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Persian Empire
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Persian Empire in Achaemenid era, 6th century BC
Tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of Persian Empire in the 6th century BC
Taq Kasra (Arch of Ctesiphon), symbol of Persian Empire in Sasanian era, 3rd century AD
The Persian Empire (Persian: شاهنشاهی ایران, translit. Šâhanšâhiye Irân, lit. 'Imperial Iran') is a series of imperial dynasties centered in Persia/Iran since the 6th century BC in the Achaemenid era, to the 20th century AD in the Qajar era.
Contents
[hide]
1 Achaemenids
2 Parthians and Sasanians
3 Safavids
4 List of the dynasties described as a Persian Empire
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Achaemenids
The first dynasty of the Persian Empire was created by Achaemenids, established by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC with the conquest of Median, Lydian and Babylonian empires.[1] It covered much of the Ancient world and controlled the largest percentage of the earths population in history when it was conquered by Alexander the Great. Persepolis is the most famous historical site related to Persian Empire in Achaemenid era and it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979.
Parthians and Sasanians
From 247 BC to 224 AD, Persia was ruled by the Parthian Empire, which supplanted the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, and then by the Sassanian Empire, which ruled up until the mid-7th century.[2]
The Persian Empire in Sasanian era was interrupted by the Arab conquest of Persia in 651 AD, establishing the even larger Islamic caliphate, and later by the Mongol invasion. The main religion of ancient Persia was the native Zoroastrianism, but after the seventh century, it was replaced by Islam.
Safavids
Shah Abbas I, the most powerful king of Persia in Safavid era
The Safavid Empire was the first great Persian Empire established after Arab conquest of Persia by Shah Ismail I. From their base in Ardabil, the Safavid Persians established control over parts of Greater Persia/Iran and reasserted the Persian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native Persian dynasty since the Sasanian Empire to establish a unified Persian state.
Literature, art and architecture were flourished in Safavid era once again and it is often cited as the "rebirth of the Persian Empire". Safavids also announced Shia Islam as the official religion in the empire versus the Sunni Islam in the neighbouring Ottoman Empire.
List of the dynasties described as a Persian Empire
Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
Sasanian Empire (224–651)
Safavid dynasty (1501–1736)
Afsharid dynasty (1736–1796)
Qajar dynasty (1785–1925)
Extent of the first Persian Empire, the Achaemenid Empire
Extent of the Sasanian Empire in 621
The maximum extent of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas I
Extent of the Afsharid Empire under Nader Shah
See also
List of monarchs of Persia
Iranian monarchy
List of Iranian dynasties and countries
Persia
Iranian peoples
Persian people
List of tombs of Iranian people
References
Jump up ^ Herodotus. "Halicarnassus". The Histories. pp. (page needed). ISBN 978-0143107545.
Jump up ^ History of the World in 1,000 Objects (DK Publishing, 2014). p. 71.
External links
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Persia.
The dictionary definition of Persian Empire at Wiktionary
Persian Empire travel guide from Wikivoyage
Media related to Persian Empire at Wikimedia Commons
This Iran-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Ancient Persia
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text:
Prime meridian
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Prime Meridian" redirects here. For the meridian often called the Prime Meridian, see Prime meridian (Greenwich).
0°
Prime Meridian
A prime meridian is a meridian (a line of longitude) in a geographical coordinate system at which longitude is defined to be 0°. Together, a prime meridian and its antimeridian (the 180th meridian in a 360°-system) form a great circle. This great circle divides the sphere, e.g., the Earth, into two hemispheres. If one uses directions of East and West from a defined prime meridian, then they can be called Eastern Hemisphere and Western Hemisphere.
Gerardus Mercator in his Atlas Cosmographicae (1595) uses a prime meridian somewhere close to 25°W, passing just to the west of Santa Maria Island in the Atlantic. His 180th meridian runs along the Strait of Anián (Bering Strait)
A prime meridian is ultimately arbitrary, unlike an equator, which is determined by the axis of rotation—and various conventions have been used or advocated in different regions and throughout history.[1] The most widely used modern meridian is the IERS Reference Meridian. It is derived but deviates slightly from the Greenwich Meridian, which was selected as an international standard in 1884.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 List of prime meridians on Earth
3 International prime meridian
3.1 Prime meridian at Greenwich
3.2 IERS Reference Meridian
3.2.1 List of places
4 Prime meridian on other planetary bodies
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Citations
8 Works cited
9 External links
History[edit]
See also: History of longitude
Ptolemy's 1st projection, redrawn under Maximus Planudes around 1300, using a prime meridian east of Africa
The notion of longitude was developed by the Greek Eratosthenes (c. 276 BC – c. 195 BC) in Alexandria, and Hipparchus (c. 190 BC – c. 120 BC) in Rhodes, and applied to a large number of cities by the geographer Strabo (64/63 BC – c. 24 AD). But it was Ptolemy (c. AD 90 – c. AD 168) who first used a consistent meridian for a world map in his Geographia.
Ptolemy used as his basis the "Fortunate Isles", a group of islands in the Atlantic which are usually associated with the Canary Islands (13° to 18°W), although his maps correspond more closely to the Cape Verde islands (22° to 25° W). The main point is to be comfortably west of the western tip of Africa (17.5° W) as negative numbers were not yet in use. His prime meridian corresponds to 18° 40' west of Winchester (about 20°W) today.[2] At that time the chief method of determining longitude was by using the reported times of lunar eclipses in different countries.
Diogo Ribeiro's map of 1529, now in the Vatican library
Ptolemy's Geographia was first printed with maps at Bologna in 1477, and many early globes in the 16th century followed his lead. But there was still a hope that a "natural" basis for a prime meridian existed. Christopher Columbus reported (1493) that the compass pointed due north somewhere in mid-Atlantic, and this fact was used in the important Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 which settled the territorial dispute between Spain and Portugal over newly discovered lands. The Tordesillas line was eventually settled at 370 leagues west of Cape Verde. This is shown in Diogo Ribeiro's 1529 map. São Miguel Island (25.5°W) in the Azores was still used for the same reason as late as 1594 by Christopher Saxton, although by then it had been shown that the zero magnetic deviation line did not follow a line of longitude.[3]
1571 Africa map by Abraham Ortelius, with Cabo Verde prime meridian
In 1541, Mercator produced his famous 41 cm terrestrial globe and drew his prime meridian precisely through Fuertaventura (14°1'W) in the Canaries. His later maps used the Azores, following the magnetic hypothesis. But by the time that Ortelius produced the first modern atlas in 1570, other islands such as Cape Verde were coming into use. In his atlas longitudes were counted from 0° to 360°, not 180°W to 180°E as is usual today. This practice was followed by navigators well into the 18th century.[4] In 1634, Cardinal Richelieu used the westernmost island of the Canaries, Ferro, 19° 55' west of Paris, as the choice of meridian. The geographer Delisle decided to round this off to 20°, so that it simply became the meridian of Paris disguised.[5]
In the early 18th century the battle was on to improve the determination of longitude at sea, leading to the development of the marine chronometer by John Harrison. But it was the development of accurate star charts, principally by the first British Astronomer Royal, John Flamsteed between 1680 and 1719 and disseminated by his successor Edmund Halley, that enabled navigators to use the lunar method of determining longitude more accurately using the octant developed by Thomas Godfrey and John Hadley.[6] Between 1765 and 1811, Nevil Maskelyne published 49 issues of the Nautical Almanac based on the meridian of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. "Maskelyne's tables not only made the lunar method practicable, they also made the Greenwich meridian the universal reference point. Even the French translations of the Nautical Almanac retained Maskelyne's calculations from Greenwich—in spite of the fact that every other table in the Connaissance des Temps considered the Paris meridian as the prime." [7]
In 1884, at the International Meridian Conference in Washington, D.C., 22 countries voted to adopt the Greenwich[8] meridian as the prime meridian of the world. The French argued for a neutral line, mentioning the Azores and the Bering Strait, but eventually abstained and continued to use the Paris meridian until 1911.
List of prime meridians on Earth[edit]
Locality
Modern longitude
Meridian name
Comment
Bering Strait 168°30′ W Offered in 1884 as possibility for a "neutral prime meridian" by Pierre Janssen at the International Meridian Conference [9]
Washington, D.C. 77°03′56.07″ W (1897) or 77°04′02.24″ W (NAD 27)[clarification needed] or 77°04′01.16″ W (NAD 83) New Naval Observatory meridian
Washington, D.C. 77°02′48.0″ W, 77°03′02.3″, 77°03′06.119″ W or 77°03′06.276″ W (both presumably NAD 27). If NAD27, the latter would be 77°03′05.194″ W (NAD 83) Old Naval Observatory meridian
Washington, D.C. 77°02′11.56299″ W (NAD 83),[10] 77°02′11.55811″ W (NAD 83),[11] 77°02′11.58325″ W (NAD 83)[12] (three different monuments originally intended to be on the White House meridian) White House meridian
Washington, D.C. 77°00′32.6″ W (NAD 83) Capitol meridian
Philadelphia 75° 10′ 12″ W [13][14]
Rio de Janeiro 43° 10′ 19″ W [15]
Fortunate Isles / Azores 25° 40′ 32″ W Used until the Middle Ages, proposed as one possible neutral meridian by Pierre Janssen at the International Meridian Conference[16]
El Hierro (Ferro),
Canary Islands 18° 03′ W,
later redefined as
17° 39′ 46″ W Ferro meridian [17]
Tenerife 16° 38' 22" W Tenerife meridian Rose to prominence with Dutch cartographers and navigators after they abandoned the idea of a magnetic meridian[18]
Cadiz 6° 17' 40" W San Fernando meridian [19]
Lisbon 9° 07′ 54.862″ W [20]
Madrid 3° 41′ 16.58″ W [20]
Greenwich 0° 00′ 05.3101″ W Greenwich meridian Airy Meridian[21]
Greenwich 0° 00′ 05.33″ W United Kingdom Ordnance Survey Zero Meridian Bradley Meridian[21]
Greenwich 0° 00′ 00.00″ IERS Reference Meridian
Paris 2° 20′ 14.025″ E Paris meridian
Brussels 4° 22′ 4.71″ E [20]
Antwerp 4° 24′ E Antwerp meridian
Amsterdam 4° 53′ E through the Westerkerk in Amsterdam; used to define the legal time in the Netherlands from 1909 to 1937[22]
Bern 7° 26′ 22.5″ E [citation needed]
Pisa 10° 24′ E [13]
Oslo (Kristiania) 10° 43′ 22.5″ E [13][14]
Florence 11°15′ E Florence meridian used in the Peters projection, 180° from a meridian running through the Bering Strait
Rome 12° 27′ 08.4″ E meridian of Monte Mario Used in Roma 40 Datum [23]
Copenhagen 12° 34′ 32.25″ E Rundetårn[24]
Naples 14° 15′ E [16]
Bratislava 17° 06′ 03″ E Meridianus Posoniensis Used by Sámuel Mikoviny
Stockholm 18° 03′ 29.8″ E at the Stockholm Observatory[20]
Kraków 19° 57′ 21.43″ E Kraków meridian at the Old Kraków Observatory at the Śniadecki' College; mentioned also in Nicolaus Copernicus's work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.
Warsaw 21° 00′ 42″ E Warsaw meridian [20]
Oradea 21° 55′ 16″ E [25] Between 1464 and 1667, a prime meridian was set in the Fortress of Oradea (Varadinum at the time) by Georg von Peuerbach.[26]
Alexandria 29° 53′ E [27]
Saint Petersburg 30° 19′ 42.09″ E Pulkovo meridian
Great Pyramid of Giza 31° 08′ 03.69″ E 1884 [28]
Jerusalem 35° 13′ 47.1″ E [14]
Mecca 39° 49′ 34″ E see also Mecca Time [29]
Ujjain 75° 47′ E Used from 4th century CE Indian astronomy and calendars(see also Time in India).[30]
Kyoto 136° 14′ E Used in 18th and 19th (officially 1779–1871) century Japanese maps. Exact place unknown, but in "Kairekisyo" in Nishigekkoutyou-town in Kyoto, then the capital.[citation needed]
~ 180 Opposite of Greenwich, proposed 13 October 1884 on the International Meridian Conference by Sandford Fleming [16]
International prime meridian[edit]
In October 1884 the Greenwich Meridian was selected by delegates (forty-one delegates representing twenty-five nations) to the International Meridian Conference held in Washington, D.C., United States to be the common zero of longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the world.[31][note 1] The modern prime meridian, the IERS Reference Meridian, is placed very near this meridian and is the prime meridian that currently has the widest use.
Prime meridian at Greenwich[edit]
Markings of the prime meridian at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
Main article: Prime meridian (Greenwich)
The modern prime meridian, based at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, was established by Sir George Airy in 1851.[33]
The position of the Greenwich Meridian has been defined by the location of the Airy Transit Circle ever since the first observation was taken with it by Sir George Airy in 1851.[33] Prior to that, it was defined by a succession of earlier transit instruments, the first of which was acquired by the second Astronomer Royal, Edmond Halley in 1721. It was set up in the extreme north-west corner of the Observatory between Flamsteed House and the Western Summer House. This spot, now subsumed into Flamsteed House, is roughly 43 metres to the west of the Airy Transit Circle, a distance equivalent to roughly 0.15 seconds of time.[21] It was Airy's transit circle that was adopted in principle (with French delegates, who pressed for adoption of the Paris meridian abstaining) as the Prime Meridian of the world at the 1884 International Meridian Conference.[34][35]
All of these Greenwich meridians were located via an astronomic observation from the surface of the Earth, oriented via a plumb line along the direction of gravity at the surface. This astronomic Greenwich meridian was disseminated around the world, first via the lunar distance method, then by chronometers carried on ships, then via telegraph lines carried by submarine communications cables, then via radio time signals. One remote longitude ultimately based on the Greenwich meridian using these methods was that of the North American Datum 1927 or NAD27, an ellipsoid whose surface best matches mean sea level under the United States.
IERS Reference Meridian[edit]
Main article: IERS Reference Meridian
Satellites changed the reference from the surface of the Earth to its centre of mass around which all satellites orbit regardless of surface irregularities. The requirement that satellite-based geodetic reference systems be centred on the centre of mass of the earth caused the modern prime meridian to be 5.3" east of the astronomic Greenwich prime meridian through the Airy Transit Circle. At the latitude of Greenwich, this amounts to 102 metres.[36] This was officially accepted by the Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH) in 1984 via its BTS84 (BIH Terrestrial System) that later became WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984) and the various ITRFs (International Terrestrial Reference Systems).
Due to the movement of Earth's tectonic plates, the line of 0° longitude along the surface of the Earth has slowly moved toward the west from this shifted position by a few centimetres; that is, towards the Airy Transit Circle (or the Airy Transit Circle has moved toward the east, depending on your point of view) since 1984 (or the 1960s). With the introduction of satellite technology, it became possible to create a more accurate and detailed global map. With these advances there also arose the necessity to define a reference meridian that, whilst being derived from the Airy Transit Circle, would also take into account the effects of plate movement and variations in the way that the Earth was spinning.[37] As a result, the International Reference Meridian was established and is commonly used to denote Earth's prime meridian (0° longitude) by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service, which defines and maintains the link between longitude and time. Based on observations to satellites and celestial compact radio sources (quasars) from various coordinated stations around the globe, Airy's transit circle drifts northeast about 2.5 centimetres per year relative to this Earth-centred 0° longitude. Circa 1999 the international reference meridian (IRM) passed 5.31 arcseconds east of Airy's meridian or 102.5 metres (336.3 feet) at the latitude of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London.[38][39][40][41] It is also the reference meridian of the Global Positioning System operated by the United States Department of Defense, and of WGS84 and its two formal versions, the ideal International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) and its realization, the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF).[38][39][40] A current convention on the Earth uses the opposite of the IRM as the basis for the International Date Line.
List of places[edit]
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Place data as RDF
On Earth, starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the IERS Reference Meridian (as of 2016) passes through:
Co-ordinates
(approximate)
Country, territory or sea
Notes
90°0′N 0°0′E / 90.000°N 0.000°E / 90.000; 0.000 (North Pole)
Arctic Ocean
81°39′N 0°0′E / 81.650°N 0.000°E / 81.650; 0.000 (Greenland Sea)
Greenland Sea
72°53′N 0°0′E / 72.883°N 0.000°E / 72.883; 0.000 (Norwegian Sea)
Norwegian Sea
61°0′N 0°0′E / 61.000°N 0.000°E / 61.000; 0.000 (North Sea)
North Sea
53°45′N 0°0′E / 53.750°N 0.000°E / 53.750; 0.000 (United Kingdom)
United Kingdom
From Tunstall in East Riding to Peacehaven, passing through Greenwich
50°47′N 0°0′E / 50.783°N 0.000°E / 50.783; 0.000 (English Channel)
English Channel
49°19′N 0°0′E / 49.317°N 0.000°E / 49.317; 0.000 (France)
France
From Villers-sur-Mer to Gavarnie
42°41′N 0°0′E / 42.683°N 0.000°E / 42.683; 0.000 (Spain)
Spain
From Cilindro de Marboré to Castellón de la Plana
39°56′N 0°0′E / 39.933°N 0.000°E / 39.933; 0.000 (Mediterranean Sea)
Mediterranean Sea
Gulf of Valencia
38°52′N 0°0′E / 38.867°N 0.000°E / 38.867; 0.000 (Spain)
Spain
From El Verger to Calpe
38°38′N 0°0′E / 38.633°N 0.000°E / 38.633; 0.000 (Mediterranean Sea)
Mediterranean Sea
35°50′N 0°0′E / 35.833°N 0.000°E / 35.833; 0.000 (Algeria)
Algeria
From Stidia to Algeria-Mali border near Bordj Mokhtar
21°50′N 0°0′E / 21.833°N 0.000°E / 21.833; 0.000 (Mali)
Mali
14°59′N 0°0′E / 14.983°N 0.000°E / 14.983; 0.000 (Burkina Faso)
Burkina Faso
11°6′N 0°0′E / 11.100°N 0.000°E / 11.100; 0.000 (Togo)
Togo
For about 600 m
11°6′N 0°0′E / 11.100°N 0.000°E / 11.100; 0.000 (Ghana)
Ghana
For about 16 km
10°57′N 0°0′E / 10.950°N 0.000°E / 10.950; 0.000 (Togo)
Togo
For about 39 km
10°36′N 0°0′E / 10.600°N 0.000°E / 10.600; 0.000 (Ghana)
Ghana
From the Togo-Ghana border near Bunkpurugu to Tema
Passing through Lake Volta at 7°48′N 0°0′E / 7.800°N 0.000°E / 7.800; 0.000 (Lake Volta)
5°37′N 0°0′E / 5.617°N 0.000°E / 5.617; 0.000 (Atlantic Ocean)
Atlantic Ocean
Passing through the Equator at 0°0′N 0°0′E / 0.000°N 0.000°E / 0.000; 0.000 (Equator) ("Null Island")
60°0′S 0°0′E / 60.000°S 0.000°E / -60.000; 0.000 (Southern Ocean)
Southern Ocean
68°54′S 0°0′E / 68.900°S 0.000°E / -68.900; 0.000 (Antarctica)
Antarctica
Queen Maud Land, claimed by Norway
Prime meridian on other planetary bodies[edit]
See also: Longitude (planets)
"Prime meridian (planets)" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Central meridian (planets).
As on the Earth, prime meridians must be arbitrarily defined. Often a landmark such as a crater is used; other times a prime meridian is defined by reference to another celestial object, or by magnetic fields. The prime meridians of the following planetographic systems have been defined:
Two different heliographic coordinate systems are used on the Sun. The first is the Carrington heliographic coordinate system. In this system, the prime meridian passes through the center of the solar disk as seen from the Earth on 9 November 1853, which is when Richard Christopher Carrington started his observations of sunspots.[42] The second is the Stonyhurst heliographic coordinates system.
The prime meridian of Mercury is defined to be 20° east of the crater Hun Kal.[43]
The prime meridian of Venus passes through the central peak in the crater Ariadne.[44]
The prime meridian of the Moon lies directly in the middle of the face of the moon visible from Earth and passes near the crater Bruce.
The prime meridian of Mars is defined by the crater Airy-0.
Jupiter has several coordinate systems because its cloud tops—the only part of the planet visible from space—rotate at different rates depending on latitude.[45] It is unknown whether Jupiter has any internal solid surface that would enable a more Earth-like coordinate system. System I and System II coordinates are based on atmospheric rotation, and System III coordinates use Jupiter's magnetic field.
Titan, like the Earth's moon, always has the same face towards Saturn, and so the middle of that face is 0 longitude.
Pluto's prime meridian is defined as the center of the face that is always pointed towards Charon, its largest moon, as the two are tidally locked towards each other.
See also[edit]
Geography portal
1st meridian east
1st meridian west
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Voting took place on 13 October and the resolutions were adopted on 22 October 1884.[32]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Prime Meridian, geog.port.ac.uk
Jump up ^ Norgate & Norgate 2006
Jump up ^ Hooker 2006
Jump up ^ e.g. Jacob Roggeveen in 1722 reported the longitude of Easter Island as 268° 45' (starting from Fuertaventura) in the Extract from the Official log of Jacob Roggeveen reproduced in Bolton Glanville Corney, ed. (1908), The voyage of Don Felipe Gonzalez to Easter Island in 1770-1, Hakluyt Society, p. 3, retrieved 13 January 2013
Jump up ^ Speech by Pierre Janssen, director of the Paris observatory, at the first session of the Meridian Conference.
Jump up ^ Sobel & Andrewes 1998, pp. 110–115
Jump up ^ Sobel & Andrewes 1998, pp. 197–199
Jump up ^ "The Prime Meridian at Greenwich". Royal Museums Greenwich. n.d. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
Jump up ^ International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884. Project Gutenberg
Jump up ^ NGS 2016, PID: HV1847.
Jump up ^ NGS 2016, PID: HV1846.
Jump up ^ NGS 2016, PID: AH7372.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hooker (2006), introduction.
^ Jump up to: a b c Oct. 13, 1884: Greenwich Resolves Subprime Meridian Crisis, WIRED, 13 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Atlas do Brazil, 1909, by Barão Homem de Mello e Francisco Homem de Mello, published in Rio de Janeiro by F. Briguiet & Cia.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Project Gutenberg eBook of International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day". Gutenberg.org. 12 February 2006. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Ancient, used in Ptolemy's Geographia. Later redefined 17° 39′ 46″ W of Greenwich to be exactly 20° W of Paris. French "submarin" at Washington 1884.
Jump up ^ A.R.T. Jonkers; Parallel meridians: Diffusion and change in early modern oceanic reckoning, in Noord-Zuid in Oostindisch perspectief, The Hague, 2005, p. 7. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
Jump up ^ , [1], in El País, 2016, retrieved 23 December 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bartky, Ian R. (2007), One Time Fits All: The Campaigns for Global Uniformity, p. 98, retrieved through GoogleBooks, 6 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dolan 2013a.
Jump up ^ (in Dutch)Eenheid van tijd in Nederland (Unity of time in the Netherlands), Utrecht University website, retrieved 28 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Grids & Datums – Italian Republic, asprs.org, Retrieved 10 December 2013.
Jump up ^ meridian, article from Den Store Danske Encyklopædi
Jump up ^ Oradea, Tourism office website, retrieved 3 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "Romanian astronaut makrsk 10th anniversary of Prime Meridian Astronomy Club". NineO'Clock.ro. 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
Jump up ^ The meridian of Ptolemy's Almagest.
Jump up ^ Wilcomb E. Washburn, "The Canary Islands and the Question of the Prime Meridian: The Search for Precision in the Measurement of the Earth Archived 29 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine."
Jump up ^ Maimonides, Hilchot Kiddush Hachodesh 11:17, calls this point אמצע היישוב, "the middle of the habitation", i.e. the habitable hemisphere. Evidently this was a convention accepted by Arab geographers of his day.
Jump up ^ Burgess 1860
Jump up ^ "International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884. Protocols of the proceedings". Project Gutenberg. 1884. Retrieved 30 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Howse 1997, pp. 12, 137
^ Jump up to: a b Greenwich Observatory ... the story of Britain's oldest scientific institution, the Royal Observatory at Greenwich and Herstmonceux, 1675–1975 p.10. Taylor & Francis, 1975
Jump up ^ McCarthy, Dennis; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (2009). TIME from Earth Rotation to Atomic Physics. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 244–5.
Jump up ^ ROG Learning Team (23 August 2002). "The Prime Meridian at Greenwich". Royal Museums Greenwich. Royal Museums Greenwich. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Malys, Stephen; Seago, John H.; Palvis, Nikolaos K.; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; Kaplan, George H. (1 August 2015). "Why the Greenwich meridian moved". Journal of Geodesy. 89 (12): 1263. Bibcode:2015JGeod..89.1263M. doi:10.1007/s00190-015-0844-y.
Jump up ^ Dolan 2013b.
^ Jump up to: a b History of the Prime Meridian -Past and Present
^ Jump up to: a b IRM on grounds of Royal Observatory from Google Earth Accessed 30 March 2012
^ Jump up to: a b The astronomic latitude of the Royal Observatory is 51°28'38"N whereas its latitude on the European Terrestrial Reference Frame (1989) datum is 51°28'40.1247"N.
Jump up ^ Guinot, B., 2011. Solar time, legal time, time in use. Metrologica 48, S181–S185.
Jump up ^ "Carrington heliographic coordinates".
Jump up ^ Archinal, B. A.; A’Hearn, M. F.; Bowell, E.; Conrad, A.; Consolmagno, G. J.; Courtin, R.; Fukushima, T.; Hestroffer, D.; Hilton, J. L.; Krasinsky, G. A.; Neumann, G.; Oberst, J.; Seidelmann, P. K.; Stooke, P.; Tholen, D. J.; Thomas, P. C.; Williams, I. P. (23 October 2010). "Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates and Rotational Elements: 2009" (PDF). Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. 109 (2): 15. Bibcode:2011CeMDA.109..101A. doi:10.1007/s10569-010-9320-4.
Jump up ^ "USGS Astrogeology: Rotation and pole position for the Sun and planets (IAU WGCCRE)". Retrieved 22 October 2009.
Jump up ^ "Planetographic Coordinates". Retrieved 24 May 2017.
Works cited[edit]
Burgess, Ebenezer (1860), "Translation of the Surya-Siddhanta", Journal of the American Oriental Society (e book), 6, Google (published c. 2013), p. 185
Dolan, Graham (2013a). "The Greenwich Meridian before the Airy Transit Circle". The Greenwich Meridian.
Dolan, Graham (2013b). "WGS84 and the Greenwich Meridian". The Greenwich Meridian.
Hooker, Brian (2006), A multitude of prime meridians, retrieved 13 January 2013
Howse, Derek (1997), Greenwich Time and the Longitude, Phillip Wilson, ISBN 0-85667-468-0
Norgate, Jean; Norgate, Martin (2006), Prime meridian, retrieved 13 January 2013
NGS datasheet station name form, National Geodetic Survey, 2016, retrieved 11 December 2016
Sobel, Dava; Andrewes, William J. H. (1998), The Illustrated Longitude, Fourth Estate, London
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Prime meridian.
"Where the Earth's surface begins—and ends", Popular Mechanics, December 1930
scanned TIFFs of the conference proceedings
Prime meridians in use in the 1880s, by country
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text:
Orinoco
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Orinoco (disambiguation).
Orinoco River
Río Orinoco
Countries
Colombia, Venezuela
Region
South America
Source
- location Cerro Delgado-Chalbaud, Parima Mountains, Venezuela
- elevation 1,047 m (3,435 ft)
- coordinates 02°19′05″N 63°21′42″W / 2.31806°N 63.36167°W / 2.31806; -63.36167
Mouth
Delta Amacuro
- location Atlantic Ocean, Venezuela
- elevation 0 m (0 ft)
- coordinates 8°37′N 62°15′W / 8.617°N 62.250°W / 8.617; -62.250Coordinates: 8°37′N 62°15′W / 8.617°N 62.250°W / 8.617; -62.250 [1]
Length
2,140 km (1,330 mi)
Basin
880,000 km2 (339,770 sq mi)
Discharge
- average 37,000 m3/s (1,306,643 cu ft/s)
- max 54,000 m3/s (1,906,992 cu ft/s)
- min 21,000 m3/s (741,608 cu ft/s)
Orinoco's watershed
The Orinoco River is one of the longest rivers in South America at 2,140 kilometres (1,330 mi). Its drainage basin, sometimes known as the Orinoquia, covers 880,000 square kilometres (340,000 sq mi), with 76.3 percent of it in Venezuela and the remainder in Colombia. It is the fourth largest river in the world by discharge volume of water. The Orinoco River and its tributaries are the major transportation system for eastern and interior Venezuela and the llanos of Colombia. The Orinoco River is extremely diverse, and hosts a wide variety of flora and fauna.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography
2.1 Major rivers in the Orinoco Basin
3 Ecology
4 Economic activity
4.1 El Florero iron mine
4.2 Tar sands
5 Eastern Venezuelan basin
6 Recreation and sports
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
Map of the Lower Orinoco River, 1897
The mouth of the Orinoco River at the Atlantic Ocean was documented by Columbus on 1 August 1498, during his third voyage. Its source at the Cerro Delgado–Chalbaud, in the Parima range, was not explored until 1951, 453 years later. The source, near the Venezuelan–Brazilian border, at 1,047 metres (3,435 ft) above sea level (02°19′05″N 63°21′42″W / 2.31806°N 63.36167°W / 2.31806; -63.36167), was explored in 1951 by a joint Venezuelan–French team.
The Orinoco Delta, and tributaries in the eastern llanos such as the Apure and Meta, were explored in the 16th century by German expeditions under Ambrosius Ehinger and his successors. In 1531 Diego de Ordaz, starting at the principal outlet in the delta, the Boca de Navios, sailed up the river to the Meta. Antonio de Berrio sailed down the Casanare to the Meta, and then down the Orinoco River and back to Coro. In 1595, after capturing de Berrio to obtain information while conducting an expedition to find the fabled city of El Dorado, the Englishman Sir Walter Raleigh sailed down the river, reaching the savannah country.
Alexander von Humboldt explored the basin in 1800, reporting on the pink river dolphins. He published extensively on the river's flora and fauna.[2]
The first bridge across the Orinoco River was the Angostura Bridge at Ciudad Bolívar, Venezuela, completed in 1967.[3] In 2006 a second bridge was completed near Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela, known as the Orinoquia Bridge.[citation needed]
The first powerline crossing of the Orinoco River was completed in 1981 for an 800 kV TL single span of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) using two towers 110 metres (360 ft) tall.[4] In 1992, an overhead power line crossing for two 400 kV-circuits was completed just west of Morocure (between the cities of Ciudad Bolivar and Ciudad Guayana), north of the confluence of Routes 1 and 19. It had three towers, and the two spans measured 2,161 metres (7,090 ft) and 2,537 metres (8,323 ft), respectively.[4][5][6][7]
Geography[edit]
The course of the Orinoco forms a wide ellipsoidal arc, surrounding the Guiana Shield; it is divided in four stretches of unequal length that roughly correspond to the longitudinal zonation of a typical large river:
Upper Orinoco— 242 kilometres (150 mi) long, from its headwaters to the rapids Raudales de Guaharibos, flows through mountainous landscape in a northwesterly direction
Middle Orinoco— 750 kilometres (470 mi) long, divided into two sectors, the first of which ca. 480 kilometres (300 mi) long has a general westward direction down to the confluence with the Atabapo and Guaviare rivers at San Fernando de Atabapo; the second flows northward, for about 270 kilometres (170 mi), along the Venezuelan - Colombian border, flanked on both sides by the westernmost granitic upwellings of the Guiana Shield which impede the development of a flood plain, to the Atures rapids near the confluence with the Meta River at Puerto Carreño,
Lower Orinoco— 959 kilometres (596 mi) long with a well-developed alluvial plain, flows in a northeast direction, from Atures rapids down to Piacoa in front of Barrancas
Delta Amacuro— 200 kilometres (120 mi) long that empties into the Gulf of Paría and the Atlantic Ocean, a very large delta, some 22,500 km2 (8,700 sq mi) and 370 kilometres (230 mi) at its widest.
View of the Orinoco River in Mariusa National Park (Delta Amacuro)
Orinoco River at its confluence with the Caroní River (lower left)[8]
Rapids of the Orinoco River, near Puerto Ayacucho airport, Venezuela
The Orinoco River, here in Amazonas State, Venezuela
Orinoco River, in Amazonas State, Venezuela
At its mouth, the Orinoco River forms a wide delta that branches off into hundreds of rivers and waterways that flow through 41,000 km2 (16,000 sq mi) of swampy forests. In the rainy season, the Orinoco River can swell to a breadth of 22 kilometres (14 mi) and a depth of 100 metres (330 ft).
Most of the important Venezuelan rivers are tributaries of the Orinoco River, the largest being the Caroní, which joins it at Puerto Ordaz, close to the Llovizna Falls. A peculiarity of the Orinoco river system is the Casiquiare canal, which starts as an arm of the Orinoco, and finds its way to the Rio Negro, a tributary of the Amazon, thus forming a 'natural canal' between Orinoco and Amazon.
Major rivers in the Orinoco Basin[edit]
Apure: from Venezuela through the east into the Orinoco
Arauca: from Colombia to Venezuela east into the Orinoco
Atabapo: from the Guiana Highlands of Venezuela north into the Orinoco
Caroní: from the Guiana Highlands of Venezuela north into the Orinoco
Casiquiare canal: in SE Venezuela, a distributary from the Orinoco flowing west to the Negro River, a major affluent to the Amazon
Caura: from eastern Venezuela (Guiana Highlands) north into the Orinoco
Guaviare: from Colombia east into the Orinoco
Inírida: from Colombia southeast into the Guaviare.
Meta: from Colombia, border with Venezuela east into the Orinoco
Ventuari: from eastern Venezuela (the Guiana Highlands) southwest into the Orinoco
Vichada: from Colombia east into the Orinoco
See also: Casiquiare canal-Orinoco River hydrographic divide
Ecology[edit]
The boto (also known as the "Amazon river dolphin") and the giant river otter inhabit the Orinoco River system.[9] The Orinoco crocodile is one of the rarest reptiles in the world. Its range in the wild is restricted to the Orinoco River Basin.
More than 1000 fish species have been recorded in the river basin and about 15% are endemic.[10] Among the fish in the river are species found in brackish or salt water in the Orinoco estuary, but also many restricted to fresh water. By far the largest orders are Characiformes and Siluriformes, which together account for more than 80% of the fresh water species.[11] Some of the more famous are the black spot piranha and the cardinal tetra. The latter species, which is important in the aquarium industry, is also found in the Rio Negro, revealing the connection between this river and the Orinoco through the Casiquiare canal.[12] Because the Casiquiare includes both blackwater and clear- to whitewater sections, only relatively adaptable species are able to pass through it between the two river systems.[13]
Economic activity[edit]
The river is navigable for most of its length, and dredging enables ocean ships to go as far as Ciudad Bolívar, at the confluence of the Caroní River, 435 kilometres (270 mi) upstream. River steamers carry cargo as far as Puerto Ayacucho and the Atures Rapids.
El Florero iron mine[edit]
In 1926, a Venezuelan mining inspector found one of the richest iron ore deposits near the Orinoco delta, south of the city of San Felix on a mountain named El Florero. Full-scale mining of the ore deposits began after World War II, by a conglomerate of Venezuelan firms and US steel companies. At the start in the early 1950s, about 10,000 tons of ore-bearing soil was mined per day.[14]
Tar sands[edit]
The Orinoco River deposits also contain extensive tar sands in the Orinoco oil belt, which may be a source of future oil production.[15]
Eastern Venezuelan basin[edit]
Union of the Orinoco with the Caroní River
Encompassing the states of Anzoategui-Guarico and Monagas states, the Interior Range forms the northern boundary and the Guayana Shield the southern boundary.[16]:155 Maturin forms the eastern subbasin and Guarico forms the western subbasin.[16]:156 The El Furrial oil field was discovered in 1978, producing from late Oligocene shallow marine sandstones in an overthrusted foreland basin.[16]:155
Recreation and sports[edit]
Since 1988, the local government of Ciudad Guayana has conducted a swim race in the rivers Orinoco and Caroní, with up to 1,000 competitors. Since 1991, the "Paso a Nado Internacional de los Rios Orinoco-Caroní" has been celebrated every year, on a Sunday close to 19 April. Worldwide, this swim-meet has grown in importance, and it has a large number of competitors.[17] The 26th meet was held in 2016.[18]
See also[edit]
Adaheli, the Sun in the mythology of the Orinoco region
"Orinoco Flow", the 1988 song by Enya named after the Orinoco River.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Orinoco River at GEOnet Names Server
Jump up ^ Helferich, Gerard (2004) Humboldt's Cosmos: Alexander von Humboldt and the Latin American Journey that Changed the Way We See the World, Gotham Books, New York, ISBN 1-59240-052-3.
Jump up ^ Scott, R. (2001). In the Wake of Tacoma: Suspension Bridges and the Quest for Aerodynamic Stability. American Society of Civil Engineers. p. 184. ISBN 9780784470732. Retrieved 2015-04-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Experience". SAE Power Lines.
Jump up ^ "Critical Path" (PDF). PEI. June 2005. pp. 105–111, page 107. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2006.
Jump up ^ "Pylons of the Orinoco High-Voltage Crossing". International Database for Civil and Structural Engineering. Archived from the original on 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Orinoco Powerline Crossing". Skyscraper Source Media Inc. Archived from the original on 13 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela : Image of the Day". earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
Jump up ^ WWF: Orinoco River Basin, South America. Retrieved 24 May 2014
Jump up ^ Reis, R.E.; J.S. Albert; F. Di Dario; M.M. Mincarone; P. Petry; and L.A. Rocha (2016). Fish biodiversity and conservation in South America. Journal of Fish Biology 89(1): 12–47.
Jump up ^ Hales, J., and P. Petry: Orinoco Llanos. Orinoco Delta & Coastal Drainages. Retrieved 24 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Seriously Fish: Paracheirodon axelrodi, Cardinal Tetra. Retrieved 24 May 2014
Jump up ^ Staeck, W.; Schindler, I. (2015). "Description of a new Heros species (Teleostei, Cichlidae) from the Rio Orinoco drainage and notes on Heros severus Heckel, 1840" (PDF). Bulletin of Fish Biology. 15 (1-2): 121–136.
Jump up ^ "Venezuela's Magnetic Mountain" Popular Mechanics, July 1949
Jump up ^ Forero, Juan (1 June 2006). "For Venezuela, A Treasure In Oil Sludge". The New York Times. 155 (53597). pp. C1–C6. Archived from the original on 12 December 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Prieto, R., Valdes, G., 1992, El Furrial Oil Field, In Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1978-1988, AAPG Memoir 54, Halbouty, M.T., editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, ISBN 0891813330
Jump up ^ "Antecedentes y Sumario Paso a Nado Internacional de Los Rios Orinoco/Caroni" Paso Nado Internacional de Los Rios Orinoco y Caroní" [Antecedents and Summary of the International Swim Meet of the Orinoco and Caroni Rivers] (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 December 2007.
Jump up ^ "26 edición Paso a Nado de Ríos Orinoco y Caroní 2016". Roberto Muñoz Natación Venezuela. Archived from the original on 9 November 2016.
References[edit]
Stark, James H. 1897. Stark's Guide-Book and History of Trinidad including Tobago, Granada, and St. Vincent; also a trip up the Orinoco and a description of the great Venezuelan Pitch Lake. Boston, James H. Stark, publisher; London, Sampson Low, Marston & Company. (This book has an excellent description of a trip up the Orinoco as far as Ciudad Bolívar and a detailed description of the Venezuelan Pitch Lake situated on the western side of the Gulf of Paria opposite.)
MacKee, E.D., Nordin, C.F. and D. Perez-Hernandez (1998). "The Waters and Sediments of the Rio Orinoco and its major Tributaries, Venezuela and Colombia." United States Geological Survey water-supply paper, ISSN 0886-9308 /A-B. Washington: United States Government Printing Office.
Weibezahn, F.H., Haymara, A. and M.W. Lewis (1990). The Orinoco River as an ecosystem. Caracas: Universidad Simon Bolivar.
Rawlins, C.B. (1999). The Orinoco River. New York: Franklin Watts.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orinoco River.
Church, George Earl (1911). "Orinoco". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). pp. 275–276.
Down the Orinoco in a Canoe at Project Gutenberg (Transcription of book from 1902)
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Tributaries of the Orinoco
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Atabapo
Caroní
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Portuguesa
Arauca
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WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 257266255
NDL: 00628329
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orinoco&oldid=821798341"
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