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List of Olympic medalists in curling
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Main article: Curling at the Winter Olympics
The medalists in the women's tournament at the 2010 Winter Olympics. Left to right: Canada (silver), Sweden (gold) and China (bronze).
Curling is a team sport that is contested at the Winter Olympic Games. A men's tournament was held at the 1924 Winter Olympics before the sport was removed from the official programme until the 1998 Games.[1] For 82 years, the 1924 tournament was considered a demonstration sport, so the medals were not officially counted by the International Olympic Committee (IOC).[2] The tournament was won by a team from the Royal Caledonian Curling Club in Scotland, who represented Great Britain.[3] In 2006, Scottish newspaper The Herald conducted an investigation that found evidence that curling had been part of the official programme.[4] The IOC subsequently recognized the top three teams as full medal winners.[5]
Although not part of the official programme, curling was contested as a demonstration sport in 1932, 1988 and 1992. Curling was re-added as a demonstration event in 1988 because the Olympics were being held in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, where the sport has a strong following.[6] In November 1992, the Nagano Winter Olympic Organizing Committee and IOC Coordination Committee reached an agreement to include curling in the official programme of the 1998 Games in Nagano, Japan.[7] Both the men's and women's tournaments have been held at every Winter Olympics since.[1]
In total, 132 athletes have won a medal in curling, and 7 have won two. In 2010, Anette Norberg, Eva Lund, Cathrine Lindahl and Anna Le Moine of Sweden won the gold medal in the women's tournament, becoming the first curlers to win consecutive gold medals.[8] Kevin Martin of Canada (one gold, one silver), Torger Nergård of Norway (one gold, one silver) and Mirjam Ott of Switzerland (two silver) have also won two medals. Norberg also won a silver in 1988 when curling was a demonstration sport.[9] According to the IOC, Carl August Kronlund of Sweden was the oldest Winter Olympics medallist, winning silver in 1924 at the age of 59. Robin Welsh of Great Britain was the oldest Winter Olympics gold medallist, winning in 1924 when he was 54.[10]
Teams from Canada have been successful in the sport since its return to the programme, winning two medals at each Olympics for a total of five gold, three silver and two bronze. Switzerland is the only other nation to win at least one medal at every Olympics since 1998 with one gold, two silver and one bronze. Teams from Norway, Sweden and Great Britain have also won gold medals in the sport. A total of 27 medals (nine of each color) have been awarded since 1924 and have been won by teams from ten National Olympic Committees (NOC).
Contents
[hide]
1 Medalists
1.1 Men
1.2 Women
1.3 Mixed doubles
1.4 Notes
2 Athlete medal leaders
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Medalists[edit]
Men[edit]
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1924 Chamonix
details Great Britain (GBR)1
William Jackson
Robin Welsh
Thomas Murray
Laurence Jackson
D. G. Astley Sweden (SWE)
Johan Petter Åhlén
Carl August Kronlund
Ture Ödlund
Carl Wilhelm Petersén
Carl Axel Pettersson
Erik Severin
Karl Wahlberg
Victor Wetterström France (FRA)
Henri Cournollet
Georges André
Armand Bénédic
Pierre Canivet
R. Planque
H. Aldebert
1928–1994 not included in the Olympic programme
1998 Nagano
details Switzerland (SUI)
Patrick Hürlimann
Patrik Lörtscher
Daniel Müller
Diego Perren
Dominic Andres Canada (CAN)
Mike Harris
Richard Hart
Collin Mitchell
George Karrys
Paul Savage Norway (NOR)
Eigil Ramsfjell
Jan Thoresen
Stig-Arne Gunnestad
Tore Torvbråten
Anthon Grimsmo
2002 Salt Lake City
details Norway (NOR)
Pål Trulsen
Lars Vågberg
Flemming Davanger
Bent Ånund Ramsfjell
Torger Nergård Canada (CAN)
Kevin Martin
Don Walchuk
Carter Rycroft
Don Bartlett
Ken Tralnberg Switzerland (SUI)
Andreas Schwaller
Christof Schwaller
Markus Eggler
Damian Grichting
Marco Ramstein
2006 Turin
details Canada (CAN)
Brad Gushue
Mark Nichols
Russ Howard
Jamie Korab
Mike Adam Finland (FIN)
Markku Uusipaavalniemi
Wille Mäkelä
Kalle Kiiskinen
Teemu Salo
Jani Sullanmaa United States (USA)
Pete Fenson
Shawn Rojeski
Joseph Polo
John Shuster
Scott Baird
2010 Vancouver
details Canada (CAN)
Kevin Martin
John Morris
Marc Kennedy
Ben Hebert
Adam Enright Norway (NOR)
Thomas Ulsrud
Torger Nergård
Christoffer Svae
Håvard Vad Petersson
Thomas Løvold Switzerland (SUI)
Ralph Stöckli
Jan Hauser
Markus Eggler
Simon Strübin
Toni Müller
2014 Sochi
details Canada (CAN)
Brad Jacobs
Ryan Fry
E. J. Harnden
Ryan Harnden
Caleb Flaxey Great Britain (GBR)
David Murdoch
Greg Drummond
Scott Andrews
Michael Goodfellow
Tom Brewster Sweden (SWE)
Niklas Edin
Sebastian Kraupp
Fredrik Lindberg
Viktor Kjäll
Oskar Eriksson
2018 Pyeongchang
details
Women[edit]
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1998 Nagano
details Canada (CAN)
Sandra Schmirler
Jan Betker
Joan McCusker
Marcia Gudereit
Atina Ford Denmark (DEN)
Helena Blach Lavrsen
Margit Pörtner
Dorthe Holm
Trine Qvist
Jane Bidstrup Sweden (SWE)
Elisabet Gustafson
Katarina Nyberg
Louise Marmont
Elisabeth Persson
Margaretha Lindahl
2002 Salt Lake City
details Great Britain (GBR)
Rhona Martin
Deborah Knox
Fiona MacDonald
Janice Rankin
Margaret Morton Switzerland (SUI)
Luzia Ebnöther
Mirjam Ott
Tanya Frei
Laurence Bidaud
Nadia Röthlisberger Canada (CAN)
Kelley Law
Julie Skinner
Georgina Wheatcroft
Diane Nelson
Cheryl Noble
2006 Turin
details Sweden (SWE)
Anette Norberg
Eva Lund
Cathrine Lindahl
Anna Svärd
Ulrika Bergman Switzerland (SUI)
Mirjam Ott
Binia Beeli
Valeria Spälty
Michèle Moser
Manuela Kormann Canada (CAN)
Shannon Kleibrink
Amy Nixon
Glenys Bakker
Christine Keshen
Sandra Jenkins
2010 Vancouver
details Sweden (SWE)
Anette Norberg
Eva Lund
Cathrine Lindahl
Anna Le Moine
Kajsa Bergström Canada (CAN)
Cheryl Bernard
Susan O'Connor
Carolyn Darbyshire
Cori Bartel
Kristie Moore China (CHN)
Wang Bingyu
Liu Yin
Yue Qingshuang
Zhou Yan
Liu Jinli
2014 Sochi
details Canada (CAN)
Jennifer Jones
Kaitlyn Lawes
Jill Officer
Dawn McEwen
Kirsten Wall Sweden (SWE)
Margaretha Sigfridsson
Maria Prytz
Christina Bertrup
Maria Wennerström
Agnes Knochenhauer Great Britain (GBR)
Eve Muirhead
Anna Sloan
Vicki Adams
Claire Hamilton
Lauren Gray
2018 Pyeongchang
details
Mixed doubles[edit]
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
2018 Pyeongchang
details
Notes[edit]
^ The members of the 1924 British team vary depending on the source. William Jackson, Robin Welsh, Thomas Murray and Laurence Jackson are listed as the medallists by the British Olympic Association and International Society of Olympic Historians.[11][12] The Herald reports that those four are the only British curlers that played, and they received gold medals and certificates.[3] However, the IOC database omits Laurence Jackson and includes T. Aikman, D. G. Astley, W. Brown, R. Cousin and J. McLeod.[13] According to The Herald, the IOC believes that those five also received medals.[3] The World Curling Federation's list agrees with the BOA, but also lists John T. Robertson Aikman [incorrectly] as an alternate.[14]
Athlete medal leaders[edit]
Athlete
Nation
Olympics
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Norberg, AnetteAnette Norberg Sweden (SWE) 2006, 2010 2 0 0 2
Lund, EvaEva Lund Sweden (SWE) 2006, 2010 2 0 0 2
Lindahl, CathrineCathrine Lindahl Sweden (SWE) 2006, 2010 2 0 0 2
Le Moine, AnnaAnna Le Moine Sweden (SWE) 2006, 2010 2 0 0 2
Martin, KevinKevin Martin Canada (CAN) 2002, 2010 1 1 0 2
Nergård, TorgerTorger Nergård Norway (NOR) 2002–2010 1 1 0 2
Ott, MirjamMirjam Ott Switzerland (SUI) 2002–2010 0 2 0 2
See also[edit]
List of Paralympic medalists in wheelchair curling
List of men's World Curling champions
List of women's World Curling champions
References[edit]
General
"Search all Olympic medalists". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-10.
"Results & statistics – Championships". World Curling Federation. Archived from the original on 2010-03-02. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
Specific
^ Jump up to: a b "Curling equipment and history". International Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 2010-02-26. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Anna (2006-02-09). "GB curlers awarded belated gold". BBC Sport. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gillon, Doug (2006-01-23). "The Herald sweeps Britain to curling gold medal". The Herald. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
Jump up ^ "Brits win curling gold 82 years late". ABC News. 2006-02-10. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
Jump up ^ "Britain taste 82-year-old gold". Australian Olympic Committee. 2006-02-10. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
Jump up ^ "Curling History". CBC Sports. Archived from the original on 2011-07-11. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
Jump up ^ "An Agreement By Nagano Games". The New York Times. 1992-11-29. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
Jump up ^ Hoogkamp, Paul (2010-02-26). "Gold medal thriller goes to Sweden". CTV Olympics. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
Jump up ^ Campigotto, Jesse (2010-02-15). "Bernard not the favourite in women's curling". CBC Sports. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Factsheet: Records and medals at the Olympic Winter Games" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. February 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-04. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
Jump up ^ "Team GB medalists–Chamonix 1924". British Olympic Association. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Great Britain Curling at the 1924 Chamonix Winter Games". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
Jump up ^ "1924 curling medallists". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Results & statistics – I. Olympic Winter Games 1924". World Curling Federation. Archived from the original on 2011-08-26. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
External links[edit]
Curling – Olympics at Sports-reference.com
Olympic Review and Revue Olympique. LA84 Foundation
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Pompeii
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the classical Roman city. For the modern Italian city, see Pompei. For the Classical Roman leader, see Pompey. For the Pacific island, see Pohnpei. For other uses, see Pompeii (disambiguation).
Pompeii
Via dell'Abbondanza, the main street in Pompeii.
Shown within Italy
Location
Pompei, Province of Naples, Campania, Italy
Coordinates
40°45′0″N 14°29′10″E / 40.75000°N 14.48611°E / 40.75000; 14.48611Coordinates: 40°45′0″N 14°29′10″E / 40.75000°N 14.48611°E / 40.75000; 14.48611
Type
Settlement
Area
64 to 67 ha (170 acres)
History
Founded
6th–7th century BC
Abandoned
AD 79
Site notes
Website
www.pompeiisites.org
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name
Archaeological Areas of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Torre Annunziata
Type
Cultural
Criteria
iii, iv, v
Designated
1997 (21st session)
Reference no.
829
Region
Europe
Pompeii was an ancient Roman town-city near modern Naples, in the Campania region of Italy, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area, was mostly destroyed and buried under 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) of volcanic ash and pumice in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79.
Archaeologists believe that the town was founded in the 7th or 6th century BC by the Osci or Oscans. It came under the domination of Rome in the 4th century BC, and was conquered and became a Roman colony in 80 BC after it joined an unsuccessful rebellion against the Roman Republic. By the time of its destruction, 160 years later, its population was estimated at 11,000 people, and the city had a complex water system, an amphitheatre, a gymnasium, and a port.
The eruption destroyed the city, killing its inhabitants and burying it under tons of ash. Evidence for the destruction originally came from a surviving letter by Pliny the Younger, who saw the eruption from a distance and described the death of his uncle Pliny the Elder, an admiral of the Roman fleet, who tried to rescue citizens. The site was lost for about 1,500 years until its initial rediscovery in 1599 and broader rediscovery almost 150 years later by Spanish engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre in 1748.[1] The objects that lay beneath the city have been preserved for more than a millennium because of the long lack of air and moisture. These artefacts provide an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city during the Pax Romana. During the excavation, plaster was used to fill in the voids in the ash layers that once held human bodies. This allowed archaeologists to see the exact position the person was in when he or she died.
Pompeii has been a tourist destination for over 250 years. Today it has UNESCO World Heritage Site status and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors every year.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Geography
3 History
3.1 Early history
3.2 First century AD
3.3 AD 62–79
3.4 Eruption of Vesuvius
3.5 Rediscovery
4 Tourism
5 Conservation
5.1 House of the Gladiators collapse
6 In popular culture
7 Documentaries
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Name
Ruins of Pompeii from above, with Vesuvius in the background
Pompeii (pronounced [pɔmˈpɛjjiː]) in Latin is a second declension plural (Pompeiī, -ōrum). According to Theodor Kraus, "The root of the word Pompeii would appear to be the Oscan word for the number five, pompe, which suggests that either the community consisted of five hamlets or, perhaps, it was settled by a family group (gens Pompeia)."[3]
Geography
The Temple of Jupiter with Vesuvius in the distance
The ruins of Pompeii are located near the modern suburban town of Pompei (nowadays written with one 'i'). It stands on a spur formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River (known in ancient times as the Sarnus).
Pompeii, Italy. Pompeii - Forum and Vesuvius. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection
Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times was nearer to the coast. Pompeii is about 8 km (5.0 mi) away from Mount Vesuvius. It covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares (170 acres) and was home to approximately 11,000 to 11,500 people on the basis of household counts.[4] It was a major city in the region of Campania.
History
Early history
The archaeological digs at the site extend to the street level of the AD 79 volcanic event; deeper digs in older parts of Pompeii and core samples of nearby drillings have exposed layers of jumbled sediment that suggest that the city had suffered from other seismic events before the eruption. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of animal bone, pottery shards and plants. Carbon dating has placed the oldest of these layers from the 8th–6th centuries BC (around the time the city was founded). The other two strata are separated either by well-developed soil layers or Roman pavement, and were laid in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. It is theorised that the layers of the jumbled sediment were created by large landslides, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall.[5]
The town was founded around the 7th–6th century BC by the Osci or Oscans, a people of central Italy, on what was an important crossroad between Cumae, Nola and Stabiae. It had already been used as a safe port by Greek and Phoenician sailors. According to Strabo, Pompeii was also captured by the Etruscans, and in fact recent[timeframe?] excavations have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th-century BC necropolis. Pompeii was captured for the first time by the Greek colony of Cumae, allied with Syracuse, between 525 and 474 BC.
In the 5th century BC, the Samnites conquered it (and all the other towns of Campania); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. After the Samnite Wars (4th century BC), Pompeii was forced to accept the status of socium of Rome, maintaining, however, linguistic and administrative autonomy. In the 4th century BC, it was fortified. Pompeii remained faithful to Rome during the Second Punic War.
The present Temple of Apollo was built in the 2nd century BC as the city's most important religious structure.
Pompeii took part in the war that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in 89 BC it was besieged by Sulla. Although the battle-hardened troops of the Social League, headed by Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, in 80 BC Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola, culminating in many of Sulla's veterans being given land and property, while many of those who went against Rome were ousted from their homes. It became a Roman colony with the name of Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way.
It was fed with water by a spur from Aqua Augusta (Naples) built c. 20 BC by Agrippa; the main line supplied several other large towns, and finally the naval base at Misenum. The castellum in Pompeii is well preserved, and includes many details of the distribution network and its controls.[6]
First century AD
Illustrated reconstruction, from a CyArk/University of Ferrara research partnership, of how the Temple of Apollo may have looked before Mt. Vesuvius erupted
The same location today.
Annotated map of Pompeii
The main Forum in Pompeii
The Forum with Vesuvius in the distance
Amphitheatre of Pompeii
Ruins of Roman Villa Poppaea at Torre Annunziata
The excavated city offers a snapshot of Roman life in the 1st century, frozen at the moment it was buried on 24 August AD 79.[7] The forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain well preserved.
Details of everyday life are preserved. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico's), a famous inscription Salve, lucru ("Welcome, profit") indicates a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since nummus means "coin; money"). Other houses provide details concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry" workers (Fullones). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world's earliest known marketing pun (technically a blend), Vesuvinum (combining Vesuvius and the Latin for wine, vinum).[citation needed]
The numerous graffiti carved on the walls and inside rooms provides a wealth of information regarding Vulgar Latin, the form of Latin spoken colloquially rather than the literary language of the classical writers.
Portrait of Terentius Neo with his wife found on the wall of a Pompeii house. (Portrait of Paquius Proculo)[8]
In 89 BC, after the final occupation of the city by Roman General Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Pompeii was finally annexed by the Roman Republic. During this period, Pompeii underwent a vast process of infrastructural development, most of which was built during the Augustan period. These include an amphitheatre, a palaestra with a central natatorium (cella natatoria) or swimming pool and an aqueduct that provided water for more than 25 street fountains, at least four public baths, and a large number of private houses (domūs) and businesses. The amphitheatre has been cited by modern scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control.[9]
The aqueduct branched through three main pipes from the Castellum Aquae, where the waters were collected before being distributed to the city. In extreme drought, the water supply would first fail to reach the public baths (the least vital service), then private houses and businesses—and if there were no water flow at all, the system would fail to supply the public fountains (the most vital service) in the streets of Pompeii. The pools in Pompeii were mostly for decoration.
The large number of well-preserved frescoes provide information on everyday life and have been a major advance in art history of the ancient world, with the innovation of the Pompeian Styles (First/Second/Third Style). Some aspects of the culture were distinctly erotic, including frequent use of the phallus as apotropaion or good-luck charm in various types of decoration. A large collection of erotic votive objects and frescoes were found at Pompeii. Many were removed and kept until recently in a secret collection at the University of Naples.
At the time of the eruption, the town may have had some 11,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area where Romans had holiday villas. William Abbott explains, "At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations." It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions. Due to the difficult terrain, it was not distributed on a regular plan as most Roman towns were, but its streets are straight and laid out in a grid in the Roman tradition. They are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its decumanus (main east/west road) and its cardo (main north/south road), centred on the forum.
Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples in Pompeii’s economy prior to AD 79. Pompeii was fortunate to have a fruitful, fertile region of soil for harvesting a variety of crops. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius even preceding its eruption have been revealed to have good water-holding capabilities, implying access to productive agriculture. The Tyrrhenian Sea’s airflow provided hydration to the soil despite the hot, dry climate.[10]
The rural areas surrounding Pompeii had abundant agricultural land that was very fertile and could produce much larger quantities of goods than the city needed. Some speculate that much of the flat land in Campania, surrounding the areas of Pompeii was dedicated to grain and wheat production. Cereal, barley, wheat, and millet were all produced by the locals in Pompeii. These grains, along with wine and olive oil, were produced in abundance for export to other regions.[11]
Evidence of wine imported nationally from Pompeii in its most prosperous years can be found from recovered artefacts such as wine bottles in Rome.[11] For this reason, vineyards were of utmost importance to Pompeii’s economy. Agricultural policymaker Columella suggested that each vineyard in Rome produced a quota of three cullei of wine per jugerum, otherwise the vineyard would be uprooted. The nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient at this and were often able to exceed these requirements by a steep margin, therefore providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves.[11] While wine was exported for Pompeii’s economy, the majority of the other agricultural goods were likely produced in quantities relevant to the city’s consumption.
Remains of large formations of constructed wineries were found in Forum Boarium, covered by cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius.[11] It is speculated that these historical vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to the modern day vineyards across Italy. Water depressions have also been found in close proximity to the wineries and served as water wells for the produce and livestock.
Carbonised food plant remains, roots, seeds and pollens, have been found from gardens in Pompeii, Herculaneum and from the Roman villa at Torre Annunziata. They revealed that emmer wheat, Italian millet, common millet, walnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, hazel nuts, chickpeas, bitter vetch, broad beans, olives, figs, pears, onions, garlic, peaches, carob, grapes, and dates were consumed. All except the dates could have been produced locally.[12]
Besides the forum, many other services were found: the Macellum (great food market), the Pistrinum (mill), the Thermopolium (sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and cauponae (small restaurants). An amphitheatre and two theatres have been found, along with a palaestra or gymnasium. A hotel (of 1,000 square metres) was found a short distance from the town; it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine". Geothermal energy supplied channelled district heating for baths and houses.[13] At least one building, the Lupanar, was dedicated to prostitution.[14]
In 2002, another discovery at the mouth of the Sarno River near Sarno revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in palafittes (stilt-houses), within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to Venice to some scientists.
AD 62–79
Main article: Mount Vesuvius Precursors and foreshocks
The inhabitants of Pompeii had long been used to minor quaking (indeed, the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on 5 February 62,[15] a severe earthquake did considerable damage around the bay, and particularly to Pompeii. It is believed that the earthquake would have registered between about 5 and 6 on the Richter magnitude scale.[16]
On that day in Pompeii, there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of Augustus being named "Father of the Nation" and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake. Fires, caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake, added to the panic. Nearby cities of Herculaneum and Nuceria were also affected.[16]
Temples, houses, bridges, and roads were destroyed. It is believed that almost all buildings in the city of Pompeii were affected. In the days after the earthquake, anarchy ruled the city, where theft and starvation plagued the survivors. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79, some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption.[16] Although it is unknown how many, a considerable number of inhabitants moved to other cities within the Roman Empire while others remained and rebuilt.
An important field of current research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired around 17 years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption.
Eruption of Vesuvius
Main article: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79
By the 1st century AD, Pompeii was one of a number of towns near the base of the volcano, Mount Vesuvius. The area had a substantial population, which had grown prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii's neighbouring communities, most famously Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 eruption. The eruption occurred on 24 August AD 79, just one day after Vulcanalia, the festival of the Roman god of fire, including that from volcanoes.[17]
Pompeii and other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown.
Roman fresco with a banquet scene from the Casa dei Casti Amanti, Pompeii
A multidisciplinary volcanological and bio-anthropological study of the eruption products and victims, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicates that at Pompeii and surrounding towns heat was the main cause of death of people, previously believed to have died by ash suffocation. The results of the study, published in 2010, show that exposure to at least 250 °C (482 °F) hot surges (known as pyroclastic flows) at a distance of 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings.[18]
The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to 12 different layers of tephra, in total 25 metres (82.0 ft) deep, which rained down for about six hours. Pliny the Younger provided a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the Bay of Naples at Misenum, in a version he wrote 25 years after the event. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, with whom he had a close relationship, died while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As admiral of the fleet, Pliny the Elder had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events "Plinian".
The eruption was documented by contemporary historians and is generally accepted as having started on 24 August 79, relying on one version of the text of Pliny's letter. However the archeological excavations of Pompeii suggest that the city was buried about three months later.[19] This is supported by another version of the letter,[20] which gives the date of the eruption as November 23.
People buried in the ash appear to have been wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August. The fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October – and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October. Coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor's titles. These coins could not have been minted before the second week of September. There is no definitive theory as to why there should be such an apparent discrepancy.[20]
Rediscovery
Beginning in 1757, the eight volumes of Le Antichità di Ercolano brought knowledge of Pompeii and Herculaneum to the fore.
"Garden of the Fugitives". Plaster casts of victims still in situ; many casts are in the Archaeological Museum of Naples.
Roman fresco from the Villa dei Misteri
Fresco from the Casa del Centenario bedroom
After thick layers of ash covered Pompeii and Herculaneum, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. The first time any part of them was unearthed was in 1599, when the digging of an underground channel to divert the river Sarno ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. The architect Domenico Fontana was called in; he unearthed a few more frescoes, then covered them over again, and nothing more came of the discovery. A wall inscription had mentioned a decurio Pompeii ("the town councillor of Pompeii") but its reference to the long-forgotten Roman city was missed.
Fontana's covering over the paintings has been seen both as a broad-minded act of preservation for later times, and as censorship in view of the frequent sexual content of such paintings, as he would have known that paintings of the hedonistic kind later found in some Pompeian villas were not considered in good taste in the climate of the counter-reformation.[21]
Herculaneum was properly rediscovered in 1738 by workmen digging for the foundations of a summer palace for the King of Naples, Charles of Bourbon. Pompeii was rediscovered as the result of intentional excavations in 1748 by the Spanish military engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre.[22] These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. Charles of Bourbon took great interest in the findings even after becoming king of Spain because the display of antiquities reinforced the political and cultural power of Naples.[23]
Karl Weber directed the first real excavations;[24] he was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega. Franscisco la Vega was succeeded by his brother, Pietro, in 1804.[25] During the French occupation Pietro worked with Christophe Saliceti.[26]
Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1863.[27] During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. This technique is still in use today, with a clear resin now used instead of plaster because it is more durable, and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.[28]
The discovery of erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum left the archaeologists with a dilemma – between the mores of sexuality in ancient Rome and in Counter-Reformation Europe lay a clash of cultures. An unknown number of discoveries were hidden away again. A wall fresco depicting Priapus, the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his extremely enlarged penis, was covered with plaster. An older reproduction was locked away "out of prudishness" and opened only on request—and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall.[29]
A large number of artefacts from the buried cities are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. In 1819, when King Francis visited the Pompeii exhibition there with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he decided to have it locked away in a so-called "secret cabinet" (gabinetto segreto), a gallery within the museum accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals". Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, the Naples "Secret Museum" was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the sexual revolution) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.[30]
Tourism
A paved street. Pedestrians used the blocks in the road to cross the street without having to step onto the road, which doubled up as Pompeii's drainage and sewage disposal system. The spaces between the blocks let vehicles pass along the road.
The House of the Faun.
Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 years;[31] it was on the Grand Tour. By 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of the most popular tourist sites in Italy.[32] It is part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the Soprintendenza Archaeological di Pompei, have begun issuing new tickets that allow for tourists to also visit cities such as Herculaneum and Stabiae as well as the Villa Poppaea, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii.
Pompeii is also a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of Pompei. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality business, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters or hotel operators. The ruins can be easily reached on foot from the Circumvesuviana train stop called Pompei Scavi, directly at the ancient site. There are also car parks nearby.
Excavations in the site have generally ceased due to the moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. Additionally, the site is generally less accessible to tourists, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s being available for public viewing today. Nevertheless, the sections of the ancient city open to the public are extensive, and tourists can spend several days exploring the whole site.
Conservation
Main article: Conservation issues of Pompeii and Herculaneum
Objects buried beneath Pompeii were well-preserved for almost 2,000 years. The lack of air and moisture let objects remain underground with little to no deterioration. Once excavated, the site provided a wealth of source material and evidence for analysis, giving detail into the lives of the Pompeiians. However, once exposed, Pompeii has been subject to both natural and man-made forces, which have rapidly increased deterioration.
Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating.[33]
The concern for conservation has continually troubled archaeologists. The ancient city was included in the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, and again in 1998 and in 2000. In 1996 the organisation claimed that Pompeii "desperately need[ed] repair" and called for the drafting of a general plan of restoration and interpretation.[34] The organisation supported conservation at Pompeii with funding from American Express and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation.[35]
Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. An estimated US$335 million is needed for all necessary work on Pompeii.[citation needed] A recent study has recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost-effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.[36]
In June 2013 UNESCO declared: If restoration and preservation works “fail to deliver substantial progress in the next two years,” Pompeii could be placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger.[37]
Fencing in the temple of Venus prevents vandalism of the site, as well as theft.
Indian art also found its way into Pompeii, within the context of Indo-Roman trade: in 1938 the Pompeii Lakshmi was found in the ruins of Pompeii.
House of the Gladiators collapse
The 2,000-year-old Schola Armatorum (House of the Gladiators) collapsed on 6 November 2010. The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was no immediate determination as to what caused the building to collapse, although reports suggested water infiltration following heavy rains might have been responsible. There has been fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect.[38][39]
In popular culture
Main article: Pompeii in popular culture
A Roman fresco from Pompeii, 1st century AD, depicting a man in a theatre mask and a woman wearing a garland while playing a lyre (a Greco-Roman stringed instrument); it is now housed in the National Archaeological Museum (Museo Archeologico Nazionale) of Naples
Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy television series Up Pompeii! and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC science fiction series Doctor Who, named The Fires of Pompeii,[40] which featured Caecilius as a character.
In 1971, the rock band Pink Floyd filmed a live concert titled Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii, in which they performed six songs in the ancient Roman amphitheatre in the city. The audience consisted only of the film's production crew and some local children.
Pompeii is a novel written by Robert Harris (published in 2003) featuring the account of the aquarius' race to fix the broken aqueduct in the days leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius, inspired by actual events and people.
Pompeii is a song by the British band Bastille, released 24 February 2013. The lyrics refer to the city and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
Pompeii is a 2014 German-Canadian historical disaster film produced and directed by Paul W. S. Anderson.[41]
In 2016, 45 years after the Pink Floyd recordings, band guitarist David Gilmour returned to the Pompeii amphiteatre to perform a live concert for his Rattle That Lock world tour. This event was considered the first one in the amphiteatre to feature an audience since the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius.[42][43]
Documentaries
"In Search Of" Episode #82 focuses entirely on Pompeii, it premiered on November 29, 1979.
The National Geographic special In the Shadow of Vesuvius (1987) explores the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, interviews (then) leading archaeologists, and examines the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius.[44]
Ancient Mysteries: Pompeii: Buried Alive (1996), an A&E television documentary narrated by Leonard Nimoy.[45]
Pompeii: The Last Day (2003), an hour-long drama produced for the BBC that portrays several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the Bay of Naples, and their last hours, including a fuller and his wife, two gladiators, and Pliny the Elder. It also portrays the facts of the eruption. It is heavily influenced by Edward Bulwer-Lytton's book The Last Days of Pompeii (see Pompeii in popular culture#Books and other printed works), which – while being responsible for the popularisation of Pompeii in Western culture – has been dismissed for its lack of historical credibility. To give some historical reality to the characters, the death throes of the characters portrayed are based on actual skeletons and bodies found during excavations in the 18th century, while Pliny the Elder's death is shown as based on the accounts of how he actually died. Although in the story the narrator uses reports that Pliny the Elder died from inhaling the fumes of the final and greatest pyroclastic surge, as many reports have found, he most likely had suffered a heart attack or stroke.[citation needed]
Pompeii and the AD 79 eruption (2004), a two-hour Tokyo Broadcasting System documentary.
Pompeii Live (June 28, 2006), a Channel 5 production featuring a live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum[46][47]
Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time (2013), a BBC One drama documentary presented by Dr. Margaret Mountford.[48]
"The Riddle of Pompeii" (May 23, 2014), Discovery Channel[49]
See also
Eumachia
House of Julia Felix
House of Loreius Tiburtinus
House of Menander
House of Sallust
House of the Tragic Poet
House of the Vettii
Macellum of Pompeii
Mastroberardino, a project with the Italian winery Mastroberardino to replant the vineyards of Pompeii
Robert Rive, 1850s photographer of Pompeii
Suburban Baths (Pompeii)
Temple of Isis (Pompeii)
Volcanic destruction
Armero tragedy, a city in Colombia that suffered a similar fate in 1985
Joya de Cerén, a pre-Columbian farming village in El Salvador known as the "Pompeii of the Americas"
Plymouth, Montserrat, former capital city buried by volcanic ash from the Soufrière Hills volcano in the 1990s
Saint-Pierre, Martinique, town similarly destroyed by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pelee, in 1902
Other
Dura-Europos, also known as the "Pompeii of the desert"
References
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Jump up ^ Berinato, Scott (May 18, 2007). "Crowd Control in Ancient Pompeii". CSO. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Frederick G (edited by Wilhelmina Feemster Jashemski) (2002). The natural history of Pompeii (1. publ. ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0521800549.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bernick, Christie. "Agriculture in Pompeii". Wall Paintings of the Pompeii Forum. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
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Jump up ^ Day, Michael (November 16, 2015). "Prostitution in Pompeii: 2,000 years after explosion, sex-for-cash is still rife". The Independent. the city's most extravagant brothel, the Lupanare – from the Latin word lupa for prostitute
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Jump up ^ POMPEIA d'Ernest Breton (3eme éd. 1870) "Introduction – La résurrection de la ville" in French.
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Jump up ^ "David Gilmour live at Pompeii – a photo essay". The Guardian. July 14, 2016. Retrieved October 11, 2017. It is the first time since the eruption of Vesuvius in AD79 that there has been an event with an audience in the venue.
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Jump up ^ "Ancient Mysteries: Season 3, Episode 22". A&E. February 2, 1996. Retrieved February 17, 2016.
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Jump up ^ "Shows". Five. Archived from the original on 2006-06-03.
Jump up ^ "Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time". BBC. Retrieved April 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ The Riddle of Pompeii. 23 May 2014 – via YouTube.
Further reading
Beard, Mary (2008). Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town. Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-86197-596-6.
Butterworth, Alex; Laurence, Ray (2005). Pompeii: The Living City. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-35585-2.
Cioni, Rafaello; Gurioli, L; Lanza, R; Zanella, E (2004). "Temperatures of the A.D. 79 pyroclastic density current deposits (Vesuvius, Italy)". Journal of Geophysical Research. 109: 2207. Bibcode:2004JGRB..109.2207C. doi:10.1029/2002JB002251.
Clarke, John (2006). Visual Representation and Non-Elite Viewers in Italy, 100 BC – AD 315. University of California. ISBN 978-0-520-24815-1.
De Carolis, Ernesto; Patricelli, Giovanni (2003). Vesuvius, A.D. 79: the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. L'erma Di Bretschneider. ISBN 978-88-8265-199-2.
Fletcher, John (1835). The whole works of...John Flecter. Oxford University. * Grant, Michael (2001). Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Phoenix. ISBN 9781842122198.
Hodge, Trevor (2001). Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply. Duckworth. ISBN 9780715631713.
Kraus, Theodor (1975). Pompeii and Herculaneum: The Living Cities of the Dead. H. N. Abrams. ISBN 9780810904187.
Maiuri, Amedeo (1994). "Pompeii". Scientific American.
Mastrolorenzo, Giuseppe; Petrone, Pierpaolo; Pappalardo, Lucia; Guarino, Fabio (2010). Langowski, Jörg, ed. "Lethal Thermal Impact at Periphery of Pyroclastic Surges: Evidences at Pompeii". PLOS ONE. 5 (6): e11127. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...511127M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011127. PMC 2886100  . PMID 20559555.
Ozgenel, Lalo (15 April 2008). "A Tale of Two Cities: In Search of Ancient Pompeii and Herculaneum" (PDF). Journal of the Faculty of Archaeology. Ankara: Middle East Technical University. 25 (1): 1–25. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
Pagano, Mario (1997). I Diari di Scavo di Pompeii, Ercolano e Stabiae di Francesco e Pietro la Vega (1764–1810) (in Italian). L'Erma di Bretschneidein. ISBN 88-7062-967-8.
Parslow, Christopher (1995). Rediscovering antiquity: Karl Weber and the excavation of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47150-8.
Perring, Stefania (1991). Pompeii: The Wonders of the Ancient World Brought to Life in Vivid See-Through Reconstructions: Then and Now. Macmillan Books. ISBN 0-02-599461-1.
Rodríguez, Cristina (2008). Les mystères de Pompéi (in French). Éditions du Masque. ISBN 2-702-43404-5.
Rowland, Ingrid D. (2014). From Pompeii: The Afterlife of a Roman Town. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0674047938.
Senatore, Maria; Stanley, Jean-Daniel; Pescatore, Tullio (November 7–10, 2004). "Avalanche-associated mass flows damaged Pompeii several times before the Vesuvius catastrophic eruption in the 79 CE". 2004 Denver Annual Meeting.
Stefani, Grete (October 2006). La vera data dell'eruzione. Archeo.
Steven, Ellis (2004). "The distribution of bars at Pompeii: Archaeological, spatial and viewshed analyses". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 17 (1). ISSN 1047-7594.
Zarmati, Louise (2005). Heinemann ancient and medieval history: Pompeii and Herculaneum. Heinemann. ISBN 1-74081-195-X.
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Romano-Campanian Wall-Painting (English, Italian, Spanish and French introduction) mainly focusing on wall-paintings from Pompeian houses and villas
N. Purcell; R. Talbert; T. Elliott; S. Gillies. "Places: 433032 (Pompeii)". Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
Pompeii: The Mystery Of People Frozen In Time
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Pompeia – Catalan
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ca
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https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeje
Pompeje – Czech
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cs
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https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Welsh
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cy
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values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeji
Pompeji – Danish
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da
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https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeji
Pompeji – German
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de
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values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompei
Pompei – Estonian
et
et
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values: Πομπηία – Greek

values:
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values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeya
Pompeya – Spanish
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es
interlanguage-link-target

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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompejo
Pompejo – Esperanto
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eo
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values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponpeia
Ponpeia – Basque
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eu
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values:
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values:
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https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompejy
Pompejy – Western Frisian
fy
fy
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
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values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeia
Pompeia – Galician
gl
gl
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values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeji
Pompeji – Croatian
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hr
interlanguage-link-target

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https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Indonesian
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https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Icelandic
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values:
https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Javanese
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values:
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values: Помпеи – Kazakh

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values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompei
Pompei – Swahili
sw
sw
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https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeji
Pompeji – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeji
Pompeji – Luxembourgish
lb
lb
interlanguage-link-target

values:
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values:
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values:
https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompei
Pompei – Lombard
lmo
lmo
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

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values: पॉम्पेई – Marathi

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https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Malay
ms
ms
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values: ပွန်ပေ – Burmese

values:
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values:
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values:
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values: Scave archeologgece 'e Pumpeje – Neapolitan

values:
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values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
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display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

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values: ਪੋਂਪੇਈ – Punjabi

values:
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display: none;

values: Pompeje (stanowisko archeologiczne) – Polish

values:
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display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeia
Pompeia – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
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values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
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display: none;

values:
https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompei
Pompei – Romansh
rm
rm
interlanguage-link-target

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values: Помпеи – Russian

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values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Scots
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sco
interlanguage-link-target

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https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeje
Pompeje – Slovak
sk
sk
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https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeji
Pompeji – Slovenian
sl
sl
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values: Помпеја – Serbian

values:
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values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeji
Pompeji – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

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display: none;

values:
https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Sundanese
su
su
interlanguage-link-target

values:
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values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeji
Pompeji – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeji
Pompeji – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
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display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeya
Pompeya – Tagalog
tl
tl
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values:
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display: none;

values: பொம்பெயி – Tamil

values:
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display: none;

values: ปอมเปอี – Thai

values:
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display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

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values:
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values: پومپئی – Urdu

values:
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values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
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display: none;

values:
https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii
Pompeii – Waray
war
war
interlanguage-link-target

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values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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