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Book of Esther
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For the 2013 film, see The Book of Esther (film).
A 13th/14th-century scroll of the Book of Esther from Fez, Morocco, held at the Musée du quai Branly in Paris. Traditionally, a scroll of Esther is given only one roller, fixed to its lefthand side, rather than the customary two.[1]
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The Book of Esther, also known in Hebrew as "the Scroll" (Megillah), is a book in the third section (Ketuvim, "Writings") of the Jewish Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) and in the Christian Old Testament. It is one of the five Scrolls (Megillot) in the Hebrew Bible. It relates the story of a Hebrew woman in Persia, born as Hadassah but known as Esther, who becomes queen of Persia and thwarts a genocide of her people. The story forms the core of the Jewish festival of Purim, during which it is read aloud twice: once in the evening and again the following morning. The books of Esther and Song of Songs are the only books in the Hebrew Bible that do not explicitly mention God.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Setting and structure
1.1 Setting
1.2 Structure
2 Summary
3 Authorship and date
4 Historicity
5 Historical reading
6 Interpretation
7 Additions to Esther
8 Modern retelling
9 References
9.1 Citations
9.2 Sources
10 External links
10.1 Text and translations
10.2 Physical relics
Setting and structure[edit]
Setting[edit]
The biblical Book of Esther is set in the Persian capital of Susa (Shushan) in the third year of the reign of the Persian king Ahasuerus. The name Ahasuerus is equivalent to Xerxes[3] (both deriving from the Persian Khshayārsha),[4] and Ahasuerus is usually identified in modern sources as Xerxes I,[5] who ruled between 486 and 465 BC,[3] as it is to this monarch that the events described in Esther are thought to fit the most closely.[4][6]
Assuming that Ahasuerus is indeed Xerxes I, the events described in Esther began around the years 483–482 BC, and concluded in March 473 BC.
Classical sources such as Josephus, the Jewish commentary Esther Rabbah and the Christian theologian Bar-Hebraeus,[7] as well as the Greek Septuagint translation of Esther, instead identify Ahasuerus as either Artaxerxes I (reigned 465 to 424 BC) or Artaxerxes II (reigned 404 to 358 BC).[7]
On his accession however Artaxerxes II lost Egypt to pharaoh Amyrtaeus, after which it wasn't part of the Persian empire anymore. In his Historia Scholastica Petrus Comestor identified Ahasuerus (Esther 1:1) as Artaxerxes III (358–338 BC) who reconquered Egypt.[8]
Structure[edit]
The Book of Esther consists of an introduction (or exposition) in chapters 1 and 2; the main action (complication and resolution) in chapters 3 to 9:19; and a conclusion in 9:20–10:3.[9]
The plot is structured around banquets (mishteh), a word that occurs twenty times in Esther and only 24 times in the rest of the Hebrew bible. This is appropriate given that Esther describes the origin of a Jewish feast, the feast of Purim, but Purim itself is not the subject and no individual feast in the book is commemorated by Purim. The book's theme, rather, is the reversal of destiny through a sudden and unexpected turn of events: the Jews seem destined to be destroyed, but instead are saved. In literary criticism such a reversal is termed "peripety", and while on one level its use in Esther is simply a literary or aesthetic device, on another it is structural to the author's theme, suggesting that the power of God is at work behind human events.[10]
Summary[edit]
The opening chapter of a hand-written scroll of the Book of Esther, with reader's pointer
The story begins with Ahasuerus, ruler of the Persian Empire, holding a lavish banquet, initially for his court and dignitaries and afterwards for all inhabitants of the capital city, Shushan. On the seventh day, Ahasuerus orders the queen, Vashti, to come and display her beauty before the guests by wearing only her crown. She refuses. Furious, Ahasuerus has her removed from her position and makes arrangements to choose a new queen from a selection of beautiful young women from throughout the empire.
Among these women is the Jewish orphan, Esther. After the death of her parents, she was fostered by her cousin or uncle, Mordecai. She finds favour in the King's eyes, and is crowned his new queen. Shortly afterwards, Mordecai discovers a plot by two courtiers, Bigthan and Teresh, to assassinate Ahasuerus. The conspirators are apprehended and hanged, and Mordecai's service to the King is duly recorded.
Ahasuerus appoints Haman as his viceroy. Mordecai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavour, as he refuses to bow down to him. Having discovered that Mordecai is Jewish, Haman plans to kill not just Mordecai, but all the Jews in the empire. He duly obtains Ahasuerus' permission to execute this plan, against payment of ten thousand talents of silver, and casts lots to choose the date on which to do this—the thirteenth of the month of Adar.
When Mordecai finds out about the plan, he implores Esther to try and intercede with the King; but she is afraid to break the law and present herself to the King unsummoned, as this was punishable by death. She orders Mordecai to have all Jews fast for three days together with her, and on the third day she goes to Ahasuerus, who stretches out his sceptre to her to indicate that she is not to be punished. She invites him to a feast in the company of Haman. During the feast, she asks them to attend a further feast the next evening. Meanwhile, Haman is again offended by Mordecai and, at his wife's suggestion, has a gallows built to hang him.
That night, King Ahasuerus suffers insomnia, and when he orders the court records be read to him in order to help him sleep, he is reminded of the services rendered by Mordecai in the previous plot against his life. Ahasuerus is informed that Mordecai never received any recognition for this.
Just then, Haman appears, to request the King's permission to hang Mordecai, but before he can make this request, King Ahasuerus asks Haman what should be done for the man that the King wishes to honor. Assuming that the man that the King is referring to is himself, Haman suggests that the man be dressed in the King's royal robes and led around on the King's royal horse, while a herald calls: "See how the King honours a man he wishes to reward!" To his surprise and horror, the King instructs Haman to do so to Mordecai.
Immediately after, Ahasuerus and Haman attend Esther's second banquet, at which she reveals that she is Jewish and that Haman is planning to exterminate her people, including her. Overcome by rage, Ahasuerus leaves the room; meanwhile Haman stays behind and begs Esther for his life, falling upon her in desperation. The King returns in at this very moment and thinks Haman is assaulting the queen; this makes him angrier than before and he orders Haman hanged on the gallows that Haman had prepared for Mordecai.
Unable to annul a formal royal decree, the King instead adds to it, permitting the Jews to arm and defend themselves on that day. On 13 Adar, Haman's ten sons and 500 other men are killed in Shushan. Upon hearing of this Esther requests it be repeated the next day, whereupon 300 more men are killed. Over 75,000 Persian people are slaughtered by the Jews, who are careful to take no plunder. Esther sends a letter instituting an annual commemoration of the Jewish people's redemption, in a holiday called Purim (lots). Ahasuerus remains very powerful and continues his reign, with Mordecai assuming a prominent position in his court.[11]
Authorship and date[edit]
Scroll of Esther (Megillah)
The Megillat Esther (Book of Esther) became the last of the 24 books of the Tanakh to be canonized by the Sages of the Great Assembly. According to the Talmud, it was a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordecai.[12] It is usually dated to the 4th century BC.[13][14] Shemaryahu Talmon, however, suggests that "the traditional setting of the book in the days of Xerxes I cannot be wide off the mark."[15]
The Greek book of Esther, included in the Septuagint, is a retelling of the events of the Hebrew Book of Esther rather than a translation and records additional traditions which do not appear in original Hebrew version, in particular the identification of Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes and details of various letters. It is dated around the late 2nd to early 1st century BC.[16][17] The Coptic and Ethiopic versions of Esther are translations of the Greek rather than the Hebrew Esther.
A Latin version of Esther was produced by Jerome for the Vulgate. It translates the Hebrew Esther but interpolates translations of the Greek Esther where the latter provides additional material.
Several Aramaic targums of Esther were produced in the Middle Ages of which two survive – the Targum Rishon ("First Targum") and Targum Sheni ("Second Targum")[18][19] dated c. 500–1000 AD.[20] These were not targums ("translations") in the true sense but like the Greek Esther are retellings of events and include additional legends relating to Purim.[18] There is also a 16th-century recension of the Targum Rishon, sometimes counted as Targum Shelishi ("Third Targum").[19]
Historicity[edit]
The book of Esther falls under the category of Ketuvim, one of three parts of the Jewish canon.[21] According to some sources, it is a historical novella, written to explain the origin of the Jewish holiday of Purim.[21][22]
As noted by biblical scholar Michael D. Coogan, the book contains specific details regarding certain subject matter (for example, Persian rule) which are historically inaccurate. For example, Coogan discusses an apparent inaccuracy regarding the age of Esther's cousin (or, according to others, uncle) Mordecai.[21][22] In Esther 2:5–6, either Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish is identified as having been exiled from Jerusalem to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 597 BC: "Mordecai son of Jair, the son of Shimei, the son of Kish, who had been carried into exile from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, among those taken captive with Jeconiah king of Judah". If this refers to Mordecai, he would have had to live over a century to have witnessed the events described in the Book of Esther.[21] However, the verse may be read as referring not to Mordecai's exile to Babylon, but to his great-grandfather Kish's exile.[23][24][25]
In her article "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", biblical scholar Adele Berlin discusses the reasoning behind scholarly concern about the historicity of Esther. Much of this debate relates to the importance of distinguishing history and fiction within biblical texts, as Berlin argues, in order to gain a more accurate understanding of the history of the Israelite people.[26] Berlin quotes a series of scholars who suggest that the author of Esther did not mean for the book to be considered as a historical writing, but intentionally wrote it to be a historical novella.[27] The genre of novellas under which Esther falls was common during both the Persian and Hellenistic periods to which scholars have dated the book of Esther.[21][26]
There are certain elements of the book of Esther that are historically accurate. The story told in the book of Esther takes place during the rule of Ahasuerus, who has been identified as the 5th-century Persian king Xerxes I (reigned 486–465 BC). The author also displays an accurate knowledge of Persian customs and palaces.[24] However, according to Coogan, considerable historical inaccuracies remain throughout the text, supporting the view that the book of Esther is to be read as a historical novella which tells a story describing historical events but is not necessarily historical fact.[21] Edwin M. Yamauchi has questioned the reliability of other historical sources, such as Herodotus, to which Esther has been compared. Yamauchi wrote, "[Herodotus] was, however, the victim of unreliable informants and was not infallible."[28] The reason for questioning the historical accuracy of such ancient writers as Herodotus is that he is one of the primary sources of knowledge for this time period, and it has been frequently assumed that his account may be more accurate than Esther's account. However, Jewish scholars and historians such as Mitchell First point out that although Herodotus traveled widely in the 460s and 450s B.C.E., he probably never set foot in Persia, and his information about Persia is exclusively based, therefore, on what was told to him orally.[29] As a consequence, if the presumed-reliable sources with which Coogan contrasts the book of Esther are not, in fact, reliable, then Coogan's claims regarding Esther cannot be said to hold historical weight.
Historical reading[edit]
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The Feast of Esther (Feest van Esther, 1625) by Jan Lievens, held at the North Carolina Museum of Art.
Those arguing in favour of a historical reading of Esther most commonly identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes II (ruled 405–359 BC), although in the past it was often assumed that he was Xerxes I (ruled 486–465 BC). The Hebrew Ahasuerus (ʔaḥašwērōš) is most likely derived from Persian Xšayārša, the origin of the Greek Xerxes. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Xerxes sought his harem after being defeated in the Greco-Persian Wars. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem except for a domineering Queen consort named Amestris, whose father, Otanes, was one of Xerxes's generals. (In contrast, the Greek historian Ctesias refers to a similar father-in-law/general figure named Onaphas.) Amestris has often been identified with Vashti, but this identification is problematic, as Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, Artaxerxes I, whereas Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign.[citation needed] Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with Esther, although Esther is an orphan whose father was a Jew named Abihail.
As for the identity of Mordecai, the similar names Marduka and Marduku have been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in over thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius I, and may refer to up to four individuals, one of which might after all be Mordecai.
The "Old Greek" Septuagint version of Esther translates the name Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes,[30] a Greek name derived from the Persian Artaxšaϑra. Josephus too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks, and the Midrashic text, Esther Rabba also makes the identification. Bar-Hebraeus identified Ahasuerus explicitly as Artaxerxes II; however, the names are not necessarily equivalent: Hebrew has a form of the name Artaxerxes distinct from Ahasuerus, and a direct Greek rendering of Ahasuerus is used by both Josephus and the Septuagint for occurrences of the name outside the Book of Esther. Instead, the Hebrew name Ahasuerus accords with an inscription of the time that notes that Artaxerxes II was named also Aršu, understood as a shortening of Aḫšiyaršu the Babylonian rendering of the Persian Xšayārša (Xerxes), through which the Hebrew ʔaḥašwērōš (Ahasuerus) is derived.[31] Ctesias related that Artaxerxes II was also called Arsicas which is understood as a similar shortening with the Persian suffix -ke that is applied to shortened names. Deinon related that Artaxerxes II was also called Oarses which is also understood to be derived from Xšayārša.[31]
Another view attempts to identify him instead with Artaxerxes I (ruled 465–424 BC), whose Babylonian concubine, Kosmartydene, was the mother of his son Darius II (ruled 424–405 BC). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some try to identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene.
Based on the view that the Ahasuerus of the Book of Tobit is identical with that of the Book of Esther, some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally Cyaxares (ruled 625–585 BC). In certain manuscripts of Tobit, the former is called Achiachar, which, like the Greek Cyaxares, is thought to be derived from Persian Huwaxšaϑra. Depending on the interpretation of Esther 2:5–6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from Jerusalem with Jeconiah by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 BC. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested.
Jacob Hoschander has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in Omanus and Anadatus mentioned by Strabo as being honoured with Anahita in the city of Zela. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of "Haman" and "Hamedatha" who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods, however the Talmud (Sanhedrin 61b) and Rashi both record a practice of deifying Haman and Josephus speaks of him being worshipped.[31] Attempts have been made to connect both "Omanus" and "Haman" with the Zoroastrian term Vohu Mana; however this denotes the principle of "Good Thoughts" and is not the name of a deity.)
Interpretation[edit]
Christine Hayes contrasts the Book of Esther with apocalyptic writings, the Book of Daniel in particular: both Esther and Daniel depict an existential threat to the Jewish people, but while Daniel commends the Jews to wait faithfully for God to resolve the crisis, in Esther the crisis is resolved entirely through human action and national solidarity. God, in fact, is not mentioned, Esther is portrayed as assimilated to Persian culture, and Jewish identity in the book is an ethnic category rather than a religious one.[32]
This contrasts with traditional Jewish commentaries, such as the commentary of the Vilna Gaon, which states "But in every verse it discusses the great miracle. However, this miracle was in a hidden form, occurring through apparently natural processes, not like the Exodus from Egypt, which openly revealed the might of God."[33] This follows the approach of the Talmud,[34] which states that "(The Book of) Esther is referenced in the Torah in the verse 'And I shall surely hide (in Hebrew, 'haster astir,' related to 'Esther') My Face from them on that day.[35]
Additions to Esther[edit]
An additional six chapters appear interspersed in Esther in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Bible. This was noted by Jerome in compiling the Latin Vulgate. Additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. Jerome recognized the former as additions not present in the Hebrew Text and placed them at the end of his Latin translation as chapters 10:4–16:24. This placement and numbering system is used in Catholic Bible translations based primarily on the Vulgate, such as the Douay–Rheims Bible and the Knox Bible. In contrast, the 1979 revision of the Vulgate, the Nova Vulgata, incorporates the additions to Esther directly into the narrative itself, as do most modern Catholic English translations based on the original Hebrew and Greek (e.g., Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition, New American Bible, New Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition). The numbering system for the additions differs with each translation. The Nova Vulgata accounts for the additional verses by numbering them as extensions of the verses immediately following or preceding them (e.g., Esther 11:2–12 in the old Vulgate becomes Esther 1:1a–1k in the Nova Vulgata), while the NAB and its successor, the NABRE, assign letters of the alphabet as chapter headings for the additions (e.g., Esther 11:2–12:6 in the Vulgate becomes Esther A:1–17). The RSVCE and the NRSVCE place the additional material into the narrative, but retain the chapter and verse numbering of the old Vulgate.
These additions include:[36]
an opening prologue that describes a dream had by Mordecai
the contents of the decree against the Jews
prayers for God's intervention offered by Mordecai and by Esther
an expansion of the scene in which Esther appears before the king, with a mention of God's intervention
a copy of the decree in favor of the Jews
a passage in which Mordecai interprets his dream (from the prologue) in terms of the events that followed
a colophon appended to the end, which reads: In the fourth year of the reign of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Dositheus, who said he was a priest and Levite, and his son Ptolemy brought the present letter of Purim, saying that it was genuine and that Lysimachus, son of Ptolemy, of the community of Jerusalem, had translated it.
By the time Esther was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the Septuagint version noticeably calls Haman a "Bougaion" (βουγαῖον) where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite.
The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the Septuagint— Martin Luther, being perhaps the most vocal Reformation-era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value.[37] Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique and may reflect Luther's antisemitism, which is disputed, such as in the biography of Luther by Derek Wilson, which points out that Luther's anger at the Jews was not at their race but at their theology.
The Council of Trent, the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, reconfirmed the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, as canonical. The Book of Esther is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of Mordecai, and nothing of Esther's own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of Esther, as it does for all of the Old Testament. The additions are specifically listed in the Thirty-Nine Articles, Article VI, of the Church of England:[38] "The rest of the Book of Esther".
Modern retelling[edit]
There are several paintings depicting Esther, including one by Millais.
The Italian Renaissance poet Lucrezia Tornabuoni chose Esther as one of biblical figures on which she wrote poetry.[39]
In 1689, Jean Baptiste Racine wrote Esther, a tragedy, at the request of Louis XIV's wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon.
In 1718, Handel wrote the oratorio Esther based on Racine's play.
In 1958, a book entitled Behold Your Queen! was written by Gladys Malvern and illustrated by her sister, Corinne Malvern. It was chosen as a selection of the Junior Literary Guild.
The play entitled Esther (1960), written by Welsh dramatist Saunders Lewis, is a retelling of the story in Welsh.
A 1960 movie about the story, Esther and the King, starring Joan Collins.
A 1978 miniseries entitled The Greatest Heroes of the Bible starred Victoria Principal as Esther, Robert Mandan as Xerxes, and Michael Ansara as Haman.
Episode 25 of the 1981 anime series Superbook involves this story.
The 1983 musical entitled Swan Esther was written by J. Edward Oliver and Nick Munns and released as a concept album with Stephanie Lawrence and Denis Quilley. Swan Esther has been performed by the Young Vic, a national tour produced by Bill Kenwright and some amateur groups.
A 1986 Israeli film directed by Amos Gitai entitled Esther.
In 1992, a 30-minute, fully animated video, twelfth in Hanna-Barbera's The Greatest Adventure series, titled Queen Esther features the voices of Helen Slater as Queen Esther, Dean Jones as King Ahasuerus, Werner Klemperer as Haman, and Ron Rifkin as Mordecai.[40][41]
A 1999 TV movie from the Bible Collection that follows the biblical account very closely, Esther, starred Louise Lombard in the title role and F. Murray Abraham as Mordecai.[42]
In 2000, VeggieTales released "Esther... The Girl Who Became Queen".
Chosen: The Lost Diaries of Queen Esther by Ginger Garrett. 2005, NavPress.[importance?]
A 2006 movie about Esther and Ahasuerus, entitled One Night with the King, stars Tiffany Dupont and Luke Goss. It was based on the novel Hadassah: One Night with the King by Tommy Tenney and Mark Andrew Olsen.
Esther is one of the five heroines of the Order of the Eastern Star.
On March 8, 2011, the Maccabeats released a music video called "Purim Song".[43]
The Book of Esther is a 2013 movie starring Jen Lilley as Queen Esther and Joel Smallbone as King Xerxes.[44]
In 2012, a graphic adaptation of the Book of Esther was illustrated by J. T. Waldman and appeared in volume one of The Graphic Canon, edited by Russ Kick and published by Seven Stories Press.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Rossel, Seymour (2007). The Torah: Portion by Portion. Los Angeles: Torah Aura Productions. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-891662-94-2. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
Jump up ^ David R. Blumenthal. "Where God is Not: The Book of Esther and Song of Songs". Retrieved April 19, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Baumgarten, Albert I.; Sperling, S. David; Sabar, Shalom (2007). Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael, eds. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 18 (2nd ed.). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 216.
^ Jump up to: a b Larkin, Katrina J. A. (1996). Ruth and Esther (Old Testament Guides). Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press. p. 71.
Jump up ^ Crawford, Sidnie White (1998). "Esther". In Newsom, Carol A.; Ringe, Sharon H. Women's Bible Commentary. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. p. 202.
Jump up ^ Moore, Carey A. (1971). Esther (Anchor Bible). Garden City, NY: Doubleday. p. XXXV.
^ Jump up to: a b E. A. W. Budge, The Chronography of Bar Hebraeus, Gorgias Press LLC, reprinted 2003
Jump up ^ https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Historia_Scholastica/Esther#De_Ocho_seu_Artaxerxe.
Jump up ^ Clines 1984, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Jobes 2011, p. 40-41.
Jump up ^ Esther chapters 9–10
Jump up ^ Babylonian Talmud: Tractate Baba Bathra 15a
Jump up ^ NIV Study Bible, Introductions to the Books of the Bible, Esther, Zondervan, 2002
Jump up ^ Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Fishbane, Michael, eds. (2004). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. p. 1625. ISBN 978-0195297515.
Jump up ^ Shemaryahu Talmon, "Wisdom in the Book of Esther", Vetus Testamentum 13 (1963), p. 453 (at JSTOR, free subscription needed)
Jump up ^ Freedman, David Noel; Allen C. Myers; Astrid B. Beck Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000 ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4 p. 428 books.google.co.uk
Jump up ^ George Lyons, Additions to Esther, Wesley Center for Applied Theology, 2000
^ Jump up to: a b Prof. Michael Sokoloff, The Targums to the Book of Esther, Bar-Ilan University 's Parashat Hashavua Study Center, Parashat Tezaveh/Zakhor 5764 March 6, 2004
^ Jump up to: a b S. Kaufman, Cal Targum Texts, Text base and variants, The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, Hebrew Union College – Jewish Institute of Religion
Jump up ^ Alan J. Hauser, Duane Frederick Watson, A History of Biblical Interpretation: The Ancient Period, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Coogan, Michael David Coogan, A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 396.
^ Jump up to: a b Sidnie White Crawford, "Esther", in The New Interpreters Study Bible New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha, ed. Walter J. Harrison and Donald Senior (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003), 689–690.
Jump up ^ New King James Version, translation of Esther 2:6
^ Jump up to: a b Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (Editor), International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Volume II, 1982, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 159 (entry: Book of Esther)
Jump up ^ Wiersbe,Warren W., Bible Exposition Commentary: Old Testament History, David C Cook, 2004 p. 712
^ Jump up to: a b Adele Berlin, "The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", Journal of Biblical Literature 120. no. 1 (Spring 2001): 3–14.
Jump up ^ Adele Berlin, “The Book of Esther and Ancient Storytelling", Journal of Biblical Literature 120. no. 1 (Spring 2001): 6.
Jump up ^ "The archaeological background of Esther: archaeological backgrounds of the exilic and postexilic era, pt 2". Bibliotheca sacra 137, no. 546 (1980), 102.
Jump up ^ First, Mitchell (March 17, 2016). "Identifying Achashverosh and Esther in Secular Sources". Jewish Link of New Jersey. JEWISH LINK. Retrieved January 5, 2018. Although Herodotus traveled widely in the 460s and 450s B.C.E., he probably never set foot in Persia. His information about Persia is based on what was told to him orally. Every scholar knows that he could not possibly be correct on a large percentage of the details he reports (whether about Persia or any matter). Also, the impression that one receives from the Megillah is that Esther did not disclose her true ancestry for several years. Whatever rumors about [Esther's] ancestry first came out may be what made their way to Herodotus.
Jump up ^ http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/17-esther-nets.pdf Note on two Greek versions of the book of Esther
^ Jump up to: a b c Jacob Hoschander, The Book of Esther in the Light of History, Oxford University Press, 1923
Jump up ^ Hayes, Christine (2006). "Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) — Lecture 24 — Alternative Visions: Esther, Ruth, and Jonah". Open Yale Courses. Yale University.
Jump up ^ Commentary of the Vilna Gaon to the Book of Esther 1:1
Jump up ^ Chullin 139b
Jump up ^ Deut. 31:18
Jump up ^ see the NAB online for the passages
Jump up ^ Frederic W. Bush, "The Book of Esther: Opus non gratum in the Christian Canon", Bulletin for Biblical Research 8 (1998), p. 39
Jump up ^ Article VI: Of the sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures for Salvation Archived November 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Robin, Larsen and Levin. Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England. p. 368.
Jump up ^ Books of the Bible Christian Bookstore. "I Have A Song – Shannon Wexelberg".
Jump up ^ "The Internet Antique Shop – The Web's largest antiques & collectibles mall serving collectors since 1995".
Jump up ^ Tania B (5 November 2000). "Esther". IMDb.
Jump up ^ "The Maccabeats – Purim Song". YouTube. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Esther (2013)". IMDb. 11 June 2013.
Sources[edit]
Clines, David J.A. (1984). The Esther Scroll. A&C Black,.
Jobes, Karen H. (2011). Esther. Zondervan.
Beal, Timothy K (Timothy Beal). The Book of Hiding: Gender, Ethnicity, Annihilation, and Esther. NY: Routledge, 1997. Postmodern theoretical apparatus, e.g. Jacques Derrida, Emmanuel Levinas
Extract from The JPS Bible Commentary: Esther by Adele Berlin: Liberal Jewish view.
Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther, 2nd ed. Wipf & Stock, 2010 – highly regarded literary analysis
Sasson, Jack M. "Esther" in Alter and Kermode, pp. 335–341, literary view
The Historicity of Megillat Esther: Gil Student's survey of scholarship supporting a historical reading of Esther
Esther, Book of: A Christian perspective of the book.
Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Ancient Near East by Theodor Gaster. 1950.
White, Sidnie Ann. "Esther: A Feminine Model for Jewish Diaspora" in Newsom
Esther (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Cumming, Rev. J. Elder DD The Book of Esther: Its spiritual teaching London: The Religious Tract Society, 1913
Ecker, Ronald L. The Book of Esther, Ecker's Biblical Web Pages, 2007.
Fischer, James A. Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther. Collegeville Bible Commentary. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1986.
Fox, Michael V. Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001.
Hudson, J. Francis Esther: For Such a Time as This. From Character and Charisma series. Kingsway, 2000.
Levenson, Jon D. Esther. Old Testament Library Series. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1997.
McConville, John C. L. Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. Daily Study Bible Series. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985.
Moore, Carey A. Esther. Anchor Bible, vol. 7B. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971.
Paton, Lewis B. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther. International Critical Commentary. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1908.
Hazony, Yoram. God and Politics in Esther. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
"Esther, Book of". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
"Esther, Apocryphal Book of". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Book of Esther.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Esther
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The King James Version of Rest of Esther
Text and translations[edit]
Jewish translations
Esther (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Purim insights to Megillat Esther
Mechon Mamre Full text, Aleppo Codex: text of Esther in Hebrew
Christian translations
Online Bible at GospelHall.org
The Book of Esther Full text, KJV, (also available at Arabic)
Esther in the NAB
Esther NRSV translation with photos of Susa
Esther: 2012 Critical Translation with Audio Drama at biblicalaudio
Introduction to the Book of Esther
Bible: Esther public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Physical relics[edit]
A Megillah (scroll of the Book of Esther), found in Vilna after World War II
Book of Esther
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Costa Rica at the FIFA World Cup
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a record of Costa Rica's results at the FIFA World Cup. The FIFA World Cup, sometimes called the Football World Cup or the Soccer World Cup, but usually referred to simply as the World Cup, is an international association football competition contested by the men's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The championship has been awarded every four years since the first tournament in 1930, except in 1942 and 1946, due to World War II.
The tournament consists of two parts, the qualification phase and the final phase (officially called the World Cup Finals). The qualification phase, which currently take place over the three years preceding the Finals, is used to determine which teams qualify for the Finals. The current format of the Finals involves 32 teams competing for the title, at venues within the host nation (or nations) over a period of about a month. The World Cup Finals is the most widely viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 tournament final.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Record
1.1 FIFA World Cup Record by Country
2 Matches
2.1 1990
2.2 2002
2.3 2006
2.4 2014
3 Record Players
4 Top Goalscorers
5 References
6 External links
Record[edit]
FIFA World Cup record
Year
Round
Position
GP
W
D*
L
GS
GA
1930 Did not enter
1934
1938
1950
1954
1958 Did not qualify
1962
1966
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990 Round of 16 13th 4 2 0 2 4 6
1994 Did not qualify
1998
2002 Group stage 19th 3 1 1 1 5 6
2006 Group stage 31st 3 0 0 3 3 9
2010 Did not qualify
2014 Quarter-finals 8th 5 2 3 0 5 2
2018 Qualified
2022 To be determined
Total 5/21 — 15 5 4 6 17 23
FIFA World Cup Record by Country[edit]
FIFA World Cup matches (by team)
Opponent
Wins
Draws
Losses
Total
Goals Scored
Goals Conceded
Brazil 0 0 2 2 2 6
China PR 1 0 0 1 2 0
Czechoslovakia 0 0 1 1 1 4
Ecuador 0 0 1 1 0 3
England 0 1 0 1 0 0
Germany 0 0 1 1 2 4
Greece 0 1 0 1 1 1
Italy 1 0 0 1 1 0
Netherlands 0 1 0 1 0 0
Poland 0 0 1 1 1 2
Scotland 1 0 0 1 1 0
Sweden 1 0 0 1 2 1
Turkey 0 1 0 1 1 1
Uruguay 1 0 0 1 3 1
Matches[edit]
1990[edit]
Main article: 1990 FIFA World Cup
Costa Rica v Scotland
11 June 1990 Group Stage Costa Rica 1 – 0 Scotland
[show]Stadio Luigi Ferraris, Genoa
17:00 Cayasso 49' Report Attendance: 30,867
Referee: Juan Carlos Loustau (Argentina)

Brazil v Costa Rica
16 June 1990 Group Stage Brazil 1 – 0 Costa Rica
[show]Stadio Delle Alpi, Turin
17:00 Müller 33' Report Attendance: 58,007
Referee: Neji Jouini (Tunisia)

Costa Rica v Sweden
20 June 1990 Group Stage Costa Rica 2 – 1 Sweden
[show]Stadio Luigi Ferraris, Genoa
21:00 Flores 75'
Medford 88' Report Ekström 32' Attendance: 30,223
Referee: Zoran Petrović (Yugoslavia)

Czechoslovakia v Costa Rica
23 June 1990 Round of 16 Czechoslovakia 4 – 1 Costa Rica
[show]Stadio San Nicola, Bari
21:00 Skuhravý 12', 63', 82'
Kubík 75' Report González 54' Attendance: 47,673
Referee: Siegfried Kirschen (East Germany)

2002[edit]
Main article: 2002 FIFA World Cup
Costa Rica v China PR
4 June 2002 Group Stage Costa Rica 2 – 0 China PR
[show]Gwangju, South Korea
15:30 Gómez 61'
Wright 65' Report Stadium: Gwangju World Cup Stadium
Attendance: 27,217
Referee: Kyros Vassaras (Greece)

Costa Rica v Turkey
9 June 2002 Group Stage Costa Rica 1 – 1 Turkey
[show]Incheon, South Korea
18:00 Parks 86' Report 56' Belözoğlu Stadium: Incheon Munhak Stadium
Attendance: 42,299
Referee: Coffi Codjia (Benin)

Costa Rica v Brazil
13 June 2002 Group Stage Costa Rica 2 – 5 Brazil
[show]Suwon, South Korea
15:30 Wanchope 22'
Gómez 56' Report 10', 13' Ronaldo
38' Edmílson
62' Rivaldo
64' Júnior Stadium: Suwon World Cup Stadium
Attendance: 38,524
Referee: Gamal Al-Ghandour (Egypt)

2006[edit]
Main article: 2006 FIFA World Cup
Germany v Costa Rica
9 June 2006 Group Stage Germany 4 – 2 Costa Rica
[show]Munich
18:00 Lahm 6'
Klose 17', 61'
Frings 87' Report 12', 73' Wanchope Stadium: FIFA WM Stadion München
Attendance: 66,000
Referee: Horacio Elizondo (Argentina)

Ecuador v Costa Rica
15 June 2006 Group Stage Ecuador 3 – 0 Costa Rica
[show]Hamburg
15:00 C. Tenorio 8'
Delgado 54'
Kaviedes 90+2' Report Stadium: FIFA WM Stadion Hamburg
Attendance: 50,000
Referee: Coffi Codjia (Benin)

Costa Rica v Poland
20 June 2006 Group Stage Costa Rica 1 – 2 Poland
[show]Hanover
16:00 Gómez 25' Report 33', 65' Bosacki Stadium: FIFA WM Stadion Hannover
Attendance: 43,000
Referee: Shamsul Maidin (Singapore)

2014[edit]
Main article: 2014 FIFA World Cup
Uruguay v Costa Rica
14 June 2014 Group Stage Uruguay 1 – 3 Costa Rica
[show]Estádio Castelão, Fortaleza
16:00 UTC−3 Cavani 24' (pen.) Report Campbell 54'
Duarte 57'
Ureña 84' Attendance: 58,679
Referee: Felix Brych (Germany)

Italy v Costa Rica
20 June 2014 Group Stage Italy 0 – 1 Costa Rica
[show]Arena Pernambuco, Recife
13:00 UTC−3 Report Ruiz 44' Attendance: 40,285
Referee: Enrique Osses (Chile)

Costa Rica v England
24 June 2014 Group Stage Costa Rica 0 – 0 England
[show]Estádio Mineirão, Belo Horizonte
13:00 UTC−3 Report Attendance: 57,823
Referee: Djamel Haimoudi (Algeria)

Costa Rica v Greece
29 June 2014 Round of 16 Costa Rica 1 – 1 (a.e.t.)
(5 – 3 p) Greece
[show]Arena Pernambuco, Recife
17:00 Ruiz 52' Report Papastathopoulos 90+1' Attendance: 41,242
Referee: Ben Williams (Australia)
Penalties
Borges
Ruiz
González
Campbell
Umaña Mitroglou
Christodoulopoulos
Holebas
Gekas
Netherlands v Costa Rica
5 July 2014 Quarter-finals Netherlands 0 – 0 (a.e.t.)
(4 – 3 p) Costa Rica
[show]Arena Fonte Nova, Salvador
17:00 Report Attendance: 51,179
Referee: Ravshan Irmatov (Uzbekistan)
Penalties
Van Persie
Robben
Sneijder
Kuyt Borges
Ruiz
González
Bolaños
Umaña
Record Players[edit]
No.
Name
Matches
World Cups
1 Christian Bolaños 7 2006 and 2014
Michael Umaña 7 2006 and 2014
3 Walter Centeno 6 2002 and 2006
Rónald Gómez 6 2002 and 2006
Luis Marín 6 2002 and 2006
Mauricio Solís 6 2002 and 2006
Paulo Wanchope 6 2002 and 2006
8 Harold Wallace 5 2002 and 2006
Celso Borges 5 2014
Joel Campbell 5 2014
Júnior Díaz 5 2014
Cristian Gamboa 5 2014
Giancarlo González 5 2014
Keylor Navas 5 2014
Bryan Ruiz 5 2014
Yeltsin Tejeda 5 2014
1990 FIFA World Cup squad
2002 FIFA World Cup squad
2006 FIFA World Cup squad
2014 FIFA World Cup squad
Top Goalscorers[edit]
A list of the top goalscorers for Costa Rica in the FIFA World Cup. Joel Campbell, Oscar Duarte, Marco Ureña and Bryan Ruiz all scored in Costa Rica's 2014 World Cup campaign.
No.
Name
Goals
World Cup
1 Rónald Gómez 3 2002, 2006
Paulo Wanchope 3 2002, 2006
3 Bryan Ruiz 2 2014
4
Juan Cayasso 1 1990
Róger Flores 1 1990
Rónald González 1 1990
Hernán Medford 1 1990
Winston Parks 1 2002
Mauricio Wright 1 2002
Joel Campbell 1 2014
Oscar Duarte 1 2014
Marco Ureña 1 2014
References[edit]
Jump up ^ 2006 FIFA World Cup TV Coverage Archived June 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. (PDF), FIFA.com. Retrieved on June 6, 2007.
External links[edit]
FIFA.com – Costa Rica on FIFA.com
[show]
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1 Considered a successor team by FIFA, or have competed under another name(s). 2 Have been member of multiple confederations. 3 Team and national federation no longer exist.
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