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Cerebrum
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This article is about the larger superior region of the brain. For the smaller inferior region of the brain, see Cerebellum.
Cerebrum
Frontal lobe
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital
lobe
The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the frontal (blue), temporal (green), occipital (red), and parietal (yellow) lobes . The cerebellum (unlabeled) is not part of the telencephalon.
Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain.
Details
Artery
anterior cerebral, middle cerebral, posterior cerebral
Vein
cerebral veins
Identifiers
Latin
Cerebrum
MeSH
A08.186.21.730.885
NeuroLex ID
Cerebrum
TA
A14.1.03.008
A14.1.09.001
TH
H3.11.03.6.00001
TE
E5.14.1.0.2.0.12
FMA
62000
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
The cerebrum[help 1] is a large part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex (of the two cerebral hemispheres), as well as several subcortical structures, including the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb. In the human brain, the cerebrum is the uppermost region of the central nervous system. The prosencephalon is the embryonic structure from which the cerebrum develops prenatally. In mammals, the dorsal telencephalon, or pallium, develops into the cerebral cortex, and the ventral telencephalon, or subpallium, becomes the basal ganglia. The cerebrum is also divided into approximately symmetric left and right cerebral hemispheres.
With the assistance of the cerebellum, the cerebrum controls all voluntary actions in the body.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Cerebral cortex
1.2 Cerebral hemispheres
2 Development
3 Functions
3.1 Movement
3.2 Sensory processing
3.3 Olfaction
3.4 Language and communication
3.5 Learning and memory
4 Other animals
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Structure[edit]
Location of the human cerebrum (red).
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. Depending upon the position of the animal it lies either in front or on top of the brainstem. In humans, the cerebrum is the largest and best-developed of the five major divisions of the brain.
The cerebrum is made up of the two cerebral hemispheres and their cortices, (the outer layers of grey matter), and the underlying regions of white matter.[1] Its subcortical structures include the hippocampus, basal ganglia and olfactory bulb. The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres, separated from each other by a deep fissure called the longitudinal fissure.
Cerebral cortex[edit]
Surface of the cerebrum
The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of gray matter of the cerebrum, is found only in mammals. In larger mammals, including humans, the surface of the cerebral cortex folds to create gyri (ridges) and sulci (furrows) which increase the surface area.[2]
The cerebral cortex is generally classified into four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. The lobes are classified based on their overlying neurocranial bones.[3]
Cerebral hemispheres[edit]
The cerebrum is divided by the medial longitudinal fissure into two cerebral hemispheres, the right and the left. The cerebrum is contralaterally organized, i.e., right hemisphere controls and processes signals from the left side of the body, while the left hemisphere controls and processes signals from the right side of the body.[3] There is a strong but not complete bilateral symmetry between the hemispheres. The lateralization of brain function looks at the known and possible differences between the two.
Development[edit]
In the developing vertebrate embryo, the neural tube is subdivided into four unseparated sections which then develop further into distinct regions of the central nervous system; these are the prosencephalon (forebrain), the mesencephalon (midbrain) the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) and the spinal cord.[4] The prosencephalon develops further into the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The dorsal telencephalon gives rise to the pallium (cerebral cortex in mammals and reptiles) and the ventral telencephalon generates the basal ganglia. The diencephalon develops into the thalamus and hypothalamus, including the optic vesicles (future retina).[5] The dorsal telencephalon then forms two lateral telencephalic vesicles, separated by the midline, which develop into the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Birds and fish have a dorsal telencephalon, like all vertebrates, but it is generally unlayered and therefore not considered a cerebral cortex. Only a layered cytoarchitecture can be considered a cortex.
Functions[edit]
Note: As the cerebrum is a gross division with many subdivisions and sub-regions, it is important to state that this section lists the functions that the cerebrum as a whole serves. See main articles on cerebral cortex and basal ganglia for more information. The cerebrum is a major part of the brain, controlling emotions, hearing, vision, personality and much more. It controls all voluntary actions.
Movement[edit]
The cerebrum directs the conscious or volitional motor functions of the body. These functions originate within the primary motor cortex and other frontal lobe motor areas where actions are planned. Upper motor neurons in the primary motor cortex send their axons to the brainstem and spinal cord to synapse on the lower motor neurons, which innervate the muscles. Damage to motor areas of cortex can lead to certain types of motor neuron disease. This kind of damage results in loss of muscular power and precision rather than total paralysis.
It functions as the center of sensory perception, memory, thoughts and judgement; the cerebrum also functions as the center of voluntary motor activities
Sensory processing[edit]
The primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex receive and process visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory information. Together with association cortical areas, these brain regions synthesize sensory information into our perceptions of the world.
Olfaction[edit]
Main article: Olfaction
The olfactory bulb, responsible for the sense of smell, takes up a large area of the cerebrum in most vertebrates. However, in humans, this part of the brain is much smaller and lies underneath the frontal lobe. The olfactory sensory system is unique since the neurons in the olfactory bulb send their axons directly to the olfactory cortex, rather than to the thalamus first. Damage to the olfactory bulb results in a loss of olfaction (the sense of smell).
Language and communication[edit]
Main article: Language
Speech and language are mainly attributed to the parts of the cerebral cortex. Motor portions of language are attributed to Broca's area within the frontal lobe. Speech comprehension is attributed to Wernicke's area, at the temporal-parietal lobe junction. These two regions are interconnected by a large white matter tract, the arcuate fasciculus. Damage to the Broca's area results in expressive aphasia (non-fluent aphasia) while damage to Wernicke's area results in receptive aphasia (also called fluent aphasia).
Learning and memory[edit]
Main article: Memory
Explicit or declarative (factual) memory formation is attributed to the hippocampus and associated regions of the medial temporal lobe. This association was originally described after a patient known as HM had both his left and right hippocampus surgically removed to treat chronic temporal lobe epilepsy. After surgery, HM had anterograde amnesia, or the inability to form new memories.
Implicit or procedural memory, such as complex motor behaviors, involves the basal ganglia.
Short-term or working memory involves association areas of the cortex, especially the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, as well as the hippocampus.
Other animals[edit]
In the most primitive vertebrates, the hagfishes and lampreys, the cerebrum is a relatively simple structure receiving nerve impulses from the olfactory bulb. In cartilaginous and lobe-finned fishes and also in amphibians, a more complex structure is present, with the cerebrum being divided into three distinct regions. The lowermost (or ventral) region forms the basal nuclei, and contains fibres connecting the rest of the cerebrum to the thalamus. Above this, and forming the lateral part of the cerebrum, is the paleopallium, while the uppermost (or dorsal) part is referred to as the archipallium. The cerebrum remains largely devoted to olfactory sensation in these animals, in contrast to its much wider range of functions in amniotes.[6]
In ray-finned fishes the structure is somewhat different. The inner surfaces of the lateral and ventral regions of the cerebrum bulge up into the ventricles; these include both the basal nuclei and the various parts of the pallium and may be complex in structure, especially in teleosts. The dorsal surface of the cerebrum is membranous, and does not contain any nervous tissue.[6]
In the amniotes, the cerebrum becomes increasingly large and complex. In reptiles, the paleopallium is much larger than in amphibians and its growth has pushed the basal nuclei into the central regions of the cerebrum. As in the lower vertebrates, the grey matter is generally located beneath the white matter, but in some reptiles, it spreads out to the surface to form a primitive cortex, especially in the anterior part of the brain.[6]
In mammals, this development proceeds further, so that the cortex covers almost the whole of the cerebral hemispheres, especially in more developed species, such as the primates. The paleopallium is pushed to the ventral surface of the brain, where it becomes the olfactory lobes, while the archipallium becomes rolled over at the medial dorsal edge to form the hippocampus. In placental mammals, a corpus callosum also develops, further connecting the two hemispheres. The complex convolutions of the cerebral surface (see gyrus, gyrification) are also found only in higher mammals.[6] Although some large mammals (such as elephants) have particularly large cerebra, dolphins are the only species (other than humans) to have cerebra accounting for as much as 2 percent of their body weight.[7]
The cerebrum of birds are similarly enlarged to those of mammals, by comparison with reptiles. The increased size of bird brains was classically attributed to enlarged basal ganglia, with the other areas remaining primitive, but this view has been largely abandoned.[8] Birds appear to have undergone an alternate process of encephalization,[9] as they diverged from the other archosaurs, with few clear parallels to that experienced by mammals and their therapsid ancestors.
Additional images[edit]
Cerebrum. Lateral face. Deep dissection.
Cerebrum. Medial face. Deep dissection.
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
List of regions in the human brain
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The word cerebrum is pronounced /ˈsɛrɪbrəm/ or /sɪˈriːbrəm/ (both are common). It comes from Latin, where it means "brain". In English it refers to the major part of the brain.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Arnould-Taylor, William (1998). A Textbook of Anatomy and Physiology. Nelson Thornes. p. 52. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Angevine, J.; Cotman, C. (1981). Principles of Neuroanatomy. NY: Oxford University Press. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Rosdahl, Caroline; Kowalski, Mary (2008). Textbook of Basic Nursing (9th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 189. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F. (2014). Developmental biology (10th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer. ISBN 978-0-87893-978-7.
Jump up ^ Kandel, Eric R., ed. (2006). Principles of neural science (5th ed.). Appleton and Lange: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-139011-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 536–543. ISBN 0-03-910284-X.
Jump up ^ T.L. Brink (2008). "Unit 4: The Nervous System.". Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach (PDF). p. 62.
Jump up ^ Jarvis ED, Güntürkün O, Bruce L, et al. (2005). "Avian brains and a new understanding of vertebrate brain evolution". Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6 (2): 151–9. doi:10.1038/nrn1606. PMC 2507884  . PMID 15685220.
Jump up ^ Emery NJ (2006-01-29). "Cognitive ornithology: the evolution of avian intelligence". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 361 (1465): 23–43. doi:10.1098/rstb.2005.1736. PMC 1626540  . PMID 16553307.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cerebrum.
Cerebrum Medical Notes on rahulgladwin.com
NIF Search - Cerebrum via the Neuroscience Information Framework
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v
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Nervous system
Central nervous system
Meninges
Spinal cord
Brain
Rhombencephalon
Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum
Midbrain
Forebrain
Diencephalon
Retina
Optic nerve
Cerebrum
Limbic system
Peripheral nervous system
Somatic
Sensory nerve
Motor nerve
Cranial nerve
Spinal nerve
Autonomic
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Enteric
[show]
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Anatomy of the cerebral cortex of the human brain
Frontal lobe
Superolateral
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
8
Middle frontal gyrus
9
10
46
Inferior frontal gyrus: 11
47-Pars orbitalis
Broca's area
44-Pars opercularis
45-Pars triangularis
Superior frontal sulcus
Inferior frontal sulcus
Precentral
Precentral gyrus
Precentral sulcus
Medial/inferior
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
Medial frontal gyrus
8
9
Paraterminal gyrus/Paraolfactory area
12
Straight gyrus
11
Orbital gyri/Orbitofrontal cortex
10
11
12
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
10
Subcallosal area
25
Olfactory sulcus
Orbital sulcus
Precentral
Paracentral lobule
4
Paracentral sulcus
Both
Primary motor cortex
4
Premotor cortex
6
Supplementary motor area
6
Supplementary eye field
6
Frontal eye fields
8
Parietal lobe
Superolateral
Superior parietal lobule
5
7
Inferior parietal lobule
40-Supramarginal gyrus
39-Angular gyrus
Parietal operculum
43
Intraparietal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Paracentral lobule
1
2
3
5
Precuneus
7
Marginal sulcus
Both
Postcentral gyrus/Primary somatosensory cortex
1
2
3
Secondary somatosensory cortex
5
Posterior parietal cortex
7
Occipital lobe
Superolateral
Occipital pole of cerebrum
Lateral occipital gyrus
18
19
Lunate sulcus
Transverse occipital sulcus
Medial/inferior
Visual cortex
17
Cuneus
Lingual gyrus
Calcarine sulcus
Temporal lobe
Superolateral
Transverse temporal gyrus/Auditory cortex
41
42
Superior temporal gyrus
38
22/Wernicke's area
Middle temporal gyrus
21
Superior temporal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Fusiform gyrus
37
Medial temporal lobe
27
28
34
35
36
Inferior temporal gyrus
20
Inferior temporal sulcus
Interlobar
sulci/fissures
Superolateral
Central (frontal+parietal)
Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)
Parieto-occipital
Preoccipital notch
Medial/inferior
Longitudinal fissure
Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)
Collateral (temporal+occipital)
Callosal sulcus
Limbic lobe
Parahippocampal gyrus
anterior
Entorhinal cortex
Perirhinal cortex
Postrhinal cortex
Posterior parahippocampal gyrus
Prepyriform area
Cingulate cortex/gyrus
Subgenual area
25
Anterior cingulate
24
32
33
Posterior cingulate
23
31
Isthmus of cingulate gyrus: Retrosplenial cortex
26
29
30
Hippocampal formation
Hippocampal sulcus
Fimbria of hippocampus
Dentate gyrus
Rhinal sulcus
Other
Supracallosal gyrus
Uncus
Amygdala
Insular cortex
Insular cortex
General
Operculum
Poles of cerebral hemispheres
Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri.
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Commissural fibers in the human brain
Corpus callosum
Genu
Splenium
Tapetum
Rostrum
Archicortex
Supracallosal gyrus
Lamina terminalis
Vascular organ of lamina terminalis
Anterior commissure
Fornix
Fornix
Septum pellucidum
Septal nuclei
Medial septal nucleus
Subfornical organ
Cave of septum pellucidum
Other
Posterior commissure
[show]
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Ventricular system of the human brain
Lateral ventricles
Body
Lamina affixa
Stria terminalis
Collateral eminence
Occipital horn
Calcar avis
Septum pellucidum
Third ventricle
Recesses
Optic recess
Infundibular recess
Suprapineal recess
Pineal recess
Hypothalamic sulcus
Tela choroidea
Subfornical organ
Posterior commissure
Fourth ventricle
Roof
Superior medullary velum
Frenulum
Inferior medullary velum
Taenia
Floor
Upper
Facial colliculus
Locus coeruleus
Lower
Vagal trigone
Hypoglossal trigone
Area postrema
Obex
Medial eminence
Sulcus limitans
Fastigium
Apertures
Median/Magendie
Lateral recess to Lateral/Luschka
Other
Rhomboid fossa
Tela choroidea
Cerebrospinal fluid
Blood–brain barrier
Cerebral aqueduct
Interventricular foramina
Perilymphatic duct
[show]
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Rostral basal ganglia of the human brain and associated structures
Basal ganglia
Grey matter
Striatum
Dorsal striatum
Putamen
Caudate nucleus
Ventral striatum
Nucleus accumbens
Olfactory tubercle
Globus pallidus
GPe
GPi
Other
Amygdala
Claustrum
White matter
Centrum semiovale
Internal capsule
Anterior limb
Genu
Posterior limb
Optic radiation
Corona radiata
External capsule
Extreme capsule
Pallidothalamic tracts: Thalamic fasciculus
Ansa lenticularis
Lenticular fasciculus
Subthalamic fasciculus
Rhinencephalon
Grey matter
Anterior olfactory nucleus
Anterior perforated substance
Olfactory bulb
White matter
Olfactory tract
Medial olfactory stria
Lateral olfactory stria
Olfactory trigone
Other basal forebrain
Grey matter
Substantia innominata
Nucleus basalis
Nucleus of diagonal band
White matter
Diagonal band of Broca
Stria terminalis
Archicortex:
Hippocampal formation/
Hippocampus anatomy
Grey matter
Hippocampus proper
CA1
CA2
CA3
CA4
Dentate gyrus
Fascia dentata
Subiculum
White matter
Alveus
Fimbria
Perforant path
Schaffer collateral
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Association fibers in the human brain
Association fibers
Uncinate fasciculus
Cingulum
Superior longitudinal fasciculus/Arcuate fasciculus
Inferior longitudinal fasciculus
Inferior occipitofrontal fasciculus
[show]
v
t
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Types of cerebral cortex
Structure types
Isocortex
True isocortex or Neocortex
Proisocortex
Allocortex
Paleocortex
Archicortex
Line of Gennari
Layers
Internal granular layer
External granular layer
Cells
Betz cell
Pyramidal cell
Stellate cell
Authority control
GND: 4121188-1
NDL: 01087188
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text:
Obstructing the field
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Obstructing the field is one of the nine methods of dismissing a batsman in the sport of cricket. It dictates that either batsman can be given out if he wilfully attempts to obstruct or distract the fielding side by word or action. It is governed by Law 37 of the laws of cricket, and is a rare way for a batsman to be dismissed: in the history of cricket, there have been only one instance in Test matches, six occasions in One Day International (ODI) games, and only one instance in Twenty20 International matches. However, there have also been seven instances in Test cricket, and two in ODIs, where a batsman has been dismissed handled the ball, a mode of dismissal now folded into obstructing the field. In most cases an obstruction occurs when a batsman thinks that he is going to be run out and he blocks the ball with his bat or changes his course while running between wickets to block the ball. The obstruction has to be deliberate, so a batsman will not be out if the contact with the ball is inadvertent.
The only time a batsman has been dismissed obstructing the ball in a Test match was during the South African cricket team's tour of England in 1951 when, in the fifth Test, England's Leonard Hutton top edged the ball and, thinking the ball would hit the stumps, attempted to hit the ball away, thereby preventing the wicket-keeper from catching the ball.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Earliest recorded instance
3 Dismissals in international cricket
3.1 One Day Internationals
3.1.1 Women's One Day Internationals
3.2 T20 Internationals
4 Other recent instances
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Definition[edit]
Obstructing the field is Law 37 in the Laws of cricket established by the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC). A batsman can be given out for obstructing the field if he wilfully attempts to obstruct or distract the fielding side by word or action.[1]
Law 37 describes the following three circumstances where this applies (but the law is not limited to these circumstances):
If, in the act of playing the ball, the batsmen wilfully strikes the ball with a hand not holding the bat, unless this is to avoid injury.[a]
If either batsman should wilfully obstruct or distract a fielder preventing a catch being made.
If, at any time while the ball is in play and without the consent of a fielder, he uses his bat or any part of his person, to return the ball to any fielder.
The latter situation is rarely applied, as the fielding side generally accept that the batsman is being helpful in returning the ball. A bowler does not receive credit for the wicket when a batsman is dismissed in this fashion, and any runs that have been completed before the offence is committed are scored (unless the obstruction prevents a catch being made[b]).
Earliest recorded instance[edit]
The first known instance of a player being dismissed in a manner equivalent to the modern term 'Obstructing the field' occurred in a minor match at Sheffield on 27 August 1792, between Sheffield Cricket Club and Bents Green. The Bents Green player John Shaw, who scored 7 in the first innings, had his dismissal recorded as "run out of the ground to hinder a catch". The information was recorded by G. B. Buckley who found it in the Sheffield Advertiser dated 31 August 1792. Sheffield won by 10 wickets in a match that was notable for two other reasons, these being that it was the first match played in Yorkshire for which full scores are recorded and it was the earliest known instance of a three innings match.[2]
Dismissals in international cricket[edit]
Len Hutton is the only man given out this way in Test cricket, for an incident that occurred at The Oval during the fifth Test of South Africa's tour of England in 1951.
In One Day Internationals, Rameez Raja (for Pakistan against England at Karachi in 1987) was given out for hitting the ball away with his bat to avoid being run out going for his century off the last ball of the innings, and Mohinder Amarnath (for India against Sri Lanka at Ahmedabad in 1989) was given out for kicking the ball away to avoid being run out. Another batsman to be given out this way is Inzamam-ul-Haq of Pakistan in the first ODI of India vs Pakistan Hutch Cup on 6 February 2006. After Inzamam drove the ball to mid off, Indian Suresh Raina threw it back to the striker's end, Inzamam stopping it with his bat. Umpire Simon Taufel gave him out as he was in the line of the stumps and out of his crease (and thus would have been run out had the ball hit the stumps).
Mohammad Hafeez of Pakistan was dismissed obstructing the field on 21 March 2013 in the 4th ODI of the bilateral series match against South Africa. He became the first man to be given out obstructing the field after the new playing conditions were introduced.[3] His teammate, Anwar Ali, was dismissed obstructing the field on 27 November 2013 in the second ODI against South Africa.[4]
Ben Stokes of England was dismissed obstructing the field on 5 September 2015 in the second ODI against Australia for stopping the ball with his hand when the bowler, Mitchell Starc, had thrown the ball in an attempt to run him out.[5]
On 23 June 2017, in a Twenty20 match against South Africa, Jason Roy of England was given out obstructing the field, for changing the side of the pitch he was running on when returning from backing up. This caused the returned ball to hit him when he was out of his crease, when it could conceivably have hit the stumps. The South African fielders immediately appealed for a dismissal. Responding to this, the on-field umpires called the ball dead and referred the decision to the third umpire, who gave Roy out.[6]
One Day Internationals[edit]
The complete list of batsmen given out obstructing the field in One Day Internationals is:
One Day International dismissals obstructed the field
No
Batsman
Country
Opposition
Venue
Date
1
Rameez Raja
Pakistan England Karachi, Pakistan 20 November 1987
2
Mohinder Amarnath
India Sri Lanka Ahmedabad, India October 1989
3
Inzamam-ul-Haq
Pakistan India Peshawar, Pakistan 6 February 2006
4
Mohammad Hafeez
Pakistan South Africa Durban, South Africa 21 March 2013
5
Anwar Ali
Pakistan South Africa Port Elizabeth, South Africa 27 November 2013
6
Ben Stokes
England Australia Lord's, England 5 September 2015
Women's One Day Internationals[edit]
Women's One Day International dismissals obstructed the field
No
Batsman
Country
Opposition
Venue
Date
1
Thirush Kamini
India West Indies Vijayawada, India 13 November 2016
T20 Internationals[edit]
The complete list of batsmen given out obstructing the field in Twenty20 Internationals is:[7]
T20 International dismissals obstructed the field
No
Batsman
Country
Opposition
Venue
Date
1
Jason Roy
England South Africa Taunton, England 23 June 2017
Other recent instances[edit]
Mark Ramprakash was dismissed obstructing the field on 30 July 2011, in a County Championship Division 2 match between Surrey and Gloucestershire. Ramprakash was deemed to have deliberately tried to distract a fielder who was in the act of trying to run him out. He made no contact with the ball and it did not hit the stumps.[8]
Yusuf Pathan of India was dismissed obstructing the field on 15 May 2013 while playing for the Kolkata Knight Riders against the Pune Warriors India in Match 65 of the 2013 Indian Premier League for deliberately kicking the ball while rotating the strike. He became the first player to be dismissed in T20 cricket in this fashion.[9]
Sheldon Jackson was given out obstructing the field on 3 March 2017 during the 2016–17 Vijay Hazare Trophy match against Chhattisgarh. Jackson became only the second Indian batsman to be given out in a List A match in this manner.[10]
Alex Ross of the Brisbane Heat was given out obstructing the field in a Big Bash League match against the Hobart Hurricanes in January 2018 for interfering with an attempted run out. It was the first time in Big Bash League history that a player was given out in this manner.[11]
Ryan Burl was given out in a match in the 2017–18 Logan Cup by obstructing the field, after he pushed the ball away from the stumps to protect his wicket.[12]
See also[edit]
List of unusual dismissals in international cricket
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This situation was previously covered in a separate Law:Handled the ball.
Jump up ^ In this case any penalty runs will stand.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Law 37 – Obstructing the field". MCC. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Buckley, pp.27–28.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ http://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/records/283167.html
Jump up ^ "England vs South Africa T20I scorecard". ESPNCricinfo.
Jump up ^ "Records | Twenty20 Internationals | Batting records | Unusual dismissals | ESPN Cricinfo". Cricinfo. Retrieved 23 June 2017.
Jump up ^ BBC, BBC Sport, 30 July 2011, http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/14353907.stm, 31 July 2011
Jump up ^ "Yusuf dismissal divides opinion". Wisden India. 15 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Jackson out obstructing the field in Saurashtra's win". ESPN Cricinfo. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "'Very very embarrassing! Absolutely shocking'". ESPN Cricinfo. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Logan Cup: Burl hits century as Stars clip Eagles". 3-mob.com. Retrieved 21 April 2018.
Bibliography[edit]
Buckley, G. B. (1937). Fresh Light on pre-Victorian Cricket. Cotterell.
Wisden Cricketers' Almanack – various issues
External links[edit]
The official laws of cricket
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Caught
Hit the ball twice
Hit wicket
Leg before wicket
Obstructing the field
Run out
Stumped
Timed out
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text:
List of Premier League clubs
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The following is a list of clubs who have played in the Premier League since its formation in 1992 to the current season. All statistics here refer to time in the Premier League only, with the exception of 'Most Recent Finish' (which refers to all levels of play) and 'Last Promotion' (which refers to the club's last promotion from the second tier of English football). For the 'Top Scorer' column, those in bold still play in the Premier League for the club shown. Premier League teams playing in the 2016–17 season are indicated in bold, while founding members of the Premier League are shown in italics. If the longest spell is the current spell, this is shown in bold, and if the highest finish is that of the most recent season, then this is also shown in bold.
As of the 2017–18 season, a total of 49 teams have played in the Premier League. Preston North End is the only former top-flight First Division champions that have never played in the Premier League,[1] and is among a total of sixteen clubs who have played in the old First Division but not in the Premier League. By contrast, Barnsley, Bournemouth, Hull City, Reading, Swindon Town, and Wigan Athletic never played in the old First Division before being promoted to the Premier League.
Nine of the twenty-two founder members of the Premier League are competing in the 2017–18 season. Six (Arsenal, Chelsea, Everton, Liverpool, Manchester United, and Tottenham Hotspur) have contested every season of the Premier League. Three (Crystal Palace, Manchester City, and Southampton) were also founder members, though each team has been relegated at least once in the past.
Two clubs, Cardiff City and Swansea City, are located in Wales but play in the English football league system for practical and historical reasons.
Contents
[hide]
1 Table
2 Chart
3 Map
4 Clubs who have competed in the top flight First Division, but not the Premier League
5 Notes
Table[edit]
Club
Location
Total
seasons
Total
spells
Longest
spell
Most recent
promotion
Most recent
relegation
Total
seasons
absent
Seasons
Most recent
finish
Highest
finish
Top scorer
Arsenal London (Highbury) 26 1 26 1914–15[2] Never
relegated 0 1992– 5 !5th 1 !1st 175 !Thierry Henry (175)
Aston Villa Birmingham (Aston) 24 1 24 1987–88 2015–16 2 1992–2016 33 !Championship
13th 2 !2nd 73 !Gabby Agbonlahor (73)
Barnsley Barnsley 1 1 1 1996–97 1997–98 25 1997–1998 34 !Championship
14th 19 !19th
(relegated) 10 !Neil Redfearn (10)
Birmingham City Birmingham (Bordesley) 7 3 4 2008–09 2010–11 18 2002–2006
2007–2008
2009–2011 39 !Championship
19th 9 !9th 29 !Mikael Forssell (29)
Blackburn Rovers Blackburn 18 2 11 2000–01 2011–12 7 1992–1999
2001–2012 42 !Championship
22nd (relegated) 1 !1st 112 !Alan Shearer (112)
Blackpool Blackpool 1 1 1 2009–10 2010–11 24 2010–2011 75 !League Two
7th (promoted) 19 !19th
(relegated) 13 !DJ Campbell (13)
Bolton Wanderers Bolton (Horwich) 13 3 11 2000–01 2011–12 12 1995–1996
1997–1998
2001–2012 46 !League One
2nd (promoted) 6 !6th 68 !Kevin Davies (68)
Bournemouth Bournemouth (Boscombe) 3 1 3 2014–15 Never
relegated 23 2015– 9 !9th 9 !9th 22 !Joshua King (22)
Bradford City Bradford 2 1 2 1998–99 2000–01 23 1999–2001 49 !League One
5th 17 !17th 13 !Dean Windass (13)
Brighton & Hove Albion Brighton (Falmer) 1 1 1 2016–17 Never
relegated 25 2017– 22 !Championship
2nd (promoted) N/A 2 !Pascal Groß (2)
Burnley Burnley 4 3 2 2015–16 2014–15 22 2009–2010
2014–2015
2016– 16 !16th 16 !16th 12 !Sam Vokes (12)
Cardiff City Cardiff 1 1 1 2012–13 2013–14 24 2013–2014 32 !Championship
12th 20r !20th
(relegated) 7 !Jordon Mutch (7)
Charlton Athletic London (Charlton) 8 2 7 1999–2000 2006–07 17 1998–1999
2000–2007 57 !League One
13th 7 !7th 34 !Jason Euell (34)
Chelsea London (Fulham) 26 1 26 1988–89 Never
relegated 0 1992– 1 !1st 1 !1st 147 !Frank Lampard (147)
Coventry City Coventry 9 1 9 1966–67 2000–01 16 1992–2001 67 !League One
23rd (relegated) 11 !11th 61 !Dion Dublin (61)
Crystal Palace London (Selhurst) 9 5 5 2012–13 2004–05 17 1992–1993
1994–1995
1997–1998
2004–2005
2013– 14 !14th 10 !10th 23 !Chris Armstrong (23)
Derby County Derby 7 2 6 2006–07 2007–08 18 1996–2002
2007–2008 29 !Championship
9th 8 !8th 32 !Dean Sturridge (32)
Everton Liverpool (Walton) 26 1 26 1953–54 Never
relegated 0 1992– 7 !7th 4 !4th 68 !Romelu Lukaku (68)
Fulham London (Fulham) 13 1 13 2000–01 2013–14 12 2001–2014 26 !Championship
6th 7 !7th 50 !Clint Dempsey (50)
Huddersfield Town Huddersfield 1 1 1 2016–17 Never
relegated 25 2017– 25 !Championship
5th (promoted) N/A 2 !Steve Mounié (2)
Hull City Kingston upon Hull 5 3 2 2015–16 2016–17 20 2008–2010
2013–2015
2016–2017 18 !18th (relegated) 16 !16th 12 !Nikica Jelavić (12)
Ipswich Town Ipswich 5 2 3 1999–2000 2001–02 20 1992–1995
2000–2002 36 !Championship
16th 5 !5th 25 !Marcus Stewart (25)
Leeds United Leeds 12 1 12 1989–90 2003–04 13 1992–2004 27 !Championship
7th 3 !3rd 59 !Mark Viduka (59)
Leicester City Leicester 12 4 6 2013–14 2003–04 14 1994–1995
1996–2002
2003–2004
2014– 12 !12th 1 !1st 45 !Jamie Vardy (45)
Liverpool Liverpool (Anfield) 26 1 26 1961–62 Never
relegated 0 1992– 4 !4th 2 !2nd 128 !Robbie Fowler (128)
Manchester City Manchester 21 3 15 2001–02 2000–01 5 1992–1996
2000–2001
2002– 3 !3rd 1 !1st 124 !Sergio Agüero (124)
Manchester United Stretford 26 1 26 1974–75 Never
relegated 0 1992– 6 !6th 1 !1st 183 !Wayne Rooney (183)
Middlesbrough Middlesbrough 15 4 11 2015–16 2016–17 10 1992–1993
1995–1997
1998–2009
2016–2017 19 !19th (relegated) 7 !7th 31 !Hamilton Ricard (31)
Newcastle United Newcastle upon Tyne 23 3 16 2016–17 2015–16 3 1993–2009
2010–2016
2017– 21 !Championship
1st (promoted) 2 !2nd 148 !Alan Shearer (148)
Norwich City Norwich 8 4 3 2014–15 2015–16 17 1992–1995
2004–2005
2011–2014
2015–2016 28 !Championship
8th 3 !3rd 33 !Chris Sutton (33)
Nottingham Forest Nottingham (West Bridgford) 5 3 3 1997–98 1998–99 20 1992–1993
1994–1997
1998–1999 41 !Championship
21st 3 !3rd 24 !Bryan Roy (24)
Oldham Athletic Oldham 2 1 2 1990–91 1993–94 23 1992–1994 61 !League One
17th 19 !19th 16 !Graeme Sharp (16)
Portsmouth Portsmouth 7 1 7 2002–03 2009–10 18 2003–2010 69 !League Two
1st (promoted) 8 !8th 28 !Yakubu (28)
Queens Park
Rangers London (Shepherd's Bush) 7 3 4 2013–14 2014–15 18 1992–1996
2011–2013
2014–2015 38 !Championship
18th 5 !5th 60 !Les Ferdinand (60)
Reading Reading 3 2 2 2011–12 2012–13 22 2006–2008
2012–2013 23 !Championship
3rd 8 !8th 19 !Kevin Doyle (19)
Sheffield United Sheffield (Highfield) 3 2 2 2005–06 2006–07 22 1992–1994
2006–2007 45 !League One
1st (promoted) 14 !14th 15 !Brian Deane (15)
Sheffield Wednesday Sheffield (Owlerton) 8 1 8 1990–91 1999–2000 17 1992–2000 24 !Championship
4th 7 !7th 48 !Mark Bright (48)
Southampton Southampton 19 2 13 2011–12 2004–05 7 1992–2005
2012– 8 !8th 6 !6th 100 !Matt Le Tissier (100)
Stoke City Stoke-on-Trent (Stoke) 10 1 10 2007–08 Never
relegated 16 2008– 13 !13th 9 !9th 43 !Peter Crouch (43)
Sunderland Sunderland 16 4 10 2006–07 2016–17 9 1996–1997
1999–2003
2005–2006
2007–2017 20 !20th (relegated) 7 !7th 61 !Kevin Phillips (61)
Swansea City Swansea 7 1 7 2010–11 Never
relegated 19 2011– 15 !15th 8 !8th 34 !Gylfi Sigurðsson (34)
Swindon Town Swindon 1 1 1 1992–93 1993–94 24 1993–1994 66 !League One
22nd (relegated) 22r !22nd
(relegated) 12 !Jan Åge Fjørtoft (12)
Tottenham Hotspur London (Tottenham) 26 1 26 1977–78 Never
relegated 0 1992– 2 !2nd 2 !2nd 97 !Teddy Sheringham (97)
Watford Watford 5 3 3 2014–15 2006–07 21 1999–2000
2006–2007
2015– 17 !17th 13 !13th 23 !Troy Deeney (23)
West Bromwich
Albion West Bromwich 12 4 8 2009–10 2008–09 14 2002–2003
2004–2006
2008–2009
2010– 10 !10th 8 !8th 30 !Peter Odemwingie (30)
West Ham United London (Stratford) 22 3 10 2011–12 2010–11 4 1993–2003
2005–2011
2012– 11 !11th 5 !5th 47 !Paolo Di Canio (47)
Wigan Athletic Wigan 8 1 8 2004–05 2012–13 17 2005–2013 43 !Championship
23rd (relegated) 10 !10th 24 !Hugo Rodallega (24)
Wimbledon[3] London (Wimbledon[4]) 8 1 8 1985–86 1999–2000 17 1992–2000 999 !Defunct
(2003–04) 6 !6th 58 !Dean Holdsworth (58)
Wolverhampton
Wanderers Wolverhampton 4 2 3 2008–09 2011–12 21 2003–2004
2009–2012 35 !Championship
15th 15 !15th 22 !Steven Fletcher (22)
As of the 2006–07 season, former Premier League members were in all three divisions of the Football League for the first time following the relegation of Swindon Town to Football League Two and their promotion back to Football League One at the end of that season. Since then, other former Premier League clubs relegated to League Two have included Bradford City, Portsmouth, Blackpool, and Coventry City. To date no former Premier League club has been relegated to the National League.
Crystal Palace have had the most separate spells in the Premier League, with five; all but the latest lasted a single season. The club were relegated at the end of the inaugural 1992–93 season, but after winning the First Division Championship the following season, they returned to the Premier League for 1994–95 campaign. This was the only season when the Premier League had four relegation places, and Palace finished fourth from bottom to be relegated back to the First Division. At the end of the 1996–97 season, Palace once again gained promotion to the top flight (this time through the play-offs), only to be relegated the following season after finishing bottom. After winning the play–offs again in 2003–04, Palace were once again relegated back to the Championship the following season. They won the play-offs for the third time at the end of the 2012–13 season, and for the first time managed to avoid relegation the following season.
Both Luton Town and Notts County were in the top flight in 1991–92, and so took part in the original negotiations in 1991 that led to the formation of the Premier League, and both resigned their membership of The Football League along with the other 20 clubs in the top flight. However, both clubs were relegated that season and have not returned to the top flight since, with Luton even dropping to the National League. The third top-flight club relegated that season was West Ham United, who subsequently won promotion into the Premier League the following season.
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titles
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Accrington[5] Accrington – – – 5 1892–93 Defunct 99 !–
Bradford Park Avenue[6] Bradford (Horton Park) – – – 3 1920–21 National League North 7000600000000000000♠6
Brentford London (Brentford) – – – 5 1946–47 Championship 7000200000000000000♠2
Bristol City Bristol (Ashton Gate) – – – 9 1979–80 Championship 7000200000000000000♠2
Bury Bury – 2 – 22 1928–29 League One 7000300000000000000♠3
Carlisle United Carlisle – – – 1 1974–75 League Two 7000400000000000000♠4
Darwen[7] Darwen – – – 2 1893–94 North West Counties Football League Premier Division 7000900000000000000♠9
Glossop North End Glossop – – – 1 1899–1900 Northern Premier League
Division One North 7000800000000000000♠8
Grimsby Town Cleethorpes – – – 12 1947–48 League Two 7000400000000000000♠4
Leyton Orient London (Leyton) – – – 1 1962–63 National League 7000500000000000000♠5
Luton Town Luton – – 1 16 1991–92 League Two 7000400000000000000♠4
Millwall London (New Cross) – – – 2 1989–90 Championship 7000200000000000000♠2
Northampton Town Northampton – – – 1 1965–66 League One 7000300000000000000♠3
Notts County Nottingham – 1 – 30 1991–92 League Two 7000400000000000000♠4
Oxford United Oxford – – 1 3 1987–88 League One 7000300000000000000♠3
Preston North End Preston 2 2 – 46 1960–61 Championship 7000200000000000000♠2
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Football Trivia Question of the Day January 2012 Archive". My Football Facts & Stats. January 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Arsenal finished 5th in Division Two in the 1914–15 season, but the Football League was then suspended until 1919–20 due to the First World War. After the war, Division One was expanded from 20 to 22 clubs and Arsenal was elected to the First Division for the 1919–20 season.
Jump up ^ Wimbledon relocated from London to Milton Keynes in 2003, and renamed themselves Milton Keynes Dons a year later.
Jump up ^ Throughout their time in the Premier League, Wimbledon played their home games at Selhurst Park, the home of Crystal Palace.
Jump up ^ The Accrington Stanley club competing today in League Two, as well as its 1891 predecessor, are unrelated to the original Accrington club.
Jump up ^ The original Bradford Park Avenue A.F.C. went into liquidation in May 1974 and reformed as a Sunday league club. The club was refounded in 1988.
Jump up ^ The original Darwen F.C. was wound up in May 2009. A.F.C. Darwen was formed as a phoenix club the same month.
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Ductus arteriosus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ductus arteriosus
Plan of the fetal circulation. ("Ductus arteriosus" visible at upper right.)
Heart cross-section with PDA
Details
Precursor
aortic arch 6
Source
pulmonary artery
Branches
descending aorta
Vein
ductus venosus
Identifiers
Latin
Ductus arteriosus
MeSH
D004373
TE
E5.11.2.1.2.0.17
FMA
79871
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
In the developing fetus, the ductus arteriosus, also called the ductus Botalli, is a blood vessel connecting the main pulmonary artery to the proximal descending aorta. It allows most of the blood from the right ventricle to bypass the fetus's fluid-filled non-functioning lungs. Upon closure at birth, it becomes the ligamentum arteriosum. There are two other fetal shunts, the ductus venosus and the foramen ovale.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development and structure
2 Clinical significance
2.1 Patent ductus arteriosus
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Development and structure[edit]
The ductus arteriosus is formed from the left 6th aortic arch during embryonic development[1] and attaches to the final part of the aortic arch (the isthmus of aorta) and the first part of the pulmonary artery[2]
Clinical significance[edit]
Patent ductus arteriosus[edit]
Main article: Patent ductus arteriosus
Failure of the DA to close after birth results in a condition called patent ductus arteriosus and the generation of a left-to-right shunt. If left uncorrected, patency leads to pulmonary hypertension and possibly congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias.
The E series of prostaglandins are responsible for maintaining the patency of the DA (by dilation of vascular smooth muscle) throughout the fetal period.[3] Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), produced by both the placenta and the DA itself, is the most potent of the E prostaglandins, but prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) also has a role in keeping the DA open.[4] PGE1 and PGE2 keep the DA open via involvement of specific PGE-sensitive receptors (such as EP4 and EP2).[5] EP4 is the major receptor associated with PGE2-induced dilation of the DA and can be found across the DA in smooth muscle cells.[6] Immediately after birth, the levels of both PGE2 and the EP4 receptors reduce significantly, allowing for closure of the DA and establishment of normal postnatal circulation.[6]
In some types of congenital heart defect (e.g., transposition of the great arteries), prostaglandins may be administered to maintain DA patency, allowing for the continual circulation and oxygenation of blood, until surgery can be performed.[7]
DA closure may be induced by administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which inhibit prostaglandin production.[4] The most common NSAID that is used to force DA closure is Indomethacin (a prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor), which can be administered after birth (used in first week of life).[4] However, in the presence of a congenital defect with impaired lung perfusion (e.g. Pulmonary stenosis and left-to-right shunt through the ductus), it may be advisable to improve oxygenation by maintaining the ductus open with prostaglandin treatment. However, such treatments are ineffective in an abnormal ductus. Persistence of the ductus may be associated with other abnormalities, and is much more common in females. By inhibiting PGE2 formation, EP4 receptor activation will decrease and normal circulation can begin. NSAIDs taken late in pregnancy can cross the placenta and lead to premature closure of the DA in the fetus.[8] In this case, exogenous PDE2 can be administered to reverse the effects of the NSAIDs and maintain the patency of the DA for the remainder of the pregnancy.[4]
A patent ductus arteriosus affects approximately 4% of infants with Down syndrome (DS). A failure to thrive is a very common sign of this condition.[9]
See also[edit]
Ductus venosus
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bamforth, Simon D.; Chaudhry, Bill; Bennett, Michael; Wilson, Robert; Mohun, Timothy J.; Van Mierop, Lodewyk H.S.; Henderson, Deborah J.; Anderson, Robert H. (2013-03-01). "Clarification of the identity of the mammalian fifth pharyngeal arch artery". Clinical Anatomy. 26 (2): 173–182. doi:10.1002/ca.22101. ISSN 1098-2353. PMID 22623372.
Jump up ^ Srichai, editors, David P. Naidich ... [et al.] ; contributing author, Monvadi B. (2007). Computed tomography and magnetic resonance of the thorax (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 100. ISBN 9780781757652. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Lucas, A (1978). "PROSTAGLANDINS IN PATENT DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS". The Lancet. 312 (8096): 937–938. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(78)91648-3. ISSN 0140-6736.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Olley, P.M.; Conceani F. (1981). "Prostaglandins and the Ductus Arteriosus". Annual Review of Medicine. 32 (1): 375–385. doi:10.1146/annurev.me.32.020181.002111.
Jump up ^ Bouayad A, Kajino H, Waleh N, Fouron JC, Andelfinger G, Varma DR, Skoll A, Vazquez A, Gobeil F, Clyman RI, Chemtob S (2001). "Characterization of PGE2 receptors in fetal and newborn lamb ductus arteriosus". Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 280 (5): H2342–9. doi:10.1152/ajpheart.2001.280.5.H2342. PMID 11299240.
^ Jump up to: a b Gruzdeva, A; Nguyena, M.; Kovarovob, M.; Koller, B (March 2012). "PGE2 through the EP4 receptor controls smooth muscle gene expression patterns in the ductus arteriosus critical for remodeling at birth". Prostaglandins and other Lipid Mediators. 94 (3): 109–119. doi:10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2012.02.001.
Jump up ^ "Congenital heart defects: Prostaglandins and prostaglandin inhibitors". Healthwise. My Health Alberta.
Jump up ^ Anonucci, R; Zaffanello, M.; Puxeddu, E.; Porcella, A.; Cuzzolin, L.; Pilloni, M.; Fanos, V. (2012). "Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in pregnancy:impact on the fetus and newborn". Current Drug Metabolism. 13 (4): 474–490. doi:10.2174/138920012800166607.
Jump up ^ Pritchard & Korf. "Medical Genetics at a Glance". Blackwell Publishing. 2010. p63.
External links[edit]
Circulatory changes at birth at berkeley.edu
[hide]
v
t
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Development of the circulatory system
Heart
Tubular heart
Truncus arteriosus
Bulbus cordis
Primitive ventricle
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Placenta
Fetal circulation
umbilical cord: Umbilical vein → Ductus venosus → Inferior vena cava → Heart → Pulmonary artery → Ductus arteriosus → Aorta → Umbilical artery
yolk sac: Vitelline veins
Vitelline arteries
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