text:
List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders
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Barry Bonds holds the record for most career home runs, hitting 762 over his 22-year career.
This is a list of the top 300 Major League Baseball leaders in home runs hit. In the sport of baseball, a home run is a hit in which the batter scores by circling all the bases and reaching home plate in one play, without the benefit of a fielding error. This can be accomplished either by hitting the ball out of play while it is still in fair territory (a conventional home run), or by an inside-the-park home run.
Barry Bonds holds the Major League Baseball home run record with 762. He passed Hank Aaron, who is currently second with 755, on August 7, 2007. The only other player to have hit 700 or more is Babe Ruth with 714. Alex Rodriguez (696), Willie Mays (660), Ken Griffey, Jr. (630), Albert Pujols (614), Jim Thome (612), and Sammy Sosa (609) are the only other players to have hit 600 or more.
Listed are all Major League Baseball players with 215 or more home runs hit during official regular season (i.e., excluding playoffs or exhibition games). Players in bold face are active as of the 2017 Major League Baseball season (including free agents), with the number in parentheses designating the number of home runs they have hit during the 2017 season. The last change in the cutoff for the top 300 occurred on September 30, 2017, when Carlos González hit his 215th career home run, displacing Jeff Conine and José Guillén.
Contents
[hide]
1 Key
2 List
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Key[edit]
Rank Rank amongst leaders in career home runs. A blank field indicates a tie.
Player (2017 HRs) Number of home runs hit during the 2017 Major League Baseball season.
HR Total career home runs hit.
*
denotes elected to National Baseball Hall of Fame.
Bold
denotes active player.[a]
List[edit]
Stats updated as of the 2017 season.
Rank
Player (2017 HRs)
HR
1 Barry Bonds 762
2 Hank Aaron * 755
3 Babe Ruth * 714
4 Alex Rodriguez 696
5 Willie Mays * 660
6 Ken Griffey, Jr. * 630
7 Albert Pujols (23) 614
8 Jim Thome 612
9 Sammy Sosa 609
10 Frank Robinson * 586
11 Mark McGwire 583
12 Harmon Killebrew * 573
13 Rafael Palmeiro 569
14 Reggie Jackson * 563
15 Manny Ramirez 555
16 Mike Schmidt * 548
17 David Ortiz 541
18 Mickey Mantle * 536
19 Jimmie Foxx * 534
20 Willie McCovey * 521
Frank Thomas * 521
Ted Williams * 521
23 Ernie Banks * 512
Eddie Mathews * 512
25 Mel Ott * 511
26 Gary Sheffield 509
27 Eddie Murray * 504
28 Lou Gehrig * 493
Fred McGriff 493
30 Stan Musial * 475
Willie Stargell * 475
32 Carlos Delgado 473
33 Chipper Jones 468
34 Dave Winfield * 465
35 Adrián Beltré (17) 462
Miguel Cabrera (16) 462
José Canseco 462
Adam Dunn 462
39 Carl Yastrzemski * 452
40 Jeff Bagwell * 449
Vladimir Guerrero 449
42 Dave Kingman 442
43 Jason Giambi 440
44 Paul Konerko 439
45 Andre Dawson * 438
46 Carlos Beltrán (14) 435
47 Juan González 434
Andruw Jones 434
49 Cal Ripken, Jr. * 431
50 Mike Piazza * 427
51 Billy Williams * 426
52 Darrell Evans 414
53 Alfonso Soriano 412
54 Mark Teixeira 409
55 Duke Snider * 407
56 Andrés Galarraga 399
Al Kaline * 399
58 Dale Murphy 398
59 Joe Carter 396
60 Jim Edmonds 393
61 Graig Nettles 390
62 Johnny Bench * 389
63 Aramis Ramírez 386
64 Dwight Evans 385
65 Harold Baines 384
66 Larry Walker 383
67 Frank Howard 382
Ryan Howard (0) 382
Jim Rice * 382
70 Albert Belle 381
71 Orlando Cepeda * 379
Tony Pérez * 379
73 Matt Williams 378
74 Norm Cash 377
Jeff Kent 377
Rank
Player (2017 HRs)
HR
76 Carlton Fisk * 376
77 Rocky Colavito 374
78 Gil Hodges 370
79 Todd Helton 369
Ralph Kiner * 369
81 Lance Berkman 366
82 Joe DiMaggio * 361
83 Gary Gaetti 360
84 Johnny Mize * 359
85 Yogi Berra * 358
Carlos Lee 358
87 Greg Vaughn 355
88 Luis Gonzalez 354
Lee May 354
90 Torii Hunter 353
91 Ellis Burks 352
92 Dick Allen 351
93 Chili Davis 350
94 Edwin Encarnación (38) 348
George Foster 348
96 Ron Santo * 342
97 Jack Clark 340
98 Tino Martinez 339
Dave Parker 339
Boog Powell 339
101 Don Baylor 338
102 Joe Adcock 336
103 Darryl Strawberry 335
104 Moisés Alou 332
Bobby Bonds 332
106 José Bautista (23) 331
Hank Greenberg * 331
Derrek Lee 331
109 Shawn Green 328
Mo Vaughn 328
111 Jermaine Dye 325
Willie Horton 325
113 Gary Carter * 324
Lance Parrish 324
115 Nelson Cruz (39) 323
116 Ron Gant 321
117 Vinny Castilla 320
Troy Glaus 320
119 Cecil Fielder 319
Prince Fielder 319
Curtis Granderson (26) 319
122 Roy Sievers 318
123 George Brett * 317
124 Ron Cey 316
Scott Rolen 316
126 Jeromy Burnitz 315
127 Matt Holliday (19) 314
Reggie Smith 314
129 Adrian Gonzalez (3) 311
Iván Rodríguez * 311
131 Jay Buhner 310
132 Edgar Martínez 309
133 Greg Luzinski 307
Al Simmons * 307
Miguel Tejada 307
136 Fred Lynn 306
Richie Sexson 306
Rubén Sierra 306
139 Raúl Ibañez 305
David Justice 305
Reggie Sanders 305
142 Steve Finley 304
143 Ryan Braun (17) 302
144 Robinson Canó (23) 301
Rogers Hornsby * 301
146 Chuck Klein * 300
147 Tim Salmon 299
148 Rickey Henderson * 297
149 Magglio Ordóñez 294
Robin Ventura 294
Rank
Player (2017 HRs)
HR
151 Kent Hrbek 293
152 Pat Burrell 292
Rusty Staub 292
154 Craig Biggio * 291
Jimmy Wynn 291
156 Bobby Abreu 288
Del Ennis 288
Bob Johnson 288
Hank Sauer 288
160 Garret Anderson 287
Bobby Bonilla 287
Brian Giles 287
Bernie Williams 287
164 Carlos Peña 286
Frank Thomas 286
166 Will Clark 284
Eric Karros 284
168 Ken Boyer 282
Eric Davis 282
Ryne Sandberg * 282
171 Paul O'Neill 281
Mark Reynolds (30) 281
173 Ted Kluszewski 279
174 Mike Cameron 278
Ryan Klesko 278
176 Jay Bruce (36) 277
Rudy York 277
178 Brian Downing 275
Roger Maris 275
Dean Palmer 275
Jorge Posada 275
182 Dante Bichette 274
183 Steve Garvey 272
184 Tom Brunansky 271
Raúl Mondesí 271
George Scott 271
187 Vernon Wells 270
188 Joe Morgan * 268
Brooks Robinson * 268
Gorman Thomas 268
191 Chris Davis (26) 267
George Hendrick 267
Mike Napoli (29) 267
Giancarlo Stanton (59) 267
195 Vic Wertz 266
196 George Bell 265
Matt Stairs 265
198 Bobby Thomson 264
199 Brian McCann (18) 263
Hanley Ramírez (23) 263
201 Danny Tartabull 262
202 Eric Chavez 260
Derek Jeter 260
Evan Longoria (19) 260
Javy López 260
Tim Wallach 260
207 Matt Kemp (19) 259
208 Chase Utley (8) 258
209 Joey Votto (36) 257
210 Bob Allison 256
Larry Parrish 256
Vada Pinson 256
Justin Upton (35) 256
214 Kirk Gibson 255
Adam LaRoche 255
John Mayberry 255
John Olerud 255
218 Larry Doby * 253
Joe Gordon * 253
Andre Thornton 253
Todd Zeile 253
222 Bret Boone 252
Bobby Murcer 252
Joe Torre * 252
225 Tony Armas 251
Rank
Player (2017 HRs)
HR
Tony Clark 251
Adam Jones (26) 251
Cy Williams 251
Robin Yount * 251
Ryan Zimmerman (36) 251
231 José Valentín 249
232 Goose Goslin * 248
Ted Simmons 248
234 Justin Morneau (0) 247
Vern Stephens 247
236 Ken Singleton 246
237 Deron Johnson 245
Nick Swisher 245
Mickey Tettleton 245
239 Lou Whitaker 244
Hack Wilson * 244
242 Dusty Baker 242
Sal Bando 242
Wally Berger 242
Roy Campanella * 242
J. D. Drew 242
Aubrey Huff 242
David Wright (0) 242
249 Jesse Barfield 241
Cecil Cooper 241
Rick Monday 241
252 Jeff Burroughs 240
Roberto Clemente * 240
254 Dolph Camilli 239
Ken Caminiti 239
256 Earl Averill * 238
Ray Lankford 238
258 Doug DeCinces 237
Víctor Martínez (10) 237
Gus Zernial 237
261 Gabby Hartnett * 236
262 Johnny Damon 235
Bill Nicholson 235
Ben Oglivie 235
Dan Uggla 235
266 Ian Kinsler (22) 234
Gary Matthews 234
Kevin Mitchell 234
Paul Molitor * 234
270 Cliff Floyd 233
271 Jimmy Rollins (0) 231
272 Rob Deer 230
273 Nomar Garciaparra 229
Jayson Werth (10) 229
275 Howard Johnson 228
Dick Stuart 228
Hal Trosky 228
278 Marquis Grissom 227
279 Johnny Callison 226
280 Bobby Grich 224
Troy Tulowitzki (7) 224
282 Bobby Doerr * 223
Travis Fryman 223
Mike Lowell 223
285 Jason Bay 222
Don Mattingly 222
287 Tony Batista 221
Geoff Jenkins 221
289 Tony Oliva 220
Hunter Pence (13) 220
291 Jim Bottomley * 219
Al Oliver 219
Joe Pepitone 219
294 Bob Horner 218
295 Benito Santiago 217
296 Ron Fairly 215
Carlos González (14) 215
Pedro Guerrero 215
Chet Lemon 215
Mike Sweeney 215
See also[edit]
Baseball portal
500 home run club
List of Major League Baseball progressive career home runs leaders
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ A player is considered inactive if he has announced his retirement or not played for a full season.
References[edit]
MLB Official Career Home Run List
Active Leaders & Records for Home Runs
[show]
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Serialism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the theory of dreams and time, see Serialism (philosophy).
Six-element row of rhythmic values used in Variazioni canoniche by Luigi Nono (Whittall 2008, 165)
In music, serialism is a method of composition using series of pitches, rhythms, dynamics, timbres or other musical elements. Serialism began primarily with Arnold Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique, though some of his contemporaries were also working to establish serialism as a form of post-tonal thinking. Twelve-tone technique orders the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, forming a row or series and providing a unifying basis for a composition's melody, harmony, structural progressions, and variations. Other types of serialism also work with sets, collections of objects, but not necessarily with fixed-order series, and extend the technique to other musical dimensions (often called "parameters"), such as duration, dynamics, and timbre.
The idea of serialism is also applied in various ways in the visual arts, design, and architecture (Bandur 2001, 5, 12, 74; Gerstner 1964, passim), and the musical concept has also been adopted in literature (Collot 2008, 81; Leray 2008, 217–19; Waelti-Walters 1992, 37, 64, 81, 95).
Integral serialism or total serialism is the use of series for aspects such as duration, dynamics, and register as well as pitch (Whittall 2008, 273). Other terms, used especially in Europe to distinguish post–World War II serial music from twelve-tone music and its American extensions, are general serialism and multiple serialism (Grant 2001, 5–6).
Composers such as Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Pierre Boulez, Luigi Nono, Milton Babbitt, Elisabeth Lutyens, Charles Wuorinen and Jean Barraqué used serial techniques of one sort or another in most of their music. Other composers such as Béla Bartók, Luciano Berio, Benjamin Britten, John Cage, Aaron Copland, Olivier Messiaen, Arvo Pärt, Walter Piston, Ned Rorem, Alfred Schnittke, Ruth Crawford Seeger, Dmitri Shostakovich, and Igor Stravinsky used serialism only for some of their compositions or only for some sections of pieces, as did some jazz composers such as Yusef Lateef and Bill Evans.
Contents
[hide]
1 Basic definitions
1.1 Twelve-tone serialism
1.2 Non-twelve-tone serialism
2 History of serial music
2.1 Before World War II
2.2 After World War II
3 Reactions to and against serialism
4 Theory of twelve-tone serial music
5 Notable composers
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Basic definitions[edit]
Serialism is a method (Griffiths 2001, 116), "highly specialized technique" (Wörner 1973, 196), or "way" (Whittall 2008, 1) of composition. It may also be considered, "a philosophy of life (Weltanschauung), a way of relating the human mind to the world and creating a completeness when dealing with a subject" (Bandur 2001, 5).
However, serialism is not by itself a system of composition, nor is it a style. Neither is pitch serialism necessarily incompatible with tonality, though it is most often used as a means of composing atonal music (Griffiths 2001, 116).
"Serial music" is a problematic term because it is used differently in different languages and especially because, shortly after its coinage in French, it underwent essential alterations during its transmission to German (Frisius 1998, 1327). The use of the word "serial" in connection with music was first introduced in French by René Leibowitz (1947), and immediately afterward by Humphrey Searle in English, as an alternative translation of the German Zwölftontechnik twelve-tone technique or Reihenmusik (row music); it was independently introduced by Herbert Eimert and Karlheinz Stockhausen into German in 1955 as serielle Musik, with a different meaning (Frisius 1998, 1327), translated into English also as "serial music".
Twelve-tone serialism[edit]
Serialism of the first type is most specifically defined as the structural principle according to which a recurring series of ordered elements (normally a set—or row—of pitches or pitch classes) are used in order or manipulated in particular ways to give a piece unity. Serialism is often broadly applied to all music written in what Arnold Schoenberg called "The Method of Composing with Twelve Notes related only to one another" (Schoenberg 1975, 218; Anon. n.d.), or dodecaphony, and methods that evolved from his methods. It is sometimes used more specifically to apply only to music where at least one element other than pitch is subjected to being treated as a row or series. In such usages post-Webernian serialism will be used to denote works that extend serial techniques to other elements of music. Other terms used to make the distinction are twelve-note serialism for the former, and integral serialism for the latter.
A row may be assembled pre-compositionally (perhaps to embody particular intervallic or symmetrical properties), or it may be derived from a spontaneously invented thematic or motivic idea. The structure of the row, however, does not in itself define the structure of a composition, which requires development of a comprehensive strategy. The choice of available strategies will of course depend on the relationships contained in a row class, and rows may be constructed with an eye to producing the relationships needed to form desired strategies (Mead 1985, 129–30).
The basic set may have additional restrictions, such as the requirement that it use each interval only once.
Non-twelve-tone serialism[edit]
The series is not an order of succession, but indeed a hierarchy—which may be independent of this order of succession. (Boulez 1954,[page needed], translated in Griffiths 1978, 37)
Rules of analysis derived from twelve-tone theory do not apply to serialism of the second type: "in particular the ideas, one, that the series is an intervallic sequence, and two, that the rules are consistent" (Maconie 2005, 119). Stockhausen, for example, in early serial compositions such as Kreuzspiel and Formel, "advances in unit sections within which a preordained set of pitches is repeatedly reconfigured ... The composer's model for the distributive serial process corresponds to a development of the Zwölftonspiel of Josef Matthias Hauer" (Maconie 2005, 56), and Goeyvaerts, in such a work as Nummer 4,
provides a classic illustration of the distributive function of seriality: 4 times an equal number of elements of equal duration within an equal global time is distributed in the most equable way, unequally with regard to one another, over the temporal space: from the greatest possible coïncidence to the greatest possible dispersion. This provides an exemplary demonstration of that logical principle of seriality: every situation must occur once and only once. (Sabbe 1977, 114)
For Henri Pousseur, after an initial period working with twelve-tone technique in works like Sept Versets (1950) and Trois Chants sacrés (1951), serialism
evolved away from this bond in Symphonies pour quinze Solistes [1954–55] and in the Quintette [à la mémoire d’Anton Webern, 1955], and from around the time of Impromptu [1955] encounters whole new dimensions of application and new functions.
The twelve-tone series loses its imperative function as a prohibiting, regulating, and patterning authority; its working-out is abandoned through its own constant-frequent presence: all 66 intervallic relations among the 12 pitches being virtually present. Prohibited intervals, like the octave, and prohibited successional relations, such as premature note repetitions, frequently occur, although obscured in the dense contexture. The number twelve no longer plays any governing, defining rôle; the pitch constellations no longer hold to the limitation determined by their formation. The dodecaphonic series loses its significance as a concrete model of shape (or a well-defined collection of concrete shapes) is played out. And the chromatic total remains active only, and provisionally, as a general reference. (Sabbe 1977, 264)
In the 1960s Pousseur took this a step further, applying a consistent set of predefined transformations to pre-existent music. One example is the large orchestral work Couleurs croisées (Crossed Colours, 1967), which performs these transformations on the protest song "We Shall Overcome", thereby creating a succession of different situations that are sometimes chromatic and dissonant and at other times diatonic and consonant (Locanto 2010, 157). In his opera Votre Faust (Your Faust, 1960–68) Pousseur used a large number of different quotations, themselves arranged into a "scale" for serial treatment, so as to bring coherence and order to the work. This "generalised" serialism (in the strongest possible sense) aims not to exclude any musical phenomena, no matter how heterogenous, in order "to control the effects of tonal determinism, dialectize its causal functions, and overcome any academic prohibitions, especially the fixing of an anti-grammar meant to replace some previous one" (Bosseur 1989, 60–61).
At about the same time, Stockhausen began using serial methods to integrate a variety of musical sources from recorded examples of folk and traditional music from around the world in his electronic composition Telemusik (1966), and from national anthems in Hymnen (1966–67). He extended this serial "polyphony of styles" in a series of "process-plan" works in the late 1960s, as well as later in portions of Licht, the cycle of seven operas he composed between 1977 and 2003 (Kohl 2002, 97 et passim).
History of serial music[edit]
Before World War II[edit]
In the late 19th and early 20th century, composers began to struggle against the ordered system of chords and intervals known as "functional tonality". Composers such as Debussy and Strauss found differing ways of stretching the limits of the tonal system in order to accommodate their ideas. After a brief period of free atonality, Arnold Schoenberg and others began exploring tone rows, in which an ordering of the twelve pitches of the equal tempered chromatic scale is used as the source material of a composition. This ordered set, often called a row, allowed for new forms of expression and (unlike free atonality) the expansion of underlying structural organizing principles without recourse to common practice harmony (Delahoyde n.d.).
Twelve-tone serialism first appeared in the 1920s, with antecedents predating that decade (instances of twelve-note passages occur in Liszt's Faust Symphony Walker 1986,[page needed] and in Bach Cope 1971,[page needed]). Schoenberg was the composer most decisively involved in devising and demonstrating the fundamentals of twelve-tone serialism, though it is clear it is not the work of just one musician (Whittall 2008, 1).
After World War II[edit]
Serialism, along with John Cage's indeterminate music (music composed with the use of chance operations), and Werner Meyer-Eppler's aleatoricism, was enormously influential in post-war music. Theorists such as George Perle codified serial systems, and his 1962 text Serial Composition and Atonality became a standard work on the origins of serial composition in the work of Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern.
The serialization of rhythm, dynamics, and other elements of music was partly fostered by the work of Olivier Messiaen and his analysis students, including Karel Goeyvaerts and Boulez, in post-war Paris.
Olivier Messiaen's unordered series for pitch, duration, dynamics, and articulation from the pre-serial Mode de valeurs et d'intensités, upper division only—which Pierre Boulez adapted as an ordered row for his Structures I (Whittall 2008, 178)
Several of the composers associated with Darmstadt, notably Karlheinz Stockhausen, Karel Goeyvaerts, and Henri Pousseur developed a form of serialism that initially rejected the recurring rows characteristic of twelve-tone technique, in order to eradicate any lingering traces of thematicism (Felder 1977, 92). Instead of a recurring, referential row, "each musical component is subjected to control by a series of numerical proportions" (Morgan 1975, 3). In Europe, the style of some serial as well as non-serial music of the early 1950s emphasized the determination of all parameters for each note independently, often resulting in widely spaced, isolated "points" of sound, an effect called first in German "punktuelle Musik" ("pointist" or "punctual music"), then in French "musique ponctuelle", but quickly confused with "pointillistic" (German "pointillistische", French "pointilliste") the familiar term associated with the densely packed dots in paintings of Seurat, despite the fact that the conception was at the opposite extreme (Stockhausen and Frisius 1998, 451).
Pieces were structured by closed sets of proportions, a method closely related to certain works from the de Stijl and Bauhaus movements in design and architecture called "serial art" by some writers (Bochner 1967; Gerstner 1964; Guderian 1985; Sykora 1983), specifically the paintings of Piet Mondrian, Theo van Doesburg, Bart van Leck, Georg van Tongerloo, Richard Paul Lohse, and Burgoyne Diller, who had been seeking to “avoid repetition and symmetry on all structural levels and working with a limited number of elements” (Bandur 2001, 54).
Stockhausen described the final synthesis in this manner:
So serial thinking is something that's come into our consciousness and will be there forever: it's relativity and nothing else. It just says: Use all the components of any given number of elements, don't leave out individual elements, use them all with equal importance and try to find an equidistant scale so that certain steps are no larger than others. It's a spiritual and democratic attitude toward the world. The stars are organized in a serial way. Whenever you look at a certain star sign you find a limited number of elements with different intervals. If we more thoroughly studied the distances and proportions of the stars we'd probably find certain relationships of multiples based on some logarithmic scale or whatever the scale may be. (Cott 1973, 101)
Igor Stravinsky's adoption of twelve-tone serial techniques offers an example of the level of influence that serialism had after the Second World War. Previously Stravinsky had used series of notes without rhythmic or harmonic implications (Shatzkin 1977). Because many of the basic techniques of serial composition have analogs in traditional counterpoint, uses of inversion, retrograde and retrograde inversion from before the war are not necessarily indicative of Stravinsky adopting Schoenbergian techniques. However with his meeting Robert Craft and acquaintance with younger composers, Stravinsky began to consciously study Schoenberg's music, as well as the music of Webern and later composers, and began to use the techniques in his own work, using, for example, serial techniques applied to fewer than twelve notes. Over the course of the 1950s he used procedures related to Messiaen, Webern and Berg. While it is difficult to label each and every work as "serial" in the strict definition, every major work of the period has clear uses and references to its ideas.
During this period, the concept of serialism influenced not only new compositions but also the scholarly analysis of the classical masters. Adding to their professional tools of sonata form and tonality, scholars began to analyze previous works in the light of serial techniques; for example they found the use of row technique in previous composers going back to Mozart and Beethoven (Jalowetz 1944, 387; Keller 1955, passim). In particular, the orchestral outburst that introduces the development section half-way through the last movement of Mozart's next-to-last symphony is a tone row that Mozart punctuates in a very modern and violent episode that Michael Steinberg called "rude octaves and frozen silences" (Steinberg 1998, 400).
Ruth Crawford Seeger is credited with extending serial controls to parameters other than pitch and to formal planning as early as 1930–33 (Tick 2001).
Reactions to and against serialism[edit]
the first time I ever heard Webern in a concert performance …[t]he impression it made on me was the same as I was to experience a few years later when … I first laid eyes on a Mondriaan canvas...: those things, of which I had acquired an extremely intimate knowledge, came across as crude and unfinished when seen in reality.
“
”
Karel Goeyvaerts on Anton Webern's music. (Goeyvaerts 1994, 39)
Some music theorists have criticized serialism on the basis that the compositional strategies employed are often incompatible with the way information is extracted by the human mind from a piece of music. Nicolas Ruwet (1959) was one of the first to criticise serialism through a comparison with linguistic structures, citing theoretical claims by Boulez and Henri Pousseur, and taking as specific examples bars from Stockhausen's Klavierstücke I & II, and calling for a general re-examination of Webern's music. Ruwet specifically names three works as exempt from his criticism: Stockhausen's Zeitmaße and Gruppen, and Boulez's Le marteau sans maître (Ruwet 1959, 83, 85, 87, 93–96).
In response, Pousseur (1959) questioned the equivalence made by Ruwet between phoneme and the single note. He also suggested that, if analysis of Le marteau sans maître and Zeitmaße, "performed with sufficient insight", were to be made from the point of view of wave theory—taking into account the dynamic interaction of the different component phenomena, which creates "waves" that interact in a sort of frequency modulation—this analysis "would accurately reflect the realities of perception". This was because these composers had long since acknowledged the lack of differentiation found in punctual music and, becoming increasingly aware of the laws of perception and complying better with them, "paved the way to a more effective kind of musical communication, without in the least abandoning the emancipation that they had been allowed to achieve by this 'zero state' that was punctual music". This was achieved, amongst other things, by the development of the concept of "groups", which allows structural relationships to be defined not only between individual notes but also at higher and higher levels, up to the overall form of a piece. This is "a structural method par excellence", and a sufficiently simple conception that it remains easily perceptible (Pousseur 1959, 104–105, 114–15). Pousseur also points out that serial composers were the first to recognize and attempt to move beyond the lack of differentiation within certain pointillist works (Campbell 2010, 125). Pousseur later followed up his own suggestion, by developing his idea of "wave" analysis and applying it to Stockhausen's Zeitmaße in two essays, Pousseur 1970 and Pousseur 1997.
Later writers have continued both lines of reasoning. Fred Lerdahl, for example, outlines Ruwet's subject further in his essay "Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems" (Lerdahl 1988). Lehrdahl has in turn been criticized for excluding "the possibility of other, non-hierarchical methods of achieving musical coherence," and for concentrating on the audibility of tone rows (Grant 2001, 219), and the portion of his essay focussing on Boulez's "multiplication" technique (exemplified in three movements of Le Marteau sans maître) has been challenged on perceptual grounds by Stephen Heinemann (1998) and Ulrich Mosch (2004). Ruwet's critique has also been criticised for making "the fatal mistake of equating visual presentation (a score) with auditive presentation (the music as heard)" (Grant 2006, 351).
Within the community of modern music, exactly what constituted serialism was also a matter of debate. The conventional English usage is that the word "serial" applies to all twelve-tone music, which is a subset of serial music, and it is this usage that is generally intended in reference works. Nevertheless, a large body of music exists that is called "serial" but does not employ note-rows at all, let alone twelve-tone technique, e.g., Stockhausen's Klavierstücke I–IV (the focus of Ruwet's criticism, they use permuted sets), as well as his Stimmung (with pitches from the overtone series, which also is used as the model for the rhythms) and Pousseur's Scambi (where the permuted sounds are made exclusively from filtered white noise).
When serialism is not equated with twelve-tone technique, a contributing problem is that the word "serial" is seldom if ever defined. Nevertheless, there are many published analyses of individual pieces in which the term is used, though examples are merely pointed out and the actual meaning is skated around (Koenig 1999, 298).
Theory of twelve-tone serial music[edit]
Main article: Twelve-tone technique
The vocabulary of serialism eventually became rooted in set theory, and uses a seemingly quasi-mathematical vocabulary to describe how the basic sets are manipulated to produce the final result. Musical set theory is often used to analyze and compose serial music, but may also be used to study tonal music and nonserial atonal music.
The basis for serial composition is Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique, where the twelve notes of the basic chromatic scale are organized into a row. This "basic" row is then used to create permutations, that is, rows derived from the basic set by reordering its elements. The row may be used to produce a set of intervals, or a composer may have wanted to use a particular succession of intervals, from which the original row was created. A row that uses all of the intervals in their ascending form once is an all-interval row. In addition to permutations, the basic row may have some set of notes derived from it, which is used to create a new row, these are derived sets.
Because there are tonal chord progressions that use all twelve notes, it is possible to create pitch rows with very strong tonal implications, and even to write tonal music using twelve-tone technique. Most tone rows contain subsets that can imply a pitch center; a composer can create music centered on one or more of the row's constituent pitches by emphasizing or avoiding these subsets, respectively, as well as through other, more complex compositional devices (Newlin 1974; Perle 1977).
To serialize other elements of music, a system quantifying an identifiable element must be created or defined (this is called "parametrization", after the term in mathematics). For example, if duration is to be serialized, then a set of durations must be specified. If tone colour (timbre) is to be serialized, then a set of separate tone colours must be identified, and so on.
The selected set or sets, their permutations and derived sets form the basic material with which the composer works.
Composition using twelve-tone serial methods focuses on each appearance of the collection of twelve chromatic notes, called an aggregate. (Sets of more or fewer pitches, or of elements other than pitch may be treated analogously.) The principle is that in a row, no element of the aggregate should be reused until all of the other members have been used, and each member must appear only in its place in the series. This rule is violated in numerous works still termed "serial".[citation needed]
An aggregate may be divided into subsets, and all the members of the aggregate not part of any one subset are said to be its complement. A subset is self-complementing if it contains half of the set and its complement is also a permutation of the original subset. This is most commonly seen with hexachords or six-note segments from a basic tone row. A hexachord that is self-complementing for a particular permutation is referred to as prime combinatorial. A hexachord that is self-complementing for all of the canonic operations—Inversion, Retrograde and Retrograde Inversion—is referred to as all-combinatorial.
The composer then presents the aggregate. If there are multiple serial sets, or if several parameters are associated with the same set, then a presentation will have these values calculated. Large-scale design may be achieved through the use of combinatorial devices, for example, subjecting a subset of the basic set to a series of combinatorial devices.
Notable composers[edit]
Further information: List of dodecaphonic and serial compositions
Hans Abrahamsen
Gilbert Amy
Louis Andriessen
Denis ApIvor
Hans Erich Apostel
Kees van Baaren
Milton Babbitt
Tadeusz Baird
Osvaldas Balakauskas
Don Banks
Jean Barraqué
Jürg Baur
Alban Berg
Gunnar Berg
Arthur Berger
Erik Bergman
Luciano Berio
Karl-Birger Blomdahl
Konrad Boehmer
André Boucourechliev
Pierre Boulez
Martin Boykan
Ole Buck
Jacques Calonne
Niccolò Castiglioni
Aldo Clementi
Salvador Contreras
Aaron Copland
Luigi Dallapiccola
Franco Donatoni
Hanns Eisler
Manuel Enríquez
Karlheinz Essl
Franco Evangelisti
Brian Ferneyhough
Irving Fine
Wolfgang Fortner
Roberto Gerhard
Frans Geysen
Michael Gielen
Alberto Ginastera
Lucien Goethals
Karel Goeyvaerts
Jerry Goldsmith
Henryk Górecki
Glenn Gould
Pelle Gudmundsen-Holmgreen
César Guerra-Peixe
Lou Harrison
Jonathan Harvey
Josef Matthias Hauer
Hermann Heiss
Hans Werner Henze
York Höller
Heinz Holliger
Bill Hopkins
Klaus Huber
Karel Husa
Hanns Jelinek
Ben Johnston
Nikolai Karetnikov
Rudolf Kelterborn
Gottfried Michael Koenig
Józef Koffler
Ernst Krenek
Meyer Kupferman
René Leibowitz
Ingvar Lidholm
Witold Lutosławski
Elisabeth Lutyens
John McGuire
Bruno Maderna
Ursula Mamlok
Philippe Manoury
Donald Martino
Paul Méfano
Jacques-Louis Monod
Robert Morris
Luigi Nono
Per Nørgård
Krzysztof Penderecki
Goffredo Petrassi
Michel Philippot
Walter Piston
Henri Pousseur
Roger Reynolds
Terry Riley
George Rochberg
Leonard Rosenman
Cláudio Santoro
Peter Schat
Leon Schidlowsky
Dieter Schnebel
Arnold Schoenberg, considered the founder of serialism
Humphrey Searle
Ruth Crawford Seeger
Mátyás Seiber
Roger Sessions
Nikos Skalkottas
Roger Smalley
Ann Southam
Leopold Spinner
Karlheinz Stockhausen
Igor Stravinsky
Robert Suderburg
Richard Swift
Camillo Togni
Gilles Tremblay
Fartein Valen
Wladimir Vogel
Anton Webern
Hugo Weisgall
Peter Westergaard
Stefan Wolpe
Charles Wuorinen
La Monte Young
See also[edit]
Pitch interval
References[edit]
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Steinberg, Michael. 1998. The Symphony: A Listener's Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stockhausen, Karlheinz, and Rudolf Frisius. 1998. "Es geht aufwärts". In: Karlheinz Stockhausen, Texte zur Musik 9, edited by Christoph von Blumröder, 391–512. Kürten: Stockhausen-Verlag.
Straus, Joseph N. 1999. "The Myth of Serial 'Tyranny' in the 1950s and 1960s" (Subscription access). The Musical Quarterly 83:301–43.
Sykora, Katharina. 1983. Das Phänomen des Seriellen in der Kunst: Aspekte einer künstlerischen Methode von Monet bis zur amerikanischen Pop Art. Würzburg: Könighausen + Neumann.
Tick, Judith. 2001. "Crawford (Seeger), Ruth (Porter)". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Waelti-Walters, Jennifer R. 1992. Michel Butor. Collection monographique Rodopi en littérature française contemporaine 15. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Rodopi. ISBN 9789051833867.
Walker, Alan. 1986. Franz Liszt, volume two: The Weimar years 1848–1861. New York: Knopf. ISBN 9780394525402.
Whittall, Arnold. 2008. The Cambridge Introduction to Serialism. Cambridge Introductions to Music. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86341-4 (hardback) ISBN 978-0-521-68200-8 (pbk).
Wörner, Karl H. 1973. Stockhausen: Life and Work, introduced, translated, and edited by Bill Hopkins. London: Faber and Faber; Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02143-6.
Further reading[edit]
Delaere, Marc. 2016. "The Stockhausen–Goeyvaerts Correspondence and the Aesthetic Foundations of Serialism in the Early 1950s". In The Musical Legacy of Karlheinz Stockhausen: Looking Back and Forward, edited by M.J. Grant and Imke Misch, 20–34. Hofheim: Wolke Verlag. ISBN 978-3-95593-068-4.
Eco, Umberto. 2005. "Innovation & Repetition: Between Modern & Postmodern Aesthetics". Daedalus 134, no. 4, 50 Years (Fall): 191–207. doi:10.1162/001152605774431527. JSTOR 20028022.
Fürstenberger, Barbara. 1989. Michel Butors literarische Träume: Untersuchungen zu Matière de rêves I bis V. Studia Romanica 72. Heidelberg: C. Winter. ISBN 9783533040705; ISBN 9783533040699.
Gollin, Edward. 2007. "Multi-Aggregate Cycles and Multi-Aggregate Serial Techniques in the Music of Béla Bartók." Music Theory Spectrum 29, no. 2 (Fall): 143–76. doi:10.1525/mts.2007.29.2.143.
Gredinger, Paul. 1955. "Das Serielle". Die Reihe 1 ("Elektronische Musik"): 34–41. English as "Serial Technique", translated by Alexander Goehr. Die Reihe 1 ("Electronic Music"), (English edition 1958): 38–44.
Knee, Robin. 1985. "Michel Butor's Passage de Milan: The Numbers Game". Review of Contemporary Fiction 5, no. 3:146–49.
Kohl, Jerome. 2017. Karlheinz Stockhausen: Zeitmaße. Landmarks in Music Since 1950, edited by Wyndham Thomas. Abingdon, Oxon; London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7546-5334-9.
Krenek, Ernst. 1953. "Is the Twelve-Tone Technique on the Decline?" The Musical Quarterly 39, no 4 (October): 513–27.
Miller, Elinor S. 1983. "Critical Commentary II: Butor's Quadruple fond as Serial Music". Romance Notes 24, no. 2 (Winter): 196–204.
Misch, Imke. 2016. "Karlheinz Stockhausen: The Challenge of Legacy: An Introduction". In The Musical Legacy of Karlheinz Stockhausen: Looking Back and Forward, edited by M.J. Grant and Imke Misch, 11–19. Hofheim: Wolke Verlag. ISBN 978-3-95593-068-4.
Rahn, John. 1980. Basic Atonal Theory. New York: Schirmer Books.
Roudiez, Leon S. 1984. "Un texte perturbe: Matière de rêves de Michel Butor". Romanic Review 75, no. 2:242–55.
Savage, Roger W. H. 1989. Structure and Sorcery: The Aesthetetics of Post-War Serial Composition and Indeterminancy. Outstanding Dissertations in Music from British Universities. New York: Garland Publications. ISBN 0-8240-2041-3.
Schoffman, Nathan. 1981. "Serialism in the Works of Charles Ives". Tempo, new series, no. 138 (September): 21–32.
Scruton, Roger. 1997. Aesthetics of Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-816638-9. Quoted in Arved Ashbey, The Pleasure of Modernist Music (University of Rochester Press, 2004) p. 122. ISBN 1-58046-143-3.
Spencer, Michael Clifford. 1974. Michel Butor. Twayne's World Author Series TWS275. New York: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 9780805721867.
Wangermée, Robert. 1995. André Souris et le complexe d'Orphée: entre surréalisme et musique sérielle. Collection Musique, Musicologie. Liège: P. Mardaga. ISBN 9782870096055.
White, Eric Walter, and Jeremy Noble. 1984. "Stravinsky". In The New Grove Modern Masters. London: Macmillan Publishers.
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