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Santería
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For the Sublime song, see Santeria (song).
For the Marracash and Guè Pequeno album, see Santeria (album).
A Santería ceremony known as Cajón de Muertos. Havana, Cuba, 2011.
Santería, also known as Regla de Ochá, La Regla de Ifá,[1][2] or Lucumí, is an Afro-American religion of Caribbean origin that developed in the Spanish Empire among West African descendants. Santería is a Spanish word that means the "worship of saints". Santería is influenced by and syncretized with Roman Catholicism. Its sacred language is the Lucumí language, a variety of Yoruba.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Rituals and ceremonies
2.1 Obtaining the ilekes
2.2 Medio Asiento
2.3 Los Guerreros
2.4 Asiento
2.5 Post-initiation
2.6 Clergy
3 Lucumí traditional healing practices
4 Current distribution
5 United States court rulings
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
History[edit]
Santería is a system of beliefs that merges aspects of Yoruba religion brought to the New World by enslaved Yoruba people along with Christianity and the religions of the indigenous peoples of the Americas.[2] The Yoruba people carried with them various religious customs, including a trance and divination system for communicating with their ancestors and deities, animal sacrifice, and sacred drumming and dance.[3][4] The need to preserve their traditions and belief systems in a hostile cultural environment prompted those enslaved in Cuba, starting from as early as 1515, to merge their customs with aspects of Roman Catholicism.[4]
This religious tradition evolved into what is now recognized as Santería.
The colonial period from the standpoint of enslaved African people can be defined as a time of perseverance. Their world quickly changed. Tribal kings and their families, politicians, business and community leaders all were enslaved and taken to a foreign region of the world. Religious leaders, their relatives and their followers were no longer free people to worship as they saw fit. Colonial laws criminalized their religion. They were forced to become baptized and worship a god their ancestors had not known who was surrounded by a pantheon of saints. The early concerns during this period seem to have necessitated a need for individual survival under harsh plantation conditions. A sense of hope was sustaining the internal essence of what today is called Santería, a misnomer (and former pejorative) for the indigenous religion of the Lukumi people of Nigeria. In the heart of their homeland, they had a complex political and social order. They were a sedentary hoe farming cultural group with specialized labor. Their religion, based on the worship of nature, was renamed and documented by their slave owners. Santería, a pejorative term that characterizes deviant Catholic forms of worshiping saints, has become a common name for the religion. The term santero(a) is used to describe a priest or priestess replacing the traditional term Olorisha as an extension of the deities. The orishas became known as the saints in image of the Catholic pantheon.
—  Ernesto Pichardo, CLBA, Santería in Contemporary Cuba: The individual life and condition of the priesthood
In order to preserve and shield (mask) their traditional beliefs, the Lucumí people syncretized their Orichás with Catholic saints.[4] (As a consequence, the terms "saint" and "orichá" are commonly used interchangeably among practitioners.) Spanish colonial planters who saw the enslaved African people celebrating on saints' days did not know that they were actually performing rituals related to Orichás, and assumed that they were showing more interest in Catholic saints than in the Christian God—hence the derisory origin of the term Santería.[4]
The historical veiling of the relationship between Catholic saints and Orichás is compounded by the fact that the vast majority of santeros in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic, are also Roman Catholics, have been baptized, and often require initiates to be baptized in Roman Catholicism as well.
The spread of Santería beyond the Spanish-speaking parts of the Caribbean, including to the United States, was catalyzed by the Cuban Revolution of 1959.[4] In 1974, the Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye became the first Santería church in the United States to become officially incorporated.[5]
Rituals and ceremonies[edit]
Santería does not use a central creed for its religious practices; though it is understood in terms of its rituals and ceremonies.[6]:102 These rituals and ceremonies take place in what is known as a house-temple or casa de santos (house of saints), also known as an ilé. Most ilés are in the homes of the initiated priests and priestesses. Ilé shrines are built, by the priests and priestess, to the different orichás, which creates a space for worship, called an igbodu (altar).[6]:102 In an igbodu there is a display of three distinct thrones (draped with royal blue, white, and red satin) that represent the seats of the queens, kings, and the deified warriors.[7]:168
Each ilé is composed of those who occasionally seek guidance from the orishas, as well as those who are in the process of becoming priests.[8]:6
The many cabildos and casas that bridged the 19th and 20th centuries are fondly remembered by contemporary priests as the origins and strongholds of Cuban Lucumí culture and religion.[8]:57
To become a Santero or Santera (Priest or Priestess of Santería), the initiator must go through an intensive week-long initiation process[7]:165 in which the teaching of the ritual skills and moral behavior occurs informally and nonverbally. To begin with, the initiator goes through what is called a cleansing ritual. The initiator's Padrino (godfather) cleanses the head with special herbs and water. The Padrino rubs the herbs and water in a specific pattern of movements into the scalp of the head. However, if a person is entering Santería for the need of healing, they will undergo the rogación de la cabeza (blessing of the head), in which coconut water and cotton are applied on the head to feed it.[9]:26–28 Once cleansed, there are four major initiation rituals that the initiator will have to undergo: obtaining the elekes (beaded necklace), receiving Los Guerreros (the Warriors), making Ochá (Saint), and Asiento (ascending the throne).[6]:107
Obtaining the ilekes[edit]
The first ritual is known as the acquisition of the beaded necklaces (known as ilekes); according to De La Torre, "the colors and patterns of the beads on the ilekes will be those of the orichá that serves as the iyawo's (bride) ruling head and guardian angel and so the first thing that must be done is to determine who the orichá is. The ilekes necklace is bathed in a mixture of herbs, sacrificial blood, and other potent substances and given to the initiated.[6]:107
The initiate most often receives the necklace of the five most powerful and popular oricha, as the multicolored beads of the elekes are each patterned for the primary Orichás (Eleguá, Obatalá, Yemayá, Changó, and Ochún), and they serve as a sacred point of contact with these Orichás. When the necklace is received, the initiated must bow over a bathtub and have his/her head washed by the olo orichá. The elekes[9]:28 serves as the sacred banners for the Orichás and act as a sign of the Orichá's presence and protection; however, it must never be worn during a woman's menstruation period, nor during sex, nor when bathing.[6]:107
Medio Asiento[edit]
The second important ritual is known as medio asiento, the creation of an image of the orichá Eleguá. The individual will go through a consultation with a Santero, where all the recipients' life, past, present, and future, will be reviewed. During the consultation, the Santero determines which path of Eleguá the recipient will receive. Then, based on his findings, he chooses materials that will be used to construct the image of the Eleguá, a sculpture that is used to keep evil spirits away from the initiator's home. This ritual is only prepared by men as the orichás take some of the Santero's "manly" spirit in the process.[10]:xi
Los Guerreros[edit]
The third ritual, known as "receiving the warriors", is a ritual where the initiated receives objects from their padrino that represents the warriors; Iron tools to represent Ogún; an iron bow and arrow to represent Ochosi; and an iron or silver chalice surmounted by a rooster to represent Osún.[6]:112 This ritual begins a formal and lifelong relationship that the initiate will have with these Orichás, as the orichás devote their energies to protecting and providing for the initiate on their path.
Asiento[edit]
The last ritual of the initiation process is known as Asiento (ascending the throne), and is the most important and the most secretive ritual in Santería, as it is the ceremony where the iyawo (bride of the oricha) becomes "born again" into the faith. This ritual is a culmination of the previous rituals, and cannot be made unless the others have been completed. Asiento is a process of purification and divination whereby the initiated becomes like a newborn baby and begins a new life of deeper growth within the faith.[6]:112
Post-initiation[edit]
Once the initiation is completed, depending on the individuals "house", there is a year-long waiting period, known as iyaboraje, in which the newly appointed Priest and Priestess can not perform cleansings and other remedies.[11] It is a time where the Iyawo or Bride of the Orichá must follow a strict regimen of wearing all white and must avoid physical contact with those who have not been initiated. Once the ebo del año has been completed there will be an end of year ceremony, which will enable the Priest or Priestess to consult clients, perform cleansings, provide remedies and perform initiations. And according to Gonzalez: "they are also regarded as royalty in the religion, as they are considered representatives of the Orichás and are vested with the power to work with the forces of those Orichás in full."[10]:xi
With Santería rituals there are musical ceremonies and prayers that are referred to as bembé, toque de santo, or tambor. It is a celebration dedicated to an Orichá, where the batá drums (set of three drums known as the iya (the largest drum), itoltele, and okonkolo) are played in the Orichá's honor.[12]:11 Through these sacred drums, messages of worshippers reach the orichás and the orichás respond to their devotees. These drums are used only by men and must always be treated with respect; for example, dancers must never turn their backs towards the drums while dancing, as it is considered disrespectful.[6]:118
Clergy[edit]
Priests are commonly known as Santeros or Olorichas. Once those priests have initiated other priests, they become known as babalorichás, "fathers of orichá" (for men), and as iyalorichás, "mothers of orichá" (for women). Priests can commonly be referred to as Santeros (male) and Santeras (female), and if they function as diviners (using cowrie-shell divination known as Dilogun) of the Orichás they can be considered Italeros, or if they go through training to become leaders of initiations, Obas or Oriates.
Lucumí traditional healing practices[edit]
Lucumí traditional healing practices are rooted in the spiritual influences of America, Europe, and West Africa. Having a strong spiritual component, these traditional healing practices also use the pathways of the herbalist, psychologist, ethicist, and that of a respected spiritual medium interceding between God and human beings. Du Toit refers to Cuban traditional healing practices as ethnomedicine, which taps on the biodynamic chemical properties of certain plants, from which some commercial drugs were derived, such as the cardiac medications, digitalis, quinine, and curare – chemicals causing neuromuscular paralysis.[13]:19 Du Toit categorizes Cuban ethnomedicine as having health specialists, which are el yerbero (the herbalist), el curandero (the curer), el santero (the religious healer), and el conocedor (the botanist). Du Toit continues, "Cuba is one of the regions in which a great deal of ethnographic and ethnobotanical research has been conducted."[13]:21
Du Toit cites the studies of Lydia Cabrera on the religious and healing role of indigenous medicinal plants, and Jose Gallo on the 900-page compilation of folk medicine, and also mentions that with the 31 herbs prescribed as bronchodilators, only Datura candida was effective, due to its contents of scopolamine and atropine in the leaves. Lemongrass or caña de limón is used for low blood pressure and anti-inflammatory effects. Thyme tea and castor oil are used to speed the delivery of babies and the broomweed (Corchorus siliquosus) induces the quick expulsion of the placenta.[13]:21 Herbs are also used to create a trance possession using the hallucinogenic properties of Datura metel and Datura stramonium (both have scopolamine and atropine, causing amnesia), the psychoactive ingredients from the cane toad (Bufo marinus).[13]:23
Aside from being herbalist, Santería traditional healing practice has a spiritual aspect. Santería has a holistic approach, acknowledging the connection with heart, mind, and body.[14]:50 In Santería, the world flows with the primal life energy called aché or growth, the force toward completeness and divinity. Aché is the current that Santería initiates channel so that it empowers them to fulfill their path in life, because aché is connected to all that has life or exhibits power; aché comprises blood, grace, and power.[6]:12 When a person is sick, the healer thinks, interprets and reacts, considering the illness not just a physical dysfunction but also an interface with suffering and bad luck in life, believed to be brought on by the activity of bad spirits.
Prevalent in Caribbean cultures, espiritismo is a part of the Latin American traditional healing practice. Du Tout reveals that Santería has a "strong element of spiritism."[13]:26 McNeill also concurs that some Santeros have the power to communicate with spirits asking for guidance to improve the situation of a person consulting.[15]:69 However, in general, the Santeros of the Regla de Ochá primarily turn to religion as their practice to address personal challenges and identify means to improve a situation.[15]:77 Many people may go and see espirititas who don't see a Santero. Also, espiritistas may work hand in hand with Santeros.
While psychotherapy tends to use mostly allopathic principles, spiritism uses homeopathic principles that aim to reduce the anxiety, or permit the patient to acknowledge pent-up emotions, unexpressed guilt, or repressed behavior through catharsis meant to release emotions the patient may not even be aware of.[13]:25 It is said that "healing can occur when the spirit medium assists the sufferer to come into harmony with the spirit world so as to change his or her physical condition, emotions, way of life, or destiny."[13]:25
The reputation of espiritistas was tinged with negativity, being accused of witchcraft because they deal with health through the unfamiliar paradigm of the spirit world, which was not understood by either the medical doctors or the Catholic priests. Consequently, espiritistas or traditional healers of Santería and other Latin American cultures working with healing through the spirit world are attacked as "works of the devil" from the pulpits of the Catholic Churches and labeled as "quackery" from the journals of the medical profession. This unique system of knowledge is appreciated as ethnopharmacology or ethnomedicine.[13]:25
Aligning and harmonizing with the forces of nature, practitioners of the Regla de Ochá invoke on the guidance of Orichás. There are three foremost orichás that are predominantly concerned with folk-healing, however, other orichás may be invoked to help a person with a specific problem. These main orichás are: Osaín, the orichá of the herbs; Babalú-Ayé, the orichá of contagious and epidemic diseases; and Inle, the patron of physicians. Osaín is the patron of curanderos or traditional herbal healers, also called Osainistas.[6]:78 According to de la Torre, Osaín is believed to be embodied in the omiero, which is a combination of "blood from sacrifices offered during the ceremony and juices extracted from herbs that are sacred to the Orichás with water (from rain, rivers, or seas) honey, aguardiente, powdered eggshell, corojo, and cocoa butter."[6]:78 The forest has everything that would maintain a robust health and keep a person away from malevolence, thus, Santería practitioners would agree that no spell will be able to work without the sanction of Osaín, the master herbalist commanding the healing secrets of plant life.[6]:50 Osaín is syncretized with Saint Joseph, Saint Benito, or Saint Jerome. Babalú-Ayé is revered by its victims and survivors like smallpox, leprosy, and skin diseases. Babalú-Ayé has become the guardian of those with HIV/AIDS. He is syncretized with Saint Lazarus.[6]:78 Inle is the patron of physicians, known as a healer who favors scientific methods. Inle is ranked as one of the orichás that is approached for very specific health issues. Thus, Inle is also known as the protector of homosexuals and feminosexuals.[6]:82
People go to a consulta for many reasons, mainly for health-related issues. Divination is a means that traditional healers utilize to inquire further on the details of a problem. Divination may articulate the origin/cause of the problem; in addition, it may include prescriptions for solutions/suggestions to certain difficulties.[8]:96 Divination establishes an interpretative frame for the situation a person finds himself in.[8]:97 Hence, the Santeros offer cowrie-shell divination or other appropriate traditional practices. Rituals, or the reading of patakís may be done to clarify a problem, of which sometimes the person consulting may not even be aware. Passed orally from many generations, patakí are parables used by diviners to guide or give insights or moral lessons to a person who came for consultation.[11] The patakí recited by the Santero corresponds to the number that the cowrie shell divination brings.
Aside from the use of herbs and divination, the Santería traditional healing is achieved through rituals that include animal sacrifice, offerings, altar building, music, dance, and possession trance.[16]:108 When the patient is a child, the Santero uses the curative system known as santiguo, which means "to heal by blessing". Perceiving health problems, most Santeros recommend that the client seeks a medical doctor. Parallel to the medical treatment, the patient might be prescribed some herbal teas, cleansing baths, or a special diet from the traditional healing practice. Sometimes, a Santero might advise a client to receive omiero, whose efficacy is widely disputed by many in the medical community. An omiero is claimed by believers to be a sacred mixture that is made for specific Santería ceremonies and to embody the orichá ruler of herbs, Osaín.[6]:108 Most clients who see Santeros would never be told to drink it.[11]
Santería traditional healing is just one of the many traditional healing practices used in Caribbean and Latin American cultures. Traditional healing practices are practiced side by side with mainstream medical practices through the Cuban healthcare system. Traditional healers recognize but do not compete with Western medicine.
Current distribution[edit]
Santería is mainly found in the Spanish speaking Americas (notably the Caribbean), including but not limited to Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and Mexico, as well as in the United States, mainly as a result of migration from these countries, especially Cuba and Puerto Rico.
In 2001, there were an estimated 22,000 practitioners in the US alone,[17] but the number may be higher as some practitioners may be reluctant to disclose their religion on a government census or to an academic researcher. Of those living in the United States, some are fully committed priests and priestesses, others are godchildren or members of a particular house-tradition, and many are non-committal clients seeking help with their everyday problems.
A similar religion of Yoruba origin called Candomblé Queto is practiced in Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. This is referred to as "parallel religiosity".[18]
United States court rulings[edit]
In 1993, the issue of animal sacrifice in Santería was taken to the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah. The court ruled that animal cruelty laws targeted specifically at Santería were unconstitutional.[19]
In 2009, legal and religious issues that related to animal sacrifice, animal rights, and freedom of religion were taken to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit in the case of Jose Merced, President Templo Yoruba Omo Orisha Texas, Inc., v. City of Euless. The court ruled that the Merced case of the freedom of exercise of religion was meritorious and prevailing and that Merced was entitled under the Texas Religious Freedom and Restoration Act (TRFRA) to an injunction preventing the city of Euless, Texas, from enforcing its ordinances restricting his religious practices relating to the use of animals,[20] (see Tex. Civ. Prac. & Rem. Code § 110.005(a)(2)) without the court having to reach his claims under the First and Fourteenth Amendments. After the court case was settled, a news article was published in the Dallas Observer documenting the volume and brutality of the animal sacrifices.[21]
See also[edit]
Candomblé Queto
Ifá
Cuba portal
Religion portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Santería". Religions of the World. Retrieved January 4, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Lucumí Religion". New Orleans Mistic. Archived from the original on May 28, 2008. Retrieved January 4, 2009.
Jump up ^ Lois Ritter, Nancy Hoffman (April 18, 2011). Multicultural Health. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 268.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Abiola Irele, Biodun Jeyifo, ed. (April 27, 2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. p. 305.
Jump up ^ Richard Fausset (August 10, 2008). "Santeria priest won't let Religious Freedom be sacrificed". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Miguel A. De La Torre (2004). Santería: The Beliefs and Rituals of a Growing Religion in America. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802-84973-1.
^ Jump up to: a b David H. Brown (2003). Santería Enthroned: Art, Ritual, and Innovation in an Afro-Cuban Religion. University of Chicago. ISBN 978-0226-07610-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Michael Atwood Mason (2002). Living Santería: Rituals and Experiences in an Afro-Cuban Religion. Smithsonian. ISBN 978-1588-34052-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Michael Atwood Mason (Winter 1994). ""I Bow My Head to the Ground": The Creation of Bodily Experience in a Cuban American Santería Initiation". Journal of American Folklore. 107 (423): 23–39. JSTOR 541071.
^ Jump up to: a b Miguel Gonzalez-Wippler (2007). Rituals and Spells of Santería. Original Publications. ISBN 978-0942-27207-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dr Cynthia Duncan (2010). "About Santería". University of Washington, Tacoma.
Jump up ^ Diane Elizabeth Caudillo (2007), Prayers to the Orishas: A look at Santería (PDF)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Brian du Toit (2001). "Ethnomedical (Folk) Healing in the Caribbean". In Margarite Fernandez Olmos and Lizabeth Paravisini-Gerbert. Healing Cultures: Art and Religion as Curative Practices in the Caribbean and its Diaspora. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-21898-0. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Margarite Fernandez Olmos and Lizabeth Paravisini-Gerbert (2003). "The Orisha Tradition in Cuba". Creole Religions of the Caribbean: An Introduction from Vodou and Santeria, to Obeah and Espiritismo. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-2719-5. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Brian McNeill, Eileen Esquivel et al. (2008). "Santeria and the Healing Process in Cuba and the United States". In Brian McNeill and Joseph Cervantes. Latina/o Healing Practices: Mestizos and Indigenous Perspectives. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-415-95420-4. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Johan Wedel (2004). Santeria Healing: A Journey into the Afro-Cuban World of Divinities, Spirits, and Sorcery. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-2694-7.
Jump up ^ "American Religious Identification Survey, 2001" (PDF). City University of New York.
Jump up ^ Andrés I. Pérez y Mena (March 1998). "Cuban Santería, Haitian Vodun, Puerto Rican Spiritualism: A Multicultural Inquiry into Syncretism". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 37 (1): 15–27. JSTOR 1388026.
Jump up ^ "Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah, 508 U.S. 520". FindLaw.com. June 11, 1993. Retrieved October 25, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Merced v. Kasson, United States Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit". FindLaw.com. July 31, 2009. Retrieved October 25, 2012.
Jump up ^ Kimberly Thorpe (October 22, 2009). "A court case forced a Santería priest to reveal some of his religion's secrets. Its ritual of animal sacrifice he revealed on his own". Dallas Observer.
Further reading[edit]
J. Omosade Awolalu (1979). Yoruba Beliefs and Sacrificial Rites. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0582642034.
Miguel R. Bances. "Santería: El Nuevo Manual del Oba u Oriaté" (in Spanish).
William Bascom (1980). Sixteen Cowries: Yoruba Divination from Africa to the New World. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0253-35280-4.
Lydia Cabrera (1968). El Monte, Igbo, Finda, Ewe Orisha, Vititi Nfinda. Rema Press. ISBN 978-0-89729-009-8. OCLC 644593798.
Baba Raul Canizares (1999). Cuban Santeria. Destiny Books. ISBN 978-0892-81762-7.
Miguel A. De La Torre (2004). Santería: The Beliefs and Rituals of a Growing Religion in America. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0802-84973-1.
Dr Cynthia Duncan (2010). "About Santería". University of Washington, Tacoma.
Gary Edwards (1985). Black Gods: Orisa Studies in the New World. Yoruba Theological Archministry. ISBN 978-1881-24402-8. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Ifayemi Elebuibon (1994). Apetebii: The Wife of Orunmila. Athelia Henrietta Press. ISBN 978-0963-87871-7.
James T. Houk (1995). Spirits, Blood, and Drums: The Orisha Religion of Trinidad. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1566-39349-2.
Baba Ifa Karade (1994). The Handbook of Yoruba Religious Concepts. Red Wheel / Weiser. ISBN 978-0877-28789-6.
John Mason (1996). Olóòkun: Owner of Rivers and Seas. Yoruba Theological Archminstry. ISBN 978-1881-24405-9.
John Mason (1992). Orin Orisa: Songs for selected Heads. Yoruba Theological Archminstry. ISBN 978-1881-24400-4.
Mozella G Mitchell (2006). Crucial Issues in Caribbean Religions. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0820-48191-3.
David M O'Brien (2004). Animal Sacrifice and Religious Freedom: Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0700-61302-1.
Baba Esù Onàrè. "Tratado Encilopedico de Ifa".
Andrés I Pérez y Mena (1982). Socialization by Stages of Development into a Centro Espiritista in the South Bronx of New York City. Teachers College, Columbia University. OCLC 10981378.
Andrés I Pérez y Mena (1991). Speaking with the Dead: Development of Afro-Latin Religion Among Puerto Ricans in the United States. AMS Press. ISBN 978-0404-19485-7.
Andrés I Pérez y Mena (1996). "Religious Syncretism". In Richard and Rafael Chabran. The Latino Encyclopedia. Salem Press. ISBN 978-0761-40125-4. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Andrés I. Pérez y Mena (March 1998). "Cuban Santería, Haitian Vodun, Puerto Rican Spiritualism: A Multicultural Inquiry into Syncretism". Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 37 (1): 15–27. JSTOR 1388026.
Andrés I Pérez y Mena (1999). "Animal Sacrifice". In Wade Clark Roof. Contemporary American Religion. Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 978-0028-64928-3.
Andrés I Pérez y Mena (1999). "Santería". In Wade Clark Roof. Contemporary American Religion. Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 978-0028-64928-3.
Andrés I Pérez y Mena (2000). "John Paul II Visits Cuba". Great Events of the Twentieth Century. Salem Press.
Andrés I Pérez y Mena (February 2000). "Understanding Religiosity in Cuba". Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology. 7 (3): 6–34.
Anthony M Stevens Arroyo and Andrés I Pérez y Mena, eds. (1995). Enigmatic Powers: Syncretism with African and Indigenous Peoples' Religions among Latinos. Bildner Center for Western Hemisphere Studies. ISBN 0-929972-11-2. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Robert Farris Thompson (1983). Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy. Random House. ISBN 978-0394-50515-2.
González-Wippler, Migene (1990). Santería: African Magic in Latin America (2nd ed.). Original Productions. p. 179. ISBN 0942272048.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lukumí and Santería.
Library resources in your library and in other libraries about Santería
Furius Santería DB, A database of the rhythms and chants found in recordings
Joseph M Murphy. "Santería". Encyclopædia Britannica.
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text:
2014 Winter Paralympics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: 2014 Winter Olympics
XI Paralympic Winter Games
Host city
Sochi, Russia
Motto
Hot. Cool. Yours.
(Russian: Жаркие. Зимние. Твои.)
Nations participating
45
Athletes participating
550
Events
72 in 5 sports
Opening ceremony
7 March
Closing ceremony
16 March
Officially opened by
President Vladimir Putin
Athlete's Oath
Valery Redkozubov
Paralympic torch
Sergey Shilov
Olesya Vladykina
Paralympic stadium
Fisht Olympic Stadium
Winter
< Vancouver 2010
PyeongChang 2018 >
Summer
< London 2012
Rio 2016 >
Part of a series on
2014 Winter Paralympics[show]
Bid process
Venues
Mascots
Opening ceremony (flag bearers)
Chronological summary
Medal table (medalists)
Closing ceremony (flag bearers)
Olympics (medal table)
IPC
RPC
SOOC
v
t
e
The 2014 Winter Paralympics (Russian: Зимние Паралимпийские игры 2014, tr. Zimniye Paralimpiyskiye igry 2014), the 11th Paralympic Winter Games, and also more generally known as the Sochi 2014 Paralympic Winter Games, were an international multi-sport event for athletes with disabilities governed by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC), held in Sochi, Krasnodar Krai, Russia on 7–16 March 2014. 45 National Paralympic Committees (NPCs) participated in the Games, which marked the first time Russia ever hosted the Paralympics. The Games featured 72 medal events in five sports, and saw the debut of snowboarding at the Winter Paralympics.[1]
The lead-up to these Paralympics were met with concerns regarding Russia's recent military intervention in the nearby Crimean peninsula of Ukraine. The head of Ukraine's NPC stated that it would pull its athletes if the situation escalated, while the United Kingdom and United States chose not to send governmental delegations to the Games. The crisis ultimately had no impact on athlete participation, but members of the Ukrainian team did stage symbolic protests of the crisis during the Games (including most notably, all but the country's flagbearer sitting out of the opening ceremony's parade of nations).
With 80 medals, 30 of them being gold, the host country of Russia won the most medals during these Games, and set a record for the most medals won by a single country during a single Winter Paralympic Games. Additionally, Russian skier Roman Petushkov won the most individual gold medals in Winter Paralympic history, with six golds across skiing and biathlon events.[2] However, following the Games, the IPC discovered evidence that Russia's performance had been aided by a wider state-sponsored doping program. This resulted in restrictions on the participation of Russian athletes during subsequent Paralympics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Bidding process
2 Organization
2.1 Venues
2.2 Sochi Olympic Park (Coastal Cluster)
2.3 Krasnaya Polyana (Mountain Cluster)
3 Mascots
4 The Games
4.1 Opening ceremony
4.2 Participating National Paralympic Committees
4.3 Sports
4.4 Calendar
4.5 Closing ceremony
5 Medals
5.1 Medal table
6 Broadcasting
7 Concerns and controversies
7.1 Crimean crisis
7.2 Russian doping scandal
7.3 LGBT rights
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Bidding process[edit]
Main article: Bids for the 2014 Winter Olympics
As part of a formal agreement between the International Paralympic Committee and the International Olympic Committee first established in 2001, the winner of the bid for the 2014 Winter Olympics was also to host the 2014 Winter Paralympics.[3] Following the second and final round of voting at the 119th IOC Session in Guatemala City, Guatemala on 4 July 2007, the city of Sochi, Russia was awarded the 2014 Winter Olympics and Paralympics.[4]
2014 Host City Election – results
City
Country
Round 1 Round 2
Sochi Russia 34 51
Pyeongchang South Korea 36 47
Salzburg Austria 25 —
Organization[edit]
Venues[edit]
Sochi
Location of Sochi on the eastern coast of the Black Sea.
Main article: Venues of the 2014 Winter Olympics and Paralympics
Panoramic view of the Sochi Olympic Park
As with previous Paralympics, the 2014 Winter Paralympics used most of the same venues that were used by the Olympics, situated within the Sochi Olympic Park and the resort of Krasnaya Polyana.[1] Despite the IPC believing that Russia had "zero track record in terms of accessibility"—given that the Soviet Union passed on hosting the 1980 Summer Paralympics after claiming no disabled athletes lived in Russia, the venues were built to the IPC's standards, organizers were quick to fix some of the issues pointed out by officials during an audit of the venues in January 2014, and an IPC spokesperson stated that they were "confident and expect everything to be ready for Games time." Organizers and the IPC hoped that the Paralympics' legacy would make Sochi a role model for inclusive design throughout the country, and IPC president Philip Craven went as far as dubbing Sochi the first accessible city in Russia, commending the country's changed stance on disability since 1980.[5][6]
Sochi Olympic Park (Coastal Cluster)[edit]
Main article: Sochi Olympic Park
The Sochi Olympic Park was built by the Black Sea coast in the Imeretin Valley, about 4 km (2.5 miles) from Russia's border with Abkhazia.[7][8] The venues are clustered around a central water basin with a synchronized fountain, allowing all indoor venues to be within walking distance.[9][10] Off these, the venues used during the Paralympics included:
Fisht Olympic Stadium – ceremonies (opening/closing) 40,000 spectators
Shayba Arena – sledge hockey, 7,000 spectators
Ice Cube Curling Center – wheelchair curling, 3,000 spectators
A sketch of the layout of Sochi Olympic Park.
Krasnaya Polyana (Mountain Cluster)[edit]
Main article: Krasnaya Polyana, Sochi, Krasnodar Krai
Laura Biathlon & Ski Complex – Biathlon, Cross-country skiing
Rosa Khutor Alpine Resort – Alpine skiing
Rosa Khutor Extreme Park – Snowboarding
2014 Winter Paralympics Mountain Cluster Venues (interactive map)
Mascots[edit]
Main article: 2014 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games mascots
Snowflake and Ray of Light ("Snezhinka" and "Luchik")
A shortlist of 10 Olympic and 3 Paralympic designs were shown to the public on 7 February 2011, while the winners were revealed on 26 February 2011.[11] The Paralympic mascots, Ray of Light and Snowflake, represented contrasts and inclusivity: their fictional backstories portrayed them as having respectively come to Earth from a hot planet and a cold comet. After Ray of Light overcame his struggle to adapt to a winter environment, he bonded with Snowflake through a shared passion for winter sports.[12]
The Games[edit]
Opening ceremony[edit]
Main articles: 2014 Winter Paralympics opening ceremony and 2014 Winter Paralympics Parade of Nations
The opening ceremony of the Games were held at Fisht Olympic Stadium on 7 March 2014. Entitled "Breaking the Ice", the ceremony was themed around equality and "breaking" barriers, featuring ballet sequences set to music by notable Russian composers, and animated segments by Aleksandr Petrov based on the story of the firebird. During the parade of nations, Ukraine's athletes declined to participate in protest of the situation in Crimea, and was represented solely by its flagbearer Mykailo Tkachenko. In his opening speech, IPC president Philip Craven praised Russia for finally fulfilling its "dream" of hosting the Paralympics after previously passing on the opportunity in 1980. He called upon spectators to have a "barrier-free mind", stating that "the sport you witness here will change you. Not just for now, but forever." The Paralympic cauldron was jointly lit by Russian Paralympians Olesya Vladykina and Sergey Shilov.[13][14]
Participating National Paralympic Committees[edit]
Athletes representing forty-five National Paralympic Committees (NPCs) competed at the 2014 Winter Paralympics, an increase of one NPC over 2010.
[hide]Participating National Paralympic Committees
Andorra (1)
Argentina (3)
Armenia (1)
Australia (9)
Austria (13)
Belarus (10)
Belgium (2)
Bosnia and Herzegovina (2)
Brazil (2)
Bulgaria (2)
Canada (54)
Chile (2)
China (10)
Croatia (2)
Czech Republic (18)
Denmark (2)
Finland (13)
France (14)
Germany (13)
Great Britain (12)
Greece (1)
Iceland (2)
Iran (1)
Italy (34)
Japan (20)
Kazakhstan (5)
South Korea (27)
Mexico (1)
Mongolia (1)
Netherlands (7)
New Zealand (3)
Norway (31)
Poland (7)
Romania (1)
Russia (68) (host)
Serbia (1)
Slovakia (16)
Slovenia (1)
Spain (7)
Sweden (22)
Switzerland (8)
Turkey (2)
Ukraine (23)
United States (74)
Uzbekistan (2)
Brazil, Turkey and Uzbekistan made their Winter Paralympic debut in Sochi, while Hungary and South Africa, who participated in Vancouver, did not send any athletes.
Sports[edit]
Competitions in the 2014 Winter Paralympics were held in five Winter Paralympic sports, with 72 medal events in total. New for 2014 was the addition of snowboarding events, which were incorporated into the alpine skiing program.
Alpine skiing (32) (details)
Biathlon (18) (details)
Cross-country skiing (20) (details)
Ice sledge hockey (1) (details)
Wheelchair curling (1) (details)
Calendar[edit]
See also: Chronological summary of the 2014 Winter Paralympics
OC Opening ceremony ● Event competitions # Event finals CC Closing ceremony
March
7th
Fri
8th
Sat
9th
Sun
10th
Mon
11th
Tue
12th
Wed
13th
Thu
14th
Fri
15th
Sat
16th
Sun
Events
Ceremonies OC CC
Alpine skiing 6 3 3 ● 3 3 8 3 3 32
Biathlon 6 6 6 18
Cross-country skiing 2 4 6 2 6 20
Ice sledge hockey ● ● ● ● ● ● 1 1
Wheelchair curling ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 1 1
Total events
12
5
7
6
9
3
14
7
9
72
Cumulative total
12
17
24
30
39
42
56
63
72
March
7th
Fri
8th
Sat
9th
Sun
10th
Mon
11th
Tue
12th
Wed
13th
Thu
14th
Fri
15th
Sat
16th
Sun
Events
Closing ceremony[edit]
Main article: 2014 Winter Paralympics closing ceremony
The closing ceremony of the 2014 Winter Paralympics was held on 16 March 2014 at Fisht Olympic Stadium. Entitled "Reaching the Impossible", the ceremony was themed around inclusivity, and featured sequences paying tribute to Russian abstract artist Wassily Kandinsky, and Alexey Pajitnov's classic video game Tetris. During his closing remarks, deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Kozak stated that the Games had become a "catalyst for our efforts to create a barrier-free environment in Russia", and promised that "this important work will continue throughout our vast country." Sir Phillip Craven congratulated Russia for hosting what he deemed to be the best Winter Paralympic Games, and stated that the Games' participants had "shown the world that absolutely anything is possible and that life is about amazing capabilities and not perceived deficiencies."[15][16][17]
Medals[edit]
Main article: List of 2014 Winter Paralympics medal winners
Sochi's Paralympic medal design was unveiled in May 2013 alongside its Olympic equivalent. The design incorporates a "patchwork quilt" of diamonds, some of which are translucent, containing designs that reflect Russia's regions, and also contain inscriptions in braille.[18][19]
Medal table[edit]
Main article: 2014 Winter Paralympics medal table
Key
* Host nation (Russia)
Rank
NPC
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
1 Russia (RUS)* 30 28 22 80
2 Germany (GER) 9 5 1 15
3 Canada (CAN) 7 2 7 16
4 Ukraine (UKR) 5 9 11 25
5 France (FRA) 5 3 4 12
6 Slovakia (SVK) 3 2 2 7
7 Japan (JPN) 3 1 2 6
8 United States (USA) 2 7 9 18
9 Austria (AUT) 2 5 4 11
10 Great Britain (GBR) 1 3 2 6
11–19 Remaining NPCs 5 7 8 20
Total
72
72
72
216
Broadcasting[edit]
In February 2013, following its successful broadcast of the 2012 Summer Paralympics, British broadcaster Channel 4 announced on February 2014 that it had obtained the broadcast rights to further Games, including the 2014 Winter Paralympics, and 2016 Summer Paralympics. Channel 4 planned to broadcast more than 45 hours of coverage from Sochi.[20][21] Australian coverage was provided by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, including live online streaming. However, aside from the opening ceremony (which was broadcast live), television coverage was limited to a daily half-hour highlights show.[22]
In the United States, NBC Sports acquired the rights to the 2014 and 2016 Paralympics in September 2013. Following criticism of its minimal coverage of past Paralympics (such as at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, where in contrast to its extensive Olympics coverage, it broadcast only five-and-a-half hours of highlights), NBC announced plans for a total of 52 hours of coverage during the Games, with at least 27 hours of coverage broadcast live, and live coverage of the opening ceremony. The majority of its coverage was relegated to NBC Sports Network, but NBC aired highlights of the opening ceremony the following afternoon, and live coverage of the sledge hockey finals.[23][24] CBC Sports, in conjunction with the Canadian Paralympic Committee, produced and syndicated television and digital coverage of the Games in Canada for CBC Television (30 hours), Ici Radio-Canada Télé (French, 7 hours), Sportsnet, AMI-tv (coverage with open described video), and Yahoo! Sports Canada.[25]
Concerns and controversies[edit]
See also: Concerns and controversies at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Although concerns over LGBT rights still had a minor effect on the Games, they were overshadowed by a crisis in the Ukrainian region of Crimea which began during the Olympics, but became more severe immediately prior to the Paralympics.
Crimean crisis[edit]
Main article: Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation
On 27–28 February 2014 in the aftermath of the Ukrainian revolution, Russian troops seized control of most of the Crimean peninsula of Ukraine located on the northern coast of the Black Sea—roughly 480 kilometres (300 mi) from Sochi,[26] including civil buildings, airports, and military bases.[27] On 1 March 2014, the Russian legislature approved the use of the Russian military in Ukraine, and Russian officials stated that their military forces in Crimea were not a breach of existing agreements between Russia and Ukraine.[28] The Ukrainian response has been muted trying to find a diplomatic solution, with no military action on the part of Ukraine's government, which was formed in Kiev less than a week before the intervention. Russia vowed troops would stay until the political situation was "normalised".[29] A referendum on whether Crimea would separate from Ukraine was held on 16 March 2014—the same day as the closing ceremony of these Games.[30]
The effects of these developments led to several notable political actions surrounding the Paralympics. On 2 March 2014, British Prime Minister David Cameron announced that British government officials were planning to boycott the 2014 Winter Paralympics in response to the situation in Crimea, while Prince Edward cancelled plans to travel to Sochi for the Games "on the advice of government."[31][32] On 3 March 2014, United States National Security Council spokeswoman Caitlin Hayden announced that the United States would not send a presidential delegation to Sochi (which was to be led by Tammy Duckworth) at all, "in addition to other measures we are taking in response to the situation in Ukraine." Neither of the boycotts affected the participation of their respective athletes in the Games; Hayden went on to say that "President Obama continues to strongly support all of the U.S. athletes who will participate in the Paralympics and wishes them great success".[31][33]
IPC communications head Craig Spence reported prior to the Games that there were not any boycott efforts among athletes, and stated that although the organization would keep an eye on the situation in the Crimea, "we've obviously expressed our disappointment with what's going on in the political situation, but at the end of the day, we're not here to do politics. We're here to organize a sporting event." He went on to emphasize that the same level of security measures in place during the Olympics were in place during the Paralympics, ensuring that Sochi would be the "safest place" in the country during the Games.[26][34]
The Ukraine team still participated in the Games, but Valeriy Sushkevich, head of the country's National Paralympic Committee, warned that "if there is an escalation of the conflict, intervention on the territory of our country, God forbid the worst, we would not be able to stay here. We would go." Similarly to the Olympics, political protests and statements among athletes were forbidden during Paralympic events, although two major, symbolic protests by the Ukrainian team occurred during the Games. During the opening ceremonies, all but one of the country's 31 athletes declined to participate in the parade of nations. The country was represented solely by Nordic skier and flagbearer Mykailo Tkachenko, whose entrance was greeted with an ovation from the audience.[6] Some Ukrainian medalists were seen covering their medal with their hand during ceremonies as another form of silent protest; Sushkevich stated that the covering was "a demonstration that aggression and the high ideals of Paralympic sports are incompatible."[35]
Russian doping scandal[edit]
Main article: Doping in Russia
On 18 July 2016, the World Anti-Doping Agency published the first part of an independent report detailing a state-sponsored doping program in Russian Olympic and Paralympic sport, coordinated by the country's Ministry of Sport and Federal Security Service (FSB), where positive urine samples were swapped in favour of clean ones in order to evade detection.[36] The IPC found evidence that swapping of positive samples had occurred during the 2014 Winter Paralympics.[37][38][39][40]
On 7 August 2016, the International Paralympic Committee announced that it had suspended the Russian Paralympic Committee. The country was banned from the 2016 Summer Paralympics. At the 2018 Winter Paralympics, the RPC remained suspended, but the IPC did allow clean Russian athletes to compete neutrally under the Paralympic flag (mirroring a similar decision by the IOC for the 2018 Winter Olympics).[41].[40][42]
LGBT rights[edit]
Concerns surrounding LGBT rights in Russia and the country's "gay propaganda" law continued into the Paralympics. On 4 February 2014, Norway's openly gay health minister Bent Høie announced he would attend the Games with his husband, as is common for cabinet officials to travel with their spouses.[43] The Federation of Gay Games also started a petition calling for IPC president Philip Craven not to attend the Games if Russian authorities did not allow the Russian Open Games, a multi-sport event for LGBT athletes which organizers attempted to hold prior to the Paralympics, to occur. These games were faced with a bomb threat, and its venues arbitrarily pulling out of providing their services for events, which was believed to be a result of government pressure.[44]
See also[edit]
Winter Paralympics portal
List of IOC country codes
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Para-Snowboard secures Paralympic Games inclusion". BBC Sport. 2 May 2012. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Sochi Paralympics: Roman Petushkov sets golds record". BBC Sport. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Paralympics 2012: London to host 'first truly global Games'". BBC Sport. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Sochi Elected as Host City of XXII Olympic Winter Games". Olympic.org. 24 January 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Sochi 2014 Paralympics: IPC confident on venue accessibility". BBC Sport. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ukrainians stage symbolic protest at opening of Sochi Winter Paralympics". The Guardian. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Sochi's mixed feelings over Olympics". BBC News. 26 November 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Russian Deputy PM leads Sochi delegation to inspect Munich Olympic Park Inside the Games, 22 May 2010
Jump up ^ Madler, Mark (24 February 2014). "WET Design Runs Rings Around Rivals". San Fernando Business Journal. Los Angeles, California: California Business Journals. Retrieved 26 February 2014. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ "California-based WET makes the waters dance at Sochi". Gizmag. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Russia unveils candidates for Sochi mascot". ESPN.com. 7 February 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Sochi 2014 gets a new Paralympic look". Paralympic.org. IPC. Retrieved 28 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Brandon Hicks (7 March 2014). "2014 Paralympics open in Sochi". CBC. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "#Neverstop: 2014 Paralympic Games kick off in Sochi (PHOTOS)". Russia Today. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Record-breaking Sochi 2014 Paralympics close in celebration of possibility". IPC. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Best Winter Paralympics Ever' Close in Sochi". RIA. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Sochi Paralympics end with flare, fireworks". CBC Sports. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Sochi 2014 Organizing Committee unveils Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games medals". Sochi 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Sochi 2014 unveils Paralympic Winter Games medals". Paralympic.org. Retrieved 9 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Channel 4 pays £7m to screen 2014 and 2016 Paralympic Games". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 8 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Channel 4 secures 2014 and 2016 Paralympic Games rights". International Paralympic Committee. 8 February 2013. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Sochi 2014 Winter Paralympic Games". TV Tonight. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Television Schedule Set For Sochi 2014 Paralympic Winter Games". USOC. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Paralympic Movement given huge boost as American channels NBC and NBCSN will cover next two Games". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "CBC Unveils Multiplatform Coverage of Sochi 2014 Paralympic Games". Broadcaster Magazine. Archived from the original on 7 March 2014. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sochi Paralympics 2014: No plans for boycott – IPC". BBC Sport. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Russian troops seize Crimea". Politico. 1 March 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Russian Parliament approves use of army in Ukraine". The Hindu. 1 March 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ukraine crisis: Russia vows troops will stay". BBC. 3 March 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Crimea's referendum to leave Ukraine: how did we get here?". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "British Officials to Boycott Sochi Paralympics". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ukraine crisis: David Cameron says ministers will boycott Sochi 2014 Paralympics in response to Russia's declaration of war". The Independent. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "USA won't send presidential delegation to Sochi Paralympics". USA Today. Retrieved 3 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Paralympics organizers fear Crimea unrest will overshadow Games". CBC News. Retrieved 7 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "How Ukraine's athletes in Sochi are protesting against Russia's actions". Quartz. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "McLaren Independent Investigations Report into Sochi Allegations". World Anti-Doping Agency. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Ruiz, Rebecca R. (18 July 2016). "Russia May Face Olympics Ban as Doping Scheme Is Confirmed". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Ruiz, Rebecca R.; Schwirtz, Michael (12 May 2016). "Russian Insider Says State-Run Doping Fueled Olympic Gold". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Russia given blanket Paralympic ban amid 'medals over morals' criticism". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Rio Paralympics 2016: Russian athletes banned after doping scandal". BBC Sport. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "IPC allow Russian athletes to compete as neutrals at Pyeongchang 2018 but maintain suspension". Inside the Games. Retrieved 2018-02-09.
Jump up ^ "The IPC suspends the Russian Paralympic Committee with immediate effect". International Paralympic Committee. 7 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Gay Norwegian minister to take husband to Sochi Paralympics". Reuters. 2 February 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Post-Olympic concerns over Russia LGBT rights record remain". Washington Blade. Retrieved 14 March 2014.
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values: Juegos Paralímpicos de Sochi 2014 – Spanish

values: بازی‌های پارالمپیک زمستانی ۲۰۱۴ – Persian

values:
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values: Jeux paralympiques d'hiver de 2014 – French

values: Paralympyske Winterspullen 2014 – Western Frisian

values:
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values:
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values: 2014 शीतकालीन पैरालम्पिक – Hindi

values: Paralimpiade Musim Dingin 2014 – Indonesian

values: XI Giochi paralimpici invernali – Italian

values:
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values: אולימפיאדת הנכים סוצ'י (2014) – Hebrew

values:
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values: Қысқы Паралимпиада ойындары 2014 – Kazakh

values:
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values: Тӧвся Паралимпиада ворсӧмъяс (2014) – Komi

values:
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values: 2014. gada ziemas paraolimpiskās spēles – Latvian

values:
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values: 2014 m. žiemos parolimpinės žaidynės – Lithuanian

values:
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values:
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values: ソチパラリンピック – Japanese

values:
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values: Paralympiske vinterleker 2014 – Norwegian

values:
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values: Zimowe Igrzyska Paraolimpijskie 2014 – Polish

values:
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values: Jogos Paralímpicos de Inverno de 2014 – Portuguese

values: Jocurile Paralimpice de iarnă din 2014 – Romanian

values:
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values: Зимние Паралимпийские игры 2014 – Russian

values: 2014 кыһыҥҥы Паралимпия Оонньуулара – Sakha

values:
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values:
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values:
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values: Paralympiska vinterspelen 2014 – Swedish

values:
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values: พาราลิมปิกฤดูหนาว 2014 – Thai

values:
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values: Зимові Паралімпійські ігри 2014 – Ukrainian

values:
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values: 2014年冬季帕拉林匹克運動會 – Chinese

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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