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Elections in Canada
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Canada holds elections for legislatures or governments in several jurisdictions: nationally (federally), provincially and territorially, and municipally. Elections are also held for self-governing First Nations and for many other public and private organizations including corporations and trade unions. Municipal elections can also be held for both upper-tier (regional municipality or county) and lower-tier (town and city) governments. Formal elections have occurred in Canada since at least 1792, when both Upper Canada and Lower Canada had their first elections.
National voting is available to Canadian citizens aged 18 or older who reside in Canada or have been abroad for shorter than five years. Other elections may have citizenship, residency,or ownership requirements (some municipalities allow both residents and non-resident landowners to vote).
Contents
[hide]
1 National elections
1.1 Results
1.2 Fixed dates
1.3 By-elections and referendums
1.4 Qualifications
1.5 Canadian citizens abroad
1.6 Length of election campaigns
2 Provincial and territorial
2.1 System
2.2 Parties
2.3 Results
3 Municipal
4 Senate nominee (Alberta)
5 Reforms
5.1 1952 BC election uses different electoral system
5.2 2004 Quebec proposed electoral reform
5.3 2005 Single Transferable Vote referendum
5.4 2005 Prince Edward Island referendum
5.5 2007 Ontario mixed member proportional representation referendum
5.6 2008 New Brunswick referendum
5.7 2009 British Columbia Single Transferable Vote referendum
5.8 2015 federal election
5.9 2016 Prince Edward Island electoral reform referendum
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
National elections[edit]
The Parliament of Canada has two chambers: The House of Commons has 338 members, elected for a maximum five-year term in single-seat constituencies, and the Senate has 105 members appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister. Senators are given permanent terms (up to age 75) and thus often serve much longer than the prime minister who was primarily responsible for their appointment.
National elections are governed by the Canada Elections Act and administered by an independent agency, Elections Canada. Using the plurality voting system, Canadians vote for their local Member of Parliament (MP), who represents one specific constituency in the House of Commons. Generally, the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Commons becomes the prime minister.
Most MPs are members of a political party, although candidates may stand for election as independents unaffiliated with any political party. Since the practice of listing candidates' party affiliation on ballots began with the 1972 election, the Canada Elections Act has required that all local candidates be directly approved by the leader of their affiliated party, effectively centralizing the candidate nomination process.[1] Once candidates are elected, sitting members of parliament are permitted to "cross the floor" switching party affiliation without having to first resign and restand for office under their new affiliation. Sitting members may also be dismissed from or voluntarily leave their party and become independents. As a result, the distribution of seats by party affiliation often fluctuates in between elections.
Although several parties are typically represented in parliament, Canada has historically had two dominant political parties: the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party (preceded by the Progressive Conservative Party and the Conservative Party (1867–1942)). Every government since Confederation has been either Liberal or Conservative with the exception of the Unionist government during World War I, which was a coalition of Conservatives and Liberals. While other parties have sometimes formed the Official Opposition, the 41st Parliament (2011-2015) was the first in which the Liberals did not form either the government or the Official Opposition.
If a government loses a confidence motion, traditionally the prime minister will ask the governor general to call an election and the governor general follows that advice. However, the viceroy's compliance is not assured; the governor general also has the right to seek out another party leader who might be able to command the confidence of the House and ask him or her to form a government. This happened in 1926 and is referred to as the King-Byng Affair.
The five-year time limitation is strictly applied to the life of the parliament or assembly in question—this body is not deemed to have been formed until the return of the writs and ceases to exist the moment it is dissolved. It is therefore possible to run slightly longer than five years between election days, as was the case between the 1930 and 1935 elections. Although the law has allowed for a five-year gap between elections, there have in fact only been two five-year gaps in the last 50 years: between 1974 and 1979 and between 1988 and 1993, and there have in fact been five general elections since 2000.
It is also possible for a general election to be delayed should Canada be embroiled in a war or insurrection. This provision was enacted to allow Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden to delay a federal election for about a year during World War I.[citation needed] Since then, the provision has only been used twice, both times by provincial governments—Ontario delayed an election for a few weeks in the year following the Armistice in 1918. Saskatchewan was the only jurisdiction to delay a general election by more than a year, due to World War II, but held an election in 1944, six years after the previous vote.
Results[edit]
Further information: Canadian federal election, 2015
e • d Summary of the 2015 Canadian federal election
Party
Party leader
Candidates
Seats
Popular vote
2011 Dissol. Redist.[a] 2015 % change
from 2011 % seats # # change % pp change % where
running
Liberal Justin Trudeau 338[b] 34 36 36 184 +441.18% 54.44% 6,943,276 +4,160,101 39.47% +20.56pp 39.47%
Conservative Stephen Harper 338[c] 166 159 188 99 -40.36% 29.29% 5,613,614 -218,787 31.91% -7.73pp 31.91%
New Democratic Tom Mulcair 338 103 95[d] 109 44 -57.28% 13.02% 3,470,350 -1,038,124 19.73% -10.92pp 19.73%
Bloc Québécois Gilles Duceppe 78 4 2 4 10 +150% 2.96% 821,144 -68,644 4.67% -1.38pp 19.36%
Green Elizabeth May 336 1 2[d] 1 1 0% 0.3% 602,944 +26,723 3.43% -0.46pp 3.44%
Independent and no affiliation 80 0 8 0 0 0 0 49,616 -23,115 0.28% -0.21pp 1.18%
Libertarian Tim Moen 72 0 0 0 0 0 0 36,772 +30,755 0.21% +0.17pp 0.93%
Christian Heritage Rod Taylor 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 15,232 -3,986 0.09% -0.05pp 0.97%
Marxist–Leninist Anna Di Carlo 70 0 0 0 0 0 0 8,838 -1,322 0.05% -0.02pp 0.23%
Strength in Democracy Jean-François Fortin 17 N/A 2[e] N/A 0 0 0 8,274 * 0.05% * 0.90%
Rhinoceros Sébastien Corriveau 27 0 0 0 0 0 0 7,263 +3,444 0.04% +0.01pp 0.52%
Progressive Canadian Sinclair Stevens 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,476 -1,362 0.03% -0.01pp 1.03%
Communist Miguel Figueroa 26 0 0 0 0 0 0 4,393 +1,468 0.02% -0.00pp 0.32%
Animal Alliance Liz White 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,699 +248 0.01% -0.00pp 0.36%
Marijuana Blair Longley 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,557 -307 0.01% -0.00pp 0.34%
Democratic Advancement Stephen Garvey 4 N/A 0 N/A 0 0 0 1,187 * 0.01% * 0.62%
Pirate Roderick Lim 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 908 -2,290 0.01% -0.01pp 0.32%
Canadian Action Jeremy Arney 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 401 -1,629 0.00% -0.01pp 0.24%
Canada Party Jim Pankiw 1 N/A 0 N/A 0 0 0 271 * 0.00% * 0.72%
Seniors Daniel J. Patton 1 N/A N/A N/A 0 0 0 157 * 0.00% * 0.29%
Alliance of the North François Bélanger 1 N/A N/A N/A 0 0 0 136 * 0.00% * 0.22%
Bridge David Berlin 1 N/A 0 N/A 0 0 0 122 * 0.00% * 0.29%
PACT Michael Nicula 1 N/A 0 N/A 0 0 0 91 * 0.00% * 0.17%
United Bob Kesic 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 57 -237 0.00% -0.00pp 0.10%
Vacant 0 4 0 0 N/A
Total 1,792 308 308 338 338 +9.74% 100% 17,592,778 +2,872,198 100% 100%
Source: Elections Canada (Final results)
Jump up ^ The party totals are theoretical. They are the transposition of the 2011 district results redistributed to the new districts formed in 2015.
Jump up ^ Includes Liberal candidate Cheryl Thomas from Victoria, who publicly withdrew from the election after the final list of candidates was released and thus remained on the ballot as the Liberal candidate.
Jump up ^ Includes Conservative candidate Jagdish Grewal from Mississauga—Malton, who was expelled by the Conservative Party after the final list of candidates was released and thus remained on the ballot as the Conservative candidate.
^ Jump up to: a b Does not include José Núñez-Melo, an incumbent MP who was denied the NDP nomination in Vimy after the writ was dropped, and subsequently announced he was running as a Green candidate.
Jump up ^ Does not include Montcalm MP Manon Perreault, who sat as an independent before the writ was dropped, after which she announced her candidacy for Strength in Democracy.
Fixed dates[edit]
See also: Fixed election dates in Canada
Although, under Section 4 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, each parliament has a maximum term of five years after the return of the writs of the last election, on November 6, 2006, the Parliament of Canada passed Bill C-16, An Act to Amend the Canada Elections Act. It requires that each general election is to take place on the third Monday in October in the fourth calendar year after the previous poll, starting with October 19, 2009.[2][3][4]
Nevertheless, the law does not curtail the power of the governor general to dissolve parliament at any time, meaning the prime minister may advise such a move whenever he or she feels is prudent. In the provinces and territories, the maximum life of a legislature is also fixed by the constitution, although some provinces have local laws that require elections to be even earlier.
By-elections and referendums[edit]
By-elections can be held between general elections when seats become vacant through the resignation or death of a member. The date of the by-election is determined by the Governor General, who must call it between 11 and 180 days after being notified of the seat vacancy by the Speaker of the House of Commons.
The federal government can also hold nationwide referendums on major issues. The last federal referendum was held in 1992, on proposed constitutional changes in the Charlottetown Accord. On occasion, one particular issue will dominate an election, and the election will in a sense be a virtual referendum. The most recent instance of this was the 1988 election, which was considered by most parties to be a referendum on free trade with the United States.
Qualifications[edit]
Every Canadian citizen 18 years of age or older has the right to vote, except for the Chief Electoral Officer and the Deputy Chief Electoral Officer. In the Canada Elections Act, inmates serving a sentence of at least two years were prohibited from voting, but on October 31, 2002, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in Sauvé v. Canada that such a law violated the section 3 of the Charter, and was rendered of no force or effect.
The federal National Register of Electors is updated to reflect various changes in the Canadian population, including address changes, reaching voting age, naturalization, and death.[5] Every year, about 3,000,000 address changes are processed by Elections Canada from information obtained from the Canada Revenue Agency, Canada Post (via the National Change of Address service), provincial and territorial motor vehicle registrars, and provincial electoral agencies with permanent voters lists. Every year, about 400,000 Canadians reach voting age and 200,000 Canadians die, resulting in changes to the National Register of Electors based on information obtained from the Canada Revenue Agency, provincial and territorial motor vehicle registrars, and provincial electoral agencies with permanent voters lists. Additionally, over 150,000 individuals a year become naturalized Canadians, and are added to the National Register of Electors by Elections Canada based on information obtained from Citizenship and Immigration Canada.
Canadian citizens abroad[edit]
Although Section Three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms provides that "every citizen of Canada has the right to vote",[6] in practice only those citizens 18 years of age or older, and who reside in Canada or have been abroad for fewer than five years, may vote in federal elections.[7] Exemptions to the five-year limit exist for members of the Canadian Armed Forces, employees of the federal or a provincial government who are abroad, employees of certain international organizations, and their cohabitants.[7] The five-year limit was originally enacted as part of Bill C-114, An Act to Amend the Canada Elections Act, in 1993; these amendments extended the special ballot to certain prisoners, and Canadians "living or travelling" abroad.[8] In September 2005, Jean-Pierre Kingsley, then the Chief Electoral Officer of Canada for 15 years, explicitly recommended in his official report that Parliament remove the five-year limit by amendment, but no action was taken.[9][10]
In May 2014, a court decision from the Ontario Superior Court of Justice invalidated the five-year limit as an unconstitutional restriction on the right to vote, in violation of Section Three, leading to a period of fourteen months during which all Canadian expatriates could apply to be on the register of electors.[11] However, the decision was reversed 2-1 on appeal at the Court of Appeal for Ontario on July 20, 2015, in a judicial opinion citing Canada's history of using a residence-based electoral district system and a justification based on social contract theory, which held that the five-year limit was a permissible limitation of the constitutional right to vote under Section One.[12][13] As of August 2015, Elections Canada has implemented changes to its registration process to comply with the latest court ruling, and will require expatriates already on the register to declare an intended date of return.[14] The decision from the Court of Appeal was subsequently appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada, which announced on April 14, 2016 that it would hear the appeal.[15]
Length of election campaigns[edit]
The length of election campaigns can vary, but under the Elections Act, the minimum length of a campaign is 36 days. There is no explicit maximum length for a campaign, although section 5 of the Charter requires that the Parliament sit at least once every twelve months, and thus a campaign would have to conclude in time for returns to be completed and parliament to be called into session within twelve months of the previous sitting. The federal election date must be set on a Monday (or Tuesday if the Monday is a statutory holiday).
The first two elections, the 1867 election and the 1872 election, took place over several weeks.
The 1872 election was both the second shortest and the longest campaign in history. Parliament was dissolved on 8 July 1872, while the writ was dropped on 15 July 1872. Voting occurred from July 20 to October 12. Therefore, the campaign started to close 12 days after dissolution of Parliament and 5 days after the writ, and was concluded 96 days (13 weeks plus 5 days) after dissolution and 89 days after the writ.[16]
Every subsequent election has occurred on a single day. Of these elections, the longest election campaign, in terms of days from dissolution to election day, was that of 1926 election,[17] following the King-Byng Affair, which lasted 74 days.
In terms of days from writ to election day, the longest campaign had been the 1980 election, which lasted 66 days. It was surpassed by the 2015 election, which was 78 days long from writ to election day, making it the longest campaign for a one-day election, exceeded in length only by that of 1872.
Prior to the adoption of the minimum of 36 days in law, there were six elections that lasted shorter periods of time. The last of these was the 1904 election which occurred many decades before the minimum was imposed.
In practice, the Prime Minister will generally keep a campaign as brief as is legal and feasible, because spending by parties is strictly limited by the Elections Act. The maximum spending by each party is increased by 1/37th of the maximum for each day that the campaign exceeds 37 days. The 1997, 2000 and 2004 elections were all of the minimum 36 days in length which has led to a common misconception that elections must be 36 days long. However, prior to 1997, elections averaged much longer: aside from the 47-day campaign for the 1993 election, the shortest election period after World War II was 57 days and many were over 60 days in length.
Much speculation had surrounded how long the campaign for the 39th federal election would be in 2006, especially as it became certain the election would be called in the weeks preceding Christmas 2005. The government of Joe Clark, which fell on December 12, 1979, recommended a campaign of 66 days for the resulting election, and nothing legal barred a similarly lengthened campaign. In the end, the 2006 election was called on November 29, 2005, for January 23, 2006 — making a 55-day-long campaign.[18]
Provincial and territorial[edit]
System[edit]
Canada's ten provinces and Yukon use the same plurality voting system used in federal elections. Elections are monitored and organized, however, by independent provincial election commissions, and a province may legally change their electoral system should they wish to do so, without requiring permission from the federal government.
In the territories of Northwest Territories and Nunavut, elections are held using the consensus government model.
Since 2001, most Canadian provinces and the Northwest Territories have passed laws establishing fixed election dates, in most cases calling for elections every four years on a specific day and month.
Parties[edit]
All Canadian provinces and Yukon, have electoral systems dominated by major political parties. In most provinces the leading parties are the same parties prominent at the federal level. However, the provincial party may or may not have an official affiliation with the federal party of the same name. Thus, names of provincial parties can sometimes be misleading when associating a provincial party with a national party, although the respective ideologies are usually fairly similar.
The federal Conservative Party of Canada has no provincial wings and none of the current provincial Progressive Conservative Parties are formally linked with the federal party as they all predate the 2003 establishment of the federal party, which resulted in the formal disbanding of the federal Progressive Conservative Party of Canada. Some provincial parties (such as Alberta) formally broke off links with the federal party prior to the merger.
In British Columbia, Alberta and Quebec the provincial Liberal parties are independent of the federal Liberal Party of Canada, while in the other provinces, the provincial Liberal parties are autonomous entities that retain formal links with the federal party.
All provincial wings of the New Democratic Party are fully integrated with the federal party, and members of the provincial party are automatically also members of the federal party. The Green Party has provincial counterparts that are directly affiliated but do not share membership or organizational structure and support.
In Saskatchewan and Yukon, the political parties, the Saskatchewan Party and the Yukon Party, respectively, have no federal counterpart, although they are both ideologically conservative.
Results[edit]
The following table summarizes the results of the most recent provincial and territorial elections. A link to complete lists for each province and territory is below. The winning party is indicated in bold and by the coloured bar at the left of the table.
This table shows the party standings as a result of the most recent election, and not the current representation in legislatures; refer to the articles on the individual houses for the current state.
Province or territory
Date of most
recent election
Total seats
Conservative
Liberal
New Democrat
Green
Other
Nunavut October 30, 2017 221 22
Nova Scotia May 30, 2017 17
27
7 51
British Columbia May 9, 2017
41
3 432 (BC Liberals) 87
Yukon November 7, 2016
11
2 6 (Yukon Party) 19
Manitoba April 19, 2016
40
3 14 57
Saskatchewan April 4, 2016 10
51 (Saskatchewan Party)
61
Newfoundland & Labrador November 30, 2015 7
31
2 40
Northwest Territories November 23, 2015 191 19
Alberta May 5, 2015 10 12
54
21 (Wildrose Party)
1 (Alberta Party)
87
Prince Edward Island May 4, 2015 8
17
2 27
New Brunswick September 22, 2014 21
27
1 49
Ontario June 12, 2014 28
582
21 107
Quebec April 7, 2014
702
30 (Parti Québécois)
22 (Coalition Avenir Québec)
3 (Québec Solidaire) 125
For lists of general elections in each province and territory, see the infobox at the bottom of the article.
1Note: Nunavut does not have political parties, and political parties in the Northwest Territories were disbanded in 1905. MLAs in both territories are elected as independents and the legislatures function under a consensus government model.
2Note: Provincial Liberal parties that are not affiliated with the federal Liberal Party of Canada.
Municipal[edit]
Main article: Municipal elections in Canada
Municipal elections are held in Canada for the election of local governments. Most provinces hold all of their municipal elections on the same date. Candidates are elected through either ward or at-large systems, every two, three or four years, depending on the province. A minority of locations in Canada have local political parties or election slates, while most locations elect only independents.
Senate nominee (Alberta)[edit]
Main article: Alberta Senate nominee election
Reforms[edit]
Reforms and attempted reforms are outlined below.
1952 BC election uses different electoral system[edit]
In 1952, "Alternative vote [was] used for first time in general election 12 June...'[19] But later the province returned to the previously used voting system.
2004 Quebec proposed electoral reform[edit]
The Liberal government of Quebec proposed electoral reform in 2004, which was scheduled to be passed in the fall of 2006 without a referendum. The project was postponed due to divergent views on how to improve it.
2005 Single Transferable Vote referendum[edit]
Main article: British Columbia electoral reform referendum, 2005
In this referendum 57.7% of British Columbians voted in favour of the Single Transferable Vote system, however a vote of 60% was required to pass, therefore the motion was defeated.
2005 Prince Edward Island referendum[edit]
Main article: Prince Edward Island electoral reform referendum, 2005
To approve mixed member proportional representation or some variant. The motion was defeated.[citation needed]
2007 Ontario mixed member proportional representation referendum[edit]
Main article: Ontario electoral reform referendum, 2007
To approve a proposed mixed member proportional representation system. The motion was defeated.[citation needed]
2008 New Brunswick referendum[edit]
Main article: New Brunswick electoral reform referendum, 2008
A referendum on the issue was proposed for 2008, however the Progressive Conservatives were defeated in the September 2006 election and the new Liberal government cancelled the referendum.
2009 British Columbia Single Transferable Vote referendum[edit]
Main article: British Columbia electoral reform referendum, 2009
A referendum for the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system was held on May 12, 2009. The adoption of STV was defeated, with 39.09% of voters preferring STV over First Past The Post (FPTP).[citation needed]
2015 federal election[edit]
Main article: Canadian federal election, 2015
In the 2015 federal election, both of the main opposition parties (the federal Liberals and NDP) promised to implement electoral reform no later than the next scheduled election. The NDP has long supported Mixed Member Proportional, a hybrid system proposed by the Law Commission in which voters would cast two ballots (one for a riding representative and one for their preferred party, but from a regional and open list). By comparison, the Liberals led by Justin Trudeau promised to review numerous electoral reform options through an "all party parliamentary committee" and to implement the changes in time for the next election. Trudeau promised to make the 2015 election "Canada's last first-past-the-post election". There are divisions within the Liberal Party over which alternative system would be better (some prefer a proportional voting system, while others want a single member constituency preferential model); however, the promise by the Liberals, who won a majority in the House of Commons, created expectations that some sort of change will be introduced.
The Liberal members of the special all-committee on electoral reform urged Prime Minister Justin Trudeau to break his promise to change Canada’s voting system before the next federal election in 2019. That call for inaction came as opposition members of the committee pressured Trudeau to keep the commitment. In its final report, the government-minority committee recommended the government design a new proportional system and hold a national referendum to gauge Canadians' support.[20]
67% of Canadians voted in 2015 for parties that promised to replace the voting system with one that doesn't distort the vote as much as first past the post. 88% of experts brought forward by the Liberal government recommending a proportional representation voting system, and 96% rejected Trudeau's preferred alternate voting system.[21] Despite this, on February 1, 2017, the new Liberal Minister of Democratic Institutions, Karina Gould, announced that Trudeau instructed her that a change of voting system would no longer be in her mandate. She cited a lack of broad consensus among Canadians in favour of one particular type of electoral voting as the reason for the abandonment of the 2015 election promise.[22]
2016 Prince Edward Island electoral reform referendum[edit]
Main article: Prince Edward Island electoral reform referendum, 2016
The 2016 Plebiscite on Democratic Renewal[23] was a non-binding[24] referendum held in the Canadian province of Prince Edward Island between 27 October – 7 November 2016. The referendum asked which of five voting systems residents would prefer to use in electing members to the Legislative Assembly of Prince Edward Island.[25][26][27] The referendum, after four instant run-off rounds, indicated mixed member proportional representation was the preferred choice with over 52% support on the final ballot.
See also[edit]
Canadian politics portal
Canada portal
Book: Canada
Canadian electoral calendar
Canadian electoral system
Electoral calendar
Electoral system
Electronic voting in Canada
Federal political financing in Canada
Fixed election dates in Canada
List of Canadian federal electoral districts
List of Canadian federal general elections
List of elections in the Province of Canada (pre-Confederation)
List of federal by-elections in Canada
List of political parties in Canada
Past Canadian electoral districts
Referendums in Canada
Timeline of Canadian elections
Voter turnout in Canada
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cross, William (2006-09-01). "Chapter 7: Candidate Nomination in Canada's Political Parties" (PDF). In Pammet, Jon; Dornan, Christopher. The Canadian General Election of 2006. Dundurn. pp. 172–195. ISBN 978-1550026504.
Jump up ^ "Fixed election dates in Canada". Election Almanac. Retrieved May 19, 2008.
Jump up ^ Parliament of Canada (November 6, 2006). "Bill C-16, An Act to amend the Canada Elections Act". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved August 31, 2008.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth II (July 27, 2008). "Canada Elections Act". Queen's Printer for Canada. Retrieved August 30, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Description of the National Register of Electors". Elections Canada. Retrieved 2011-03-27.
Jump up ^ "Constitution Act, 1982, Part I: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms". laws-lois.justice.gc.ca. Archived from the original on 2016-01-10. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "Canada Elections Act". laws-lois.justice.gc.ca. Section 222. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ Canada, Elections. "A History of the Vote in Canada: Chapter 4 (The Charter Era, 1982–2006)". Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ "Completing the Cycle of Electoral Reforms – Recommendations from the Chief Electoral Officer of Canada on the 38th General Election". Elections Canada. 2005-09-29. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ "Report of the Chief Electoral Officer of Canada on the 41st general election of May 2, 2011". Elections Canada. 2011-08-17. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ "Frank et al. v. AG Canada, 2014 ONSC 907". Canadian Legal Information Institute. 2014-05-02. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ "Frank v. Canada (Attorney General), 2015 ONCA 536". www.ontariocourts.ca. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ Fine, Sean (2015-07-20). "Long-term Canadian expats denied right to vote, court rules". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ "Voting from abroad". Elections Canada Online. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ Gillian Frank, et al. v. Attorney General of Canada (Supreme Court of Canada 2016-08-25). Text
Jump up ^ "Length of Federal Election Campaigns". Parliament of Canada. Parliament of Canada. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Length of Federal Election Campaigns". Parliament of Canada. Parliament of Canada. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
Jump up ^ A full list of past election periods can be found on the Parliament of Canada website
Jump up ^ "Resources / Electoral History of BC". Elections BC. Elections BC. Retrieved 17 June 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/on-electoral-reform-committee-urges-proportional-vote-referendum/
Jump up ^ "Consultations Provide Strong Mandate for Proportional Representation".
Jump up ^ "Opposition accuses Trudeau of betrayal as Liberals abandon promise of electoral reform". CBC News. Retrieved 2017-02-02.
Jump up ^ "Media Release: Voting locations". Is it Time for Change?. Elections Prince Edward Island. Retrieved 28 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "Voting begins in P.E.I. plebiscite on electoral reform". CBC News. Retrieved 29 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Rob (7 July 2016). "PEI sets voting-reform plebiscite for fall". Toronto: The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2 October 2016.
Jump up ^ McKenna, Peter (21 September 2016). "Electoral reform in P.E.I. redux". Charlottetown, PEI: The Guardian Charlottetown. Archived from the original on 3 October 2016. Retrieved 2 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Kerry (16 April 2016). "P.E.I. electoral reform: 4 unanswered questions about the plebiscite". CBC. Archived from the original on 3 October 2016. Retrieved 2 October 2016.
External links[edit]
Elections Canada
CBC Digital Archives—Voting in Canada: How a Privilege Became a Right
CBC Digital Archives—Campaigning for Canada
Canadian Governments Compared
U.S. State Department estimates of Canadian elections
Canada Elections Atlas - Federal
[show]
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Communications satellite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
An Advanced Extremely High Frequency communications satellite relays secure communications for the United States and other allied countries.
A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet, and military applications. There are over 2,000 communications satellites in Earth’s orbit, used by both private and government organizations.[1]
Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry signals. These waves require line-of-sight, and are thus obstructed by the curvature of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated points.[2] Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use. This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Satellite orbits
2.1 Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) satellites
2.2 Satellite constellation
2.3 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
2.3.1 Example
2.4 Geostationary orbits (GEO)
2.4.1 Examples
2.5 Molniya satellites
2.6 Polar Orbit
3 Structure
4 Frequency Allocation for satellite systems
5 Applications
5.1 Telephone
5.2 Television
5.3 Radio broadcasting
5.4 Amateur radio
5.5 Internet access
5.6 Military
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
The concept of the geostationary communications satellite was first proposed by Arthur C. Clarke, along with Vahid K. Sanadi building on work by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. In October 1945 Clarke published an article titled "Extraterrestrial Relays" in the British magazine Wireless World.[4] The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment of artificial satellites in geostationary orbits for the purpose of relaying radio signals. Thus, Arthur C. Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the communications satellite and the term 'Clarke Belt' employed as a description of the orbit.[5]
Decades later a project named Communication Moon Relay was a telecommunication project carried out by the United States Navy. Its objective was to develop a secure and reliable method of wireless communication by using the Moon as a passive reflector and natural communications satellite.
The first artificial Earth satellite was Sputnik 1. Put into orbit by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, it was equipped with an on-board radio-transmitter that worked on two frequencies: 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Sputnik 1 was launched as a step in the exploration of space and rocket development. While incredibly important it was not placed in orbit for the purpose of sending data from one point on earth to another. And it was the first artificial satellite in the steps leading to today's satellite communications.
The first artificial satellite used solely to further advances in global communications was a balloon named Echo 1.[6] Echo 1 was the world's first artificial communications satellite capable of relaying signals to other points on Earth. It soared 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) above the planet after its Aug. 12, 1960 launch, yet relied on humanity's oldest flight technology — ballooning. Launched by NASA, Echo 1 was a 30-metre (100 ft) aluminized PET film balloon that served as a passive reflector for radio communications. The world's first inflatable satellite — or "satelloon", as they were informally known — helped lay the foundation of today's satellite communications. The idea behind a communications satellite is simple: Send data up into space and beam it back down to another spot on the globe. Echo 1 accomplished this by essentially serving as an enormous mirror, 10 stories tall, that could be used to reflect communications signals.
The first American satellite to relay communications was Project SCORE in 1958, which used a tape recorder to store and forward voice messages. It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower.;[7] Courier 1B, built by Philco, launched in 1960, was the world's first active repeater satellite.
There are two major classes of communications satellites, passive and active. Passive satellites only reflect the signal coming from the source, toward the direction of the receiver. With passive satellites, the reflected signal is not amplified at the satellite, and only a very small amount of the transmitted energy actually reaches the receiver. Since the satellite is so far above Earth, the radio signal is attenuated due to free-space path loss, so the signal received on Earth is very, very weak. Active satellites, on the other hand, amplify the received signal before retransmitting it to the receiver on the ground.[3] Passive satellites were the first communications satellites, but are little used now. Telstar was the second active, direct relay communications satellite. Belonging to AT&T as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, Bell Telephone Laboratories, NASA, the British General Post Office, and the French National PTT (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from Cape Canaveral on July 10, 1962, in the first privately sponsored space launch. Relay 1 was launched on December 13, 1962, and it became the first satellite to transmit across the Pacific Ocean on November 22, 1963.[8]
An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was the Hughes Aircraft Company's Syncom 2, launched on July 26, 1963. Syncom 2 was the first communications satellite in a geosynchronous orbit. It revolved around the earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still had north-south motion, special equipment was needed to track it. Its successor, Syncom 3 was the first geostationary communications satellite. Syncom 3 obtained a geosynchronous orbit, without a north-south motion, making it appear from the ground as a stationary object in the sky.
Beginning with the Mars Exploration Rovers, landers on the surface of Mars have used orbiting spacecraft as communications satellites for relaying their data to Earth. The landers use UHF transmitters to send their data to the orbiters, which then relay the data to Earth using either X band or Ka band frequencies. These higher frequencies, along with more powerful transmitters and larger antennas, permit the orbiters to send the data much faster than the landers could manage transmitting directly to Earth, which conserves valuable time on the NASA Deep Space Network.[9]
Satellite orbits[edit]
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital classifications are used to further specify orbital details.
Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is 36,000 kilometres (22,000 mi) from Earth’s surface. This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky. This is because the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth. The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in the sky the satellite appears.
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth. Orbital altitudes range from 2,000 to 36,000 kilometres (1,200 to 22,400 mi) above Earth.
The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth orbit (LEO), and is about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth.
As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth. Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so one will always be in the sky for transmission of communication signals. However, due to their relatively small distance to the Earth their signals are stronger.[clarification needed]
Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) satellites[edit]
Main article: Low Earth orbit
Low Earth orbit in Cyan
A low Earth orbit (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above the earth's surface[citation needed] and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the earth) of about 90 minutes.
Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the sub-satellite point. In addition, satellites in low earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly. So even for local applications, a large number of satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity.
Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high signal strength (Recall that signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is dramatic). Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost.
In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions.
Satellite constellation[edit]
Main article: Satellite constellation
A group of satellites working in concert is known as a satellite constellation. Two such constellations, intended to provide satellite phone services, primarily to remote areas, are the Iridium and Globalstar systems. The Iridium system has 66 satellites.
It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over another part. This will be the case with the CASCADE system of Canada's CASSIOPE communications satellite. Another system using this store and forward method is Orbcomm.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)[edit]
A MEO is a satellite in orbit somewhere between 2,000 and 35,786 kilometres (1,243 and 22,236 mi) above the earth’s surface. MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality. MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 and 8 hours. MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites. A MEO satellite’s longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network. One disadvantage is that a MEO satellite’s distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, although these limitations are not as severe as those of a GEO satellite.
Like LEOs, these satellites don’t maintain a stationary distance from the earth. This is in contrast to the geostationary orbit, where satellites are always approximately 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) from the earth.
Typically the orbit of a medium earth orbit satellite is about 16,000 kilometres (10,000 mi) above earth. In various patterns, these satellites make the trip around earth in anywhere from 2
Example[edit]
In 1962, the first communications satellite, Telstar, was launched. It was a medium earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals. Although it was the first practical way to transmit signals over the horizon, its major drawback was soon realized. Because its orbital period of about 2.5 hours did not match the Earth's rotational period of 24 hours, continuous coverage was impossible. It was apparent that multiple MEOs needed to be used in order to provide continuous coverage.
Geostationary orbits (GEO)[edit]
Main article: Geostationary orbit
Geostationary orbit
To an observer on the earth, a satellite in a geostationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. This is because it revolves around the earth at the earth's own angular velocity (360 degrees every 24 hours, in an equatorial orbit).
A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion. This is relatively inexpensive.
In applications that require a large number of ground antennas, such as DirecTV distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit.
Examples[edit]
The first geostationary satellite was Syncom 3, launched on August 19, 1964, and used for communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the 1964 Summer Olympics. Shortly after Syncom 3, Intelsat I, aka Early Bird, was launched on April 6, 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude. It was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean.
On November 9, 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, Anik A1, was launched by Telesat Canada, with the United States following suit with the launch of Westar 1 by Western Union on April 13, 1974.
On May 30, 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be three-axis stabilized was launched: the experimental satellite ATS-6 built for NASA.
After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE Americom, now SES) launched Satcom 1 in 1975. It was Satcom 1 that was instrumental in helping early cable TV channels such as WTBS (now TBS), HBO, CBN (now Freeform) and The Weather Channel become successful, because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local cable TV headends using the satellite. Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast television networks in the United States, like ABC, NBC, and CBS, to distribute programming to their local affiliate stations. Satcom 1 was widely used because it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in America (24 transponders as opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in lower transponder-usage costs. Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher transponder numbers.
By 2000, Hughes Space and Communications (now Boeing Satellite Development Center) had built nearly 40 percent of the more than one hundred satellites in service worldwide. Other major satellite manufacturers include Space Systems/Loral, Orbital Sciences Corporation with the Star Bus series, Indian Space Research Organisation, Lockheed Martin (owns the former RCA Astro Electronics/GE Astro Space business), Northrop Grumman, Alcatel Space, now Thales Alenia Space, with the Spacebus series, and Astrium.
Molniya satellites[edit]
Main article: Molniya orbit
Geostationary satellites must operate above the equator and therefore appear lower on the horizon as the receiver gets the farther from the equator. This will cause problems for extreme northerly latitudes, affecting connectivity and causing multipath interference (caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground antenna).
Thus, for areas close to the North (and South) Pole, a geostationary satellite may appear below the horizon. Therefore, Molniya orbit satellites have been launched, mainly in Russia, to alleviate this problem.
Molniya orbits can be an appealing alternative in such cases. The Molniya orbit is highly inclined, guaranteeing good elevation over selected positions during the northern portion of the orbit. (Elevation is the extent of the satellite's position above the horizon. Thus, a satellite at the horizon has zero elevation and a satellite directly overhead has elevation of 90 degrees.)
The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprint moves only slightly. Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation over the targeted region for six to nine hours every second revolution. In this way a constellation of three Molniya satellites (plus in-orbit spares) can provide uninterrupted coverage.
The first satellite of the Molniya series was launched on April 23, 1965 and was used for experimental transmission of TV signals from a Moscow uplink station to downlink stations located in Siberia and the Russian Far East, in Norilsk, Khabarovsk, Magadan and Vladivostok. In November 1967 Soviet engineers created a unique system of national TV network of satellite television, called Orbita, that was based on Molniya satellites.
Polar Orbit[edit]
Main article: Polar orbit
In the United States, the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) was established in 1994 to consolidate the polar satellite operations of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). NPOESS manages a number of satellites for various purposes; for example, METSAT for meteorological satellite, EUMETSAT for the European branch of the program, and METOP for meteorological operations.
These orbits are sun synchronous, meaning that they cross the equator at the same local time each day. For example, the satellites in the NPOESS (civilian) orbit will cross the equator, going from south to north, at times 1:30 P.M., 5:30 P.M., and 9:30 P.M.
Structure[edit]
Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems:
Communication Payload, normally composed of transponders, antennas, and switching systems
Engines used to bring the satellite to its desired orbit
Station Keeping Tracking and stabilization subsystem used to keep the satellite in the right orbit, with its antennas pointed in the right direction, and its power system pointed towards the sun
Power subsystem, used to power the Satellite systems, normally composed of solar cells, and batteries that maintain power during solar eclipse
Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground control stations. The ground control Earth stations monitor the satellite performance and control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle.
The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided by the satellite. Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission. This is typically known as link budgeting and a network simulator can be used to arrive at the exact value.
Frequency Allocation for satellite systems[edit]
Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international coordination and planning. This is carried out under the auspices of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions: Region 1: Europe, Africa, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia Region 2: North and South America and Greenland Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia, and the southwest Pacific
Within these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given service may be allocated different frequency bands in different regions. Some of the services provided by satellites are:
Fixed satellite service (FSS)
Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)
Mobile-satellite service
Radionavigation-satellite service
Meteorological-satellite service
Applications[edit]
Telephone[edit]
Main article: Satellite phone
An Iridium satellite
The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental long distance telephony. The fixed Public Switched Telephone Network relays telephone calls from land line telephones to an earth station, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite. The downlink follows an analogous path. Improvements in submarine communications cables through the use of fiber-optics caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century.
Satellite communications are still used in many applications today. Remote islands such as Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Diego Garcia, and Easter Island, where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones. There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to nonexistent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, and Australia. Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of Antarctica and Greenland. Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a back up for hospitals, military, and recreation. Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones.[10]
Satellite phone systems can be accomplished by a number of means. On a large scale, often there will be a local telephone system in an isolated area with a link to the telephone system in a main land area. There are also services that will patch a radio signal to a telephone system. In this example, almost any type of satellite can be used. Satellite phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-Earth-orbit satellites. Calls are then forwarded to a satellite teleport connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network .
Television[edit]
Main article: Satellite television
As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of large bandwidth to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of geosynchronous comsats. Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio: Direct broadcast satellite (DBS), and Fixed Service Satellite (FSS).
The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous. Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same linear polarization as FSS-class satellites. Examples of these are the Astra, Eutelsat, and Hotbird spacecraft in orbit over the European continent. Because of this, the terms FSS and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in Europe.
Fixed Service Satellites use the C band, and the lower portions of the Ku band. They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, live shots, and backhauls), as well as being used for distance learning by schools and universities, business television (BTV), Videoconferencing, and general commercial telecommunications. FSS satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends.
Free-to-air satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the Ku band. The Intelsat Americas 5, Galaxy 10R and AMC 3 satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their Ku band transponders.
The American Dish Network DBS service has also recently utilized FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring their SuperDish antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the FCC's "must-carry" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry HDTV channels.
A direct broadcast satellite is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS satellite dishes (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter). Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave Ku band. DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (Direct-To-Home) satellite TV services, such as DirecTV and DISH Network in the United States, Bell TV and Shaw Direct in Canada, Freesat and Sky in the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand and DSTV in South Africa.
Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2.5 m) in diameter for Ku band, and 12 feet (3.6 m) or larger for C band). They use linear polarization for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to circular polarization used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice. FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of TVRO (TeleVision Receive Only) receivers and dishes. It was also used in its Ku band form for the now-defunct Primestar satellite TV service.
Some satellites have been launched that have transponders in the Ka band, such as DirecTV's SPACEWAY-1 satellite, and Anik F2. NASA and ISRO[11][12] have also launched experimental satellites carrying Ka band beacons recently.[13]
Some manufacturers have also introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television. Using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no matter where or how the vehicle (on which the antenna is mounted) is situated. These mobile satellite antennas are popular with some recreational vehicle owners. Such mobile DBS antennas are also used by JetBlue Airways for DirecTV (supplied by LiveTV, a subsidiary of JetBlue), which passengers can view on-board on LCD screens mounted in the seats.
Radio broadcasting[edit]
Main article: Satellite radio
Satellite radio offers audio broadcast services in some countries, notably the United States. Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere.
A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals.
Satellite radio offers a meaningful alternative to ground-based radio services in some countries, notably the United States. Mobile services, such as SiriusXM, and Worldspace, allow listeners to roam across an entire continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere they go. Other services, such as Music Choice or Muzak's satellite-delivered content, require a fixed-location receiver and a dish antenna. In all cases, the antenna must have a clear view to the satellites. In areas where tall buildings, bridges, or even parking garages obscure the signal, repeaters can be placed to make the signal available to listeners.
Initially available for broadcast to stationary TV receivers, by 2004 popular mobile direct broadcast applications made their appearance with the arrival of two satellite radio systems in the United States: Sirius and XM Satellite Radio Holdings. Later they merged to become the conglomerate SiriusXM.
Radio services are usually provided by commercial ventures and are subscription-based. The various services are proprietary signals, requiring specialized hardware for decoding and playback. Providers usually carry a variety of news, weather, sports, and music channels, with the music channels generally being commercial-free.
In areas with a relatively high population density, it is easier and less expensive to reach the bulk of the population with terrestrial broadcasts. Thus in the UK and some other countries, the contemporary evolution of radio services is focused on Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) services or HD Radio, rather than satellite radio.
Amateur radio[edit]
Main article: Amateur radio satellite
Amateur radio operators have access to amateur satellites, which have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio traffic. Most such satellites operate as spaceborne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped with UHF or VHF radio equipment and highly directional antennas such as Yagis or dish antennas. Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time. Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using the X.25 or similar protocols.
Internet access[edit]
Main article: Satellite Internet access
After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to the Internet via broadband data connections. This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access a broadband connection, or require high availability of services.
Military[edit]
Communications satellites are used for military communications applications, such as Global Command and Control Systems. Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are the MILSTAR, the DSCS, and the FLTSATCOM of the United States, NATO satellites, United Kingdom satellites (for instance Skynet), and satellites of the former Soviet Union. India has launched its first Military Communication satellite GSAT-7, its transponders operate in UHF, F, C and Ku band bands.[14] Typically military satellites operate in the UHF, SHF (also known as X-band) or EHF (also known as Ka band) frequency bands.
Further information: X Band Satellite Communication
See also[edit]
Commercialization of space
List of communication satellite companies
List of communications satellite firsts
NewSpace
Reconnaissance satellite
Satcom On The Move
Satellite space segment
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Labrador, Virgil (2015-02-19). "satellite communication". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
Jump up ^ "Satellites - Communication Satellites". Satellites.spacesim.org. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
^ Jump up to: a b "Military Satellite Communications Fundamentals | The Aerospace Corporation". Aerospace. 2010-04-01. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
Jump up ^ Extraterrestrial Relays
Jump up ^ "Arthur C. Clarke, inventor of satellite, visionary in technology, dead at 90". Engadget.com. 2008-03-18. Retrieved 2016-02-10.
Jump up ^ ECHO 1 space.com
Jump up ^ Martin, Donald; Anderson, Paul; Bartamian, Lucy (March 16, 2007). "Communications Satellites" (5th ed.). AIAA. ISBN 978-1884989193.
Jump up ^ "Significant Achievements in Space Communications and Navigation, 1958-1964" (PDF). NASA-SP-93. NASA. 1966. pp. 30–32. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
Jump up ^ "Talking to Martians: Communications with Mars Curiosity Rover". Steven Gordon's Home Page. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Connected | Maritime Archived 2013-08-15 at the Wayback Machine.. Iridium. Retrieved on 2013-09-19.
Jump up ^ "GSAT-14". ISRO. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Indian GSLV successfully lofts GSAT-14 satellite". NASA Space Flight. 4 January 2014. Retrieved 16 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "DIRECTV's Spaceway F1 Satellite Launches New Era in High-Definition Programming; Next Generation Satellite Will Initiate Historic Expansion of DIRECTV". SpaceRef. Retrieved 2012-05-11.
Jump up ^ India's first 'military' satellite GSAT-7 put into earth's orbit. NDTV.com (2013-09-04). Retrieved on 2013-09-18.
External links[edit]
Satellite Industry Association
European Satellite Operators Association
http://prmt.com/glossary-of-terms/ Satellite Glossary]
SatMagazine
SatNews
The future of communication satellite business
Communications satellites short history by David J. Whalen
Beyond The Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication (NASA SP-4217, 1997)
An Overview of Satellite Operating Frequencies and their Applications
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values: Τηλεπικοινωνιακός δορυφόρος – Greek

values: ماهواره مخابراتی – Persian

values: Satellite de télécommunications – French

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