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Pangaea
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For other uses, see Pangaea (disambiguation).
Map of Pangaea with modern continental outlines
Pangaea or Pangea ( /pænˈdʒiːə/[1]) was a supercontinent that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras.[2][3] It assembled from earlier continental units approximately 335 million years ago, and it began to break apart about 175 million years ago.[4] In contrast to the present Earth and its distribution of continental mass, much of Pangaea was in the southern hemisphere and surrounded by a superocean, Panthalassa. Pangaea was the most recent supercontinent to have existed and the first to be reconstructed by geologists.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the concept
2 Formation
3 Evidence of existence
4 Rifting and break-up
5 Tectonic plate shift
6 Life
7 Climate change after Pangaea
8 Implications of extinction
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Origin of the concept
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The name "Pangaea/Pangea" is derived from Ancient Greek pan (πᾶν, "all, entire, whole") and Gaia (Γαῖα, "Mother Earth, land").[5][10] The concept that the continents once formed a continuous land mass was first proposed by Alfred Wegener, the originator of the scientific theory of continental drift, in his 1912 publication The Origin of Continents (Die Entstehung der Kontinente).[11] He expanded upon his hypothesis in his 1915 book The Origin of Continents and Oceans (Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane), in which he postulated that, before breaking up and drifting to their present locations, all the continents had formed a single supercontinent that he called the "Urkontinent".
The name "Pangea" occurs in the 1920 edition of Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, but only once, when Wegener refers to the ancient supercontinent as "the Pangaea of the Carboniferous".[12] Wegener used the Germanized form "Pangäa", but the name entered German and English scientific literature (in 1922[13] and 1926, respectively) in the Latinized form "Pangaea" (of the Greek "Pangaia"), especially due to a symposium of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists in November 1926.[14]
Formation
Appalachian orogeny
The forming of supercontinents and their breaking up appears to have been cyclical through Earth's history. There may have been many others before Pangaea. The fourth-last supercontinent, called Columbia or Nuna, appears to have assembled in the period 2.0–1.8 Ga.[15][16] Columbia/Nuna broke up and the next supercontinent, Rodinia, formed from the accretion and assembly of its fragments. Rodinia lasted from about 1.1 billion years ago (Ga) until about 750 million years ago, but its exact configuration and geodynamic history are not nearly as well understood as those of the later supercontinents, Pannotia and Pangaea.
When Rodinia broke up, it split into three pieces: the supercontinent of Proto-Laurasia, the supercontinent of Proto-Gondwana, and the smaller Congo craton. Proto-Laurasia and Proto-Gondwana were separated by the Proto-Tethys Ocean. Next Proto-Laurasia itself split apart to form the continents of Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica. Baltica moved to the east of Laurentia, and Siberia moved northeast of Laurentia. The splitting also created two new oceans, the Iapetus Ocean and Paleoasian Ocean. Most of the above masses coalesced again to form the relatively short-lived supercontinent of Pannotia. This supercontinent included large amounts of land near the poles and, near the equator, only a relatively small strip connecting the polar masses. Pannotia lasted until 540 Ma, near the beginning of the Cambrian period and then broke up, giving rise to the continents of Laurentia, Baltica, and the southern supercontinent of Gondwana.
In the Cambrian period, the continent of Laurentia, which would later become North America, sat on the equator, with three bordering oceans: the Panthalassic Ocean to the north and west, the Iapetus Ocean to the south and the Khanty Ocean to the east. In the Earliest Ordovician, around 480 Ma, the microcontinent of Avalonia – a landmass incorporating fragments of what would become eastern Newfoundland, the southern British Isles, and parts of Belgium, northern France, Nova Scotia, New England, South Iberia and northwest Africa – broke free from Gondwana and began its journey to Laurentia.[17] Baltica, Laurentia, and Avalonia all came together by the end of the Ordovician to form a minor supercontinent called Euramerica or Laurussia, closing the Iapetus Ocean. The collision also resulted in the formation of the northern Appalachians. Siberia sat near Euramerica, with the Khanty Ocean between the two continents. While all this was happening, Gondwana drifted slowly towards the South Pole. This was the first step of the formation of Pangaea.[18]
The second step in the formation of Pangaea was the collision of Gondwana with Euramerica. By Silurian time, 440 Ma, Baltica had already collided with Laurentia, forming Euramerica. Avalonia had not yet collided with Laurentia, but as Avalonia inched towards Laurentia, the seaway between them, a remnant of the Iapetus Ocean, was slowly shrinking. Meanwhile, southern Europe broke off from Gondwana and began to move towards Euramerica across the newly formed Rheic Ocean. It collided with southern Baltica in the Devonian, though this microcontinent was an underwater plate. The Iapetus Ocean's sister ocean, the Khanty Ocean, shrank as an island arc from Siberia collided with eastern Baltica (now part of Euramerica). Behind this island arc was a new ocean, the Ural Ocean.
By late Silurian time, North and South China split from Gondwana and started to head northward, shrinking the Proto-Tethys Ocean in their path and opening the new Paleo-Tethys Ocean to their south. In the Devonian Period, Gondwana itself headed towards Euramerica, causing the Rheic Ocean to shrink. In the Early Carboniferous, northwest Africa had touched the southeastern coast of Euramerica, creating the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, the Meseta Mountains and the Mauritanide Mountains. South America moved northward to southern Euramerica, while the eastern portion of Gondwana (India, Antarctica and Australia) headed toward the South Pole from the equator. North and South China were on independent continents. The Kazakhstania microcontinent had collided with Siberia. (Siberia had been a separate continent for millions of years since the deformation of the supercontinent Pannotia in the Middle Carboniferous.)
Western Kazakhstania collided with Baltica in the Late Carboniferous, closing the Ural Ocean between them and the western Proto-Tethys in them (Uralian orogeny), causing the formation of not only the Ural Mountains but also the supercontinent of Laurasia. This was the last step of the formation of Pangaea. Meanwhile, South America had collided with southern Laurentia, closing the Rheic Ocean and forming the southernmost part of the Appalachians and Ouachita Mountains. By this time, Gondwana was positioned near the South Pole and glaciers were forming in Antarctica, India, Australia, southern Africa and South America. The North China block collided with Siberia by Late Carboniferous time, completely closing the Proto-Tethys Ocean.
By early Permian time, the Cimmerian plate split from Gondwana and headed towards Laurasia, thus closing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, but forming a new ocean, the Tethys Ocean, in its southern end. Most of the landmasses were all in one. By the Triassic Period, Pangaea rotated a little and the Cimmerian plate was still travelling across the shrinking Paleo-Tethys, until the Middle Jurassic time. The Paleo-Tethys had closed from west to east, creating the Cimmerian Orogeny. Pangaea, which looked like a C, with the new Tethys Ocean inside the C, had rifted by the Middle Jurassic, and its deformation is explained below.
Evidence of existence
The distribution of fossils across the continents is one line of evidence pointing to the existence of Pangaea.
Fossil evidence for Pangaea includes the presence of similar and identical species on continents that are now great distances apart. For example, fossils of the therapsid Lystrosaurus have been found in South Africa, India and Antarctica, alongside members of the Glossopteris flora, whose distribution would have ranged from the polar circle to the equator if the continents had been in their present position; similarly, the freshwater reptile Mesosaurus has been found in only localized regions of the coasts of Brazil and West Africa.[19]
Additional evidence for Pangaea is found in the geology of adjacent continents, including matching geological trends between the eastern coast of South America and the western coast of Africa. The polar ice cap of the Carboniferous Period covered the southern end of Pangaea. Glacial deposits, specifically till, of the same age and structure are found on many separate continents which would have been together in the continent of Pangaea.[20]
Paleomagnetic study of apparent polar wandering paths also support the theory of a supercontinent. Geologists can determine the movement of continental plates by examining the orientation of magnetic minerals in rocks; when rocks are formed, they take on the magnetic properties of the Earth and indicate in which direction the poles lie relative to the rock. Since the magnetic poles drift about the rotational pole with a period of only a few thousand years, measurements from numerous lavas spanning several thousand years are averaged to give an apparent mean polar position. Samples of sedimentary rock and intrusive igneous rock have magnetic orientations that are typically an average of the "secular variation" in the orientation of magnetic north because their remanent magnetizations are not acquired instantaneously. Magnetic differences between sample groups whose age varies by millions of years is due to a combination of true polar wander and the drifting of continents. The true polar wander component is identical for all samples, and can be removed, leaving geologists with the portion of this motion that shows continental drift and can be used to help reconstruct earlier continental positions.[21]
The continuity of mountain chains provides further evidence for Pangaea. One example of this is the Appalachian Mountains chain which extends from the southeastern United States to the Caledonides of Ireland, Britain, Greenland, and Scandinavia.[22]
Rifting and break-up
Animation of the rifting of Pangaea
There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first phase began in the Early-Middle Jurassic (about 175 Ma), when Pangaea began to rift from the Tethys Ocean in the east to the Pacific in the west. The rifting that took place between North America and Africa produced multiple failed rifts. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.[22]
The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the north-central Atlantic. The South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous when Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and moved northward with North America to the north, and Eurasia to the south. The clockwise motion of Laurasia led much later to the closing of the Tethys Ocean and the widening of the "Sinus Borealis", which later became the Arctic Ocean. Meanwhile, on the other side of Africa and along the adjacent margins of east Africa, Antarctica and Madagascar, new rifts were forming that would lead to the formation of the southwestern Indian Ocean that would open up in the Cretaceous.
The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Early Cretaceous (150–140 Ma), when the minor supercontinent of Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia). The subduction at Tethyan Trench probably caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward, causing the opening of a "South Indian Ocean". In the Early Cretaceous, Atlantica, today's South America and Africa, finally separated from eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia). Then in the Middle Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean as South America started to move westward away from Africa. The South Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north.
Also, at the same time, Madagascar and India began to separate from Antarctica and moved northward, opening up the Indian Ocean. Madagascar and India separated from each other 100–90 Ma in the Late Cretaceous. India continued to move northward toward Eurasia at 15 centimeters (6 in) a year (a plate tectonic record), closing the eastern Tethys Ocean, while Madagascar stopped and became locked to the African Plate. New Zealand, New Caledonia and the rest of Zealandia began to separate from Australia, moving eastward toward the Pacific and opening the Coral Sea and Tasman Sea.
The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America/Greenland (also called Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 Ma. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.
Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved quickly northward, just as India had done more than 40 million years before. Australia is currently on a collision course with eastern Asia. Both Australia and India are currently moving northeast at 5–6 centimeters (2–3 in) a year. Antarctica has been near or at the South Pole since the formation of Pangaea about 280 Ma. India started to collide with Asia beginning about 35 Ma, forming the Himalayan orogeny, and also finally closing the Tethys Seaway; this collision continues today. The African Plate started to change directions, from west to northwest toward Europe, and South America began to move in a northward direction, separating it from Antarctica and allowing complete oceanic circulation around Antarctica for the first time. This motion, together with decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, caused a rapid cooling of Antarctica and allowed glaciers to form. This glaciation eventually coalesced into the kilometers-thick ice sheets seen today.[23] Other major events took place during the Cenozoic, including the opening of the Gulf of California, the uplift of the Alps, and the opening of the Sea of Japan. The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the Red Sea Rift and East African Rift.
Tectonic plate shift
The breakup of Pangaea over time
Pangaea's formation is now commonly explained in terms of plate tectonics. The involvement of plate tectonics in Pangaea's[24] separation helps to show how it did not separate all at once, but at different times, in sequences. Additionally, after these separations, it has also been discovered that the separated land masses may have also continued to break apart multiple times. The formation of each environment and climate on Pangaea is due to plate tectonics, and thus, it is as a result of these shifts and changes different climatic pressures were placed on the life on Pangaea. Although plate tectonics was paramount in the formation of later land masses, it was also essential in the placement, climate, environments, habitats, and overall structure of Pangaea.[25]
What can also be observed in relation to tectonic plates and Pangaea, is the formations to such plates. Mountains and valleys form due to tectonic collisions as well as earthquakes and chasms. Consequentially, this shaped Pangaea and animal adaptations. Furthermore, plate tectonics can contribute to volcanic activity,[26] which is responsible for extinctions and adaptations which have evidently affected life over time, and without doubt on Pangaea.
Life
Example of an ammonite
For the approximately 160 million years Pangaea existed, many species had fruitful times whereas others struggled. The Traversodontidae[27] is an example of such prospering animals, eating a diet of only plants. Plants dependent on spore reproduction had been taken out of the ecosystems, and replaced by the gymnosperm plant, which reproduces through the use of seeds instead. Later on, insects (beetles, dragonflies, mosquitos) also thrived during the Permian period 299 to 252 million years ago.[28] However, the Permian extinction at 252 Mya greatly impacted these insects in mass extinction, being the only mass extinction to affect insects. When the Triassic Period came, many reptiles were able to also thrive, including Archosaurs, which were an ancestor to modern-day crocodiles and birds.
Little is known about marine life during the existence of Pangaea. Scientists are unable to find substantial evidence or fossilized remains in order to assist them in answering such questions. However, a couple of marine animals have been determined to have existed at the time- the Ammonites and Brachiopods. Additionally, evidence pointing towards massive reefs with varied ecosystems, especially in the species of sponges and coral, have also been discovered.[citation needed]
Climate change after Pangaea
Pangaea has tremendously affected the setup of the world now. In the post Pangaea time period, the reconfiguration of continents and oceans has changed the climate of many areas. There is scientific evidence that proves that climate was drastically altered. When the continents separated and reformed themselves, it changed the flow of the oceanic currents and winds. The scientific reasoning behind all of the changes is Continental Drift. The theory of Continental Drift, created by Alfred Wegener, explained how the continents shifted Earth’s surface and how that affected many aspects such as climate, rock formations found on different continents and plant and animal fossils.[29] Wegener studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic of Svalbard, Norway. He determined that such plants were not meant to adapt to a glacial climate. The fossils he found were from tropical plants that were meant to adapt and thrive in warmer and tropical climate.[30] Because we would not assume that the plant fossils were capable of traveling to a different place we suspect that Svalbard possibly had a warmer, less frigid climate in the past.[31]
When Pangaea separated, the reorganization of the continents changed the function of the oceans and seaways. The restructuring of the continents, changed and altered the distribution of warmth and coolness of the oceans. When North America and South America connected, it stopped equatorial currents from passing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean.[32] Researchers have found evidence by using computer hydrological models to show that this strengthened the Gulf Stream by diverting more warm currents towards Europe. Warm waters at high latitudes led to an increased evaporation and eventually atmospheric moisture. Increased evaporation and atmospheric moisture resulted in increased precipitation. Evidence of increased precipitation is the development of snow and ice that covers Greenland, which led to an accumulation of the icecap. Greenland’s growing ice cap led to further global cooling.[32] Scientists also found evidence of global cooling through the separation of Australia and Antarctica and the formation of the Antarctic Ocean. Ocean currents in the newly formed Antarctic or Southern Ocean created a circumpolar current.[32] The creation of the new ocean that caused a circumpolar current eventually led to atmospheric currents that rotated from west to east. Atmospheric and oceanic currents stopped the transfer of warm, tropical air and water to the higher latitudes. As a result of the warm air and currents moving northward, Antarctica cooled down so much that it became frigid.
Although many of Alfred Wegener’s theories and conclusions were valid, scientists are constantly coming up with new innovative ideas or reasoning behind why certain things happen. Wegener’s theory of Continental Drift was later replaced by the theory of tectonic plates.[33]
Implications of extinction
There is evidence to suggest that the deterioration of northern Pangaea contributed to the Permian Extinction, one of Earth’s five major mass extinction events, which resulted in the loss of over 90% of marine and 70% of terrestrial species. There were three main sources of environmental deterioration which are believed to have had a hand in the extinction event.
The first of these sources is a loss of oxygen concentration in the ocean which caused deep water regions called the lysocline to grow shallower. With the lysocline shrinking, there were fewer places for calcite to dissolve in the ocean, considering calcite only dissolves at deep ocean depths. This led to the extinction of carbonate producers such as brachiopods and corals that relied on dissolved calcite to survive. The second source is the eruption of the Siberian Traps, a large volcanic event which is argued to be the result of Pangaean tectonic movement.[34] This had several negative repercussions on the environment, including metal loading and excess atmospheric carbon. Metal loading, the release of toxic metals from volcanic eruptions into the environment, led to acid rain and general stress on the environment. These toxic metals are known to infringe on vascular plants’ ability to photosynthesize, which may have resulted in the loss of Permian-era flora. Excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is believed to be the main cause of the shrinking of lysocline areas.
The third cause of this extinction event that can be attributed to northern Pangaea is the beginnings of anoxic ocean environments, or oceans with very low oxygen concentrations. The mix of anoxic oceans and ocean acidification due to metal loading led to increasingly acidic oceans,[35] which ultimately led to the extinction of Benthos.[36]
See also
Africa portal
Antarctica portal
Asia portal
Australia portal
Europe portal
North America portal
South America portal
History of the Earth
List of supercontinents
Potential future supercontinents: Pangaea Ultima, Novopangaea & Amasia
PANGAEA, a data library for earth system science, operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI)
Supercontinent cycle
References
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Jump up ^ "Pangea". Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2015.
Jump up ^ Rogers, J.J.W.; Santosh, M. (2004), Continents and Supercontinents, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 146, ISBN 0-19-516589-6
Jump up ^ "Pangaea". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Vergilius Mario, Publius. Georgicon, IV.462
Jump up ^ Lucan. Pharsalia, I.679
Jump up ^ Lewis, C.T. & al. "Pangaeus" in A Latin Dictionary. (New York), 1879.
Jump up ^ Usener, H. Scholia in Lucani Bellum Civile, Vol. I. (Leipzig), 1869.
Jump up ^ As "Pangaea", it appears in Greek mythology as a mountain battle site during the Titanomachia. As "Pangaeus", it was the name of a specific mountain range in southern Thrace. "Pangaea" also appears in Vergil's Georgics[6] and Lucan's Pharsalia[7][8] The scholiast on Lucan glossed Pangaea id est totum terra—"Pangaea: that is, all land"—as having received its name on account of its smooth terrain and unexpected fertility.[9]
Jump up ^ Alfred Wegener: Die Entstehung der Kontinente. Dr. A. Petermann's Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes' Geographischer Anstalt, 58(1): Gotha 1912
Jump up ^ See:
Wegener, Alfred, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, 2nd ed. (Braunschweig, Germany: F. Vieweg, 1920), p. 120: "Schon die Pangäa der Karbonzeit hatte so einen Vorderrand … " [Already the Pangea of the Carboniferous era had such a leading edge … ] (In the 1922 edition, see p. 130.)
Wegener, A.; Krause, R.; Thiede, J. (2005). "Kontinental-Verschiebungen: Originalnotizen und Literaturauszüge"(Continental drift: the original notes and quotations). Berichte zur Polar- und Meeresforschung (Reports on Polar and Marine Research) 516. Alfred-Wegener-Institut: Bremerhaven, p. 4, n. 2
Jump up ^ Jaworski, Erich (1922). "Die A. Wegenersche Hypothese der Kontinentalverschiebung". Geologische Rundschau. 13: 273–296. doi:10.1007/bf01799790.
Jump up ^ Willem A. J. M. van Waterschoot van der Gracht (and 13 other authors): Theory of Continental Drift: a Symposium of the Origin and Movements of Land-masses of both Inter-Continental and Intra-Continental, as proposed by Alfred Wegener. X + 240 S., Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, The American Association of Petroleum Geologists & London, Thomas Murby & Co.
Jump up ^ Zhao, Guochun; Cawood, Peter A.; Wilde, Simon A.; Sun, M. (2002). "Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia supercontinent". Earth-Science Reviews. 59: 125–162. Bibcode:2002ESRv...59..125Z. doi:10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00073-9.
Jump up ^ Zhao, Guochun; Sun, M.; Wilde, Simon A.; Li, S.Z. (2004). "A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup". Earth-Science Reviews. 67: 91–123. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.02.003.
Jump up ^ Stanley, Steven (1998). Earth System History. USA. pp. 355–359.
Jump up ^ Stanley, Steven (1998). Earth System History. USA. pp. 386–392.
Jump up ^ Benton, M.J. (2005) Vertebrate Palaeontology. Third edition, Oxford, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Murck, Barbara W. and Skinner, Brian J. (1999) Geology Today: Understanding Our Planet, Study Guide, Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-32323-5
Jump up ^ Kearey, Philip; Klepeis, Keith A. and Vine, Frederick J. (2009). Global Tectonics (3rd. ed), pp. 66–67. Chichester:Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-0777-8
^ Jump up to: a b Merali, Zeeya and Skinner, Brian J. (2009) Visualizing Earth Science, Wiley, ISBN 047174705X
Jump up ^ Deconto, Robert M.; Pollard, David (2003). "Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO2". Nature. 421 (6920): 245–9. doi:10.1038/nature01290. PMID 12529638.
Jump up ^ "Pangea | supercontinent". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
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Jump up ^ "Pangaea to the Present Lesson #2 | Volcano World | Oregon State University". volcano.oregonstate.edu. Retrieved 2015-10-29.
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Jump up ^ Beauchamp, Benoit; Grasby, Stephen E. (2012). "Permian lysocline shoaling and ocean acidification along NW Pangea led to carbonate eradication and chert expansion". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 350–352: 73–90. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.06.014.
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Gaia (mythology)

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Congo craton

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Panthalassic Ocean

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North China (continent)

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Meseta Mountains

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Cimmerian plate

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Intrusive igneous rock

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Magnetic north

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South Atlantic

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Zealandia (continent)

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Himalayan orogeny

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Kalahari craton

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North China craton

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Pangea – Afrikaans
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Panxea – Asturian
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Pangeya – Azerbaijani
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interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Bosnian
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interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Breton
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Pangea – Catalan
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Pangaea – Cebuano
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interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangaea – Welsh
cy
cy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea
Pangaea – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea
Pangaea – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Παγγαία – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangea
Pangea – Spanish
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es
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangeo – Esperanto
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eo
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Basque
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eu
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Pangaea – Irish
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interlanguage-link-target

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Pangaea – Scottish Gaelic
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Panxea – Galician
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Pangea – Croatian
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Pangea – Indonesian
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Pangea – Icelandic
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Pangea – Italian
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Pangea – Javanese
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Pangaia – Swahili
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Panje – Haitian Creole
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Pangaea – Latin
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Pangeja – Latvian
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Pangea – Hungarian
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Pangea – Maltese
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Pangea – Malay
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Pangea – Dutch
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Pangeea – Northern Frisian
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Pangea – Norwegian
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Pangea – Norwegian Nynorsk
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Pangea – Piedmontese
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Pangea – Polish
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pl
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangeia – Portuguese
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pt
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Pangeea – Romanian
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ro
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Pangaea – Scots
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Pangea – Sicilian
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Pangea – Slovak
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sk
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Pangea – Slovenian
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sl
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Pangea – Somali
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so
interlanguage-link-target

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Pangea – Serbo-Croatian
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sh
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Pangea – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

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Airway resistance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In respiratory physiology, airway resistance is the resistance of the respiratory tract to airflow during inhalation and expiration. Airway resistance can be measured using body plethysmography.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Determinants of airway resistance
2.1 Hagen–Poiseuille equation
2.2 Laminar flow versus turbulent flow
3 Changes in airway resistance
4 Derived parameters
4.1 Airway conductance (GAW)
4.2 Specific airway resistance (sRaw)[3][4]
4.3 Specific airway conductance (sGaw)[3]
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Definition[edit]
Analogously to Ohm's Law:
R A W = Δ P V ˙ {\displaystyle R_{AW}={\frac {{\Delta }P}{\dot {V}}}}
Where:
Δ P = P A T M − P A {\displaystyle {\Delta P}=P_{ATM}-P_{A}}
So:
R A W = P A T M − P A V ˙ {\displaystyle R_{AW}={\frac {P_{\mathrm {ATM} }-P_{\mathrm {A} }}{\dot {V}}}}
Where:
R A W {\displaystyle R_{AW}} = Airway Resistance
Δ P {\displaystyle {\Delta }P} = Pressure Difference driving airflow
P A T M {\displaystyle P_{ATM}} = Atmospheric Pressure
P A {\displaystyle P_{A}} = Alveolar Pressure
V ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {V}}} = Volumetric Airflow (not minute ventilation which, confusingly, may be represented by the same symbol)
N.B. PA and V ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {V}}} change constantly during the respiratory cycle.
Determinants of airway resistance[edit]
There are several important determinants of airway resistance including:
The diameter of the airways
Whether airflow is laminar or turbulent
Hagen–Poiseuille equation[edit]
In fluid dynamics, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation is a physical law that gives the pressure drop in a fluid flowing through a long cylindrical pipe. The assumptions of the equation are that the flow is laminar viscous and incompressible and the flow is through a constant circular cross-section that is substantially longer than its diameter. The equation is also known as the Hagen–Poiseuille law, Poiseuille law and Poiseuille equation.
Δ P = 8 η l V ˙ π r 4 {\displaystyle {\Delta P}={\frac {8\eta l{\dot {V}}}{\pi r^{4}}}}
Where:
Δ P {\displaystyle \Delta P} = Pressure difference between the ends of the pipe
l {\displaystyle l} = Length of pipe
η {\displaystyle \eta } = the dynamic viscosity
V ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {V}}} = the volumetric flow rate (Q is usually used in fluid dynamics, however in respiratory physiology it denotes cardiac output)
r {\displaystyle r} = the radius of the pipe
Dividing both sides by V ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {V}}} and given the above definition shows:-
R = 8 η l π r 4 {\displaystyle R={\frac {8\eta l}{\pi r^{4}}}}
While the assumptions of the Hagen–Poiseuille equation are not strictly true of the respiratory tract it serves to show that, because of the fourth power, relatively small changes in the radius of the airways causes large changes in airway resistance.
An individual small airway has much greater resistance than a large airway, however there are many more small airways than large ones. Therefore, resistance is greatest at the bronchi of intermediate size, in between the fourth and eighth bifurcation.[1]
Laminar flow versus turbulent flow[edit]
Where air is flowing in a laminar manner it has less resistance than when it is flowing in a turbulent manner. If flow becomes turbulent, and the pressure difference is increased to maintain flow, this response itself increases resistance. This means that a large increase in pressure difference is required to maintain flow if it becomes turbulent.
Whether flow is laminar or turbulent is complicated, however generally flow within a pipe will be laminar as long as the Reynolds number is less than 2300.[2]
R e = ρ v d μ {\displaystyle Re={{\rho {\mathrm {v} }d} \over \mu }}
where:
R e {\displaystyle Re} is the Reynolds number
d {\displaystyle d} is the diameter of the pipe.
v {\displaystyle {\mathbf {\mathrm {v} } }} is the mean velocity.
μ {\displaystyle {\mu }} is the dynamic viscosity.
ρ {\displaystyle {\rho }\,} is the density.
This shows that larger airways are more prone to turbulent flow than smaller airways. In cases of upper airway obstruction the development of turbulent flow is a very important mechanism of increased airway resistance, this can be treated by administering Heliox which is much less dense than air and consequently more conductive to laminar flow.
Changes in airway resistance[edit]
Airway resistance is not constant. As shown above airway resistance is markedly affected by changes in the diameter of the airways, therefore diseases affecting the respiratory tract can increase airway resistance. Airway resistance can change over time, for example, in asthma during an attack the airways constrict causing an increase in airway resistance. Airway resistance can also vary between inspiration and expiration, for example, in emphysema there is destruction of the elastic tissue of the lungs which help hold the small airways open, therefore during expiration, particularly forced expiration, these airways may collapse causing increased airway resistance.
Derived parameters[edit]
Airway conductance (GAW)[edit]
This is simply the mathematical inverse of airway resistance.
G A W = 1 R A W {\displaystyle G_{AW}={\frac {1}{R_{AW}}}}
Specific airway resistance (sRaw)[3][4][edit]
s R A W = R A W V {\displaystyle sR_{AW}={R_{AW}}{V}}
Where V is the lung volume at which RAW was measured.
Also called volumic airway resistance. Due to the elastic nature of the tissue that supports the small airways airway resistance changes with lung volume. It is not practically possible to measure airway resistance at a set absolute lung volume, therefore specific airway resistance attempts to correct for differences in lung volume at which different measurements of airway resistance were made.
Specific airway resistance is often measured at FRC, in which case:
s R A W = R A W × F R C {\displaystyle sR_{AW}={R_{AW}}\times {FRC}}
Specific airway conductance (sGaw)[3][edit]
s G A W = G A W V = 1 R A W V = 1 s R A W {\displaystyle sG_{AW}={\frac {G_{AW}}{V}}={\frac {1}{R_{AW}V}}={\frac {1}{sR_{AW}}}}
Where V is the lung volume at which GAW was measured.
Also called volumic airway conductance. Similarly to specific airway resistance, specific airway conductance attempts to correct for differences in lung volume.
Specific airway conductance is often measured at FRC, in which case:
s G A W = G A W F R C {\displaystyle sG_{AW}={\frac {G_{AW}}{FRC}}}
See also[edit]
Turbulent flow
Laminar flow
Reynolds number
Upper airway resistance syndrome (UARS)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Physiology: 4/4ch2/s4ch2_51 - Essentials of Human Physiology
Jump up ^ "Reynolds Number".
^ Jump up to: a b "US EPA Glossary of Terms".
Jump up ^ Kirkby, J.; et al. (2010). "Reference equations for specific airway resistance in children: the Asthma UK initiative" (PDF). European Respiratory Journal. 36 (3): 622–629. doi:10.1183/09031936.00135909. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
External links[edit]
Overview at med.jhmi.edu
Calculator at medstudents.com.br
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Cell division
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with cellular differentiation.
Three types of cell division
Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.[1] Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division: a vegetative division, whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell (mitosis),[2] and a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis). Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division, and sister chromatids are separated in the second division. Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor. Prokaryotes undergo a vegetative cell division known as binary fission, where their genetic material is segregated equally into two daughter cells. All cell divisions, regardless of organism, are preceded by a single round of DNA replication.
For simple unicellular microorganisms such as the amoeba, one cell division is equivalent to reproduction – an entire new organism is created. On a larger scale, mitotic cell division can create progeny from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings. Mitotic cell division enables sexually reproducing organisms to develop from the one-celled zygote, which itself was produced by meiotic cell division from gametes. After growth, cell division by mitosis allows for continual construction and repair of the organism.[3] The human body experiences about 10 quadrillion cell divisions in a lifetime.[4]
The primary concern of cell division is the maintenance of the original cell's genome. Before division can occur, the genomic information that is stored in chromosomes must be replicated, and the duplicated genome must be separated cleanly between cells. A great deal of cellular infrastructure is involved in keeping genomic information consistent between generations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Phases of cell division
1.1 Interphase
1.2 Prophase
1.3 Metaphase
1.4 Anaphase
1.5 Telophase
2 Variants
3 Degradation
4 History
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Phases of cell division[edit]
This article relies too much on references to primary sources. Please improve this by adding secondary or tertiary sources. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Interphase[edit]
Interphase is the process a cell must go through before mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis.[5] Interphase consists of four main stages: G1, S, G0, and G2. G1 is a time of growth for the cell. If the cell does not progress through G1, the cell then enters a stage called G0. In G0, cells are still living but they are put on hold. The cells may later be called back into interphase if needed at a later time. There are checkpoints during interphase that allow the cell to be either progressed or denied further development. In S phase, the chromosomes are replicated in order for the genetic content to be maintained. During G2, the cell undergoes the final stages of growth before it enters the M phase. The M phase, can be either mitosis or meiosis depending on the type of cell. Germ cells undergo meiosis, while somatic cells will undergo mitosis. After the cell proceeds successfully through the M phase, it may then undergo cell division through cytokinesis. The control of each checkpoint is controlled by cyclin and cyclin dependent kinases. The progression of interphase is the result of the increased amount of cyclin. As the amount of cyclin increases, more and more cyclin dependent kinases attach to cyclin signaling the cell further into interphase. The peak of the cyclin attached to the cyclin dependent kinases this system pushes the cell out of interphase and into the M phase, where mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis occur.
Prophase[edit]
Prophase is the first stage of division. The nuclear envelope is broken down, long strands of chromatin condense to form shorter more visible strands called chromosomes, the nucleolus disappears, and microtubules attach to the chromosomes at the kinetochores present in the centromere.[6] Microtubules associated with the alignment and separation of chromosomes are referred to as the spindle and spindle fibers. Chromosomes will also be visible under a microscope and will be connected at the centromere. During this condensation and alignment period, homologous chromosomes may swap portions of their DNA in a process known as crossing over.
Metaphase[edit]
Metaphase is the stage in cell division when the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell by MTOCs ( microtubule organizing center) by pushing and pulling on centromeres of both chromatids which causes the chromosome to move to the center. The chromosomes are still condensing and are currently at one step away from being the most coiled and condensed they will be.[7] Spindle and spindle fibers have already connected to the kinetochores. At this point, the chromosomes are ready to split into opposite poles of the cell towards the spindle to which they are connected. [8]
Anaphase[edit]
Anaphase is a very short stage of the cell cycle and occurs after the chromosomes align at the mitotic plate. After the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, the spindle fibers will pull them apart. The chromosomes are split apart as the sister chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell.[9]
Telophase[edit]
Telophase is the last stage of the cell cycle. Two cells form around the chromatin at the two poles of the cell. Two nuclear membranes begin to reform and the chromatin begin to unwind.[10]
Variants[edit]
Image of the mitotic spindle in a human cell showing microtubules in green, chromosomes (DNA) in blue, and kinetochores in red.
Cells are broadly classified into two main categories: simple, non-nucleated prokaryotic cells, and complex, nucleated eukaryotic cells. Owing to their structural differences, eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells do not divide in the same way. Also, the pattern of cell division that transforms eukaryotic stem cells into gametes (sperm cells in males or egg cells in females), termed meiosis, is different from that of the division of somatic cells in the body.
Cell division over 42. The cells were directly imaged in the cell culture vessel, using non-invasive quantitative phase contrast time-lapse microscopy.[11]
Degradation[edit]
Multicellular organisms replace worn-out cells through cell division. In some animals, however, cell division eventually halts. In humans this occurs, on average, after 52 divisions, known as the Hayflick limit. The cell is then referred to as senescent. Cells stop dividing because the telomeres, protective bits of DNA on the end of a chromosome required for replication, shorten with each copy, eventually being consumed.[citation needed] Cancer cells, on the other hand, are not thought to degrade in this way, if at all. An enzyme called telomerase, present in large quantities in cancerous cells, rebuilds the telomeres, allowing division to continue indefinitely.
History[edit]
A cell division under microscope was first discovered by German botanist Hugo von Mohl in 1835 as he worked over Green algae Cladophora glomerata.[12]
See also[edit]
Binary fission
Cell growth
Labile cells, cells that constantly divide
Klerokinesis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Robert.S Hine, ed. (2008). Oxford Dictionary Biology (6th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 113. ISBN 978-0-19-920462-5.
Jump up ^ Griffiths, Anthony J.F.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley, John (2012). Introduction to Genetic Analysis (10 ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-4292-2943-2.
Jump up ^ Maton, Anthea (1997). Cells: Building Blocks of Life. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 70–74. ISBN 0-13-423476-6.
Jump up ^ Quammen, David (April 2008). "Contagious cancer: The evolution of a killer". Harper's. 316 (1895): 42. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Marieb, Elaine (2000). Essentials of human anatomy and physiology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-4940-5.
Jump up ^ Schermelleh, Lothar; Carlton, Peter M.; Haase, Sebastian; Shao, Lin; Winoto, Lukman; Kner, Peter; Burke, Brian; Cardoso, M. Cristin; Agard, David A. (2008-06-06). "Subdiffraction Multicolor Imaging of the Nuclear Periphery with 3D Structured Illumination Microscopy". Science. 320 (5881): 1332–1336. doi:10.1126/science.1156947. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 2916659  . PMID 18535242.
Jump up ^ "Researchers Shed Light On Shrinking Of Chromosomes". ScienceDaily. June 12, 2007. Retrieved 2017-02-02.
Jump up ^ Elrod, Susan (2002). Schaum's Outline of Genetics (Fifth ed.). United States of America: McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc. p. 8. ISBN 9780071625036.
Jump up ^ "The Cell Cycle". www.biology-pages.info. Retrieved 2017-02-02.
Jump up ^ Hetzer, Martin W. (2017-02-02). "The Nuclear Envelope". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2 (3). doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a000539. ISSN 1943-0264. PMC 2829960  . PMID 20300205.
Jump up ^ Phase Holographic Imaging. Cell Division
Jump up ^ Karl Mägdefrau (1994), "Mohl, Hugo von", Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB) (in German), 17, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 690–691 ; (full text online)
Further reading[edit]
Morgan HI. (2007). "The Cell Cycle: Principles of Control" London: New Science Press.
J.M.Turner Fetus into Man (1978, 1989). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-30692-9
Cell division: binary fission and mitosis
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cell division.
How Cells Divide: Mitosis vs. Meiosis
The Mitosis and Cell Cycle Control Section from the Landmark Papers in Cell Biology (Gall JG, McIntosh JR, eds.) contains commentaries on and links to seminal research papers on mitosis and cell division. Published online in the Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology
The Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology contains many videos showing the cell division.
Videos of the first cell divisions in Xenopus laevis embryos (side view and top view), acquired by MRI (DOI of paper)
Images : Calanthe discolor Lindl. - Flavon's Secret Flower Garden
Tyson's model of cell division and a Description on BioModels Database
WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell Lineage - Visualize the entire set of cell divisions of the nematode C. elegans
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