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Tex-Mex
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For other uses, see Tex-Mex (disambiguation).
Examples of Tex-Mex dishes and ingredients
Tex-Mex (from Texan and Mexican) is a fusion of Mexican and American cuisines, deriving from the culinary creations of Tejanos. It has spread from border states such as Texas and others in the Southwestern United States to the rest of the country as well as Canada. Tex-Mex is most popular in Texas and some parts of Mexico.
Tex-Mex is often conflated with the Southwestern cuisine[1][2][3] found in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah.
Contents
[hide]
1 Common dishes
2 History
3 Terminology
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Common dishes[edit]
A baked beans and tortillas seller at San Antonio, Texas, c. 1939
Some ingredients are common in Mexican cuisine, but other ingredients not typically used in Mexico are often added. Tex-Mex cuisine is characterized by its heavy use of shredded cheese, meat (particularly beef and pork), beans, peppers and spices, in addition to flour tortillas. Dishes such as Texas-style chili con carne, nachos, hard tacos and fajitas are all Tex-Mex inventions.[citation needed] Moreover, Tex-Mex has imported flavors from other spicy cuisines, such as the use of cumin, introduced by Spanish immigrants to Texas from the Canary Islands and used in Berber cuisine,[4] but used in only a few central Mexican recipes.
History[edit]
Original Ninfa's tacos al carbón/fajitas
Chili with garnishes and tortilla chips
The word "Tex-Mex" first entered the English language as a nickname for the Texas Mexican Railway, chartered in southern Texas in 1875.[citation needed] In train schedules published in the newspapers of the 19th century the names of railroads were abbreviated. The Missouri Pacific was called the Mo. Pac. and the Texas-Mexican was abbreviated Tex. Mex. In the 1920s, the hyphenated form was used in American newspapers in reference to the railroad and to describe Texans of Mexican ancestry.[5]
In the mission era, Spanish and Mexican cuisines were combined in Texas as in other parts of the northern frontier of New Spain.[citation needed] However, the cuisine that would come to be called Tex-Mex actually originated with Tejanos (Texans of Mexican descent) as a mix of native Mexican and Spanish foods when Texas was part of New Spain and later Mexico.
Aaron Sanchez is an American Mexican chef and television personality.
From the South Texas region between San Antonio, the Rio Grande Valley and El Paso, this cuisine has had little variation, and from earliest times has always been influenced by the cooking in the neighboring northern states of Mexico.[citation needed] The ranching culture of South Texas and Northern Mexico straddles both sides of the border. A taste for cabrito (kid goat), barbacoa de cabeza (barbecued beef heads), carne seca (dried beef), and other products of cattle culture is common on both sides of the Rio Grande.
Marcela Valladolid was the host of the Food Network television series Mexican Made Easy, and a co-host of the Food Network television series The Kitchen.[6]
In the 20th century, Tex-Mex took on such Americanized elements as yellow cheese, as goods from the United States became cheap and readily available.
In much of Texas, the cooking styles on both sides of the U.S.–Mexico border were the same until a period after the U.S. Civil War. With the railroads, American ingredients and cooking appliances became common on the U.S. side.[7]
A 1968 Los Angeles Times feature wrote "[i]f the dish is a combination of Old World cooking, hush-my-mouth Southern cuisine and Tex-Mex, it's from the Texas Hill Country."[8]
In France, Paris's first Tex-Mex restaurant opened in March 1983. After the 1986 release of the film Betty Blue, Tex-Mex cuisine's popularity in Paris increased.[9]
Terminology[edit]
Mixed beef and chicken fajita ingredients, served on a hot iron skillet
The Oxford English Dictionary supplies the first-known uses in print of "Tex-Mex" in reference to food, from a 1963 article in The New York Times Magazine, and a 1966 item in the Great Bend (Kansas) Tribune.[10] Diana Kennedy, an influential food authority, explained the distinctions between Mexican cuisine and Americanized Mexican food in her 1972 book The Cuisines of Mexico. Robb Walsh of the Houston Press said the book "was a breakthrough cookbook, one that could have been written only by a non-Mexican. It unified Mexican cooking by transcending the nation's class divisions and treating the food of the poor with the same respect as the food of the upper classes."[11] Another early instance in print appeared in the Mexico City News in 1973.[citation needed]
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Jane Butel, preeminent author on the cuisine
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Walsh, Robb. The Tex-Mex Cookbook (XVI ed.). New York: Broadway Books.
Jump up ^ Feniger, Susan; Siegel, Helene; Miliken, Mary Sue (2002). Mexican Cooking for Dummies. Scranton: Courage Books.
Jump up ^ Martinez, Etienne. "Mexicans in the U.S.A: Mexican-American / Tex-Mex Cousine". Lightmillennium.org. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Jennifer Steinhauer (10 February 2014). "If It's Chili, It's Personal". The New York Times. The Times Company. Retrieved 6 January 2015. it was Canary Islanders who brought a taste for it in heavy doses, as used in Berber cuisine
Jump up ^ "Tex-Mex". Mexia Evening News. Mexia, Texas. 23 May 1922.
Jump up ^ Personal site posting Archived 15 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Walsh, Robb (27 July 2000). "Pralines and Pushcarts". Houston Press. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Pedernales Recipes 'Good for What Ails.'" Los Angeles Times. 12 September 1968. p. K30
Jump up ^ Walsh, Robb (23 November 2000). "The French Connection". Houstonpress.com. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary entry for Tex-Mex: 1963 N.Y. Times Mag. 11 Aug 50/1 Star of the evening was her Texas or Tex-Mex chili. 1966 Great Bend (Kansas) Daily Tribune 19 Oct 5/4 It's too bad that it has become known as ‘chili powder’ because some homemakers may associate it only with the preparation of ‘Tex-Mex’ dishes.
Jump up ^ Walsh, Robb (28 September 2000). "Mama's Got a Brand-new Bag". Houstonpress.com. Retrieved 14 October 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Tex-Mex Cuisine
"Tex-Mex Foods." Handbook of Texas.
Robb Walsh's Six-Part History of Tex-Mex in the Houston Press: Pralines and Pushcarts, Combination Plates, Mama's Got a Brand-new Bag, The Authenticity Myth, The French Connection, Brave Nuevo World.
Temples of Tex-Mex: A Diner's Guide to the State's Oldest Mexican Restaurants
Lieberman, Dave. "Five Ways To Tell You're Eating Americanized Mexican Food." OC Weekly. Monday 14 June 2010.
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Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services
Agency overview
Formed
July 30, 1965; 52 years ago (1965-07-30)
Preceding
Health Care Financing Administration (1977-2001)
Headquarters
Woodlawn, Baltimore County, Maryland
Employees
4,100
Agency executive
Seema Verma, Administrator[1]
Website
www.cms.gov
The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), previously known as the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA), is a federal agency within the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) that administers the Medicare program and works in partnership with state governments to administer Medicaid, the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), and health insurance portability standards. In addition to these programs, CMS has other responsibilities, including the administrative simplification standards from the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), quality standards in long-term care facilities (more commonly referred to as nursing homes) through its survey and certification process, clinical laboratory quality standards under the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments, and oversight of HealthCare.gov.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Workforce
3 Regional offices
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Social Security Amendments on July 30, 1965, establishing both Medicare and Medicaid. Arthur E. Hess, a deputy commissioner of the Social Security Administration, was named as first director of the Bureau of Health Insurance in 1965, placing him as the first executive in charge of the Medicare program. At the time, the program provided health insurance to 19 million Americans.[2] The Social Security Administration (SSA) became responsible for the administration of Medicare and the Social and Rehabilitation Service (SRS) became responsible for the administration of Medicaid. Both agencies were organized under what was then known as the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW).
In 1977, the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA) was established under HEW. HCFA became responsible for the coordination of Medicare and Medicaid. The responsibility for enrolling beneficiaries into Medicare and processing premium payments remained with SSA.
Workforce[edit]
The CMS employs over 6,000 employees, of which about 4,000 are located at its headquarters in Woodlawn, Maryland. The remaining employees are located in the Hubert H. Humphrey Building in Washington, D.C., the 10 regional offices listed below, and in various field offices located throughout the United States.
The head of the CMS is the Administrator of the Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services. The position is appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate.[3] Seema Verma has been confirmed by the US Senate as Administrator of CMS, a top healthcare position in the Trump administration.[4]
Regional offices[edit]
CMS has its headquarters in Woodlawn, Maryland, with 10 regional offices located throughout the United States:
Region I [5] – Boston, Massachusetts
Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont.
Region II [6] – New York, New York
New York State, New Jersey, U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico.
Region III [7] – Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia and the District of Columbia.
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Substantia nigra
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Substantia nigra
Substantia nigra highlighted in red.
Section through superior colliculus showing Substantia nigra.
Details
Part of
Midbrain, Basal ganglia
Identifiers
Latin
Substantia nigra
MeSH
A08.186.211.132.659.687
NeuroNames
hier-527
NeuroLex ID
Substantia nigra
TA
A14.1.06.111
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
The substantia nigra is a basal ganglia structure located in the midbrain that plays an important role in reward and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for "black substance", reflecting the fact that parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of neuromelanin in dopaminergic neurons.[1] It was discovered in 1784 by Félix Vicq-d'Azyr,[2] and Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring alluded to this structure in 1791.[3] Parkinson's disease is characterized by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta.[4]
Although the substantia nigra appears as a continuous band in brain sections, anatomical studies have found that it actually consists of two parts with very different connections and functions: the pars compacta and the pars reticulata. This classification was first proposed by Sano in 1910.[5] The pars compacta serves mainly as an input to the basal ganglia circuit, supplying the striatum with dopamine. The pars reticulata, though, serves mainly as an output, conveying signals from the basal ganglia to numerous other brain structures.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Pars reticulata
1.1.1 Afferent connections
1.1.2 Efferent connections
2 Function
2.1 Pars reticulata
2.2 Pars compacta
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Parkinson's disease
3.2 Schizophrenia
3.3 Wooden Chest Syndrome
3.4 Multiple system atrophy
4 Chemical modification of the substantia nigra
4.1 Amphetamine and trace amines
4.2 Cocaine
4.3 Levodopa
4.4 MPTP
5 History
6 Additional images
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
Coronal slices of human brain showing the basal ganglia, globus pallidus: external segment (GPe), subthalamic nucleus (STN), globus pallidus: internal segment (GPi), and substantia nigra (SN, red). The right section is the deeper one, closer to the back of the head
Diagram of the main components of the basal ganglia and their interconnections
Anatomical overview of the main circuits of the basal ganglia, substantia nigra is shown in black. Picture shows 2 coronal slices that have been superimposed to include the involved basal ganglia structures. + and - signs at the point of the arrows indicate respectively whether the pathway is excitatory or inhibitory in effect. Green arrows refer to excitatory glutamatergic pathways, red arrows refer to inhibitory GABAergic pathways and turquoise arrows refer to dopaminergic pathways that are excitatory on the direct pathway and inhibitory on the indirect pathway.
See also: Primate basal ganglia system
The substantia nigra, along with four other nuclei, is part of the basal ganglia. It is the largest nucleus in the midbrain, lying dorsal to the cerebral peduncles. Humans have two substantiae nigrae, one on each side of the midline.
The substantia nigra is divided into two parts: the pars reticulata and pars compacta, which lies medial to the pars reticulata. Sometimes, a third region, the pars lateralis, is mentioned, though it is usually classified as part of the pars reticulata. The pars reticulata and the internal globus pallidus are separated by the internal capsule.[citation needed]
Pars reticulata[edit]
Main article: Pars reticulata
The pars reticulata bears a strong structural and functional resemblance to the internal part of the globus pallidus. The two are sometimes considered parts of the same structure, separated by the white matter of the internal capsule. Like those of the globus pallidus, the neurons in pars reticulata are mainly GABAergic.[citation needed]
Afferent connections[edit]
The main input to the pars reticulata derives from the striatum. It comes by two routes, known as the direct and indirect pathways. The direct pathway consists of axons from medium spiny cells in the striatum that project directly to pars reticulata. The indirect pathway consists of three links: a projection from striatal medium spiny cells to the external part of the globus pallidus; a GABAergic projection from the globus pallidus to the subthalamic nucleus, and a glutamatergic projection from the subthalamic nucleus to the pars reticulata.[6] Thus, striatal activity via the direct pathway exerts an inhibitory effect on neurons in the pars reticulata but an excitatory effect via the indirect pathway. The direct and indirect pathways originate from different subsets of striatal medium spiny cells: They are tightly intermingled, but express different types of dopamine receptors, as well as showing other neurochemical differences.
Efferent connections[edit]
Significant projections occur to the thalamus (ventral lateral and ventral anterior nuclei), superior colliculus, and other caudal nuclei from the pars reticulata (the nigrothalamic pathway),[7] which use GABA as their neurotransmitter. In addition, these neurons form up to five collaterals that branch within both the pars compacta and pars reticulata, likely modulating dopaminergic activity in the pars compacta.[8]
Function[edit]
The substantia nigra is an important player in brain function, in particular, in eye movement, motor planning, reward-seeking, learning, and addiction. Many of the substantia nigra's effects are mediated through the striatum. The nigral dopaminergic input to the striatum via the nigrostriatal pathway is intimately linked with the striatum's function.[9] The co-dependence between the striatum and substantia nigra can be seen in this way: when the substantia nigra is electrically stimulated, no movement occurs; however, the symptoms of nigral degeneration due to Parkinson's is a poignant example of the substantia nigra's influence on movement. In addition to striatum-mediated functions, the substantia nigra also serves as a major source of GABAergic inhibition to various brain targets.
Pars reticulata[edit]
Main article: Pars reticulata § Function
The pars reticulata of the substantia nigra is an important processing center in the basal ganglia. The GABAergic neurons in the pars reticulata convey the final processed signals of the basal ganglia to the thalamus and superior colliculus. In addition, the pars reticulata also inhibits dopaminergic activity in the pars compacta via axon collaterals, although the functional organization of these connections remains unclear.
The GABAergic neurons of the pars reticulata spontaneously fire action potentials. In rats, the frequency of action potentials is roughly 25 Hz.[10] The purpose of these spontaneous action potentials is to inhibit targets of the basal ganglia, and decreases in inhibition are associated with movement.[11] The subthalamic nucleus gives excitatory input that modulates the rate of firing of these spontaneous action potentials. However, lesion of the subthalamic nucleus leads to only a 20% decrease in pars reticulata firing rate, suggesting that the generation of action potentials in the pars reticulata is largely autonomous,[12] as exemplified by the pars reticulata's role in saccadic eye movement. A group of GABAergic neurons from the pars reticulata projects to the superior colliculus, exhibiting a high level of sustained inhibitory activity.[13] Projections from the caudate nucleus to the superior colliculus also modulate saccadic eye movement. Altered patterns of pars reticulata firing such as single-spike or burst firing are found in Parkinson's disease[14] and epilepsy.[15]
Pars compacta[edit]
Main article: Pars compacta § Function
The most prominent function of the pars compacta is motor control,[16] though the substantia nigra's role in motor control is indirect; electrical stimulation of the substantia nigra does not result in movement, due to mediation of the striatum in the nigral influence of movement. The pars compacta sends excitatory input to the striatum via D1 pathway that excites and activates the striatum, resulting in the release of GABA onto the globus pallidus to inhibit its inhibitory effects on the thalamic nucleus. This causes the thalamocortical pathways to become excited and transmits motor neuron signals to the cerebral cortex to allow the initiation of movement, which is absent in Parkinson's disease. However, lack of pars compacta neurons has a large influence on movement, as evidenced by the symptoms of Parkinson's. The motor role of the pars compacta may involve fine motor control, as has been confirmed in animal models with lesions in that region.[17]
The pars compacta is heavily involved in learned responses to stimuli. In primates, dopaminergic neuron activity increases in the nigrostriatal pathway when a new stimulus is presented.[18] Dopaminergic activity decreases with repeated stimulus presentation.[18] However, behaviorally significant stimulus presentation (i.e. rewards) continues to activate dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Dopaminergic projections from the ventral tegmental area (bottom part of the "midbrain" or mesencephalon) to the prefrontal cortex (mesocortical pathway) and to the nucleus accumbens (mesolimbic pathway - "meso" referring to "from the mesencephalon"... specifically the ventral tegmental area) are implicated in reward, pleasure, and addictive behavior. The pars compacta is also important in spatial learning, the observations about one's environment and location in space. Lesions in the pars compacta lead to learning deficits in repeating identical movements,[19] and some studies point to its involvement in a dorsal striatal-dependent, response-based memory system that functions relatively independent of the hippocampus, which is traditionally believed to subserve spatial or episodic-like memory functions.[20]
The pars compacta also plays a role in temporal processing and is activated during time reproduction. Lesions in the pars compacta leads to temporal deficits.[21] As of late, the pars compacta has been suspected of regulating the sleep-wake cycle,[22] which is consistent with symptoms such as insomnia and REM sleep disturbances that are reported by patients with Parkinson's disease. Even so, partial dopamine deficits that do not affect motor control can lead to disturbances in the sleep-wake cycle, especially REM-like patterns of neural activity while awake, especially in the hippocampus.[23]
Clinical significance[edit]
The substantia nigra is critical in the development of many diseases and syndromes, including parkinsonism and Parkinson's disease.
Parkinson's disease[edit]
Substantia nigra with loss of cells and Lewy body pathology
Main article: Parkinson's disease
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterized, in part, by the death of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta of the substantia nigra. The major symptoms of Parkinson's disease include tremor, akinesia, bradykinesia, and stiffness.[24] Other symptoms include disturbances to posture, fatigue, sleep abnormalities, and depressed mood.[25]
The cause of death of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta is unknown. However, some contributions to the unique susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta have been identified. For one, dopaminergic neurons show abnormalities in mitochondrial complex 1, causing aggregation of alpha-synuclein; this can result in abnormal protein handling and neuron death.[26] Secondly, dopaminergic neurons in the pars compacta contain less calbindin than other dopaminergic neurons.[27] Calbindin is a protein involved in calcium ion transport within cells, and excess calcium in cells is toxic. The calbindin theory would explain the high cytotoxicity of Parkinson's in the substantia nigra compared to the ventral tegmental area. Regardless of the cause of neuronal death, the plasticity of the pars compacta is very robust; Parkinsonian symptoms do not appear until up to 50-80% of pars compacta dopaminergic neurons have died.[28] Most of this plasticity occurs at the neurochemical level; dopamine transport systems are slowed, allowing dopamine to linger for longer periods of time in the chemical synapses in the striatum.[28]
Menke, Jbabdi, Miller, Matthews and Zari (2010) used diffusion tensor imaging, as well as T1 mapping to assess volumetric differences in the substantia nigra subregions, pars reticulata and pars compacta, in participants with Parkinson’s compared to healthy individuals. These researchers found that participants with Parkinson’s consistently had a smaller substantia nigra, specifically in the right substantia nigra pars reticulata. Because the substantia nigra pars reticulata is connected to the posterior thalamus, ventral thalamus and specifically, the motor cortex, and because participants with Parkinson’s disease report having a smaller substantia nigra pars reticulata (Menke, Jbabdi, Miller, Matthews and Zari, 2010), the small volume of this region may be responsible for motor impairments found in Parkinson’s disease patients. This small volume may be responsible for weaker and/or less controlled motor movements, which may result in the tremors often experienced by those with Parkinson’s.[29]
Schizophrenia[edit]
See also: Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
Increased levels of dopamine have long been implicated in the development of schizophrenia.[30] However, much debate continues to this day surrounding this dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia. Despite the controversy, dopamine antagonists remain a standard and successful treatment for schizophrenia. These antagonists include first generation (typical) antipsychotics such as butyrophenones, phenothiazines, and thioxanthenes. These drugs have largely been replaced by second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics such as clozapine and paliperidone. It should be noted that, in general, these drugs do not act on dopamine-producing neurons themselves, but on the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron.
Other, non-pharmacological evidence in support of the dopamine hypothesis relating to the substantia nigra include structural changes in the pars compacta, such as reduction in synaptic terminal size.[31] Other changes in the substantia nigra include increased expression of NMDA receptors in the substantia nigra, and reduced dysbindin expression. Increased NMDA receptors may point to the involvement of glutamate-dopamine interactions in schizophrenia. Dysbindin, which has been (controversially) linked to schizophrenia, may regulate dopamine release, and low expression of dysbindin in the substantia nigra may be important in schizophrenia etiology.[32] Due to the changes to the substantia nigra in the schizophrenic brain, it may eventually be possible to use specific imaging techniques (such as neuromelanin-specific imaging) to detect physiological signs of schizophrenia in the substantia nigra.[33]
Wooden Chest Syndrome[edit]
Wooden chest, also called fentanyl chest wall rigidity syndrome, is a rare side effect of synthetic opioids such as Fentanyl, Sulfentanil, Alfentanil, Remifentanil. It results in a generalised increase in skeletal muscle tone. The mechanism is thought to be via increased dopamine release and decreased GABA release in the nerves of the substantia nigra/striatum. The effect is most pronounced on the chest wall muscles and can lead to impaired ventilation. The condition is most commonly observed in anaesthesia where rapid and high doses of these drugs are given intravenously.[citation needed]
Multiple system atrophy[edit]
Multiple system atrophy characterized by neuronal degeneration in the striatum and substantial nigra, was previously called striatonigral degeneration.
Chemical modification of the substantia nigra[edit]
Chemical manipulation and modification of the substantia nigra is important in the fields of neuropharmacology and toxicology. Various compounds such as levodopa and MPTP are used in the treatment and study of Parkinson's disease, and many other drugs have effects on the substantia nigra.
Amphetamine and trace amines[edit]
See also: Amphetamine and Trace amine
Studies have shown that, in certain brain regions, amphetamine and trace amines increase the concentrations of dopamine in the synaptic cleft, thereby heightening the response of the post-synaptic neuron.[34] The various mechanisms by which amphetamine and trace amines affect dopamine concentrations have been studied extensively, and are known to involve both DAT and VMAT2.[34][35][36] Amphetamine is similar in structure to dopamine and trace amines; as a consequence, it can enter the presynaptic neuron via DAT as well as by diffusing through the neural membrane directly.[34] Upon entering the presynaptic neuron, amphetamine and trace amines activate TAAR1, which, through protein kinase signaling, induces dopamine efflux, phosphorylation-dependent DAT internalization, and non-competitive reuptake inhibition.[34][37] Because of the similarity between amphetamine and trace amines, it is also a substrate for monoamine transporters; as a consequence, it (competitively) inhibits the reuptake of dopamine and other monoamines by competing with them for uptake, as well.[34]
In addition, amphetamine and trace amines are substrates for the neuronal vesicular monoamine transporter, vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2).[36] When amphetamine is taken up by VMAT2, the vesicle releases (effluxes) dopamine molecules into the cytosol in exchange.[36]
Cocaine[edit]
See also: Cocaine
Cocaine's mechanism of action in the human brain includes the inhibition of dopamine reuptake,[38] which accounts for cocaine's addictive properties, as dopamine is the critical neurotransmitter for reward. However, cocaine is more active in the dopaminergic neurons of the ventral tegmental area than the substantia nigra. Cocaine administration increases metabolism in the substantia nigra, which can explain the altered motor function seen in cocaine-using subjects.[39] The inhibition of dopamine reuptake by cocaine also inhibits the firing of spontaneous action potentials by the pars compacta.[40] The mechanism by which cocaine inhibits dopamine reuptake involves its binding to the dopamine transporter protein. However, studies show that cocaine can also cause a decrease in DAT mRNA levels,[41] most likely due to cocaine blocking dopamine receptors rather than direct interference with transcriptional or translational pathways.[41]
Inactivation of the substantia nigra could prove to be a possible treatment for cocaine addiction. In a study of cocaine-dependent rats, inactivation of the substantia nigra via implanted cannulae greatly reduced cocaine addiction relapse.[42]
Levodopa[edit]
See also: Levodopa
The substantia nigra is the target of chemical therapeutics for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Levodopa (commonly referred to as L-DOPA), the dopamine precursor, is the most commonly prescribed medication for Parkinson's disease, despite controversy concerning the neurotoxicity of dopamine and L-DOPA.[43] The drug is especially effective in treating patients in the early stages of Parkinson's, although it does lose its efficacy over time.[44] Levodopa can cross the blood–brain barrier and increases dopamine levels in the substantia nigra, thus alleviating the symptoms of Parkinson's disease. The drawback of levodopa treatment is that it treats the symptoms of Parkinson's (low dopamine levels), rather than the cause (the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra).
MPTP[edit]
See also: MPTP
MPTP, is a neurotoxin specific to dopaminergic cells in the brain, specifically in the substantia nigra. MPTP was brought to the spotlight in 1982 when heroin users in California displayed Parkinson's-like symptoms after using MPPP contaminated with MPTP. The patients, who were rigid and almost completely immobile, responded to levodopa treatment. No remission of the Parkinson's-like symptoms was reported, suggesting irreversible death of the dopaminergic neurons.[45] The proposed mechanism of MPTP involves disruption of mitochondrial function, including disruption of metabolism and creation of free radicals.[46]
Soon after, MPTP was tested in animal models for its efficacy in inducing Parkinson's disease (with success). MPTP induced akinesia, rigidity, and tremor in primates, and its neurotoxicity was found to be very specific to the substantia nigra pars compacta.[47] In other animals, such as rodents, the induction of Parkinson's by MPTP is incomplete or requires much higher and frequent doses than in primates. Today, MPTP remains the most favored method to induce Parkinson's disease in animal models.[46][48]
History[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2018)
Additional images[edit]
Dopamine and serotonin
Degradation of substantia nigra associated with Parkinson's disease.
Horizontal MRI (T1 weighted) slice with highlighting indicating location of the substantia nigra.
Enhanced Neuromelanin MRI with Color images (RGB) showing Substantia nigra pars compacta
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rabey, J. M.; Hefti, F. (1990). "Neuromelanin synthesis in rat and human substantia nigra". Journal of Neural Transmission - Parkinson's Disease and Dementia Section. 2 (1): 1–14. doi:10.1007/BF02251241. PMID 2357268.
Jump up ^ Tubbs RS, Loukas M, Shoja MM, Mortazavi MM, Cohen-Gadol AA (July 2011). "Félix Vicq d'Azyr (1746-1794): early founder of neuroanatomy and royal French physician". Childs Nerv Syst. 27 (7): 1031–4. doi:10.1007/s00381-011-1424-y. PMID 21445631.
Jump up ^ Swanson, LW. Neuroanatomical terminology : a lexicon of classical origins and historical foundations. Oxford University Press, 2014. England ISBN 9780195340624
Jump up ^ Kim, S. J.; Sung, JY; Um, JW; Hattori, N; Mizuno, Y; Tanaka, K; Paik, SR; Kim, J; Chung, KC (2003). "Parkin Cleaves Intracellular -Synuclein Inclusions via the Activation of Calpain". Journal of Biological Chemistry. 278 (43): 41890–9. doi:10.1074/jbc.M306017200. PMID 12917442.
Jump up ^ Sano, T (1910). "Beitrag zur vergleichenden Anatomie der Substantia nigra, des Corpus Luysii und der Zona incerta". Mschr Psychiat Neurol. 28 (1): 26–34. doi:10.1159/000209678.
Jump up ^ Nauta, Haring J. W.; Cole, Monroe (1978). "Efferent projections of the subthalamic nucleus: An autoradiographic study in monkey and cat". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 180 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1002/cne.901800102. PMID 418083. [better source needed]
Jump up ^ Carpenter, Malcolm B.; Nakano, Katsuma; Kim, Ronald (1976). "Nigrothalamic projections in the monkey demonstrated by autoradiographic technics". The Journal of Comparative Neurology. 165 (4): 401–15. doi:10.1002/cne.901650402. PMID 57125.
Jump up ^ Deniau, J.M.; Kitai, S.T.; Donoghue, J.P.; Grofova, I. (1982). "Neuronal interactions in the substantia nigra pars reticulata through axon collaterals of the projection neurons". Experimental Brain Research. 47. doi:10.1007/BF00235891.
Jump up ^ Nicola, Saleem M.; Surmeier, D. James; Malenka, Robert C. (2000). "Dopaminergic Modulation of Neuronal Excitability in the Striatum and Nucleus Accumbens". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 23: 185–215. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.185. PMID 10845063.
Jump up ^ Gernert, Manuela; Fedrowitz, Maren; Wlaz, Piotr; Löscher, Wolfgang (2004). "Subregional changes in discharge rate, pattern, and drug sensitivity of putative GABAergic nigral neurons in the kindling model of epilepsy". European Journal of Neuroscience. 20 (9): 2377–86. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03699.x. PMID 15525279.
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Substantia nigra.
Stained brain slice images which include the "substantia nigra" at the BrainMaps project
Diagram and explanation of cortico-basal pathways
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the midbrain
Tectum
(Dorsal)
Surface
Corpora quadrigemina:
Inferior colliculus
Brachium
Superior colliculus
Brachium
Grey matter
Pretectal area
White: Sensory/ascending
Spinotectal tract
Central tegmental tract
White: Motor/descending
Tectospinal tract
Peduncle
(Ventral)
Tegmentum
White: Sensory/ascending
Lemnisci
Medial
Lateral
Ascending MLF
Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers
Spinothalamic tract
Anterior trigeminothalamic tract
Dentatothalamic tract
White: Motor/descending
Rubrospinal tract
Rubro-olivary tract
Descending MLF
Grey: cranial nuclei
GSA
Mesencephalic- GSE
Oculomotor nucleus, Trochlear nucleus- GVE
Edinger–Westphal nucleus
Grey: other
Periaqueductal gray
Raphe nuclei
dorsal
Ventral tegmental area
Rostromedial tegmental nucleus
Pedunculopontine nucleus
Red nucleus
Rostral interstitial nucleus of medial longitudinal fasciculus
Parabrachial area
Interpeduncular nucleus
Midbrain reticular formation
Ventricular system
Cerebral aqueduct
Base
White: Motor/descending
Cerebral crus: Corticospinal tract
Corticobulbar tract
Corticopontine tract/Frontopontine fibers/Temporopontine fibers
Grey: Substantia nigra
Pars compacta
Pars reticulata
Surface
Superior cerebellar peduncle
Decussation
Interpeduncular fossa
[show]
v
t
e
Rostral basal ganglia of the human brain and associated structures
Basal ganglia
Grey matter
Striatum
Dorsal striatum
Putamen
Caudate nucleus
Ventral striatum
Nucleus accumbens
Olfactory tubercle
Globus pallidus
GPe
GPi
Other
Amygdala
Claustrum
White matter
Centrum semiovale
Internal capsule
Anterior limb
Genu
Posterior limb
Optic radiation
Corona radiata
External capsule
Extreme capsule
Pallidothalamic tracts: Thalamic fasciculus
Ansa lenticularis
Lenticular fasciculus
Subthalamic fasciculus
Rhinencephalon
Grey matter
Anterior olfactory nucleus
Anterior perforated substance
Olfactory bulb
White matter
Olfactory tract
Medial olfactory stria
Lateral olfactory stria
Olfactory trigone
Other basal forebrain
Grey matter
Substantia innominata
Nucleus basalis
Nucleus of diagonal band
White matter
Diagonal band of Broca
Stria terminalis
Archicortex:
Hippocampal formation/
Hippocampus anatomy
Grey matter
Hippocampus proper
CA1
CA2
CA3
CA4
Dentate gyrus
Fascia dentata
Subiculum
White matter
Alveus
Fimbria
Perforant path
Schaffer collateral
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The Girl in the Crowd
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Girl in the Crowd
Googie Withers (seated, left)
Directed by
Michael Powell
Produced by
Michael Balcon
Written by
Brock Williams
Starring
Barry Clifton
Patricia Hilliard
Googie Withers
Harold French
Cinematography
Basil Emmott
Edited by
Bert Bates
Distributed by
Warner Brothers-First National Productions
Release date
20 May 1935 UK
Running time
52 min
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
The Girl in the Crowd is a 1935 British comedy film directed by Michael Powell starring Barry Clifton, Patricia Hilliard and Googie Withers.
The film has been declared "Missing, Believed Lost" by the British Film Institute.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 References
3.1 Notes
3.2 Bibliography
4 External links
Plot[edit]
The wife of a bookseller gives advice about picking up woman to her husband's friend (whom she has never met) over the phone. She advises him simply to follow the first pretty woman he sees. Unfortunately, when he takes her advice, she is the girl in the crowd he ends up following, leading to his arrest.
Cast[edit]
Barry Clifton as David Gordon
Patricia Hilliard as Marian
Googie Withers as Sally. Withers was just an extra, until the second female lead quit and she took over.[2]
Harold French as Bob
Clarence Blakiston as Mr. Peabody
Margaret Gunn as Joyce
Richard Littledale as Bill Manners
Phyllis Morris as Mrs.Lewis
Patric Knowles as Tom Burrows
Marjorie Corbett as Secretary
Brenda Lawless as Policewoman
Barbara Waring as Mannequin
Eve Lister as Ruby
Betty Lyne as Phyllis
Melita Bell as Assistant Manageress
John Wood as Harry
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Missing, Believed Lost
Jump up ^ Powell, 1986
Bibliography[edit]
Chibnal, Steve. Quota Quickies : The Birth of the British 'B' Film. London: BFI, 2007. ISBN 1-84457-155-6
Powell, Michael. A Life in Movies: An Autobiography. London: Heinemann, 1986. ISBN 0-434-59945-X.
External links[edit]
The Girl in the Crowd on IMDb
The Girl in the Crowd at AllMovie
The Girl in the Crowd reviews and articles at the Powell & Pressburger Pages
[hide]
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49th Parallel
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Girl_in_the_Crowd&oldid=822018946"
Categories:
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The Hurry and the Harm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Hurry and the Harm
Studio album by City and Colour
Released
June 4, 2013
Recorded
at Blackbird Studio, Nashville, Tennessee
Genre
Alternative rock
Length
50:49
Label
Dine Alone, Cooking Vinyl
Producer
Alex Newport
City and Colour chronology
Little Hell
(2011)Little Hell2011 The Hurry and the Harm
(2013) If I Should Go Before You
(2015)If I Should Go Before You2015
Singles from The Hurry and the Harm
"Thirst"
Released: April 9, 2013
"Of Space And Time"
"The Lonely Life"
Released: 2013
"Harder Than Stone"
Released: January 27, 2014
Professional ratings
Aggregate scores
Source
Rating
Metacritic (67/100)[1]
Review scores
Source
Rating
The Hurry and the Harm is the fourth studio album by City and Colour. It was produced by Alex Newport and released on June 4, 2013, by Dine Alone Records and Cooking Vinyl.
The album received a score of 67 out of 100 from 10 critics on review aggregator Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Commercial performance
2 Track listing
3 Personnel
4 References
Commercial performance[edit]
The Hurry and the Harm debuted at No. 1 on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 23,000 copies in its first week.[3] It was City and Colour's second consecutive album to debut at No. 1 on the chart. Up to January 10, 2014, the album had sold 66,000 copies in Canada.[4] The album was certified Platinum in Canada on February 13, 2014.[5]
The album also debuted at No. 16 on the US Billboard 200 chart,[6] selling 20,000 for the week. The album had sold 71,000 copies in the US up to September 2015.[7]
Track listing[edit]
All tracks written by Dallas Green.
No.
Title
Length
1. "The Hurry and the Harm" 4:23
2. "Harder Than Stone" 4:26
3. "Of Space and Time" 3:33
4. "The Lonely Life" 4:34
5. "Paradise" 3:38
6. "Commentators" 3:35
7. "Thirst" 3:26
8. "Two Coins" 5:32
9. "Take Care" 3:38
10. "Ladies and Gentlemen" 4:05
11. "The Golden State" 5:18
12. "Death's Song" 4:43
Total length: 50:49
[show]Deluxe edition bonus tracks[8]
No.
Title
Length
13. "The Way It Used to Be" 4:10
14. "Of Space and Time" (acoustic version) 3:18
15. "Harder Than Stone" (acoustic version) 3:47
Total length: 1:02:04
Personnel[edit]
Dallas Green - lead vocals, rhythm guitar, acoustic guitar, piano
Dante Schwebel - lead guitar, backing vocals
Jack Lawrence - bass guitar, backing vocals
Matthew Kelly - pedal steel, organ, piano
Doug MacGregor - drums
Production
Alex Newport - producer, engineer, mixer, masterer
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Reviews for The Hurry and The Harm by City and Colour - Metacritic". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved April 21, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Reviews for The Hurry and the Harm by City and Colour". CBS Interactive. Retrieved September 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ CITY AND COLOUR SCORE SECOND NUMBER ONE ALBUM (PDF). Retrieved June 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Canada's Digital Music Sales Rise in 2013 Unlike the U.S.; Eminem, Robin Thicke Among Top Selling Artists". January 10, 2014. Retrieved January 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Gold Platinum Database: The Hurry and the Harm". Music Canada. Retrieved February 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Billboard 200 : Jun 22, 2013". Billboard. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Upcoming Releases". Hits Daily Double. Hits Digital Ventures. Archived from the original on September 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Hurry and the Harm (Deluxe Version)". Itunes.apple.com. June 4, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2013.
[show]
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Dallas Green
Studio albums
Sometimes
Bring Me Your Love
Little Hell
The Hurry and the Harm
If I Should Go Before You
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Live
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The Death of Me
Missing EP
The MySpace Transmissions
Singles
"Save Your Scissors"
"Comin' Home
"Waiting..."
"Sleeping Sickness"
"Fragile Bird"
Featured singles
"Wavin' Flag"
Labels
Dine Alone
Vagrant
Related articles
Alexisonfire
Attack In Black
You+Me
rose ave.
This 2010s rock album-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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This page was last edited on 23 November 2017, at 17:50.
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