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Maryland Toleration Act
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Maryland Toleration Act
Part of English Civil War and Protestant Revolution of Maryland
A small broadside reprint of the Maryland Toleration Act
Date
April 21, 1649
Location
Maryland Colony
Also known as
Act Concerning Religion
Participants
Colonial Assembly of Maryland
Outcome
Repealed in October 1694
The Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion, was a law mandating religious tolerance for Trinitarian Christians. It was passed on April 21, 1649, by the assembly of the Maryland colony, in St. Mary's City. It was the second law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies and created one of the pioneer statutes passed by the legislative body of an organized colonial government to guarantee any degree of religious liberty. Specifically, the bill, now usually referred to as the Toleration Act, granted freedom of conscience to all Christians.[1] (The colony which became Rhode Island passed a series of laws, the first in 1636, which prohibited religious persecution including against non-Trinitarians; Rhode Island was also the first government to separate church and state.) Historians argue that it helped inspire later legal protections for freedom of religion in the United States. The Calvert family, who founded Maryland partly as a refuge for English Catholics, sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and those of other religions that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of Britain and her colonies.

The Act allowed freedom of worship for all Trinitarian Christians in Maryland, but sentenced to death anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus. It was revoked in 1654 by William Claiborne, a Virginian who had been appointed as a commissioner by Oliver Cromwell; he was an Anglican, a Puritan sympathizer, and strongly hostile to the Catholic Religion. When the Calverts regained control of Maryland, the Act was reinstated, before being repealed permanently in 1692 following the events of the Glorious Revolution, and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland. As the first law on religious tolerance in the British North America, it influenced related laws in other colonies and portions of it were echoed in the writing of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which enshrined religious freedom in American law.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the law
2 Description
3 Repeal and legacy
4 See also
5 External links
6 Footnotes
7 References
Origin of the law[edit]
Cecil Calvert, proprietor of the Maryland colony when the Maryland Toleration Act was passed
The Maryland colony was founded by Cecil Calvert in 1634. Like his father George Calvert, who had originated the efforts that led to the colony's charter, Cecil Calvert was Catholic at a time when England was dominated by the Anglican Church.[2] The Calverts intended the colony as a haven for Catholics fleeing England and as a source of income for themselves and their descendants.[3] Many of Maryland's first settlers were Catholic, including at least two Catholic priests, one of whom became the earliest chronicler of the colony's history.[4] But whatever Calvert's intentions, Maryland was a colony of an Anglican nation. Its charter had been granted by an Anglican king and seems to have assumed that the Church of England would be its official church. Anglican and later Puritan newcomers quickly came to outnumber the early Catholic settlers. Thus, by 1649 when the law was passed, the colonial assembly was dominated by Protestants, and the law was in effect an act of Protestant tolerance for Catholics, rather than the reverse.[3]
From Maryland's earliest days, Cecil Calvert had enjoined its colonists to leave religious rivalries behind. Along with giving instructions on the establishment and defense of the colony, he asked the men he appointed to lead it to ensure peace between Protestants and Catholics. He also asked the Catholics to practice their faith as privately as possible, so as not to disturb that peace.[5] The Ordinance of 1639, Maryland's earliest comprehensive law, expressed a general commitment to the rights of man, but did not specifically detail protections for religious minorities of any kind.[6] Peace prevailed until the English Civil War, which opened religious rifts and threatened Calvert's control of Maryland.[7] In 1647, after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert, Protestants seized control of the colony. Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, quickly regained power, but recognized that religious tolerance not specifically enshrined in law was vulnerable.[8] This recognition was combined with the arrival of a group of Puritans whom Calvert had induced to establish Providence, now Annapolis, by guaranteeing their freedom of worship.[9] Partially to confirm the promises he made to them, Calvert wrote the Maryland Toleration Act and encouraged the colonial assembly to pass it. They did so on April 21, 1649.[8]
Description[edit]
The Maryland Toleration Act was an act of tolerance, allowing specific religious groups to practice their religion without being punished, but retaining the ability to revoke that right at any time. It also only granted tolerance to Christians who believed in the Trinity.[3] The law was very explicit in limiting its effects to Christians:[10]
...no person or persons...professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be anyways troubled, Molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof within this Province...
—  Maryland Toleration Act, 1649
Settlers who blasphemed by denying either the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus Christ could be punished by execution or the seizure of their lands. That meant that Jews, Unitarians, and other dissenters from Trinitarian Christianity were practicing their religions at risk to their lives.[8] Any person who insulted the Virgin Mary, the apostles, or the evangelists could be whipped, jailed, or fined. Otherwise, Trinitarian Christians' right to worship was protected. The law outlawed the use of "heretic" and other religious insults against them.[3] This attempt to limit the use of religious slurs and insults has been described as the first attempt in the world to limit the use of hate speech.[11]
The law was used in at least one attempt to prosecute a non-Christian. In 1658 a Jew named Jacob Lumbrozo was accused of blasphemy after saying that Jesus was not the son of God and that the miracles described in the New Testament were conjuring tricks. Lumbrozo did not deny having said such things, but argued that he had only been responding to questions asked of him.[12] He was held for trial but the case was later dismissed, and he was given full citizenship as a condition of the restoration of Calvert's rule following the English Civil War.[13]
The law had its detractors, even among those groups protected by it. Puritans were concerned that the act and the proprietary government in general were royalist. They were also concerned that by swearing allegiance to Calvert, who was Catholic, they were being required to submit to the Pope, whom they considered to be the antichrist. Some Anglicans also opposed the law, believing that the Church of England should be the colony's sole established church.[13]
Repeal and legacy[edit]
William Claiborne, who rescinded the Toleration Act when he took over the colony during the reign of Oliver Cromwell
In 1654, only five years after its passage, the Act was repealed.[8] Two years earlier the colony had been seized by Protestants following the execution of King Charles I of England and the outbreak of the English Civil War. In the early stages of that conflict, the colonial assembly of Maryland and its neighbors in Virginia had publicly declared their support for the King. Parliament appointed Protestant commissioners loyal to their cause to subdue the colonies, and two of them, the Virginian William Claiborne and Puritan leader Richard Bennett, took control of the colonial government in St. Mary's City in 1652. In addition to repealing the Maryland Toleration Act with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen, Claiborne and Bennett passed a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion.[14] Calvert regained control after making a deal with the colony's Protestants, and in 1657 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly. This time, it would last more than thirty years, until 1692.[8]
Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England, when the Catholic King James II of England was deposed and the Protestant William III ascended the throne, a rebellion of Maryland Puritan Protestants overthrew Calvert's rule. They quickly rescinded the Toleration Act and banned public practice of Catholicism, and it would never be reinstated under colonial rule. In fact, the colony established the Church of England as its official church in 1702 and explicitly barred Catholics from voting in 1718.[8] The Calvert family regained control over the colony in 1715, but only after Benedict Calvert converted to Protestantism. His political control remained tenses enough that he did not risk an attempt to reinstate protections for Catholics.[15] It took until the era of the American Revolution for religious tolerance or freedom to again become the practice in Maryland.[8]
While the law did not secure religious freedom, and while it included severe limitations, it was nonetheless a significant milestone. It predates the Enlightenment, which is generally considered to be when the idea of religious freedom took root, and stands as the first legal guarantee of religious tolerance in American and British history. Later laws ensuring religious tolerance and freedom, including the British Act of Toleration of 1689, the Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania, and laws concerning religion in other colonies such as South Carolina, may have been influenced by its example.[3][12] According to historian Robert Brugger, "...the measure marked a notable departure from Old World oppression."[9] It was not until the passage of the signed First Amendment to the Constitution over a century later that religious freedom was enshrined as a fundamental guarantee,[3] but even that document echoes the Toleration Act in its use of the phrase, "free exercise thereof". Thus, despite its lack of a full guarantee of religious freedom or broad-based tolerance, the law is, "a significant step forward in the struggle for religious liberty."[8]
See also[edit]
History of religion in the United States
External links[edit]
Original text of the Maryland Toleration Act Yale University law library
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ http://msa.maryland.gov/msa/speccol/sc2200/sc2221/000025/html/intro.html
Jump up ^ Brugger, p 5
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Holmes, pp 20–22
Jump up ^ Brugger, p 3
Jump up ^ Brugger, p 7
Jump up ^ Hanley, p 325
Jump up ^ Maclear, pp 45–46
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Finkelman, p 675
^ Jump up to: a b Brugger, p 20
Jump up ^ Toleration Act, paragraph 6
Jump up ^ McConnell, p 17
^ Jump up to: a b Underwood, pp 6–7
^ Jump up to: a b Brugger, p 22
Jump up ^ Brugger, p 21
Jump up ^ Hoffman, pp 79–80
References[edit]
Brugger, Robert J. (1988). Maryland: A Middle Temperament. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3399-X.
Finkelman, Paul (2006). "Maryland Toleration Act". The Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. New York: CRC Press. ISBN 0-415-94342-6.
Hanley, Thomas O'Brien (1957). "Church and State in the Maryland Ordinance of 1639". Church History (New York: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Society of Church History) 26 (4): 325–341. Retrieved November 14, 2009.
Hoffman, Ronald (2000). Princes of Ireland, Planters of Maryland: A Carroll Saga, 1500–1782. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5347-X.
Holmes, David Lynn (2006). The Faiths of the Founding Fathers. New York: Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-530092-0.
Maclear, J.F. (1995). Church and State in the Modern Age: A Documentary History. New York: Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-508681-3.
McConnell, Michael W. (1992). "America's First "Hate Speech" Regulation". Constitutional Commentary (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota School of Law) 9 (17): 17–23. Retrieved November 14, 2009.
"Maryland Toleration Act". Yale University Avalon Project. 1649. Retrieved November 14, 2009.
Underwood, James L. and Burke, William Lewis (2006). The Dawn of Religious Freedom in South Carolina. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-621-7.
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Chromolithography
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the print-making method. For the Felipe Alfau novel, see Felipe Alfau.
Folding Card, The Old Woman Who Lived in A Shoe, 6 April 1883.
Part of a series on the
History of printing
Woodblock printing
200
Movable type
1040
Printing press
c. 1440
Etching
c. 1515
Mezzotint
1642
Aquatint
1772
Lithography
1796
Chromolithography
1837
Rotary press
1843
Hectograph
1869
Offset printing
1875
Hot metal typesetting
1884
Mimeograph
1886
Photostat and rectigraph
1907
Screen printing
1911
Spirit duplicator
1923
Dot matrix printing
1925
Xerography
1938
Phototypesetting
1949
Inkjet printing
1951
Dye-sublimation
1957
Laser printing
1969
Thermal printing
c. 1972
3D printing
1981
Solid Ink printing
1986
Digital printing
1991
v
t
e
Chromolithography is a unique method for making multi-colour prints. This type of colour printing stemmed from the process of lithography, and includes all types of lithography that are printed in colour.[1] When chromolithography is used to reproduce photographs, the term photochrome is frequently used. Lithographers sought to find a way to print on flat surfaces with the use of chemicals instead of raised relief or recessed intaglio techniques.[2]
Chromolithography became the most successful of several methods of colour printing developed by the 19th century; other methods were developed by printers such as Jacob Christoph Le Blon, George Baxter and Edmund Evans, and mostly relied on using several woodblocks with the colours. Hand-colouring also remained important; elements of the official British Ordnance Survey maps were coloured by hand by boys until 1875. The initial technique involved the use of multiple lithographic stones, one for each colour, and was still extremely expensive when done for the best quality results. Depending on the number of colours present, a chromolithograph could take even very skilled workers months to produce. However much cheaper prints could be produced by simplifying both the number of colours used, and the refinement of the detail in the image. Cheaper images, like advertisements, relied heavily on an initial black print (not always a lithograph), on which colours were then overprinted. To make an expensive reproduction print as what was once referred to as a “’chromo’”, a lithographer, with a finished painting in front of him, gradually created and corrected the many stones using proofs to look as much as possible like the painting in front of him, sometimes using dozens of layers.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Process
2 Origins
3 Arrival in the United States
4 Opposition to chromolithography
5 Famous printers
5.1 Louis Prang
5.2 Lothar Meggendorfer
5.3 August Hoen
5.4 Rufus Bliss
5.5 M. & N. Hanhart
6 Uses
7 Bibliography
8 Further reading
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Process[edit]
Chromolithography is a chemical process. The process is based on the rejection of grease by water. The image is applied to stone, grained zinc or aluminium surfaces, with a grease-based crayon or ink. Limestone and zinc are two commonly used materials in the production of chromolithographs, as aluminium unfortunately corrodes easily. After the image is drawn onto one of these surfaces, the image is gummed-up with a gum arabic solution and weak nitric acid to desensitize the surface. Before printing, the image is proved before finally inking up the image with oil based transfer or printing ink. The inked image under pressure is transposed onto a sheet of paper using a flat-bed press. This describes the direct form of printing. The offset indirect method uses a rubber-covered cylinder that transfers the image from printing surface to the paper. Colours may be overprinted by using additional stones or plates to achieve a closer reproduction of the original. Accurate registration for multi-coloured work is achieved by the use of a key outline image and registration bars which are applied to each stone or plate before drawing the solid or tone image. Ben-Day medium uses a raised gelatin stipple image to give tone gradation. An air-brush sprays ink to give soft edges. These are just two methods used to achieve gradations of tone. The use of twelve overprinted colours would not be considered unusual. Each sheet of paper will therefore pass through the printing press as many times as there are colours in the final print. In order that each colour is placed in the right position, each stone or plate must be precisely ‘registered,’ or lined up, on the paper using a system of register marks.[2]
Chromolithographs are considered to be reproductions that are smaller than double demi, and are of finer quality than lithographic drawings which are concerned with large posters. Autolithographs are prints where the artist draws and perhaps prints his or her own limited number of reproductions. This is the true lithographic art form.[4]
Origins[edit]
Uncle Sam Supplying the World with Berry Brothers Hard Oil Finish, c. 1880. This cheaply produced chromolithographic advertisement employs a technique called stippling, with heavy reliance on the initial black line print.
Alois Senefelder, the inventor of lithography, introduced the subject of colored lithography in his 1818 Vollstaendiges Lehrbuch der Steindruckerey (A Complete Course of Lithography), where he told of his plans to print using colour and explained the colours he wished to be able to print someday.[5] Although Senefelder recorded plans for chromolithography, printers in other countries, such as France and England, were also trying to find a new way to print in colour. Godefroy Engelmann of Mulhouse in France was awarded a patent on chromolithography in July 1837,[5] but there are disputes over whether chromolithography was already in use before this date, as some sources say, pointing to areas of printing such as the production of playing cards.[5]
Arrival in the United States[edit]
1872 chromolithograph of roadside inn, published in Maryland
The first American chromolithograph—a portrait of Reverend F. W. P. Greenwood—was created by William Sharp in 1840.[6] Many of the chromolithographs were created and purchased in urban areas. The paintings were initially used as decoration in American parlours as well as for decoration within middle-class homes. They were prominent after the Civil War because of their low production costs and ability to be mass-produced, and because the methods allowed pictures to look more like hand-painted oil paintings.[7] Production costs were only low if the chromolithographs were cheaply produced, but top-quality chromos were costly to produce because of the necessary months of work and the thousands of dollars worth of equipment that had to be used.[8] Although chromos could be mass-produced, it took about three months to draw colours onto the stones and another five months to print a thousand copies. Chromolithographs became so popular in American culture that the era has been labeled as “chromo civilization”.[9] Over time, during the Victorian era, chromolithographs populated children's and fine arts publications, as well as advertising art, in trade cards, labels, and posters. They were also once used for advertisements, popular prints, and medical or scientific books.[10]
Opposition to chromolithography[edit]
Even though chromolithographs served many uses within society at the time, many were opposed to the idea of them because of their lack of authenticity. The new forms of art were sometimes tagged as "bad art" because of their deceptive qualities.[8] Some also felt that it could not serve as a form of art at all since it was too mechanical, and that the true spirit of a painter could never be captured in a printed version of a work.[8] Over time, chromos were made so cheaply that they could no longer be confused with original paintings. Since production costs were low, the fabrication of chromolithographs became more a business than the creation of art.
Famous printers[edit]
Louis Prang[edit]
A famous lithographer and publisher who strongly supported the production of chromolithographs was Louis Prang. Prang was a German-born entrepreneur who printed the first American Christmas card.[11] He felt that chromolithographs could look just as good as, if not better than, real paintings, and he published well-known chromolithographs based on popular paintings, including one by Eastman Johnson entitled The Barefoot Boy.[8] The reason Prang decided to take on the challenge of producing chromolithographs, despite criticisms, was because he felt quality art should not be limited to the elite.[11] Prang and others who continued to produce chromolithographs were sometimes looked down upon because of the fear that chromolithographs could undermine human abilities. With the Industrial Revolution already under way, this fear was not something new to Americans at the time. Many artists themselves anticipated the lack of desire for original artwork since many became accustomed to chromolithographs.[8] As a way to make more sales, some artists had a few paintings made into chromolithographs so that people in society would at least be familiar with the painter. Once people in society were familiar with the artist, they were more likely to want to pay for an original work.[8]
Lothar Meggendorfer[edit]
German chromolithographers, largely based in Bavaria, came to dominate the trade with their low-cost high-volume productions. Of these printers, Lothar Meggendorfer garnered international fame for his children's educational books and games. Owing to political unrest in mid-19th century Germany, many Bavarian printers emigrated to the United Kingdom and the United States, and Germany's monopoly on chromolithographic printing dissipated.
August Hoen[edit]
A. Hoen & Co., led by German immigrant August Hoen, were a prominent lithography house now known primarily for its stunning E.T. Paull sheet music covers. They also made advertisements, maps, and cigar box art. Hoen and his brothers Henry and Ernest took over the E. Weber Company in the mid-1850s upon Edward Weber's death. August Hoen's son Alfred ran the firm from 1886 throughout the early 20th century.[12]
Rufus Bliss[edit]
Rufus Bliss founded R. Bliss Mfg. Co., which was located in Pawtucket, Rhode Island from 1832 to 1914. The Bliss company is best known for their highly sought after paper litho on wood dollhouses. They also made many other lithoed toys, including boats, trains, and building blocks.[13]
M. & N. Hanhart[edit]
Established in Mulhouse in 1830 by Michael Hanhart who initially worked with Godefroy Engelmann in London. The firm, established at Charlotte Street, Fitzroy Square, was named after his two sons Michael and Nicholas. Artists like Joseph Wolf, Joseph Smit, J G Keulemans and others worked for him to produce natural history illustrations that were used in the Ibis (1859-1874), Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1848-1900) and a range of books. The company wound up in 1902 after the death of Nicholas Hanhart and the rise of new printing techniques.[14]
Uses[edit]
"Love or Duty", a chromolithograph by Gabriele Castagnola, 1873
Chromolithographs are mainly used today as fine art instead of advertisements, and they are hard to find because of poor preservation and cheaper forms of printing replaced it. Many chromolithographs have deteriorated because of the acidic frames surrounding them.[15] As stated earlier, production costs of chromolithographs were low, but efforts were still being made to find a cheaper way to mass-produce colored prints. Although purchasing a chromolithograph may have been cheaper than purchasing a painting, it was still expensive in comparison to other colour printing methods which were later developed. Offset printing replaced chromolithography in the late 1930s.
To find or purchase a lithograph, some suggest searching for examples with the original frame as well as the publisher's stamp.[16] Both European and American chromolithographs can still be found, and can range in cost from hundreds to thousands of dollars. The least expensive chromos tend to be European or produced by publishers who are less well-known compared to Prang.[16]
Bibliography[edit]
Twyman, Michael. A History of Chromolithography: Printed Colour for All. The British Library/Oak Knoll Press, 2013.
Friedman, Joan M. Colour Printing in England, 1486-1859. Yale Center for British Art, 1978.
Henker, Michael. Von Senefelder zu Daumier: Die Anfange der Lithograpischen Kunst. K.G. Saur, 1988.
Jay, Robert. The Trade Card in Nineteenth-Century America. University of Missouri Press, 1987.
Last, Jay T. The Colour Explosion: Nineteenth-Century American Lithography. Hillcrest Press, 2005.
Marzio, Peter C. The Democratic Art : Pictures for a 19th-century America : Chromolithography, 1840-1900. D. R. Godine, 1979.
Further reading[edit]
Friedman, Joan M. Colour Printing in England, 1486-1870: an Exhibition, Yale Center for British Art. New Haven: The Center, 1978.
Hunter, Mel. The New Lithography: A Complete Guide for Artists and Printers in the Use of Modern Translucent Materials for the Creation of Hand-Drawn Original Fine-Art Lithographic Prints. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984.
Marzio, Peter C. "Lithography as Democratic Art: A Reappraisal." Leonardo 3(1971):37-48.
See also[edit]
Look up chromolithography in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Planography
Photochrom
Color printing
Zincography
History of graphic design
Lithography
References[edit]
Jump up ^ “Planographic Printing.” Seeing is Believing. 2001. The New York Public Library. 11 April 2007 <http://seeing.nypl.org/planographic.html>.
^ Jump up to: a b “Chromolithography and the Posters of World War I.” The War on the Walls. Temple University. 11 April 2007 < "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-07-21. Retrieved 2006-02-18. >.
Jump up ^ Clapper, Michael. “’I Was Once a Barefoot Boy!’: Cultural Tensions in a Popular Chromo.” American Art 16(2002): 16-39.
Jump up ^ “Chromolithography.” Beautiful Birds Exhibit.1999. Cornell University Library. 11 April 2007 <http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/ornithology/exhibit/exhibit5.htm>.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ferry, Kathryn. “Printing the Alhambra: Owen Jones and Chromolithography.” Architectural History 46(2003): 175–188.
Jump up ^ Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. ©1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p 147 ISBN 0-471-29198-6
Jump up ^ Gaffney, Dennis. “Chromolithography: Bringing Color to the Masses.” Antiques Roadshow. 2006. WGBH. 11 April 2007 <https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/roadshow/tips/chromolithography/>.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Clapper, Michael. “’I Was Once a Barefoot Boy!’: Cultural Tensions in a Popular Chromo.” American Art 16(2002): 16-39.
Jump up ^ Glanz, Dawn. “The Democratic Art: Pictures for a Nineteenth-Century America, Chromolithography 1840-1900 (Review).” Winterthur Portfolio 16(1981): 96-97.
Jump up ^ “Planographic Printing.” Seeing is Believing.2001. The New York Public Library. 11 April 2007 <http://seeing.nypl.org/planographic.html>.
^ Jump up to: a b Stankiewicz, Mary Ann. “A Picture Age: Reproductions in Picture Study.” Studies in Art Education 26(1985): 86-92.
Jump up ^ "A. Hoen & Company". Perfessorbill.com. 1956-05-01. Retrieved 2011-10-12.
Jump up ^ "Bliss Fire House & Pumper, ca. 1900 | Roadshow Archive". PBS. Retrieved 2011-10-12.
Jump up ^ Jackson, CE (1999). "M. & N. Hanhart: printers of natural history plates, 1830-1903". Archives of Natural History. 26 (2): 287–292. doi:10.3366/anh.1999.26.2.287.
Jump up ^ Peters, Connie and Greg Peters. “True and Company: I Can See You Papa.” The Art of Print.True and Company. 11 April 2007 <http://www.artoftheprint.com/artistpages/true_and_company_icanseeyoupapa.htm>.
^ Jump up to: a b Antiques Roadshow: “Chromolithography: Bringing Color to the Masses”, Gaffney, Dennis. 2006. WGBH. 11 April 2007.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chromolithographs.
The Chromolithograph: A Journal of Arts, Literature, Decoration and the Accomplishments
Examples of the Liebig's Company trade cards
New York Public Library page on printing, includes an example in which 38 progressive proof prints are made with 19 stones to produce the final print.
Temple University Libraries discussion and World War I poster examples.
University of South Florida Tampa Library Special Collections maintains the Noel Wisdom Collection of Chromolithographic Prints.
Chromolithography: The Art of Color from The Philadelphia Print Shop
Collection of Chromolithographic Prints of Edinburgh, Scotland, 1897
George Washington Chromolithograph
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chromolithography&oldid=822168068"
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The Herd with Colin Cowherd
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Herd with Colin Cowherd
Genre
Sports talk
Running time
3 hours
Country of origin
United States
Home station
ESPN Radio (2004–2015)
Fox Sports Radio (2015–present)
Syndicates
Premiere Networks
TV adaptations
ESPNU (2008–2011, 2012–2015)
ESPNews (2011–2012)
Fox Sports 1 (2015–present)
Starring
Colin Cowherd
Kristine Leahy
Recording studio
Los Angeles, California
Original release
March 29, 2004 (ESPN), September 8, 2015 (Fox Sports Radio) – present
Opening theme
"Battle Without Honor or Humanity" by Tomoyasu Hotei
Website
The Herd with Colin Cowherd
iHeartRadio channel
The Herd with Colin Cowherd is a sports talk radio show hosted by Colin Cowherd on Fox Sports Radio and Fox Sports 1. The show features commentary on the day's sports news, perspective on other news stories, and interviews with celebrities, sports analysts and sports figures.
The program was originally carried by ESPN Radio and simulcast most recently on ESPNU until July 24, 2015 as a result of Cowherd's exit from the network. After Cowherd joined Fox Sports, The Herd moved to the Premiere Networks-distributed Fox Sports Radio network, airing from 12:00 to 3:00 p.m. ET. Its television simulcast also moved to FS1.[1] Fox Sports 1 airs a daily highlight show, The Best Thing I Herd, and YouTube also airs a weekly highlight show, The Best Thing I Herd This Week,[2] hosted by Kristine Leahy, or Joy Taylor.
Logo of the show when it was on ESPN
During its run on ESPN, Cowherd was joined by on-air by producers Vincent Kates, David Fisch and Tom Wassell. ESPN Radio SportsCenter updates during the show were performed by Dan Davis. On his March 5, 2010 show, Colin announced that Amanda Gifford would be leaving The Herd to become a "suit". Additionally, the show was cut back one hour, airing three hours, from 10:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m.
Contents
[hide]
1 Regular guests
2 Controversies
3 Guest hosts
4 Awards
5 References
6 External links
Regular guests[edit]
Current
Peter King
Greg Cosell
Jason Whitlock
Joel Klatt
Jay Glazer
Peter Schrager
Daniel Cormier
Jim Jackson
Champ Bailey
Eric Mangini
Chris Broussard
Nick Wright
Cris Carter
Former
Brian Billick
Trey Wingo and Mark Schlereth - "The Simultaneous Game" is on during the NFL season every Thursday.
Sal Paolantonio
Herman Edwards
RJ Bell - Every Friday During the NFL season, Colin does his "Blazin Five" in which he picks 5 games against the spread. RJ Bell is a guest at 12:45pm EST to give his Vegas insight on Colin's picks.
Trent Dilfer
Adam Schefter
Chris Mortensen
Stephen A. Smith - ESPN New York
Tedy Bruschi - ESPN Boston
Larry King
Joe Torre
Controversies[edit]
Eddie Guerrero's Death - In November 2005, Cowherd was criticized by former ESPN ombudsman, George Solomon for his treatment of the death of World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) wrestler Eddie Guerrero. Colin was quoted as saying "he passed away doing steroids", implying that Guerrero's death had been caused by steroid use. According to Dr. Kathryn Berg, the assistant chief medical examiner for Hennepin County in Minnesota, the autopsy showed that Guerrero died from a hardening and narrowing of the arteries that supply blood and oxygen to the heart.[3]
Using Un-attributed Material - In March 2006, Cowherd was criticized for using a joke on his show that was posted on the "M Zone", a University of Michigan fan blog without crediting it.[4] Cowherd later apologized on-air and gave the M Zone full credit for the material. The M Zone response: "He was very cool about everything. This incident is now resolved and over."
The Herd Knocks Blog Offline - On April 5, 2007, listeners of The Herd knocked The Big Lead blog site offline. Cowherd directed his listeners to access the web site home page simultaneously (emulating a denial of service attack), which resulted in a massive increase in traffic. The blog site's servers were not capable of handling so many users at one time so the site was knocked off-line for approximately 96 hours. ESPN's new Ombudsman, Le Anne Schreiber wrote an article sharing her (negative) opinion of Cowherd's actions. Schreiber contacted Traug Keller, a Senior Vice President at ESPN Radio, and Keller indicated that Cowherd would face no disciplinary action for the stunt, because there had been no policy against such a tactic at the time. To prevent this from happening again, Keller instituted a zero tolerance policy of such activities in the future.[5]
Sean Taylor's Murder - Cowherd was criticized for comments made regarding the circumstances surrounding Sean Taylor's death. On November 28, 2007, one day after Taylor's home invasion murder, Cowherd claimed that Taylor's past had brought this upon himself, and that Redskins fans who mourned him were not "grown ups." Cowherd stated about Taylor's turnaround; "Well, yeah, just because you clean the rug doesn't mean you got everything out. Sometimes you've got stains, stuff so deep it never ever leaves." Taylor's death was later found to be the result of a botched robbery, and the robbers hadn't known Taylor was home when they entered.[6]
Guest hosts[edit]
While on ESPN the regular fill-ins for Cowherd were Dave Rothenberg, Ryan Ruocco, Jorge Sedano, Linda Cohn, Adnan Virk, and Ryen Russillo. The fill-ins during his FOX tenure are Nick Wright, Cris Carter, Doug Gottlieb, and Jason Whitlock.
Awards[edit]
On December 19, 2005, Sports Illustrated named Cowherd "Radio Personality of the Year". Cowherd was lauded by columnist Richard Deitch for providing "an engaging mix of entertainment, information, and reportage.[7]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Colin Cowherd officially signs with Fox; how the network will use him". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Best Thing I Herd This Week – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ Solomon, George (December 27, 2005). "Radio aims to be provocative, fair". ESPN. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
Jump up ^ Solomon, George (April 6, 2006). "Vitale still signature face, voice of ESPN hoops". ESPN.com.
Jump up ^ Schreiber, Le Anne (April 8, 2007). "Cowherd's 'attack' on blog: 'Zero tolerance'". ESPN. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
Jump up ^ Schreiber, Le Anne (December 11, 2007). "Proportion, perspective missing ingredients in news coverage". ESPN. Retrieved 2007-12-13.
Jump up ^ Deitch, Richard (December 19, 2007). "2005 Media Awards". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Herd with Colin Cowherd
The Herd on Fox Sports Radio
The Herd on Fox Sports 1
The Herds Word
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Category talk:Birds by common name
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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WikiProject Birds
[hide](Rated Category-class)
BirdsWikipedia:WikiProject BirdsTemplate:WikiProject Birdsbird articles
Birds portal
v
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Birds by common name is part of WikiProject Birds, an attempt at creating a standardized, informative and easy-to-use ornithological resource. If you would like to participate, visit the project page, where you can join the discussion and see a list of open tasks. Please do not substitute this template.
Category This category does not require a rating on the project's quality scale.
[show]WikiProject Birds To-do:
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Here are some tasks awaiting attention:
Article requests : Sverri Patursson • Vogelwarte Radolfzell (more)
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Expand : List of terms used in bird topography • Nidicolous • Gouldian finch • Cathartes • Cnemophilidae • Avian malaria (more)
NPOV : Bird-safe • Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 • Bloedel Floral Conservatory (more)
Stubs : Phylloscopidae • Cnemophilidae • Sylviidae • Puffbird (more)
Update : Kauaʻi ʻakialoa • Ochthoeca • New Caledonian lorikeet • Operation Migration (more)
Verify : Michel Louette • Penduline tit • Jemima Parry-Jones • Clive Byers • Ixobrychus • Journal of Ornithology • Grosbeak • Paleornithology • Faroese Goose (more)
Wikify : Kingston parakeets • Key Habitat Site • Cantabrian capercaillie (more)
Other : Add photos to bird articles needing photos (search Flickr for free images). Add taxonomic authorities to genus articles.
More outstanding tasks at the cleanup listing on Labs, Category:Birds articles needing attention, and Wikipedia:WikiProject Birds#Tasklist.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category_talk:Birds_by_common_name&oldid=382993645"
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Figure skate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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American Athletic Figure skates
Figure skates are a type of ice skate used by figure skaters. The skates consist of a boot and a blade that is attached with screws to the sole of the boot. Inexpensive sets for recreational skaters are available, but most figure skaters purchase boots and blades separately and have the blades mounted by a professional skate technician.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Boots
3 Blades
3.1 Blade types
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
During the 19th century, new forms of ice skates were developed to allow for even more control and safer gliding. Specific figure skates were created in response to the rise of figure skating's popularity in the 19th century, coinciding with the beginnings of formalized competitions such as the World Figure Skating Championships. The name "figure" skating arises from the compulsory portion of the competition, dropped in the 1990s, requiring skaters to trace out precise figures on the ice, including perfect figure 8 circles.[1] Figure skates are now manufactured with extreme precision for use in competitive sports. Blades are specifically designed to include various types of toe picks that allow for skaters to reach new heights for jumps and spins, depending on the skater's level.[2]
Boots[edit]
Ice skating in Graz in 1909
Figure skating boots are traditionally made by hand from many layers of leather. The design of figure skating boots changed significantly during the 20th century. Old photographs of skaters such as Sonja Heine from the 1920s and 1930s show them wearing thin, supple boots reaching to mid-calf. Modern skating boots, on the other hand, are extremely rigid to support the foot and ankle in jumps, and are cut much lower—just over ankle height—to allow the foot to flex. Because the stiffness of the boots makes good fit essential, many skaters either order custom boots or have their boots "bumped out" over pressure points by a skate technician.
In recent[clarification needed] years, boots made of synthetic materials with heat-modifiable linings have become popular with many skaters because they combine strength with lighter weight than leather boots, and are easier to "break in." The latest development in boot technology is a boot that is hinged at the ankle to provide lateral support while allowing more flexibility. Boots used in ice dance are usually slightly lower in the back to allow for greater bend in the ankle. Some boots also come with a flexible elastic back.
The typical colors for boots are black for men and white for women, although other colors are available.
Blades[edit]
Close-up of a figure skating blade, showing the toe picks, the hollow (groove) on the bottom surface of the blade, and screw attachment to the boot.
Figure skates differ most visibly from hockey skates in having a set of large, jagged teeth called toe picks on the front of the blade. The toe picks are used primarily in jumping, footwork and spins and should not be used for stroking. Toe pick designs have become quite elaborate and sometimes include additional picks on the sides of the blade, often referred to as a k-pick.
The skate blades are typically made of tempered carbon steel, coated with a high-quality chrome. Lightweight aluminum and stainless steel blades are becoming more popular with skaters. Blades are about 3/16 inch (4 mm) thick and may have a slightly tapered cross-section. There are different blades for different levels of skaters which often correspond to a skater's age, size and skill level. Blades for advanced skaters often have larger toe picks and different curves than blades for beginner, intermediate and recreational levels.[3]
When viewed from the side, the blade of a figure skate is not flat, but curved slightly, forming an arc of a circle with a radius of 180-220 cm. This curvature is referred to as the rocker of the blade. The sweet spot of the blade is below the ball of the foot.[4] This spot is usually located near the stanchion of the blade, and is the part of the blade where all spins are spun on.
The blade is also hollow ground; a groove on the bottom of the blade that creates two distinct edges, inside and outside. In figure skating it is always desirable to skate on only one edge of the blade, never on both at the same time (which is referred to as a flat). The apparently effortless power and glide across the ice exhibited by elite figure skaters fundamentally derives from efficient use of the edges to generate speed.
Ice dancers' and synchronized skaters' blades are about an inch shorter in the rear than those used by skaters in other disciplines, to accommodate the intricate footwork and close partnering in dance. They also possess a smaller pick near the bottom to allow for better edge-work and less focus on jumping.
Blade types[edit]
Various specialty blade types exist, including:
Tapered figure skating blades have a design which causes them to be thicker at the front near the toepicks and thinner at the tail of the blade; therefore, the edges are not parallel.
Side honed figure skating blades have a concave design which causes them to be thicker at the stanchions and the edge stripe and thinner in between. They are easily recognizable because they cause reflections to be inverted.
Parabolic figure skating blades were first introduced by HD Sports[citation needed] in order to employ new scientific developments in the creation of figure skating blades. The middle section of parabolic blades is thinner than that of normal blades, while both ends are typically wider than those of regular blades.[5] This translates into less steel and a lighter blade overall. Their design is meant to improve skaters' blade stability, footwork, and edges.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Why Is Figure Skating Called "Figure Skating?". About.com.
Jump up ^ Formenti, F.; Minetti, A.E. (2007). "Human locomotion on ice: the evolution of ice-skating energetics through history". Journal of Experimental Biology. 210 (Pt 10): 1825–1833. doi:10.1242/jeb.002162. PMID 17488946.
Jump up ^ "Figure skating blades". Go Figure Skating.
Jump up ^ "Figure skating equipment". Olympic.org. Archived from the original on 2009-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Parabolic blades". Retrieved 2008-02-25.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Figure skates.
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Fission (biology)
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Fission, in biology, is the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts into separate entities resembling the original. The object experiencing fission is usually a cell, but the term may also refer to how organisms, bodies, populations, or species split into discrete parts.[1][2][3] The fission may be binary fission, in which a single entity produces two parts, or multiple fission, in which a single entity produces multiple parts.
Contents
[hide]
1 Binary fission
1.1 Fission of prokaryotes
1.1.1 Process of bacterial fission
1.1.2 Speed of bacterial fission
1.2 Fission of organelles
1.3 Types of Binary Fission
2 Multiple fission
2.1 Fission of protists
2.1.1 Fission of apicomplexans
2.1.2 Fission of green algae
2.2 Multiple fission of bacteria
3 Plasmotomy
4 Clonal fragmentation
5 Population fission
6 See also
7 References
Binary fission[edit]
Schematic diagram of cellular growth (elongation) and binary fission of bacilli. Blue and red lines indicate old and newly generated bacterial cell wall, respectively. (1) growth at the centre of the bacterial body. e.g. Bacillus subtilis, E. coli, and others. (2) apical growth. e.g. Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
Organisms in the domains of Archaea and Bacteria reproduce with binary fission. This form of asexual reproduction and cell division is also used by some organelles within eukaryotic organisms (e.g., mitochondria). Binary fission results in the reproduction of a living prokaryotic cell (or organelle) by dividing the cell into two parts, each with the potential to grow to the size of the original.
Fission of prokaryotes[edit]
The single DNA molecule first replicates, then attaches each copy to a different part of the cell membrane. When the cell begins to pull apart, the replicated and original chromosomes are separated. The consequence of this asexual method of reproduction is that all the cells are genetically identical, meaning that they have the same genetic material (barring random mutations). Unlike the process of mitosis used by eukaryotic cells, binary fission takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell. In binary fission the parental identity is lost.
Process of bacterial fission[edit]
Binary fission in a prokaryote
The process of binary fission in bacteria involves the following steps. First, the cell's DNA is replicated. The replicated DNA copies then move to opposite poles of the cell in an energy-dependent process.[4] The cell lengthens. Then, the equatorial plane of the cell constricts and separates the plasma membrane such that each new cell has exactly the same genetic material.
More specifically, the following steps occur:
The bacterium before binary fission is when the DNA is tightly coiled.
The DNA of the bacterium has uncoiled and duplicated.
The DNA is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting.
The growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium.
The new cell wall fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium.
The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods, ribosomes, and plasmids; these are now brand new organisms.
Speed of bacterial fission[edit]
Binary fission is generally rapid though its speed varies between species. For E. coli, cells typically divide about every 20 minutes at 37 °C.[5] Because the new cells will, in turn, undergo binary fission on their own, the time binary fission requires is also the time the bacterial culture requires to double in the number of cells it contains. This time period can, therefore, be referred to as the doubling time. Some species other than E. coli may have faster or slower doubling times: some strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis may have doubling times of nearly 100 hours.[6] Bacterial growth is limited by factors including nutrient availability and available space, so binary fission occurs at much lower rates in bacterial cultures once they enter the stationary phase of growth.
Fission of organelles[edit]
Some organelles in eukaryotic cells reproduce using binary fission. Mitochondrial fission occurs frequently within the cell, even when the cell is not actively undergoing mitosis, and is necessary to regulate the cell's metabolism.[7]
Types of Binary Fission[edit]
Binary fission in organisms can occur in four ways, irregular,longitudinal, transverse, oblique.
Irregular: In this fission, cytokinesis may take place along any plane but it is always perpendicular to the plane of karyokinesis. e.g. amoeba
Longitudinal: Here cytokinesis takes place along the longitudinal axis. e.g. in flagellates like Euglena.
Transverse: Here cytokinesis takes place along the transverse axis. e.g. in ciliate protzoans like paramecium.
Oblique: In this type of binary fission cytokinesis occurs obliquely. e.g. ceratium
Multiple fission[edit]
Fission of protists[edit]
Multiple fission at the cellular level occurs in many protists, e.g. sporozoans and algae. The nucleus of the parent cell divides several times by amitosis, producing several nuclei. The cytoplasm then separates, creating multiple daughter cells.[8][9][10]
Some parasitic, single-celled organisms undergo a multiple fission-like process to produce numerous daughter cells from a single parent cell. Isolates of the human parasite Blastocystis hominis were observed to begin such a process within 4 to 6 days.[11] Cells of the fish parasite Trypanoplasma borreli have also been observed participating in both binary and multiple fission.[12]
Fission of apicomplexans[edit]
In the apicomplexans, a phylum of parasitic protists, multiple fission, or schizogony, is manifested either as merogony, sporogony or gametogony. Merogony results in merozoites, which are multiple daughter cells, that originate within the same cell membrane,[13][14] sporogony results in sporozoites, and gametogony results in microgametes.
Fission of green algae[edit]
Green algae can divide into more than two daughter cells. The exact number of daughter cells depends on the species of algae and is an effect of temperature and light.[15]
Multiple fission of bacteria[edit]
Most species of bacteria primarily undergo binary reproduction. Some species and groups of bacteria may undergo multiple fission as well, sometimes beginning or ending with the production of spores.[16] The species Metabacterium polyspora, a symbiont of guinea pigs, has been found to produce multiple endospores in each division.[17] Some species of cyanobacteria have also been found to reproduce through multiple fission.[18]
Plasmotomy[edit]
Some protozoans reproduce by yet another mechanism of fission called as plasmotomy. In this type of fission, a multinucleate adult parent undergoes cytokinesis to form two multinucleate( or coenocytic) daughter cells. The daughter cells so produced undergo karyokinesis, further.
Such a type of reproduction is shown by opalina and pelomyxa.
Clonal fragmentation[edit]
Main article: Fragmentation (reproduction)
Fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning where an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism. In echinoderms, this method of reproduction is usually known as fissiparity.[19]
Population fission[edit]
Any splitting of a single population of individuals into discrete parts may be considered fission. A population may undergo fission for a variety of reasons, including migration or geographic isolation. Because the fission leads to genetic variance in the newly isolated, smaller populations, population fission is a precursor to speciation.[20][21]
See also[edit]
Cytokinesis, cell division in eukaryotes
Divisome (protein complex that initiates cell division in bacteria)
Fission-fusion society, a type of social organization that is notable among primates
Paratomy
Speciation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Carlson, B. M. (2007). Principals of regenerative biology. Elsevier Academic Press. p. 379. ISBN 0-12-369439-6.
Jump up ^ Boulay, R. L.; Galarza, J. A.; Che, B.; Hefetz, A.; Lenoir, A.; van Oudenhove, L.; Cerda, X. (2010). "Intrafotmobcompetition affects population size and resource allocation in an ant dispersing by colony fission". Ecology. 91 (11): 3312–3321. doi:10.1890/09-1520.1.
Jump up ^ Hubbell, S. (2003). "Modes of speciation and the lifespans of species under neutrality: a response to the comment of Robert E. Ricklefs". Oikos. 100 (1): 193–199. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12450.x.
Jump up ^ Rokney, Assaf; Shagan, Merav; Kessel, Martin; Smith, Yoav; Rosenshine, Ilan; Oppenheim, Amos B. (September 2009). "E. coli Transports Aggregated Proteins to the Poles by a Specific and Energy-Dependent Process". Journal of Molecular Biology. 392 (3): 589–601. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2009.07.009. PMID 19596340.
Jump up ^ Sezonov, G.; Joseleau-Petit, D.; D'Ari, R. (28 September 2007). "Escherichia coli (E coli) Physiology in Luria-Bertani Broth". Journal of Bacteriology. 189 (23): 8746–8749. doi:10.1128/JB.01368-07.
Jump up ^ North, R. J. (1 June 1993). "Mycobacterial virulence. Virulent strains of Mycobacteria tuberculosis have faster in vivo doubling times and are better equipped to resist growth-inhibiting functions of macrophages in the presence and absence of specific immunity". Journal of Experimental Medicine. 177 (6): 1723–1733. doi:10.1084/jem.177.6.1723.
Jump up ^ van der Bliek, A. M.; Shen, Q.; Kawajiri, S. (3 June 2013). "Mechanisms of Mitochondrial Fission and Fusion". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 5 (6): a011072–a011072. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a011072.
Jump up ^ "Cell reproduction". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Britannica Educational Publishing (2011). Fungi, Algae, and Protists. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-61530-463-9. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ P.Puranik, Asha Bhate (2007). Animal Forms And Functions: Invertebrata. Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-791-6. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ Suresh, K.; Howe, J.; Ng, G. C.; Ho, L. C.; Ramachandran, N. P.; Loh, A. K.; Yap, E. H.; Singh, M. (1994). "A multiple fission-like mode of asexual reproduction inBlastocystis hominis". Parasitology Research. 80 (6): 523–527. doi:10.1007/BF00932701.
Jump up ^ Pecková, H.; Lom, J. (1990). "Growth, morphology and division of flagellates of the genusTrypanoplasma (Protozoa, Kinetoplastida) in vitro". Parasitology Research. 76 (7): 553–558. doi:10.1007/BF00932559.
Jump up ^ Lynn Margulis; Heather I. McKhann; Lorraine Olendzenski (1993). Illustrated glossary of protoctista: vocabulary of the algae, apicomplexa, ciliates, foraminifera, microspora, water molds, slime molds, and the other protoctists. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-86720-081-2. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ Yoshinori Tanada; Harry K. Kaya (1993). Insect pathology. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-12-683255-6. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ Bišová, K.; Zachleder, V. (17 January 2014). "Cell-cycle regulation in green algae dividing by multiple fission" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Botany. 65 (10): 2585–2602. doi:10.1093/jxb/ert466. PMID 24441762. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Angert, Esther R. (March 2005). "Alternatives to binary fission in bacteria" (PDF). Nature Reviews Microbiology. 3 (3): 214–224. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096. PMID 15738949. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Angert, E. R.; Losick, R. M. (18 August 1998). "Propagation by sporulation in the guinea pig symbiont Metabacterium polyspora". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (17): 10218–10223. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.17.10218.
Jump up ^ Stanier, Roger Y.; Deruelles, Josette; Rippka, Rosmarie; Herdman, Michael; Waterbury, John B. (1 March 1979). "Generic Assignments, Strain Histories and Properties of Pure Cultures of Cyanobacteria". Microbiology. 111 (1): 1–61. doi:10.1099/00221287-111-1-1.
Jump up ^ Helen Nilsson Sköld; Matthias Obst; Mattias Sköld; Bertil Åkesson (2009). "Stem Cells in Asexual Reproduction of Marine Invertebrates". In Baruch Rinkevich; Valeria Matranga. Stem Cells in Marine Organisms. Springer. p. 125. ISBN 978-90-481-2766-5. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
Jump up ^ Whitlock, Michael C. (May 1994). "Fission and the Genetic Variance Among Populations: The Changing Demorgraphy of Forked Fungus Beetle Populations". The American Naturalist. 143 (5): 820–829. doi:10.1086/285634. JSTOR 2462878.
Jump up ^ Thompson, EA (October 1979). "Fission models of population variability". Genetics. 93 (2): 479–95. PMC 1214094  . PMID 535728.
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interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: פליגה – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ht
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ku
display: none;

values: Проста делба – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values: ਦਵਿਖੰਡਨ (ਜੀਵ ਵਿਗੀਆਨ) – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Деление прокариотических клеток – Russian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Fission_biology rootpage-Fission_biology skin-vector action-view