class or particular classes of prisoners which are broadly as follows:
Prisoners who have committed serious violations of prison discipline.
Prisoners showing tendencies towards violence and aggression.
Difficult discipline cases of habitual offenders.
Difficult discipline cases from a group of professional/organised criminals.
Kerala has the highest number of special jails - 16. Provision for keeping female prisoners in these special jails is available in Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Gujarat, Kerala, Assam, Karnataka and Maharashtra.[4]
Other jails[edit]
Jails that do not fall into the categories discussed above, fall under the category of Other Jails. Three states - Karnataka, Kerala & Maharashtra - have 1 other jail each in their jurisdiction. No other state/UT has an other jail at the end of 2015.[4]
The capacity of inmates (male & female) reported by these three States in such jails was highest in Karnataka (250) followed by Kerala (142), Goa (45) and Maharashtra (28).[6]
Expenditure[edit]
All states and UTs in India had a combined sanctioned budget of ₹42,788.12 million (US$660 million) in 2014-15 for prison related expenditure.[7]
Prison expenditure is broadly categorised as Plan Expenditure and Non-Plan Expenditure. Expenditure on specific planned activities under the Five Year Plan is termed as Plan Expenditure. Expenditure made for meeting day-to-day expenses and running establishments like payment of salaries, wages, rent, etc. come under the Non-Plan Expenditure. Non-Plan Expenditure may also include activities for development of existing infrastructure and bringing about improvements in the prisons.
Expenditure on prison inmates is categorised as Food, Clothing, Medical, Vocational/Educational facilities, Welfare and Other expenses. Food expenses account for more than half the total expenditure on prison inmates.
Prison population statistics[edit]
As of 31 December 2014, there are 1387 functioning jails in India having a total capacity to house 356,561 prisoners. As of the same date, there were 418,536 inmates in jails across in India. Males at 400,855 make up 95.8% of prisoners while females at 17,681 represent 4.2%. As of 31 December 2015, there are 1401 functioning establishments/institutions in India housing a total of 419,623 inmates, which includes pre-trial detainees and remand prisoners. The remand prisoners and pre-trial detainees account for 67.2% of the prison population in India. The official capacity of the prison system is 366,781 therefore, the occupancy level is at 114.4%. Of these prisoners, 4.3% are female prisoners and 1.5% are foreign prisoners.[8]
One of the primary reasons for the overcrowding of prisons is the pendency of court cases. As on March 31, 2016, more than 3 crore cases are pending in various courts, and two of every three prison inmates in the country are under trials. The 4,19,623 prisoners of 2015, for example, included 2,82,076 under trials, or 67%, according to NCRB data. [9]
Types of prison inmates[edit]
Prison inmates lodged in Indian jails are categorised as Convicts, Under-trials and Detenues. A convict is "a person found guilty of a crime and sentenced by a court" or "a person serving a sentence in prison".[10] An under-trial is a person who is currently on trial in a court of law.[11] A detenue is any person held in custody.[12][13]
Prison inmates lodged in Indian jails in relation to non-Indian Penal Code (IPC) crimes are classified as civil prisoners. They consist of Convicts and Under-trials.
Population[edit]
The following table gives the population and occupancy rate of prisons in India annually:
Year
No. of Inmates
Occupancy Rate[a]
Male
Female
Total
2009 122.8%
2010 115.1%
2011 356,902 16,024 372,926 112.1%
2012 368,184 16,951 385,135 112.2%
2013[14] 393,804 18,188 411,992 118.4%
2014[15] 400,855 17,681 418,536 117.4%
2015[16] 401,789 17,834 419,623 114.4%
See also[edit]
India portal
Prisons portal
Capital punishment in India
National Crime Records Bureau
Prison officers ranks:
Inspector General of Prisons
Deputy Inspector General of Prisons
Assistant Inspector General of Prisons
Superintendent of Jail
Related:
Crime in India
Law enforcement in India
List:
List of prisons in India
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Occupancy Rate means number of inmates staying in jails against the authorized capacity for 100 inmates.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "India - The Penal System". Country-data.com. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "National Crime Records Bureau - Prison Statistics" (PDF). ncrb.gov.in.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Prison Statistics India 2014" (PDF). ncrb.gov.in. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "PRISON STATISTICS INDIA 2015". ncrb.nic.in. Retrieved 2016-11-08.
^ Jump up to: a b "Prison Statistics India" (PDF). National Crime Records Bureau. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Prison Statistics India 2014" (PDF). National Crime Records Bureau. 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Prison Statistics India 2014" (PDF). National Crime Records Bureau. 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
Jump up ^ “India.” India | World Prison Brief, 1 Jan. 1970
Jump up ^ "Jails at 14 per cent over capacity, two in three prisoners undertrials". The Indian Express. 2018-04-10. Retrieved 2018-04-10.
Jump up ^ Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, p. 311 (2d Coll. Ed. 1978).
Jump up ^ "Definition of undertrial in Oxford Dictionaries (British & World English)". Oxforddictionaries.com. 29 May 2013. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Definition of detenu in Oxford Dictionaries (British & World English)". Oxforddictionaries.com. 29 May 2013. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Détenu - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 4 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Prisons in India Statistics 2013" (PDF). National Crime Records Bureau. ncrb.nic.in.
Jump up ^ "Prison Statistics India 2014" (PDF). National Crime Records Bureau. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Capacity of Jails, Inmate Population and Occupancy Rate at the end of 2015" (PDF). National Crime Records Bureau. ncrb.gov.in. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
External links[edit]
http://ncrb.gov.in/StatPublications/PSI/Prison2014/PrisonStat2014rev1.htm
http://ncrb.gov.in/StatPublications/PSI/Prison2014/ContTab.htm
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