text:
Vredefort crater
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Vredefort Crater
Vredefort Dome (centre)
Vredefort Dome, seen from space by STS-51-I
Impact crater/structure
Confidence
Confirmed
Diameter
300 km (190 mi)
Age
2023 ± 4 Ma
Paleoproterozoic
Exposed
Yes
Drilled
Yes
Location
Coordinates
27°0′0″S 27°30′0″E / 27.00000°S 27.50000°E / -27.00000; 27.50000Coordinates: 27°0′0″S 27°30′0″E / 27.00000°S 27.50000°E / -27.00000; 27.50000
Country
South Africa
Province
Free State Province
Location of Vredefort crater
Vredefort crater
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Location
Free State, South Africa
Coordinates
27°00′S 27°30′E / 27°S 27.5°E / -27; 27.5
Criteria
Natural: (viii)
Reference
1162
Inscription
2005 (29th Session)
Location of Vredefort crater
[edit on Wikidata]
The Vredefort crater is the largest verified impact crater on Earth, more than 300 km (186 mi) across when it was formed.[1][2] What remains of it is located in the present-day Free State Province of South Africa and named after the town of Vredefort, which is situated near its center. Although the crater itself has long since eroded away, the remaining geological structures at its center are known as the Vredefort Dome or Vredefort impact structure. The crater is estimated to be 2.023 billion years old (± 4 million years), with impact being in the Paleoproterozoic Era. It is the second-oldest known crater on Earth.
In 2005, the Vredefort Dome was added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites for its geologic interest.
Contents
[hide]
1 Formation and structure
2 Conservation
3 Community
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Formation and structure[edit]
Map of South Africa showing the location of the Vredefort Dome, the remains of a 2.020 billion year-old impact crater. The interrupted line circle, 300 km in diameter, marks the extent of the original crater.
The asteroid that hit Vredefort is estimated to have been one of the largest ever to strike Earth (at least since the Hadean Eon some four billion years ago), thought to have been approximately 10–15 km (6.2–9.3 mi) in diameter.[3] The bolide that created the Sudbury Basin could have been even larger.[4]
The original crater was estimated to have a diameter of roughly 300 km (190 mi),[2] although this has been eroded away. It would have been larger than the 250 km (160 mi) Sudbury Basin and the 180 km (110 mi) Chicxulub Crater. The remaining structure, the "Vredefort Dome", consists of a partial ring of hills 70 km in diameter, and are the remains of a dome created by the rebound of rock below the impact site after the collision.
The crater's age is estimated to be 2.023 billion years (± 4 million years),[1] which places it in the Paleoproterozoic Era. It is the second-oldest known crater on Earth, a little less than 300 million years younger than the Suavjärvi Crater in Russia. In comparison, it is about 10% older than the Sudbury Basin impact (at 1.849 billion years).
A timeline of the earth's history indicating when the Vredefort crater was formed in relation to some of the other important South African geological events. W indicates when the Witwatersrand Supergroup was laid down, C the Cape Supergroup, and K the Karoo Supergroup. The graph also indicates the period during which banded ironstone formations were formed on earth, indicative of an oxygen-free atmosphere. The Earth's crust was wholly or partially molten during the Hadean Eon. One of the first microcontinents to form was the Kaapvaal Craton, which is exposed at the center of the Vredefort Dome, and again north of Johannesburg.
The dome in the center of the crater was originally thought to have been formed by a volcanic explosion, but in the mid-1990s, evidence revealed it was the site of a huge bolide impact, as telltale shatter cones were discovered in the bed of the nearby Vaal River.
The crater site is one of the few multiple-ringed impact craters on Earth, although they are more common elsewhere in the Solar System. Perhaps the best-known example is Valhalla Crater on Jupiter's moon Callisto, although Earth's Moon has a number, as well. Geological processes, such as erosion and plate tectonics, have destroyed most multiple-ring craters on Earth.
A schematic diagram of a NE (left) to SW (right) cross-section through the 2020 million year old Vredefort impact crater and how it distorted the contemporary geological structures. The present erosion level is shown. Johannesburg is located where the Witwatersrand Basin (the yellow layer) is exposed at the "present surface" line, just inside the crater rim, on the left. Not to scale.
The impact distorted the Witwatersrand Basin which was laid down over a period of 250 million years between 950 and 700 million years before the Vredefort impact. The overlying Ventersdorp lavas and the Transvaal Supergroup which were laid down between 700 and 80 million years before the meteorite strike, were similarly distorted by the formation of the 300 km wide crater.[3][5] These rocks form partial concentric rings round the crater center today, with the oldest, the Witwatersrand rocks, forming a semicircle 25 km from the center. Since the Witwatersrand rocks consist of several layers of very hard, erosion resistant sediments (e.g. quartzites and banded ironstones),[3][6] they form the prominent arc of hills that can be seen to the NW of the crater center in the satellite picture above. The Witwatersrand rocks are followed, in succession, by the Ventersdorp lavas at a distance of about 35 km from the center, and the Transvaal Supergroup, consisting of a narrow band of the Ghaap Dolomite rocks and the Pretoria Subgroup of rocks, which together form a 25–30 km wide band beyond that.[7] From about halfway through the Pretoria Subgroup of rocks around the crater center, the order of the rocks is reversed. Moving outwards towards where the crater rim used to be, the Ghaap Dolomite group resurfaces at 60 km from the center, followed by an arc of Ventersdorp lavas, beyond which, at between 80 and 120 km from the center, the Witwatersrand rocks re-emerge to form an interrupted arc of outcrops today, of which the Johannesburg group is the most famous, because it was here that gold was discovered in 1886.[3][7] It is thus possible that if it had not been for the Vredefort impact this gold would never have been discovered.[3]
The 40 km diameter center of the Vredefort crater consists of a granite dome (where it is not covered by much younger rocks belonging to the Karoo Supergroup) which is an exposed part of the Kaapvaal craton, one of the oldest microcontinents which formed on earth 3900 million years ago.[3] This central peak uplift, or dome, is typical of a complex impact crater, where the liquefied rocks splashed up in the wake of the meteor as it penetrated the surface.
Conservation[edit]
Monochrome satellite view of the crater
The Vredefort Dome World Heritage Site is currently subject to property development, and local owners have expressed concern regarding sewage dumping into the Vaal River and the crater site.[8] The granting of prospecting rights around the edges of the crater has led environmental interests to express fear of destructive mining.
Community[edit]
The Vredefort Dome in the center of the crater is home to four towns, namely Parys, Vredefort, Koppies and Venterskroon. Parys is the largest and a tourist hub; both Vredefort and Koppies mainly depend on an agricultural economy.
On 19 December 2011, a broadcasting license was granted by ICASA to a community radio station to broadcast for the Afrikaans- and English-speaking members of the communities within the crater. The Afrikaans name Koepel Stereo (Dome Stereo) refers to the dome and announces its broadcast as KSFM. The station broadcasts on 94.9 MHz FM.
See also[edit]
List of impact craters on Earth
List of unconfirmed impact craters on Earth – for unconfirmed craters similar to or larger than Vredfort
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Vredefort". Earth Impact Database. University of New Brunswick. Retrieved 2008-12-30.
^ Jump up to: a b "Deep Impact - The Vredefort Dome". Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy Observatory. 2006-08-01. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f McCarthy, T., Rubridge, B. (2005). ‘’The Story of Earth and Life.’’ p. 89-90, 102-107, 134-136. Struik Publishers, Cape Town
Jump up ^ "The Vredefort Dome: Centre of the World's Largest Meteorite Impact Structure!". Retrieved 31 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Norman, N., Whitfield, G. (2006) ‘’Geological Journeys’’. p. 38-49, 60-61. Struik Publishers, Cape Town.
Jump up ^ Truswell, J.F. (1977). The Geological Evolution of South Africa. pp. 23-38. Purnell, Cape Town
^ Jump up to: a b Geological map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (1970). Council for Geoscience, Geological Survey of South Africa.
Jump up ^ Momberg, Eleanor (23 August 2009). "River heading for the rocks". Retrieved 22 March 2011.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vredefort Dome.
Parys South Africa
Impact Cratering Research Group – University of the Witwatersrand
Earth Impact Database
Deep Impact – The Vredefort Dome
Satellite image of Vredefort crater from Google Maps
Impact Cratering: an overview of Mineralogical and Geochemical aspects – University of Vienna
google earth 3d .KMZ of 25 largest craters (requires google earth)
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World Heritage Sites in South Africa
For official site names, see each article or the List of World Heritage Sites in South Africa.
Cape Floral Region Protected Areas
Fossil Hominid Sites of South Africa
Cradle of Humankind
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Taung Child
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Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Yeh Raaste Hain Pyar Ke (1963 film) starring Sunil Dutt.
Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke
Directed by
Deepak Shivdasani
Produced by
Deepak Shivdasani
Pradeep Sadarangani
Written by
Kader Khan,
Robin Bhatt,
K. V. Shankar (dialogues)
Screenplay by
Robin Bhatt,
Akash Khurana,
Umanand Singh
Story by
Deepak Shivadasani
Starring
Madhuri Dixit
Ajay Devgn
Preity Zinta
Music by
Sanjeev Darshan
Cinematography
Rajan Kinagi
Edited by
Shirish Kunder
Distributed by
Tips Industries
Release date
10 August 2001
Language
Hindi
Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke (Hindi: यह रास्ते हैं प्यार के,English: These Are The Path Of Love) is a 2001 Bollywood romantic drama film. It is a love triangle directed by Deepak Shivdasani.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 Cast
3 Soundtrack
4 References
5 External links
Synopsis[edit]
Two con artists and car thieves, Vicky (Ajay Devgn) and Sakshi (Preity Zinta), are faced with death when they accidentally kill Bhanwarlal's (Deep Dhillon) brother. Bhanwarlal and his other brother swear to avenge the death of their brother and mistakenly kill Rohit Verma (Ajay Devgn), is a look-alike of Vicky.
The mistaken identity causes Sakshi to think that Vicky is dead and she is devastated. Meanwhile unknown to Sakshi and Bhanwarlal, Vicky is alive and reaches Manali where he is constantly confused for Rohit. On discovering Rohit's wealth Vicky realizes that he has hit the jackpot and decides to play along. Soon Rohit's dad, Pratap Verma (Vikram Gokhale), arrives home to find Vicky in his bed.
Vicky tries to trick Pratap Verma, but he already knows that Rohit is dead. He convinces Vicky to pose as Rohit for the sake of his daughter-in-law, Neha (Madhuri Dixit) who is in denial/shock to the fact that her husband died on the same day that they got married. He agrees to do the job for money. However, half way through the job he decides to grab the money and returns to Sakshi. They are about to forget all about Rohit and start a life of their own, when Vicky discovers that he is responsible for Rohit's death since Bhanwarlal meant to kill him and not Rohit. He realizes the debt he owes to Rohit and decides to return, leaving Sakshi once again.
Meanwhile Sakshi's uncle and aunt try to get her married off to Bhanwarlal's youngest brother. She runs away to Manali to be with Vicky. Vicky at this point can't tell Neha the truth and so tells Sakshi that he can't be with her. Soon, with the arrival of Bhanwarlal and Sakshi's aunt and uncle, the truth unravels. Finally, Neha realizes that her husband is actually dead and she accepts the reality. Vicky and Sakshi get back together. It is implied that Neha may find happiness again and start a new life with her childhood buddy Sagar Sunny Deol, who loved her from the beginning.
Cast[edit]
Madhuri Dixit as Neha
Ajay Devgn as Vicky/Rohit Verma
Preity Zinta as Sakshi
Vikram Gokhale as Pratap Verma
Deep Dhillon as Bhanwarlal
Smita Jaykar as Neha's Mother
Sunny Deol as Sagar (Special Appearance)
Soundtrack[edit]
#
Title
Singer(s)
1 "Mera Dil Ek Khali Kamra" Kumar Sanu, Anuradha Paudwal
2 "Jo Pyaar Karta Hai" Manohar Shetty, Anuradha Paudwal, Kavita Krishnamurthy
3 "Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke" Shaan, Jaspinder Narula
4 "Aaja Aaja" Asha Bhosle
5 "Bam Bhole" Vinod Rathod, Alka Yagnik
6 "Yeh Dil Mohabbat Mein" Udit Narayan, Alka Yagnik
7 "Halle Halle" Vinod Rathod, Alka Yagnik
8 "Khoya Khoya Chand Hai" Udit Narayan
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Buragohain, Gautam (3 September 2001). "Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke". The Times of India. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
External links[edit]
Yeh Raaste Hain Pyaar Ke on IMDb
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yeh_Raaste_Hain_Pyaar_Ke&oldid=829795113"
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El (deity)
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For other uses, see El (disambiguation).
El
King of the Gods
Gilded statuette of El from Megiddo
Other names
El Elyon
El Shaddai
El Olam
Adon Ilim
Toru El
Abu Bani Eli
Batniu Binwati
Abu Adami
Qaniyunu Olam
Hatikuka
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El Gibbor
Symbol
Bull
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Canaan and Levant
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Consort
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Anath
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Mot
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This article contains Ugaritic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Ugaritic alphabet.
’Ēl (or ’Il, written aleph-lamed, e.g. Ugaritic: 𐎛𐎍, Phoenician: 𐤀𐤋,[1] Hebrew: אל, Classical Syriac: ܐܠ, Arabic: إل or إله, cognate to Akkadian: 𒀭, translit. ilu) is a Northwest Semitic word meaning "god" or "deity", or referring (as a proper name) to any one of multiple major Ancient Near East deities. A rarer spelling, "'ila", represents the predicate form in Old Akkadian and in Amorite.[2] The word is derived from the Proto-Semitic archaic biliteral ʔ‑L, meaning "god".
Specific deities known as El or Il include the supreme god of the Canaanite religion[3] and the supreme god of the Mesopotamian Semites in the pre-Sargonic period.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Linguistic forms and meanings
2 Proto-Sinaitic, Phoenician, Aramaic, and Hittite texts
3 Amorites
4 Ugarit and the Levant
5 Hebrew Bible
6 Sanchuniathon
7 Poseidon
8 See also
9 Footnotes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Linguistic forms and meanings[edit]
Cognate forms are found throughout the Semitic languages. They include Ugaritic ʾil, pl. ʾlm; Phoenician ʾl pl. ʾlm; Hebrew ʾēl, pl. ʾēlîm; Aramaic ʾl; Akkadian ilu, pl. ilānu.
In northwest Semitic use, El was both a generic word for any god and the special name or title of a particular god who was distinguished from other gods as being "the god".[5] El is listed at the head of many pantheons. In some Canaanite and Ugaritic sources, El played a role as father of the gods or of creation.[6]
However, because the word sometimes refers to a god other than the great god Ēl, it is frequently ambiguous as to whether Ēl followed by another name means the great god Ēl with a particular epithet applied or refers to another god entirely. For example, in the Ugaritic texts, ʾil mlk is understood[7] to mean "Ēl the King" but ʾil hd as "the god Hadad".[citation needed]
The Semitic root ʾlh (Arabic ʾilāh, Aramaic ʾAlāh, ʾElāh, Hebrew ʾelōah) may be ʾl with a parasitic h, and ʾl may be an abbreviated form of ʾlh. In Ugaritic the plural form meaning "gods" is ʾilhm, equivalent to Hebrew ʾelōhîm "powers". In the Hebrew texts this word is interpreted as being semantically singular for "god" by religious readers.[8] However the documentary hypothesis developed originally in the 1870s,[9] identifies these that different authors - Jahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist, and the Priestly source - were responsible for editing stories from a polytheistic religion into those of a monotheistic religion. Inconsistencies that arise between monotheism and polytheism in the texts are reflective of this hypothesis.
The stem ʾl is found prominently in the earliest strata of east Semitic, northwest Semitic, and south Semitic groups. Personal names including the stem ʾl are found with similar patterns in both Amorite and Sabaic[10]—which indicates that probably already in Proto-Semitic ʾl was both a generic term for "god" and the common name or title of a single particular god.[citation needed]
Proto-Sinaitic, Phoenician, Aramaic, and Hittite texts[edit]
The Egyptian god Ptah is given the title ḏū gitti 'Lord of Gath' in a prism from Lachish which has on its opposite face the name of Amenhotep II (c. 1435–1420 BCE). The title ḏū gitti is also found in Serābitṭ text 353. Cross (1973, p. 19) points out that Ptah is often called the Lord (or one) of eternity and thinks it may be this identification of ʼĒl with Ptah that lead to the epithet ’olam 'eternal' being applied to ʼĒl so early and so consistently.[11] (However in the Ugaritic texts, Ptah is seemingly identified rather with the craftsman god Kothar-wa-Khasis.)[12]
A Phoenician inscribed amulet of the seventh century BCE from Arslan Tash may refer to ʼĒl. The text was translated by Rosenthal (1969, p. 658) as follows:
An eternal bond has been established for us.
Ashshur has established (it) for us,
and all the divine beings
and the majority of the group of all the holy ones,
through the bond of heaven and earth for ever, ...[13]
However, Cross (1973, p. 17) translated the text as follows:
The Eternal One (‘Olam) has made a covenant oath with us,
Asherah has made (a pact) with us.
And all the sons of El,
And the great council of all the Holy Ones.
With oaths of Heaven and Ancient Earth.[14]
In some inscriptions, the name ’Ēl qōne ’arṣ meaning "ʼĒl creator of Earth" appears, even including a late inscription at Leptis Magna in Tripolitania dating to the second century.[15] In Hittite texts, the expression becomes the single name Ilkunirsa, this Ilkunirsa appearing as the husband of Asherdu (Asherah) and father of 77 or 88 sons.[16]
In a Hurrian hymn to ʼĒl (published in Ugaritica V, text RS 24.278), he is called ’il brt and ’il dn which Cross (p. 39) takes as 'ʼĒl of the covenant' and 'ʼĒl the judge' respectively.[17]
Amorites[edit]
Amorite inscriptions from Zincirli refer to numerous gods, sometimes by name, sometimes by title, especially by such titles as Ilabrat 'God of the people'(?), Il abīka 'God of your father', Il abīni 'God of our father' and so forth. Various family gods are recorded, divine names listed as belonging to a particular family or clan, sometimes by title and sometimes by name, including the name Il 'God'. In Amorite personal names, the most common divine elements are Il ('God'), Hadad/Adad, and Dagan. It is likely that Il is also very often the god called in Akkadian texts Amurru or Il Amurru.[citation needed]
Ugarit and the Levant[edit]
For the Canaanites and the ancient Levantine region as a whole, Ēl or Il was the supreme god, the father of mankind and all creatures.[18] He also fathered many gods, most importantly Hadad, Yam, and Mot, each sharing similar attributes to the Greco-Roman gods: Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades respectively.
As recorded on the clay tablets of Ugarit, El is the husband of the goddess Asherah.
Three pantheon lists found at Ugarit (modern Ras Shamrā—Arabic: رأس شمرا, Syria) begin with the four gods ’il-’ib (which according to Cross (1973; p. 14) is the name of a generic kind of deity, perhaps the divine ancestor of the people), Ēl, Dagnu (that is Dagon), and Ba’l Ṣapān (that is the god Haddu or Hadad).[19] Though Ugarit had a large temple dedicated to Dagon and another to Hadad, there was no temple dedicated to Ēl.
Ēl is called again and again Tôru ‘Ēl ("Bull Ēl" or "the bull god"). He is bātnyu binwāti ("Creator of creatures"), ’abū banī ’ili ("father of the gods"), and ‘abū ‘adami ("father of man"). He is qāniyunu ‘ôlam ("creator eternal"), the epithet ‘ôlam appearing in Hebrew form in the Hebrew name of God ’ēl ‘ôlam "God Eternal" in Genesis 21.33. He is ḥātikuka ("your patriarch"). Ēl is the grey-bearded ancient one, full of wisdom, malku ("King"), ’abū šamīma ("Father of years"), ’El gibbōr ("Ēl the warrior"). He is also named lṭpn of unknown meaning, variously rendered as Latpan, Latipan, or Lutpani ("shroud-face" by Strong's Hebrew Concordance).
"El" (Father of Heaven / Saturn) and his major son: "Hadad" (Father of Earth / Jupiter), are symbolized both by the bull, and both wear bull horns on their headdresses.[20][21][22][23]
In Canaanite mythology, El builds a desert sanctuary with his children and his two wives, leading to speculation[by whom?] that at one point El was a desert god.
The mysterious Ugaritic text Shachar and Shalim tells how (perhaps near the beginning of all things) Ēl came to shores of the sea and saw two women who bobbed up and down. Ēl was sexually aroused and took the two with him, killed a bird by throwing a staff at it, and roasted it over a fire. He asked the women to tell him when the bird was fully cooked, and to then address him either as husband or as father, for he would thenceforward behave to them as they called him. They saluted him as husband. He then lay with them, and they gave birth to Shachar ("Dawn") and Shalim ("Dusk"). Again Ēl lay with his wives and the wives gave birth to "the gracious gods", "cleavers of the sea", "children of the sea". The names of these wives are not explicitly provided, but some confusing rubrics at the beginning of the account mention the goddess Athirat, who is otherwise Ēl's chief wife, and the goddess Raḥmayyu ("the one of the womb"), otherwise unknown.
In the Ugaritic Ba‘al cycle, Ēl is introduced dwelling on (or in) Mount Lel (Lel possibly meaning "Night") at the fountains of the two rivers at the spring of the two deeps. He dwells in a tent according to some interpretations of the text which may explain why he had no temple in Ugarit. As to the rivers and the spring of the two deeps, these might refer to real streams, or to the mythological sources of the salt water ocean and the fresh water sources under the earth, or to the waters above the heavens and the waters beneath the earth.
In the episode of the "Palace of Ba‘al", the god Ba‘al Hadad invites the "seventy sons of Athirat" to a feast in his new palace. Presumably these sons have been fathered on Athirat by Ēl; in following passages they seem be the gods (’ilm) in general or at least a large portion of them. The only sons of Ēl named individually in the Ugaritic texts are Yamm ("Sea"), Mot ("Death"), and Ashtar, who may be the chief and leader of most of the sons of Ēl. Ba‘al Hadad is a few times called Ēl's son rather than the son of Dagan as he is normally called, possibly because Ēl is in the position of a clan-father to all the gods.
The fragmentary text R.S. 24.258 describes a banquet to which Ēl invites the other gods and then disgraces himself by becoming outrageously drunk and passing out after confronting an otherwise unknown Hubbay, "he with the horns and tail". The text ends with an incantation for the cure of some disease, possibly hang-over.[24][25]
Hebrew Bible[edit]
The Hebrew form (אל) appears in Latin letters in Standard Hebrew transcription as El and in Tiberian Hebrew transcription as ʾĒl. El is a generic word for god that could be used for any god, including Hadad, Moloch,[26] or Yahweh.
In the Tanakh, ’elōhîm is the normal word for a god or the great god (or gods, given that the 'im' suffix makes a word plural in Hebrew). But the form ’El also appears, mostly in poetic passages and in the patriarchal narratives attributed to the Priestly source of the documentary hypothesis. It occurs 217 times in the Masoretic Text: seventy-three times in the Psalms and fifty-five times in the Book of Job, and otherwise mostly in poetic passages or passages written in elevated prose. It occasionally appears with the definite article as hā’Ēl 'the god' (for example in 2 Samuel 22:31,33–48).
The theological position of the Tanakh is that the names Ēl and ’Ĕlōhîm, when used in the singular to mean the supreme god, refer to Yahweh, beside whom other gods are supposed to be either nonexistent or insignificant. Whether this was a long-standing belief or a relatively new one has long been the subject of inconclusive scholarly debate about the prehistory of the sources of the Tanakh and about the prehistory of Israelite religion. In the P strand, YHWH says in Exodus 6:2–3:
I revealed myself to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob as Ēl Shaddāi, but was not known to them by my name, YHVH.
Before El's revelation with the name of Yahweh, it is said in Genesis 14:18–20 that Abraham accepted the blessing of El, when Melchizedek, the king of Salem and high priest of its deity El Elyon blessed him.[27] One scholarly position is that the identification of Yahweh with Ēl is late, that Yahweh was earlier thought of as only one of many gods, and not normally identified with Ēl. Another is that in much of the Hebrew Bible the name El is an alternate name for Yahweh, but in the Elohist and Priestly traditions it is conceived as an earlier name than Yahweh.[28] Mark Smith has argued that Yahweh and El were originally separate, but were considered synonymous from very early on.[29] The name Yahweh is used in the Bible Tanakh in the first book of Genesis 2:4; and Genesis 4:26 says that at that time, people began to "call upon the name of the LORD".[30][31]
The Destruction of Leviathan by Gustave Doré (1865)
In some places, especially in Psalm 29, Yahweh is clearly envisioned as a storm god, something not true of Ēl so far as we know (although true of his son, Ba'al Hadad). It is Yahweh who is prophesied to one day battle Leviathan the serpent, and slay the dragon in the sea in Isaiah 27:1. The slaying of the serpent in myth is a deed attributed to both Ba’al Hadad and ‘Anat in the Ugaritic texts, but not to Ēl.
Such mythological motifs are variously seen as late survivals from a period when Yahweh held a place in theology comparable to that of Hadad at Ugarit; or as late henotheistic/monotheistic applications to Yahweh of deeds more commonly attributed to Hadad; or simply as examples of eclectic application of the same motifs and imagery to various different gods. Similarly, it is argued inconclusively whether Ēl Shaddāi, Ēl ‘Ôlām, Ēl ‘Elyôn, and so forth, were originally understood as separate divinities. Albrecht Alt presented his theories on the original differences of such gods in Der Gott der Väter in 1929.[32] But others have argued that from patriarchal times, these different names were in fact generally understood to refer to the same single great god, Ēl. This is the position of Frank Moore Cross (1973).[33] What is certain is that the form ’El does appear in Israelite names from every period including the name Yiśrā’ēl ("Israel"), meaning "El strives" or "struggled with El".
According to The Oxford Companion to World Mythology,
It seems almost certain that the God of the Jews evolved gradually from the Canaanite El, who was in all likelihood the "God of Abraham"... If El was the high God of Abraham—Elohim, the prototype of Yahveh—Asherah was his wife, and there are archaeological indications that she was perceived as such before she was in effect "divorced" in the context of emerging Judaism of the 7th century BCE. (See 2 Kings 23:15.)[34]
The apparent plural form ’Ēlîm or ’Ēlim "gods" occurs only four times in the Tanakh. Psalm 29, understood as an enthronement psalm, begins:
A Psalm of David.
Ascribe to Yahweh, sons of Gods (bênê ’Ēlîm),
Ascribe to Yahweh, glory and strength
Psalm 89:6 (verse 7 in Hebrew) has:
For who in the skies compares to Yahweh,
who can be likened to Yahweh among the sons of Gods (bênê ’Ēlîm).
Traditionally bênê ’ēlîm has been interpreted as 'sons of the mighty', 'mighty ones', for ’El can mean 'mighty', though such use may be metaphorical (compare the English expression [by] God awful). It is possible also that the expression ’ēlîm in both places descends from an archaic stock phrase in which ’lm was a singular form with the m-enclitic and therefore to be translated as 'sons of Ēl'. The m-enclitic appears elsewhere in the Tanakh and in other Semitic languages. Its meaning is unknown, possibly simply emphasis. It appears in similar contexts in Ugaritic texts where the expression bn ’il alternates with bn ’ilm, but both must mean 'sons of Ēl'. That phrase with m-enclitic also appears in Phoenician inscriptions as late as the fifth century BCE.
One of the other two occurrences in the Tanakh is in the "Song of Moses", Exodus 15:11a:
Who is like you among the Gods (’ēlim), Yahweh?
The final occurrence is in Daniel 11:36:
And the king will do according to his pleasure; and he will exalt himself and magnify himself over every god (’ēl), and against the God of Gods (’El ’Elîm) he will speak outrageous things, and will prosper until the indignation is accomplished: for that which is decided will be done.
There are a few cases in the Tanakh where some think ’El referring to the great god Ēl is not equated with Yahweh. One is in Ezekiel 28:2, in the taunt against a man who claims to be divine, in this instance, the leader of Tyre:
Son of man, say to the prince of Tyre: "Thus says the Lord Yahweh: 'Because your heart is proud and you have said: "I am ’ēl (god), in the seat of ’elōhîm (gods), I am enthroned in the middle of the seas." Yet you are man and not ’El even though you have made your heart like the heart of ’elōhîm ('gods').'"
Here ’ēl might refer to a generic god, or to a highest god, Ēl. When viewed as applying to the King of Tyre specifically, the king was probably not thinking of Yahweh. When viewed as a general taunt against anyone making divine claims, it may or may not refer to Yahweh depending on the context.
In Judges 9:46 we find ’Ēl Bêrît 'God of the Covenant', seemingly the same as the Ba‘al Bêrît 'Lord of the Covenant' whose worship has been condemned a few verses earlier. See Baal for a discussion of this passage.
Psalm 82:1 says:
’elōhîm ("god") stands in the council of ’ēl
he judges among the gods (Elohim).
This could mean that Yahweh judges along with many other gods as one of the council of the high god Ēl. However it can also mean that Yahweh stands in the Divine Council (generally known as the Council of Ēl), as Ēl judging among the other members of the Council. The following verses in which the god condemns those whom he says were previously named gods (Elohim) and sons of the Most High suggest the god here is in fact Ēl judging the lesser gods.
An archaic phrase appears in Isaiah 14:13, kôkkêbê ’ēl 'stars of God', referring to the circumpolar stars that never set, possibly especially to the seven stars of Ursa Major. The phrase also occurs in the Pyrgi Inscription as hkkbm ’l (preceded by the definite article h and followed by the m-enclitic). Two other apparent fossilized expressions are arzê-’ēl 'cedars of God' (generally translated something like 'mighty cedars', 'goodly cedars') in Psalm 80:10 (in Hebrew verse 11) and kêharrê-’ēl 'mountains of God' (generally translated something like 'great mountains', 'mighty mountains') in Psalm 36:7 (in Hebrew verse 6).
For the reference in some texts of Deuteronomy 32:8 to seventy sons of God corresponding to the seventy sons of Ēl in the Ugaritic texts, see ’Elyôn.
Sanchuniathon[edit]
Philo of Byblos (c. 64–141 AD) was a Greek writer whose account Sanchuniathon survives in quotation by Eusebius and may contain the major surviving traces of Phoenician mythology. Ēl (rendered Elus or called by his standard Greek counterpart Cronus) is not the creator God or first God. Ēl is rather the son of Sky and Earth. Sky and Earth are themselves children of ‘Elyôn 'Most High'.[citation needed] Ēl is brother to the God Bethel, to Dagon and to an unknown god, equated with the Greek Atlas and to the goddesses Aphrodite/’Ashtart, Rhea (presumably Asherah), and Dione (equated with Ba`alat Gebal). Ēl is the father of Persephone and of Athena (presumably the goddess ‘Anat).
Sky and Earth have separated from one another in hostility, but Sky insists on continuing to force himself on Earth and attempts to destroy the children born of such unions. At last, Ēl, son of Sky and Earth, with the advice of the god Thoth and Ēl's daughter Athena successfully attacks his father Sky with a sickle and spear of iron. He and his allies the Eloim gain Sky's kingdom. In a later passage it is explained that Ēl castrated Sky. One of Sky's concubines (who was given to Ēl's brother Dagon) was already pregnant by Sky. The son who is born of the union, called Demarûs or Zeus, but once called Adodus, is obviously Hadad, the Ba‘al of the Ugaritic texts who now becomes an ally of his grandfather Sky and begins to make war on Ēl.
Ēl has three wives, his sisters or half-sisters Aphrodite/Astarte (‘Ashtart), Rhea (presumably Asherah), and Dione (identified by Sanchuniathon with Ba‘alat Gebal the tutelary goddess of Byblos, a city which Sanchuniathon says that Ēl founded).
Eusebius of Caesarea, through whom Sanchuniathon is preserved, is not interested in setting the work forth completely or in order. But we are told that Ēl slew his own son Sadidus (a name that some commentators think might be a corruption of Shaddai, one of the epithets of the Biblical Ēl) and that Ēl also beheaded one of his daughters. Later, perhaps referring to this same death of Sadidus we are told:
But on the occurrence of a pestilence and mortality Cronus offers his only begotten son as a whole burnt-offering to his father Sky and circumcises himself, compelling his allies also to do the same.
A fuller account of the sacrifice appears later:
It was a custom of the ancients in great crises of danger for the rulers of a city or nation, in order to avert the common ruin, to give up the most beloved of their children for sacrifice as a ransom to the avenging daemons; and those who were thus given up were sacrificed with mystic rites. Cronus then, whom the Phoenicians call Elus, who was king of the country and subsequently, after his decease, was deified as the star Saturn, had by a nymph of the country named Anobret an only begotten son, whom they on this account called Iedud, the only begotten being still so called among the Phoenicians; and when very great dangers from war had beset the country, he arrayed his son in royal apparel, and prepared an altar, and sacrificed him.
The account also relates that Thoth:
... also devised for Cronus as insignia of royalty four eyes in front and behind ... but two of them quietly closed, and upon his shoulders four wings, two as spread for flying, and two as folded. And the symbol meant that Cronus could see when asleep, and sleep while waking: and similarly in the case of the wings, that he flew while at rest, and was at rest when flying. But to each of the other gods he gave two wings upon the shoulders, as meaning that they accompanied Cronus in his flight. And to Cronus himself again he gave two wings upon his head, one representing the all-ruling mind, and one sensation.
This is the form under which Ēl/Cronus appears on coins from Byblos from the reign of Antiochus IV (175–164 BCE) four spread wings and two folded wings, leaning on a staff. Such images continued to appear on coins until after the time of Augustus.
Poseidon[edit]
Main article: Poseidon
A bilingual inscription from Palmyra[35] dated to the 1st century equates Ēl-Creator-of-the-Earth with the Greek god Poseidon. Going back to the 8th century BCE, the bilingual inscription[36] at Karatepe in the Taurus Mountains equates Ēl-Creator-of-the-Earth to Luwian hieroglyphs read as da-a-ś,[37] this being the Luwian form of the name of the Babylonian water god Ea, lord of the abyss of water under the earth. (This inscription lists Ēl in second place in the local pantheon, following Ba‘al Shamîm and preceding the Eternal Sun.)
Poseidon is known to have been worshipped in Beirut, his image appearing on coins from that city. Poseidon of Beirut was also worshipped at Delos where there was an association of merchants, shipmasters, and warehousemen called the Poseidoniastae of Berytus founded in 110 or 109 BCE. Three of the four chapels at its headquarters on the hill northwest of the Sacred Lake were dedicated to Poseidon, the Tyche of the city equated with Astarte (that is ‘Ashtart), and to Eshmun.
Also at Delos, that association of Tyrians, though mostly devoted to Heracles-Melqart, elected a member to bear a crown every year when sacrifices to Poseidon took place. A banker named Philostratus donated two altars, one to Palaistine Aphrodite Urania (‘Ashtart) and one to Poseidon "of Ascalon".
Though Sanchuniathon distinguishes Poseidon from his Elus/Cronus, this might be a splitting off of a particular aspect of Ēl in a euhemeristic account. Identification of an aspect of Ēl with Poseidon rather than with Cronus might have been felt to better fit with Hellenistic religious practice, if indeed this Phoenician Poseidon really is Ēl who dwells at the source of the two deeps in Ugaritic texts. More information is needed to be certain.
See also[edit]
Mythology portal
Ancient Near East portal
Allah
Elohim
Enlil
Ilah
Anu
Theophory in the Bible
The names of God in Judaism
Yahweh
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Online Phoenician Dictionary[dead link]
Jump up ^ Cross 1997, p. 14.
Jump up ^ Matthews 2004, p. 79.
Jump up ^ Gelb 1961, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Smith 2001, p. 135.
Jump up ^ David Leeming (17 November 2005). The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0.
Jump up ^ Rahmouni 2007, p. 41.
Jump up ^ For example: Keller, Catherine (2009). "The Pluri-Singularity of Creation". In McFarland, Ian A. Creation and Humanity: The Sources of Christian Theology. Sources of Christian theology. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 74. ISBN 9780664231354. Retrieved 2015-07-08. [...] Elohim—a flux of syllables, labial, multiple. Its ending marks it stubbornly as a plural form of "eloh"; here (but not always) it takes the singular verb form [...]
Jump up ^ Wellhausen, Julius (1885). Prolegomena to the History of Israel. Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black.
Jump up ^ Beeston, A. F. L. (1982). Sabaic dictionary: English, French, Arabic. Louvain-la-Neuve: Editions Peeters. p. 5. ˀL I n. ˀl, ˀl-m R 3945/1 &c (ḏ—ws²ymm), ˀlh, d. ˀly, p. ˀlˀlt; f. ˀlt Gl 1658/5, YM 386/4, ˀlht YM 386/2, ?p.? ˀlht J2867/8 god/goddess, divinity | dieu/déesse, divinité
Jump up ^ Cross 1973, p. 19.
Jump up ^ Wyatt 2002, p. 43.
Jump up ^ Rosenthal 1969, p. 658.
Jump up ^ Cross 1973, p. 17.
Jump up ^ Donner & Röllig 1962–1964, No. 129.
Jump up ^ Binger 1997, p. 92.
Jump up ^ Cross 1973, p. 39.
Jump up ^ Kugel 2007, p. 423.
Jump up ^ Cross 1973, p. 14.
Jump up ^ Caquot, André; Sznycer, Maurice (1980). Ugaritic religion. Iconography of religions. 15: Mesopotamia and the Near East. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. p. 12. ISBN 978-90-04-06224-5. LCCN 81117573. OCLC 185416183.
Jump up ^ van der Toorn 1999, p. 181.
Jump up ^ Schwabe, Calvin W. (1978). Cattle, priests, and progress in medicine. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-8166-0825-6. LCCN 77084547. OCLC 3835386.
Jump up ^ Falk, Avner (1996). A psychoanalytic history of the Jews. Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-8386-3660-2. LCCN 95002895. OCLC 32346244.
Jump up ^ Palmer, Sean B. "El's Divine Feast". inamidst.com. Sean B. Palmer. Retrieved 2012-02-05. External link in |work= (help)
Jump up ^ McLaughlin, John L. (June 2001). The Marzeah in the Prophetic Literature. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-90-04-12006-8. LCCN 2001025261. OCLC 497549822.
Jump up ^ Barrs, Jerram (Spring 2006). "Audio Transcription for Lesson 21: Apologetics & Communication". Apologetics & Outreach. Covenant Theological Seminary. Archived from the original (PDF, 0.1 MB) on 2007-10-14. Retrieved 2012-02-04.
Jump up ^ Coogan, Michael David (2009). A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-19-533272-8. LCCN 2008034190. OCLC 243545942.
Jump up ^ Hendel, R. S. (1992). Genesis, Book of. In D. N. Freedman (Ed.), The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (Vol. 2, p. 938). New York: Doubleday
Jump up ^ Smith, Mark S. (2002). The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel. Eerdmans. pp. 32–34. ISBN 9780802839725.
Jump up ^ "Genesis 3 (Blue Letter Bible/ KJV - King James Version)". Retrieved 8 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Genesis 4 (Blue Letter Bible/ KJV - King James Version)".
Jump up ^ Alt, Albrecht (1929). Der Gott der Väter; ein Beitrag zur Vorgeschichte der israelitischen Religion [The God of the patriarchs; a contribution to (the study of) the (pre)history of Israelite religion] (in German). Stuttgart, Germany: Kohlhammer Verlag. LCCN 49037141. OCLC 45355375.
Jump up ^ Cross 1973.
Jump up ^ Leeming, David (2005). The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0. LCCN 2005014216. OCLC 60492027.
Jump up ^ Donner & Röllig 1962–1964, No. 11, p. 43. and No. 129.
Jump up ^ Donner & Röllig 1962–1964, No. 26.
Jump up ^ Jones, Scott C. (2009). "Rumors of wisdom: Job 28 as poetry". BZAW. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter. 398: 84. ISBN 978-3-11-021477-2. ISSN 0934-2575.
References[edit]
Binger, Tilde (July 1997). Asherah: goddesses in Ugarit, Israel and the Old Testament. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-85075-637-8. LCCN 97205267. OCLC 37525364.
Cross, Frank Moore (1973). Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-09176-4. LCCN 72076564. OCLC 185400934.
Cross, Frank Moore (1997), Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (reprint ed.), Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674091760, retrieved 30 April 2015
Donner, Herbert; Röllig, Wolfgang (1962–1964). Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Gelb, I. J. (1961), Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar (PDF) (2nd ed.), University of Chicago, retrieved 30 April 2015 .
Kugel, James L. (September 2007). How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-3586-0. LCCN 2007023466. OCLC 181602277.
Matthews, Victor Harold (August 2004). Judges and Ruth. New Cambridge Bible Commentary. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00066-6. LCCN 2003053218. OCLC 52380969.
Rosenthal, Franz (1969). "The Amulet from Arslan Tash". In Pritchard, James. Trans. in: Ancient Near Eastern Texts (3rd ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 658. ISBN 978-0-691-03503-1. OCLC 5342384.
Smith, Mark S. (January 2001). The origins of biblical monotheism: Israel's polytheistic background and the Ugaritic texts. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513480-3. LCCN 99058180. OCLC 53388532.
van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; van der Horst, Pieter Willem (1999). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible (2nd ed.). Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11119-6. LCCN 98042505. OCLC 39765350.
Wyatt, Nicolas (October 2002). Religious Texts from Ugarit. The Biblical Seminar. 53 (2nd ed.). Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-6048-6. LCCN 2002489996. OCLC 48979997.
Further reading[edit]
Bruneau, Philippe (1970). Recherches sur les cultes de Délos à l'époque hellénistique et à l'époque imperiale (in French). Paris: E. de Broccard. LCCN 78851163. OCLC 2349270.
Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy (1959). Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04091-5. LCCN 59005144. OCLC 4089770.
Teixidor, Javier (1977). The Pagan God. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07220-3. LCCN 76024300. OCLC 2644903.
External links[edit]
Look up *ʾil- in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Bartleby: American Heritage Dictionary: Semitic Roots: ʾl
Pronunciation (Audio) of El
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nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88l
Èl – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/El
El – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_(deus)
El (deus) – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/El
El – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%92l
Ēl – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: ال (دیوتا) – Urdu

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-El_deity rootpage-El_deity skin-vector action-view