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Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale
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Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale
Theatrical release poster
Japanese
劇場版 ソードアート・オンライン -オーディナル・スケール-
Hepburn
Gekijō-ban Sōdo Āto Onrain -Ōdinaru Sukēru-
Directed by
Tomohiko Itō
Screenplay by
Reki Kawahara
Tomohiko Itō
Based on
Sword Art Online
by Reki Kawahara
Starring
Yoshitsugu Matsuoka
Haruka Tomatsu
Ayana Taketatsu
Kanae Itō
Rina Hidaka
Ayahi Takagaki
Miyuki Sawashiro
Hiroaki Hirata
Hiroki Yasumoto
Kōichi Yamadera
Sayaka Kanda
Yoshio Inoue
Takeshi Kaga
Music by
Yuki Kajiura
Cinematography
Kentarō Waki
Edited by
Shigeru Nishiyama
Production
company
A-1 Pictures
Kadokawa Pictures
ASCII Media Works
Genco
Distributed by
Aniplex
Release date
February 18, 2017 (2017-02-18)
Running time
119 minutes[1]
Country
Japan
Language
Japanese
Box office
¥4.3 billion[2]
Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale (Japanese: 劇場版 ソードアート・オンライン -オーディナル・スケール-, Hepburn: Gekijō-ban Sōdo Āto Onrain -Ōdinaru Sukēru-) is a 2017 Japanese animated fantasy adventure film based on the Sword Art Online light novel series written by Reki Kawahara and illustrated by abec. The film is produced by A-1 Pictures and directed by Tomohiko Itō, featuring an original story by Kawahara, character designs by Shingo Adachi and music by Yuki Kajiura. It was released in Japan, Southeast Asia, and Germany on February 18, 2017, in Mexico on March 4, 2017, and in the United States on March 9, 2017.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Voice cast
3 Production
4 Release
5 Reception
5.1 Box office
5.2 Critical response
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
In the year 2026, the Augma is released to the public as an alternative system to the AmuSphere, due to its function to simulate reality while the player is conscious rather than using FullDive. The most prominent combat-based game is Ordinal Scale, in which a player's abilities are ranked by ordinal numbers.
Asuna, Lisbeth and Silica encourage Kirito to play OS upon hearing that Aincrad bosses have appeared. Kirito joins Asuna and Klein in a boss fight where the game's mascot, AI idol singer Yuna, appears and gives players buff effects as she sings. Kirito fails to achieve anything due to lack of physical strength and quickness. Eiji, the number-two player, aides the group in defeating the boss. Before Asuna makes the killing blow, Eiji whispers the word "Switch," a game mechanic from SAO that she recognizes.
The next night, Asuna joins Klein and his group for another boss fight while waiting for their last group member, unaware that he was injured by Eiji the night before. Asuna proceeds to the fight which is again presided over by Yuna. Klein and his group are ambushed and defeated by the sudden appearance of another boss and Eiji. The following morning, as Kirito practices with OS in a park, a girl in a white hood appears and points off into the distance before disappearing. Kirito meets with Asuna, who theorizes that Eiji was a member of the Knights of the Blood Oath named Nautilus, while Yui deduces that the spawn locations of the Aincrad bosses line up with the SAO dungeon maps.
Asuna, Lisbeth and Silica enter another fight where Yuna and Eiji appear again. Asuna is hit by the boss and passes out upon saving Silica who was pushed into the boss' path by Eiji. Asuna realizes her memories of SAO are fading and at a hospital visit with Kirito, learn that the Augma scanned her brain for SAO memories and that it could also happen to other SAO survivors playing OS. Kirito investigates the issue with Sinon during a boss battle, where an SAO player is defeated and a glowing orb floats upward into an OS drone. Yui fails to retrieve it after being locked out by the game. Later, Kirito meets the hooded girl again who repeats her actions from before. Kirito and Yui discover she is pointing towards Touto Technical University.
Kirito goes to the school and meets Professor Tetsuhiro Shigemura who developed Augma, but Shigemura refuses to answer any questions. Before leaving, Kirito notices on Shigemura's desk a picture of a girl who resembles Yuna. Kirito discusses with Kikuoka Seijirou, who informs him that Shigemura's daughter, Yuna, died in SAO. Visiting Asuna's home, Kirito promises Asuna to get her memories back. Kirito encounters the hooded girl again, revealed to be Yuna. When she tells him his rank is too low, Kirito decides to level up, solo-killing as many bosses as he can with aid from Sinon and Leafa.
Days later, the OS players gather at a stadium for Yuna's concert. In the lower levels, Kirito duels with Eiji who claims he has a way to return Asuna's memories. Kirito wins but Eiji reveals that Shigemura has been harvesting memories of SAO players in an attempt to reconstruct his lost daughter's soul and download her as an AI; having all players in the concert would make removing memories easier. Eiji adds that the drones used for harvesting possess enough power to damage the players' brains, killing them like the NerveGear did in SAO.
As a horde of Aincrad bosses raid the arena, Kirito and Yuna join the battle. Yuna tells Kirito that the Augma has a hidden full-dive feature and he can use it to defeat SAO's 100th floor boss to end the battle. Before diving, Kirito gives Asuna an engagement ring. Entering the Ruby Palace of Floor 100, Kirito, Lisbeth, Silica, Agil, and Sinon confront the boss. They are easily defeated until Asuna, Leafa, Klein, and several others from ALO and GGO come to their aid. Yui restores their saved abilities from SAO, allowing everyone to defeat the boss. The voice of Akihiko Kayaba congratulates them on their victory and gives Kirito an extremely powerful sword as a reward.
The group returns to the arena still in full-dive where Kirito, now OS's top-ranked player, dispatches the bosses with his new sword as Kikuoka finds Shigemura in the server room of Argus (the defunct company that ran SAO) and arrests him. The hooded Yuna restores the survivors' memories and fades out of existence since she was coded from the Floor 100 boss. Afterwards, Kirito and Asuna fulfill their promise they made to each other in Aincrad, to watch a meteor shower together. Asuna returns Kirito's engagement ring so to properly put it on her hand, which he does.
In a post-credits scene, Kikuoka, who was impressed with Shigemura's attempt at AI and soul reconstruction, recruits Shigemura to Rath.
Voice cast[edit]
Character
Japanese[3]
English[4]
Kirito / Kazuto Kirigaya Yoshitsugu Matsuoka Bryce Papenbrook
Asuna / Asuna Yuuki Haruka Tomatsu Cherami Leigh
Leafa / Suguha Kirigaya Ayana Taketatsu Cassandra Morris
Yui Kanae Itō Stephanie Sheh
Silica / Keiko Ayano Rina Hidaka Christine Marie Cabanos
Lisbeth / Rika Shinozaki Ayahi Takagaki Sarah Anne Williams
Sinon / Shino Asada Miyuki Sawashiro Michelle Ruff
Klein / Ryōtarō Tsuboi Hiroaki Hirata Kirk Thornton
Agil / Andrew Gilbert Mills Hiroki Yasumoto Patrick Seitz
Akihiko Kayaba Kōichi Yamadera Marc Diraison
Yuna Sayaka Kanda Ryan Bartley
Eiji Yoshio Inoue Chris Patton
Dr. Shigemura Takeshi Kaga Jamieson Price
Production[edit]
At the Dengeki Bunko Autumn Festival 2015 on October 4, 2015, it was announced that the light novel series would be adapted into an animated film, with the main staff returning from the anime series.[5][6] The film takes place after the anime series' second season, Sword Art Online II.[7] It was then revealed at the Dengeki Bunko Haru no Saiten 2016 event on March 13, 2016 that the film is titled Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale.[8] The voice cast from the anime series returned to reprise their roles in the film.[3][9][10]
The film's soundtrack is composed by Yuki Kajiura, who also composed the music for the anime series. The soundtrack features 50 tracks, including 5 insert songs performed by Sayaka Kanda. It was released by Aniplex on February 22, 2017.[11] LiSA performed the film's theme song, titled "Catch the Moment".[12] Sayaka Kanda perfroms five songs as Yuna: "Ubiquitous dB", "Longing", "Delete", "Break Beat Bark!" and "Smile For You".
Release[edit]
The film premiered in Japan, Southeast Asia and Germany on February 18, 2017. The Asian premieres were distributed by Aniplex and Odex, respectively.[13][14][15] There was a premiere event in the United States on March 1, 2017; Eleven Arts distributed and released the film in U.S. theaters on March 9, 2017.[16] Madman Entertainment also released the film at theaters in Australia and New Zealand on March 9, 2017.[17] Aniplex of America released the film at theaters in Canada between March 17 and March 19, 2017.[18] The English dub premiered at Anime Boston 2017, with a national release on April 22.[19][20] Anime Limited brought the film to cinemas in the United Kingdom and Ireland on April 19, 2017.[21][22] The film was set to play in about 1,000 theaters worldwide.[23]
A few days after the world premiere, a leak of the film was found online, tracing the source back to Malaysia and Singapore.[24][25]
The Blu-ray and DVD home video release volumes of Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale were released in Japan on September 27, 2017 and are scheduled for release in North America on December 19, 2017.[26] The Japanese home video release features a sequel novel titled Sword Art Online: Cordial Code written by Kawahara and illustrated by abec, set eight days after the events of Ordinal Scale.[27]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
The film on its opening weekend opened at No. 1 at the Japanese box office, debuting in 151 theaters across Japan and grossed a total of ¥425 million from 308,376 admissions.[28][29] As of October 1, 2017, the film has grossed a total of over ¥4.3 billion.[2] It grossed over US$1.35 million in its first weekend in North America.[30] During its first day in Italy, the film beat out both Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales and Wonder Woman at the box office.[31] It has grossed CN¥43 million in China.[32]
Critical response[edit]
Alex Osborn of IGN posted a score of 7.5/10 and stated: "It's not a visual stunner, but Ordinal Scale serves up a solid original story that will help tide over those who are hungry for more SAO while they wait for a third season". The second review came from Cine Premier's Julio Vélez who scored it a 4.5/5 and stated: "The second act falls a little in action by focusing more on defining the motives of the antagonists, but everything recovers in an exciting and prolonged climax".[33] In a review featured on the anime streaming website Crunchyroll, Isaac Akers states "SAO being SAO, this was never going to be a perfectly crafted movie—but it captures so many of the charms of the franchise whilst also avoiding nearly all of its most aggravating faults."[34]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ 劇場版　ソードアート・オンライン　―オーディナル･スケール― (2017). allcinema (in Japanese). Stingray. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sword Art Online: Ordinal Scale Film Earns 4.3 Billion Yen Worldwide". Anime News Network. October 1, 2017. Retrieved October 1, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b
"Sword Art Online the Movie: Ordinal Scale Film Unveils New Cast, Visual". Anime News Network. March 28, 2016. Retrieved March 28, 2016.
Green, Scott (July 3, 2016). ""Sword Art Online" Movie Visual And Promo Published". Crunchyroll. Retrieved July 3, 2016.
"Sword Art Online Ordinal Scale Anime Film Casts Sayaka Kanda". Anime News Network. December 6, 2016. Retrieved December 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online: Ordinal Scale English Dub Screenings Begin April 22 in U.S.". Anime News Network. March 14, 2017. Retrieved March 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online Anime Film Project Revealed". Anime News Network. October 4, 2015. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ Chapman, Paul (October 4, 2015). "VIDEO: "Sword Art Online" Movie Announced with Teaser Trailer". Crunchyroll. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online Film Takes Place After Mother's Rosario Arc". Anime News Network. October 31, 2015. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online Ordinal Scale Film to Open in 2017 (Updated)". Anime News Network. March 13, 2016. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Aniplex USA Streams Sword Art Online the Movie: Ordinal Scale's English Trailer". Anime News Network. March 13, 2016. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ Green, Scott (March 13, 2016). "English "Sword Art Online The Movie -Ordinal Scale-" Trailer Presented". Crunchyroll. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online the Movie's 3rd Teaser Introduces Cast, Previews LiSA's Theme Song". Anime News Network. December 24, 2016. Retrieved December 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "LiSA Performs Theme Song For Sword Art Online Ordinal Scale Film". Anime News Network. November 27, 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online Movie's New Trailer Reveals Spring 2017 Opening". Anime News Network. July 3, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online Movie's February 18 Date Confirmed in Japan". Anime News Network. October 2, 2016. Retrieved October 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online the Movie: Ordinal Scale Opens in Southeast Asia on February 18". Anime News Network. December 13, 2016. Retrieved December 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online Ordinal Scale Film Opens in U.S. on March 9". Anime News Network. December 6, 2016. Retrieved December 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ Browne, Tessa (December 20, 2016). "Sword Art Online: Ordinal Scale Australian premiere set for Madman Anime Festival Perth in March!". Madman Entertainment. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online: Ordinal Scale Film's Canadian Screenings Begin on March 17". Anime News Network. February 10, 2017. Retrieved February 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Aniplex of America Presents: SAO The Movie -Ordinal Scale- Eng Dub Premiere!". Anime Boston. March 10, 2017. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Aniplex USA". Facebook. March 10, 2017. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Newswire #98 - 19th Jan 2017 - All the Anime". Anime Limited. January 20, 2017. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Anime Limited and Funimation Updates". Anime News Network. February 19, 2017. Retrieved February 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online Film to Play in About 1,000 Theaters Worldwide". Anime News Network. Retrieved February 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ "ODEX Copyright Notice". Odex. February 23, 2017. Retrieved February 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Odex Receives 'Notice From Japan' About Sword Art Online Film Leaks in Singapore, Malaysia". Anime News Network. February 24, 2017. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Green, Scott (August 12, 2017). "Aniplex Of America Outlines Plans For "Anohana," "Monogatari" And "Sword Art Online" Blu-rays". Crunchyroll. Retrieved August 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Komatsu, Mikikazu (August 4, 2017). ""Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale" DVD/Blu-ray Comes with Sequel Novel". Crunchyroll. Retrieved August 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online: Ordinal Scale Film Tops Japanese Weekend Box Office". Anime News Network. February 20, 2017. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online: Ordinal Scale Film Sells 308,376 Tickets for 426 Million Yen at #1". Anime News Network. February 20, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online Film Earns Over US$1.35 Million After 1st N. American Weekend". Anime News Network. March 18, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ ""Sword Art Online - Ordinal Scale" Beats "Pirates of the the Caribbean" In Italian Box Office". Crunchyroll. June 14, 2017. Retrieved June 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "刀剑神域：序列之争（2017）". Cbooo (in Chinese). Retrieved September 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved June 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "FEATURE: "Sword Art Online: Ordinal Scale" Review". Crunchyroll. Retrieved March 20, 2017.
External links[edit]
Official website
Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale (anime) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia
Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale on IMDb
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Neuropsychology is the study of the structure and function of the brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviours.[1] It is an experimental field of psychology that aims to understand how behavior and cognition are influenced by brain functioning and is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and cognitive effects of neurological disorders. Whereas classical neurology focuses on the physiology of the nervous system and classical psychology is largely divorced from it, neuropsychology seeks to discover how the brain correlates with the mind. It thus shares concepts and concerns with neuropsychiatry and with behavioral neurology in general. The term neuropsychology has been applied to lesion studies in humans and animals. It has also been applied to efforts to record electrical activity from individual cells (or groups of cells) in higher primates (including some studies of human patients).[2] It makes use of neuroscience, and shares an information processing view of the mind with cognitive psychology and cognitive science.
In practice, neuropsychologists tend to work in research settings (universities, laboratories or research institutions), clinical settings (medical hospitals or rehabilitation settings, often involved in assessing or treating patients with neuropsychological problems), or forensic settings or industry (often as clinical-trial consultants where CNS function is a concern).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Imhotep
1.2 Hippocrates
1.3 René Descartes
1.4 Thomas Willis
1.5 Franz Joseph Gall
1.6 Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud
1.7 Paul Broca
1.8 Karl Spencer Lashley
2 Approaches
3 Methods and tools
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Neuropsychology is a relatively new discipline within the field of psychology. The first textbook defining the field Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology was initially published by Kolb and Whishaw in 1980.[3] However, the history of its development can be traced back to the Third Dynasty in ancient Egypt, perhaps even earlier.[4] There is much debate as to when societies started considering the functions of different organs. For many centuries, the brain was thought useless and was often discarded during burial processes and autopsies. As the field of medicine developed its understanding of human anatomy and physiology, different theories were developed as to why the body functioned the way it did. Many times, bodily functions were approached from a religious point of view and abnormalities were blamed on bad spirits and the gods. The brain has not always been considered the center of the functioning body. It has taken hundreds of years to develop our understanding of the brain and how it affects our behaviors.
Imhotep[edit]
The study of the brain can be linked all the way back to around 3500 B.C. Imhotep, a highly regarded priest and one of the first physicians recorded in history, can be seen as one of the major pioneers in the history of understanding the brain[citation needed]. Imhotep took a more scientific, rather than magical, approach to medicine and disease.[citation needed] His writings contain intricate information on different forms of trauma, abnormalities, and remedies of the time to serve as reference to future physicians, as well as a very detailed account of the brain and the rest of the body.[citation needed] Despite this detailed information, Egyptians did not see the brain as the seat of the locus of control, nor as a glorious or noteworthy organ within the body at all.[citation needed] Egyptians preferred to look at the heart as the 'seat of the soul'.[citation needed]
Hippocrates[edit]
The Greeks, however, looked upon the brain as the seat of the soul. Hippocrates drew a connection between the brain and behaviors of the body saying "The brain exercises the greatest power in the man".[5] Apart from moving the focus from the heart as the "seat of the soul" to the brain, Hippocrates did not go into much detail about its actual functioning. However, by switching the attention of the medical community to the brain, the doors were opened to a more scientific discovery of the organ responsible for our behaviors. For years to come, scientists were inspired to explore the functions of the body and to find concrete explanations for both normal and abnormal behaviors. Scientific discovery led them to believe that there were natural and organically occurring reasons to explain various functions of the body, and it could all be traced back to the brain. Over the years, science would continue to expand and the mysteries of the world would begin to make sense, or at least be looked at in a different way. Hippocrates introduced man to the concept of the mind – which was widely seen as a separate function apart from the actual brain organ.
René Descartes[edit]
Philosopher René Descartes expanded upon this idea and is most widely known by his work on the mind-body problem. Often, Descartes' ideas were looked upon as overly philosophical and lacking in sufficient scientific background. Descartes focused much of his anatomical experimentation on the brain, paying specific attention to the pineal gland – which he argued was the actual "seat of the soul". Still deeply rooted in a spiritual outlook towards the scientific world, the body was said to be mortal, and the soul immortal. The pineal gland was then thought to be the very place at which the mind would interact with the mortal and machine-like body. At the time, Descartes was convinced the mind had control over the behaviors of the body (controlling the man) – but also that the body could have influence over the mind, which is referred to as dualism.[6] This idea that the mind essentially had control over the body, but man's body could resist or even influence other behaviors was a major turning point in the way many physiologists would look at the brain. The capabilities of the mind were observed to do much more than simply react, but also to be rational and function in organized, thoughtful ways – much more complex than he thought the animal world to be. These ideas, although disregarded by many and cast aside for years led the medical community to expand their own ideas of the brain and begin to understand in new ways just how intricate the workings of the brain really were, and the complete effects it had on daily life, as well, which treatments would be the most beneficial to helping those people living with a dysfunctional mind. The mind-body problem, spurred by René Descartes, continues to this day with many philosophical arguments both for and against his ideas. However controversial they were and remain today, the fresh and well-thought-out perspective Descartes presented has had long-lasting effects on the various disciplines of medicine, psychology and much more, especially in putting an emphasis on separating the mind from the body in order to explain observable behaviors.
Thomas Willis[edit]
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Thomas Willis
It was in the mid-17th century that another major contributor to the field of neuropsychology emerged. Thomas Willis studied at Oxford University and took a physiological approach to the brain and behavior. It was Willis who coined the words 'hemisphere' and 'lobe' when referring to the brain. He was one of the earliest to use the words 'neurology' and 'psychology'. Rejecting the idea that humans were the only beings capable of rational thought, Willis looked at specialized structures of the brain. He theorized that higher structures accounted for complex functions, whereas lower structures were responsible for functions similar to those seen in other animals, consisting mostly of reactions and automatic responses. He was particularly interested in people who suffered from manic disorders and hysteria. His research constituted some of the first times that psychiatry and neurology came together to study individuals. Through his in-depth study of the brain and behavior, Willis concluded that automated responses such as breathing, heartbeats and other various motor activities were carried out within the lower region of the brain. Although much of his work has been made obsolete, his ideas presented the brain as more complex than previously imagined, and led the way for future pioneers to understand and build upon his theories, especially when it came to looking at disorders and dysfunctions of the brain.
Franz Joseph Gall[edit]
Neuroanatomist and physiologist Franz Joseph Gall made major progress in understanding the brain. He theorized that personality was directly related to features and structures within the brain. However, Gall's major contribution within the field of neuroscience is his invention of phrenology. This new discipline looked at the brain as an organ of the mind, where the shape of the skull could ultimately determine one's intelligence and personality.[7] This theory was like many circulating at the time, as many scientists were taking into account physical features of the face and body, head size, anatomical structure, and levels of intelligence; only Gall looked primarily at the brain. There was much debate over the validity of Gall's claims however, because he was often found to be wrong in his predictions. He was once sent a cast of René Descartes' skull, and through his method of phrenology claimed the subject must have had a limited capacity for reasoning and higher cognition.[8] As controversial and false as many of Gall's claims were, his contributions to understanding cortical regions of the brain and localized activity continued to advance understanding of the brain, personality, and behavior. His work is considered crucial to having laid a firm foundation in the field of neuropsychology, which would flourish over the next few decades.
Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud[edit]
Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud
Towards the late 19th century, the belief that the size of ones skull could determine their level of intelligence was discarded as science and medicine moved forward. A physician by the name of Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud expanded upon the ideas of Gall and took a closer look at the idea of distinct cortical regions of the brain each having their own independent function. Bouillaud was specifically interested in speech and wrote many publications on the anterior region of the brain being responsible for carrying out the act of ones speech, a discovery that had stemmed from the research of Gall. He was also one of the first to use larger samples for research although it took many years for that method to be accepted. By looking at over a hundred different case studies, Bouillaud came to discover that it was through different areas of the brain that speech is completed and understood. By observing people with brain damage, his theory was made more concrete. Bouillaud, along with many other pioneers of the time made great advances within the field of neurology, especially when it came to localization of function. There are many arguable debates as to who deserves the most credit for such discoveries,[9] and often, people remain unmentioned, but Paul Broca is perhaps one of the most famous and well known contributors to neuropsychology – often referred to as "the father" of the discipline.
Paul Broca[edit]
Inspired by the advances being made in the area of localized function within the brain, Paul Broca committed much of his study to the phenomena of how speech is understood and produced. Through his study, it was discovered and expanded upon that we articulate via the left hemisphere. Broca's observations and methods are widely considered to be where neuropsychology really takes form as a recognizable and respected discipline. Armed with the understanding that specific, independent areas of the brain are responsible for articulation and understanding of speech, the brains abilities were finally being acknowledged as the complex and highly intricate organ that it is. Broca was essentially the first to fully break away from the ideas of phrenology and delve deeper into a more scientific and psychological view of the brain.[10]
Karl Spencer Lashley[edit]
Karl Lashley (1890–1958) attended West Virginia University, where he was introduced to zoology and eventually decided to study the behavior of organisms. He got his master's degree in Bacteriology from the University of Pittsburgh, and then his PhD in Genetics from Johns Hopkins University where he minored in psychology under John B. Watson, whom he continued to work closely with after receiving his PhD. It was during this time that Lashley worked with Franz and was introduced to his training/ablation method. Lashley worked at the University of Minnesota for a time and then at the Institute for Juvenile Research in Chicago before becoming a professor at the University of Chicago. After this he went to Harvard, but was dissatisfied and from there became the director of the Yerkes Laboratory of Primate Biology in Orange Park, Florida. Lashley has always been viewed as an objective scientist, but Nadine Weidman has tried to expose him as a racist and a genetic determinist. But Donald Dewsbury and others, have disputed the claim that he was a genetic determinist, citing research of Lashley's in which he found evidence of both genetic and environmental influences on organisms. Dewsbury does admit however, that Lashley was quite racist. He cites a line from a letter that Lashley wrote to a German colleague which reads: "Too bad that the beautiful tropical countries are all populated by negros. Heil Hitler and Apartheit!"[11] This line alone would leave little debate on this matter, but he cites others as well. Despite his racism, Lashley has done some important work in neuropsychology and influenced his students to reach even greater heights. His works and theories that follow are summarized in his book Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence.[12] Lashley's theory of the Engram was the driving force for much of his research. An engram was believed to be a part of the brain where a specific memory was stored. He continued to use the training/ablation method that Franz had taught him. He would train a rat to learn a maze and then use systematic lesions and removed sections of cortical tissue to see if the rat forgot what it had learned. Through his research with the rats, he learned that forgetting was dependent on the amount of tissue removed and not where it was removed from. He called this mass action and he believed that it was a general rule that governed how brain tissue would respond, independent of the type of learning. But we know now that mass action was true for these rats, because learning to run a maze is known as complex learning and it requires multiple cortical areas, so cutting into individual parts alone will not erase the memory from the rats' brains, but taking large sections removes multiple cortical areas at one time and so they can forget. Lashley also discovered that a portion of a functional area could carry out the role of the entire area, even when the rest of the area has been removed. He called this phenomenon equipotentiality. We know now that he was seeing evidence of plasticity in the brain. The brain has the spectacular ability for certain areas to take over the functions of other areas if those areas should fail or be removed.
Approaches[edit]
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Experimental neuropsychology is an approach that uses methods from experimental psychology to uncover the relationship between the nervous system and cognitive function. The majority of work involves studying healthy humans in a laboratory setting, although a minority of researchers may conduct animal experiments. Human work in this area often takes advantage of specific features of our nervous system (for example that visual information presented to a specific visual field is preferentially processed by the cortical hemisphere on the opposite side) to make links between neuroanatomy and psychological function.
Clinical neuropsychology is the application of neuropsychological knowledge to the assessment (see neuropsychological test and neuropsychological assessment), management, and rehabilitation of people who have suffered illness or injury (particularly to the brain) which has caused neurocognitive problems. In particular they bring a psychological viewpoint to treatment, to understand how such illness and injury may affect and be affected by psychological factors. They also can offer an opinion as to whether a person is demonstrating difficulties due to brain pathology or as a consequence of an emotional or another (potentially) reversible cause or both. For example, a test might show that both patients X and Y are unable to name items that they have been previously exposed to within the past 20 minutes (indicating possible dementia). If patient Y can name some of them with further prompting (e.g. given a categorical clue such as being told that the item they could not name is a fruit), this allows a more specific diagnosis than simply dementia (Y appears to have the vascular type which is due to brain pathology but is usually at least somewhat reversible). Clinical neuropsychologists often work in hospital settings in an interdisciplinary medical team; others work in private practice and may provide expert input into medico-legal proceedings.
Cognitive neuropsychology is a relatively new development and has emerged as a distillation of the complementary approaches of both experimental and clinical neuropsychology. It seeks to understand the mind and brain by studying people who have suffered brain injury or neurological illness. One model of neuropsychological functioning is known as functional localization. This is based on the principle that if a specific cognitive problem can be found after an injury to a specific area of the brain, it is possible that this part of the brain is in some way involved. However, there may be reason to believe that the link between mental functions and neural regions is not so simple. An alternative model of the link between mind and brain, such as parallel processing, may have more explanatory power for the workings and dysfunction of the human brain. Yet another approach investigates how the pattern of errors produced by brain-damaged individuals can constrain our understanding of mental representations and processes without reference to the underlying neural structure. A more recent but related approach is cognitive neuropsychiatry which seeks to understand the normal function of mind and brain by studying psychiatric or mental illness.
Connectionism is the use of artificial neural networks to model specific cognitive processes using what are considered to be simplified but plausible models of how neurons operate. Once trained to perform a specific cognitive task these networks are often damaged or 'lesioned' to simulate brain injury or impairment in an attempt to understand and compare the results to the effects of brain injury in humans.
Functional neuroimaging uses specific neuroimaging technologies to take readings from the brain, usually when a person is doing a particular task, in an attempt to understand how the activation of particular brain areas is related to the task. In particular, the growth of methodologies to employ cognitive testing within established functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques to study brain-behavior relations is having a notable influence on neuropsychological research.
In practice these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most neuropsychologists select the best approach or approaches for the task to be completed.
Methods and tools[edit]
Standardized neuropsychological tests
These tasks have been designed so the performance on the task can be linked to specific neurocognitive processes.[13] These tests are typically standardized, meaning that they have been administered to a specific group (or groups) of individuals before being used in individual clinical cases. The data resulting from standardization are known as normative data. After these data have been collected and analyzed, they are used as the comparative standard against which individual performances can be compared. Examples of neuropsychological tests include: the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Boston Naming Test, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Benton Visual Retention Test, and the Controlled Oral Word Association.
Brain scans
The use of brain scans to investigate the structure or function of the brain is common, either as simply a way of better assessing brain injury with high resolution pictures, or by examining the relative activations of different brain areas. Such technologies may include fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and positron emission tomography (PET), which yields data related to functioning, as well as MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) and computed axial tomography (CAT or CT), which yields structural data.
Global Brain Project
Brain models based on mouse and monkey have been developed based on theoretical neuroscience involving working memory and attention, while mapping brain activity based on time constants validated by measurements of neuronal activity in various layers of the brain. These methods also map to decision states of behavior in simple tasks that involve binary outcomes.[14]
Electrophysiology
The use of electrophysiological measures designed to measure the activation of the brain by measuring the electrical or magnetic field produced by the nervous system. This may include electroencephalography (EEG) or magneto-encephalography (MEG).
Experimental tasks
The use of designed experimental tasks, often controlled by (AACN and NAN Joint Position Paper) computer and typically measuring reaction time and accuracy on a particular tasks thought to be related to a specific neurocognitive process. An example of this is the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) or CNS Vital Signs (CNSVS).
Software products
Researchers have mapped to neural activity in the brain through brain scan or MRI. Applications based on Neuropsychology are being used to influence behavior design and habit formation. An example of such a product is fooya, which is a mobile App for children that has been shown in randomized and controlled studies to influence dietary preferences among children.[15][16]
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References[edit]
Jump up ^ Walsh, K.W. (1987). Neuropsychology: A clinical approach. Edinburgh: Churchill-Livingstone. ISBN 443038589079
Jump up ^ Posner, M. I.; Digirolamo, G. J. (2000). "Cognitive neuroscience: Origins and promise". Psychological Bulletin. 126 (6): 873–889. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.873. PMID 11107880.
Jump up ^ "The Great Canadian Psychology Website - Researchers". University of Calgary. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Finger, Stanley (2000). Minds Behind the Brain: A History of the Pioneers and their discoveries. New York: Oxford. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-19-518182-1.
Jump up ^ Finger 2000, p. 44
Jump up ^ Finger 2000, p. 92
Jump up ^ Benton, Arthur (2000). History of Neuropsychology: Selected Papers. USA: Oxford.
Jump up ^ Finger 2000, p. 151
Jump up ^ Viney, Wayne (2003). A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Jump up ^ Cubelli, R.; De Bastiani, P. (2011). "150 Years after Leborgne: Why is Paul Broca so important in the history of neuropsychology?". Cortex. 47 (2): 146–147. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2010.11.004. PMID 21112584.
Jump up ^ Dewsbury, D. A. (2002). "Constructing representations of Karl Spencer Lashley". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 38 (3): 225–245. doi:10.1002/jhbs.10060. PMID 12115784.
Jump up ^ Carmichael, L. (1959). "Karl Spencer Lashley, Experimental Psychologist". Science. 129 (3360): 1410–1412. doi:10.1126/science.129.3360.1410. PMID 13658968.
Jump up ^ Boyle, G.J., Saklofske, D.H., & Matthews, G. (2012). (Eds.), SAGE Benchmarks in Psychology: Psychological Assessment, Vol. 3: Clinical Neuropsychological Assessment. London: SAGE. ISBN 978-0-85702-270-7
Jump up ^ Xiao-Jing Wang; Wei Wei (New York University Global Brain Project) (7 December 2016). "Inhibitory Control in the Cortico-Basal Ganglia-Thalamocortical Loop: Complex Regulation and Interplay with Memory and Decision Processes". Neuron. 92: 1093–1105. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2016.10.031.
Jump up ^ Stanford (6 July 2015). "Neuropsychology based Behavior Design through Mobile Health Gaming". Stanford University School of Medicine.
Jump up ^ Dr Craig Johnston; Dr Jennette Moreno; et al. (2 November 2014). "A Nutrition Education Mobile Game Impacts Snack Selection in Middle School Students" (PDF). The Obesity Society.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neuropsychology&oldid=817479146"
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This page was last edited on 28 December 2017, at 17:31.
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