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Wave Hill walk-off
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Coordinates: 17°23′13″S 131°06′59″E / 17.38698°S 131.11641°E / -17.38698; 131.11641 Wave Hill walk-off or The Gurindji strike was a walk-off and strike by 200 Gurindji stockmen, house servants and their families in August 1966 at Wave Hill cattle station in Kalkarindji (formerly known as Wave Hill), Northern Territory.
The Gurindji people's traditional lands are approximately 3,250 km² of the Northern Territory. Gurindji first encountered Europeans in the 1850s, when explorer Augustus Gregory crossed into their territory. Several other explorers traversed the area over the following decades until the 1880s, when large pastoral operations were established.
Contents
[hide]
1 Gurindji and the pastoralists
2 Conditions on the station
3 The walk off
4 1966–75 – The strike years
4.1 Gurindji efforts during the strike years
4.2 Attempts to entice and stymie Gurindji
4.3 Support for the Gurindji grows
4.3.1 1967 Referendum
4.3.2 1972–75 Whitlam Labor Government
4.3.3 1972 Woodward Royal Commission
4.3.4 1973–74 Gove land rights case
4.3.5 1976 Aboriginal Land Rights Act
5 1975 – Handback
6 Legacy of the strike
7 The Gurindji Strike in popular culture
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Gurindji and the pastoralists[edit]
Wave Hill cattle station, which included the Kalkaringi and Daguragu area, was first stocked in 1883.
Gurindji – along with all Aboriginal groups in this predicament – found their waterholes and soakages fenced off or fouled by cattle, which also ate or trampled fragile desert plant life, such as bush tomato. Dingo hunters regularly shot the people's invaluable hunting dogs, and kangaroo, a staple meat, was also routinely shot since it competed with cattle for water and grazing land. Gurindji suffered lethal "reprisals" for any attempt to eat the cattle – anything from a skirmish to a massacre. The last recorded massacre in the area occurred at Coniston in 1928. There was little choice to stay alive but to move onto the cattle stations, receive rations, adopt a more sedentary life and, where possible, take work as stockmen and domestic help. If they couldn't continue their traditional way of life, then at least to be on their own land – the foundation for their religion and spiritual beliefs – seemed crucial.
In 1914, Wave Hill Station was bought by Vesteys, a British pastoral company comprising a large conglomerate of cattle companies owned by Baron Vestey. Pastoralists were able to make use of the now landless Aboriginal people as extremely cheap labour. On stations across the north, Aboriginal people became the backbone of the cattle industry, working for little or no money, minimal food and appalling housing.
Conditions on the station[edit]
There had been complaints from Indigenous employees about conditions over many years. A Northern Territory government inquiry held in the 1930s said of Vesteys:
"It was obvious that they had been ... quite ruthless in denying their Aboriginal labour proper access to basic human rights."
However, little was done over the decades leading up to the strike. While it was illegal up until 1968 to pay Aboriginal workers more than a specified amount in goods and money, a 1945 inquiry found Vesteys was not even paying Aboriginal workers the 5 shillings a day minimum wage set up for Aborigines under a 1918 Ordinance. Non-Indigenous males were receiving £2/8/- a week in 1945. Gurindji lived in corrugated iron humpies without floors, lighting, sanitation, furniture or cooking facilities. Billy Bunter Jampijinpa, who lived on Wave Hill Station at the time said
"We were treated just like dogs. We were lucky to get paid the 50 quid a month we were due, and we lived in tin humpies you had to crawl in and out on your knees. There was no running water. The food was bad – just flour, tea, sugar and bits of beef like the head or feet of a bullock. The Vesteys mob were hard men. They didn't care about blackfellas."
Gurindji who received minimal government benefits had these paid into pastoral company accounts over which they had no control. In contrast, non-Aboriginal workers enjoyed minimum wage security with no legal limit on the maximum they could be paid. They were housed in comfortable homes with gardens and had full control over their finances.
The walk off[edit]
On 23 August 1966, led by spokesman Vincent Lingiari, the workers and families walked off Wave Hill and began their ten-year strike. Lingiari led Gurindji, as well as Ngarinman, Bilinara, Warlpiri and Mudbara workers to an important sacred site nearby at Wattie Creek (Daguragu). Initially, the action was interpreted as purely a strike against work and living conditions. However, it soon became apparent that it was not just – or even primarily – improved conditions Gurindji were campaigning for. Their primary demand was for return of their land. Novelist Frank Hardy was one of the many non-Indigenous Australians who supported the Gurindji struggle through the strike years as was Darwin based trade unionist Brian Manning.
"This bin [been] Gurindji country long time before them Vestey mob," Vincent Lingiari told Hardy at the time.
While Hardy records Pincher Manguari as saying:
"We want them Vestey mob all go away from here. Wave Hill Aboriginal people bin called Gurindji. We bin here long time before them Vestey mob. This is our country, all this bin Gurindji country. Wave Hill bin our country. We want this land; we strike for that."
The Gurindji strike was not the first or the only demand by Aborigines for the return of their lands – but it was the first one to attract wide public support within Australia for Land Rights.
In 1968, 60 Aboriginal workers at another Vestey's property, Limbunya, also joined the strike when they walked off the job.[1]
1966–75 – The strike years[edit]
The Gurindji established a settlement near by at Wattie Creek, which Gurindji have always called Daguragu. These were hard years, but they held strong to their belief in their right to the land.
Gurindji efforts during the strike years[edit]
While living at Daguragu, Gurindji drew up maps showing areas they wanted excised from pastoralist land and returned to them. In 1967, Gurindji petitioned the Governor-General, claiming 1,295 km² of land near Wave Hill. Their claim was rejected. While Dagaragu would eventually become the first cattle station to be owned and managed by an Aboriginal community, today known as the Murramulla Gurindji Company, it would be many years before the Gurindji achieved this.
In this period, Vincent Lingiari, Billy Bunter Jampijinpa and others toured Australia, with the support of workers' unions, to give talks, raise awareness, build support for their cause and have meetings with major lawyers and politicians. Frank Hardy recalled one fundraising meeting at which a donor gave $500 after hearing Vincent Lingiari speak. The donor – who said he had never before met an Aboriginal person – was a young Dr Fred Hollows, the eye surgeon and Communist activist.
Attempts to entice and stymie Gurindji[edit]
Billy Bunter Jampijinpa was 16 at the time of the walk-off:
"The Vesteys mob came and said they would get two killers (slaughtered beasts) and raise our wages if we came back. But old Vincent said, 'No, we're stopping here'. Then in early 1967 we walked to our new promised land, we call it Daguragu (Wattie Creek), back to our sacred places and our country, our new homeland."
In late 1966 the Northern Territory government offered a compromise pay rise of 125 per cent, but the strikers still demanded wages equal to those of white stockmen and return of their land. The Government also made moves to cut off means of Gurindji obtaining food supplies and threatened evictions. Offers of houses, which the Government had built for them at Wave Hill Welfare settlement, were resisted. The Gurindji persisted with their protest and stayed at Daguragu.
In 1969 the Liberal-National Country Coalition government was given a proposal to give eight square kilometres back to the Gurindji. Cabinet refused even to discuss the issue.
Support for the Gurindji grows[edit]
However, the tide of public opinion was beginning to turn in Australia. There were demonstrations and arrests in southern Australia in support of the walk-off, and many church, student and trade union groups gave practical and fundraising support to the Gurindji struggle. Several significant events marked the change in opinion in Australia.
1967 Referendum[edit]
Main article: Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)
An overwhelming majority of Australians – over 90 per cent of voters and a majority in all six states – voted "Yes" to giving the Federal Government power to make laws for Indigenous Australians.
1972–75 Whitlam Labor Government[edit]
Gough Whitlam and Vincent Lingiari
In 1972 the Australian Labor Party (ALP) came to power. Aboriginal land rights was an issue high on its agenda, and it was quick to set up an Inquiry, and subsequently draft legislation, to this end. The Labor Government called a halt to development leases granted by the Northern Territory Land Board that might damage Indigenous rights, suspended mining exploration licences, and gave a small grant of land at Daguragu/Wattie Creek, as an initial step towards the final land handback.
1972 Woodward Royal Commission[edit]
The Whitlam government established the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Land Rights in the Northern Territory, headed by Justice Woodward. The Inquiry's task was to examine the legal establishment of land rights. The Commission recommended government financial support for the creation of reserves and incorporated land trusts, administered by traditional owners or land councils.
1973–74 Gove land rights case[edit]
Main article: Gove land rights case
Meanwhile, the Yolngu of northeast Arnhem Land were taking their grievances to the courts, in the case of Milirrpum v Nabalco, after unsuccessfully petitioning the Commonwealth government with a bark petition. The judge's decision in Gove had relied on the doctrine of terra nullius to deny the Yolngu rights to their land and ensure the security of a bauxite mine by Nabalco. Coupled with the ongoing Gurindji strike, this case highlighted the very real need for Aboriginal land rights in Australia.
1976 Aboriginal Land Rights Act[edit]
Main article: Aboriginal Land Rights Act
As a result of the recommendations of the Woodward Inquiry, the Whitlam government drafted the Aboriginal Land Rights Bill. The legislation was not passed by parliament prior to the Whitlam government's dismissal in 1975. The subsequent Fraser government passed effectively similar legislation – the Aboriginal Land Rights Act – on 9 December 1976.
1975 – Handback[edit]
In 1975, the Labor government of Gough Whitlam finally negotiated with Vesteys to give the Gurindji back a portion of their land. This was a landmark in the land rights movement in Australia for Indigenous Australians. The handback took place on 16 August 1975 at Kalkaringi. Gough Whitlam addressed Vincent Lingiari and the Gurindji people, saying:
"On this great day, I, Prime Minister of Australia, speak to you on behalf of all Australian people – all those who honour and love this land we live in. For them I want to say to you: I want this to acknowledge that we Australians have still much to do to redress the injustice and oppression that has for so long been the lot of Black Australians."
"Vincent Lingiari, I solemnly hand to you these deeds as proof, in Australian law, that these lands belong to the Gurindji people and I put into your hands part of the earth itself as a sign that this land will be the possession of you and your children forever."
Mervyn Bishop's photograph of Whitlam pouring sand into Lingiari's hand on that day, has become an iconic one in Australian history.[2]
Legacy of the strike[edit]
Vincent Lingiari confronted the vast economic and political forces arrayed against him and his people. The walk-off and strike were landmark events in the struggle for Aboriginal land rights in Australia. For the first time recognition was given of Indigenous people, their rights and responsibilities for the land, and their ability to practise their law, language and culture. In August every year, a large celebration is held at Kalkaringi to mark the anniversary of the strike and walk-off. Known as Freedom Day, people gather from many parts of Australia to celebrate and re-enact the walk-off.
In 2006 an Australian Senate report looked into the matter of underpayment of indigenous workers in the past. A group of those involved in the Wave Hill walk-off have said that they would be prepared to make a reparation claim for underpaid and stolen wages as a test case.[3]
The walk-off route has been entered on the Australian National Heritage List.
The Gurindji Strike in popular culture[edit]
"Gurindji Blues"
Single by Galarrwuy Yunupingu
B-side
"The Tribal Land"
Released
1971
Format
7" Single
Length
Introduction by Vincent Lingiari – 1:06
Gurindji Blues – 2:30
Label
RCA Victor 101937
Songwriter(s)
Ted Egan
Producer(s)
Ron Wills
Ted Egan wrote the "Gurindji Blues" in the 1960s with Vincent Lingiari. The words to the first verse are:
"Poor Bugger Me, Gurindji
Me bin sit down this country
Long before no Lord Vesty
All about land belong to we"
In 1971 the song was recorded by Galarrwuy Yunupingu, a Yolngu man actively involved in land rights for his own people through the bark petition and Gove land rights case. Ted Egan says he was moved to write "Gurindji Blues" after he heard Peter Nixon, then Minister for the Interior, say in parliament that if the Gurindji wanted land, they should save up and buy it, like any other Australian. In 1991, Paul Kelly and Kev Carmody recorded "From Little Things Big Things Grow". The words to the first verse are:
"Gather round people let me tell you a story
An eight year-long story of power and pride
British Lord Vestey and Vincent Lingiari
Were opposite men on opposite sides"
The words to the last verse are:
"That was the story of Vincent Lingiari
But this is the story of something much more
How power and privilege can not move a people
Who know where they stand and stand in the law."
Irish folk musician Damien Dempsey's song "Wave Hill Walk Off" commemorates the Gurindji strike and the struggle for Aboriginal land rights.
The words to the first verse are:
"In the year of Lord Jesus nineteen and sixty six,
A great rumbling sound came from up in the sticks,
All these gentle black warriors they dreamed of a Bill,
And enough was enough, so they walked off Wave Hill."
The words to the last verse are:
"For nine hungry years they kept up their bold stand,
And took off with and poured land into Vincent’s hand
For indigenous land rights it was finally time,
For to make reparations for a giant of a crime."
See also[edit]
Organized labour portal
Gurindji people
Vincent Lingiari
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References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Aborigines walk off jobs". The Canberra Times. Australian Capital Territory: National Library of Australia. 27 July 1968. p. 3. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Prime Minister Gough Whitlam pours soil into hand of traditional landowner Vincent Lingiari, Northern Territory 1975
Jump up ^ "Wave Hill group prepares stolen wages claim". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 8 December 2006. Retrieved 9 December 2006.
Lingiari Foundation
Freedom Day
Daguragu Council
MP Warren Snowdon's Speech to Parliament in honour of Vincent Lingiari
GreenLeft Weekly transcript of an oral history of the Wave Hill Station Strike
ABC interview with Paul Kelly and Kev Carmody
External links[edit]
Listen to a clip from 'From Little Things Big Things Grow' and read more about it on australianscreen online
'From Little Things Big Things Grow' was added to the National Film and Sound Archive's Sounds of Australia registry in 2010
Collaborating for Indigenous Rights 1957–1973, National Museum of Australia
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text:
First Epistle of John
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Part of a series of articles on
John in the Bible
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The First Epistle of John, often referred to as First John and written 1 John, is the first of the Johannine epistles of the New Testament, and the fourth of the catholic epistles. It is attributed to John the Evangelist, traditionally thought to be the author of the Gospel of John and the other two Johannine epistles. This epistle was probably written in Ephesus in AD 95–110.[1] The work was written to counter docetism, which is the belief that Jesus did not come "in the flesh", but only as a spirit. It also defined how Christians are to discern true teachers: by their ethics, their proclamation of Jesus in the flesh, and by their love.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Content
1.1 Comma Johanneum
2 Style
3 Authorship
4 Purpose
5 See also
6 References
6.1 Notes
6.2 Footnotes
6.3 Bibliography
6.4 Further reading
7 External links
Content[edit]
The main themes of the epistle are love and fellowship with God.[2][3] The author describes various tests by which readers may ascertain whether or not their communion with God is genuine, and teaches that the proof of spiritual regeneration is a life of active righteousness.[4] It also distinguishes between the world (which is full of evil and under the dominion of Satan) and the children of God (who are set apart from the world).[5]
The main themes of the epistle are discernible in the writer's sectional organisation of his contents. There are four sections (arranged in the chiasm ABB'A'): 1:1–2:14; 2:15–3:10; 3:11–4:13; 4:14–5:20. The first, A, speaks of "the witness", given and received, to God who is "light" and the exhortation is "to live in his light". The second, B, is an exhortation "to love not the world", with earthly motives, in earthly ways. The third, B', a balance to B, emphasizes (rather) "love one another". The fourth, A', again begins with "the witness", but this time it is to God who is "love"; "life eternal" is theirs who live a life of loving God. The key requirements of Ancient Rhetoric, Purpose and Structure are clearly evidenced in this letter. So too are the other requirements of Style and Memory.[6]
Comma Johanneum[edit]
Main article: Comma Johanneum
Philip the Apostle. The visible text (in Old Church Slavonic) in the book is: "Whosoever shall confess that Jesus is the Son of God, God dwelleth in him, and he in God. And we have known and believed the love that God hath to us. God is love..."
Among the most controversial verses of the Bible is what some consider an explicit reference that supports the doctrine of the trinity, the Comma Johanneum: "For there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one. And there are three that bear witness in earth, the Spirit, and the water, and the blood: and these agree in one." (1 John 5:7–8, King James Version). Verse 7 does not appear in any version of the Greek text prior to the ninth century, and first appears in most of the Latin manuscripts, especially in the Vetus Itala (Old Latin predating Jerome) before being translated into Greek and added to later Greek manuscripts.[7] It was included in the King James Bible, something Isaac Newton commented on in An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture. This is sometimes used as evidence to counter the King-James-Only Movement. Bart Ehrman suggests in his book Misquoting Jesus that the King James Version would not have included the passage if Desiderius Erasmus had not given in to pressure to include it in the Textus Receptus even though he doubted its authenticity.[citation needed]
The majority of modern translations (for example English Standard Version and New American Standard Bible) do not include this text, or (for example the New Revised Standard Version) include it as a footnote. Albert Barnes (1798–1870) said regarding its authenticity:
On the whole, therefore, the evidence seems to me to be clear that this passage is not a genuine portion of the inspired writings, and should not be appealed to in proof of the doctrine of the Trinity.[8]
Style[edit]
The epistle is not written in the same form as the other biblical epistles, lacking an epistolary opening or conclusion.[9] The epistle is written in a simple style, without syntactical flourishes,[9] and makes frequent use of asyndeton, where related thoughts are placed next to one another without conjunctions.[10] In contrast to the linear style used in the Pauline epistles, John's thought moves in loops or circles forming a slowly advancing sequence of thought.[5] This is similar to the parallel structure of Hebrew poetry, in which the second verse of a couplet often carries the same meaning as the first, though in the epistle the frequent recapitulations of already expressed ideas serve also to add to what has previously been said.[11] In summary, the epistle may be said to exhibit a paraenetic style which is "marked by personal appeal, contrasts of right and wrong, true and false, and an occasional rhetorical question".[9]
Some scholars have proposed the idea that the epistle is really John's commentary on a selection of traditional parallel couplets. While this theory, first propounded by Ernst von Dobschütz and Rudolf Bultmann, is not universally accepted, Amos Wilder writes that, "It is at least clear that there are considerable and sometimes continuous elements in the epistle whose style distinguishes them from that of the author both with respect to poetic structure and syntactic usage."[12]
Authorship[edit]
Main article: Authorship of the Johannine works
The epistle is traditionally held to have been composed by John the Evangelist, at Ephesus,[13] when the writer was in advanced age. The epistle's content, language and conceptual style are very similar to the Gospel of John, 2 John, and 3 John, indicating that they were written by the same author.[1] Indeed, at the end of the 19th century scholar Ernest DeWitt Burton wrote that there could be "no reasonable doubt" that 1 John and the gospel were written by the same author,[14] and Amos Wilder has said that, "Early Christian tradition and the great majority of modern scholars have agreed on the common authorship of these writings, even where the author has not been identified with the apostle John."[2]
However, other modern scholars have challenged this position. Though the common authorship of the three epistles is still almost universally accepted, scholars such as Heinrich Julius Holtzmann and C. H. Dodd have maintained that the epistle and the gospel were written by different authors.[2] There are at least two principal arguments for this view. The first is that the epistle often uses a demonstrative pronoun at the beginning of a sentence, then a particle or conjunction, followed by an explanation or definition of the demonstrative at the end of the sentence, a stylistic technique which is not used in the gospel.[9] The second is that the author of the epistle "uses the conditional sentence in a variety of rhetorical figures which are unknown to the gospel".[15]
Purpose[edit]
"The Fourth Gospel addresses itself to the challenges posed by Judaism and others outside Johannine circles who have rejected the community's vision of Jesus as preexistent Son, sent by the Father. The epistles (First, Second, and Third John) "describe the fracturing of the Johannine community itself".[16]
The author wrote the epistle so that the joy of his audience would "be full" (1:4) and that they would "not practice sin" (2:1) and that "you who believe in the name of the Son of God... may know that you have eternal life" (5:13). We can therefore distinguish in the epistle both a general purpose (to increase mutual joy) and a specific purpose (to provide readers with tests by which they might assure themselves of their salvation).[17] It appears as though the author was concerned about heretical teachers that had been influencing churches under his care.[13] Such teachers were considered Antichrists (2:18–19) who had once been church leaders but whose teaching became heterodox. It appears that these teachers taught a form of docetism in which Jesus came to earth as a spirit without a real body of flesh (4:2) that his death on the cross was not as a true atonement for sins (1:7).[13] It appears that John might have also been rebuking a proto-Gnostic named Cerinthus, who also denied the true humanity of Christ.[citation needed]
The purpose of the author (1:1–4) is to declare the Word of Life to those to whom he writes, in order that they might be united in fellowship with the Father and his Son Jesus Christ. He shows that the means of union with God are, (1) on the part of Christ, his atoning work (1:7; 2:2; 3:5; 4:10, 14; 5:11, 12) and his advocacy (2:1); and (2), on the part of man, holiness (1:6), obedience (2:3), purity (3:3), faith (3:23; 4:3; 5:5), and love (2:7, 8; 3:14; 4:7; 5:1).
Whereas the Gospel of John was written to unbelievers, this epistle was written to those who were already believers (5:13).[17] It seems likely that its audience was largely gentile rather than Jewish, since it contains few Old Testament quotations or distinctly Jewish forms of expression.[13] The epistle was probably carried by itinerant missionaries to different churches throughout the region and read aloud to the congregations.[18]
See also[edit]
If the world hates you
John the Apostle
John the Evangelist
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985) "1 John," p. 355–356
^ Jump up to: a b c Wilder, p. 214
Jump up ^ Barbour, p. 346
Jump up ^ Barbour, p. 348
^ Jump up to: a b Burton, Ernest DeWitt (1896). "The Epistles of John". The Biblical World. University of Chicago Press. 7 (5): 368. JSTOR 3140373.
Jump up ^ New Testament: New Testimony to the skills of the writers and first readers, David G Palmer, 2006
Jump up ^ Kurt Aland, et al., The Greek New Testament, Third Edition (Corrected), United Bible Societies, 1983, p. 824, n. 4 ISBN 3-438-05110-9
Jump up ^ Barnes, Albert (2007-02-07). "Albert Barnes New Testament Notes". StudyLight.org. Retrieved 2007-02-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wilder, Amos (1957). "Introduction to the First, Second, and Third Epistles of John". In Harmon, Nolan. The Interpreter's Bible. 12. Abingdon Press. p. 211.
Jump up ^ Barbour, J. H. (1896). "The Structure of the First Epistle of Saint John". The Biblical World. 9 (5): 343. JSTOR 3140289.
Jump up ^ Barbour, p. 342
Jump up ^ Wilder, p. 212
^ Jump up to: a b c d Burton, p. 367
Jump up ^ Burton, p. 366
Jump up ^ C. H. Dodd, “The First Epistle of John and the Fourth Gospel,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, XXI (1937)
Jump up ^ The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, Edited by Raymond E. Brown, S.S., Union Theological Seminary, New York; NY, William J. Dalton, S. J.; Roland E. Murphy, O. Carm. (emeritus) The Divinity School, Duke University, Durham, NC; [The Johannine Epistles, Pheme Perkins], with a foreword by His Eminence Carlo Maria Cardinal Martini, S.J.; Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1990
^ Jump up to: a b Barbour, p. 341
Jump up ^ Wilder, p. 210
Bibliography[edit]
Robert Dabney, "The Doctrinal Various Readings of the New Testament Greek", 1894: p. 32.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "article name needed". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
Further reading[edit]
1 John from the Biblical Resource Database
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
1 John
Wikiquote has quotations related to: First Epistle of John
Online translations of the First Epistle of John
Online Bible at GospelHall.org
Bible: 1 John public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions
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Tornadoes in the United States
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A tornado strikes Central Oklahoma. This was part of the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak on May 3, 1999.
Tornadoes are more common in United States than in any other country.[1][2] The United States receives more than 1,200 tornadoes annually—four times the amount seen in Europe.[3][4] Violent tornadoes—those rated EF4 or EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale—occur more often in the United States than in any other country.[3]
Most tornadoes in the United States occur east of the Rocky Mountains. The Great Plains, the Midwest, the Mississippi Valley and the southern United States are all areas that are vulnerable to tornadoes. They are relatively rare west of the Rockies and are also less frequent in the northeastern states. Tornado Alley is a colloquial term for an area particularly prone to tornadoes. There is no officially defined 'Tornado Alley' - at its broadest this area stretches from North Texas to Canada with its core centered on Oklahoma, Kansas and northern Texas. Another highly significant region - colloquially known as Dixie Alley - is the southern United States and particularly the northern and central parts of Alabama and Mississippi. Florida is one of the most tornado prone states. However, Florida tornadoes only rarely approach the strength of those that occur elsewhere.
Although favorable conditions for tornadoes in the United States can occur at any time, they are most common in spring and least common in winter.[5][6] Because spring is a transitional period for the climate, there are more chances of cooler air meeting with warmer air, resulting in more thunderstorms. Tornadoes can also be spawned by landfalling tropical cyclones, which usually occur in late summer and autumn. In the United States, thunderstorms capable of producing tornadoes usually form when the temperature is at its highest, typically from 4:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m.[6][7]
Although the period in which most tornadoes strike ("tornado season") is March through June, tornadoes - including violent tornadoes and major tornado outbreaks - have been documented in the United States during every month of the year.[8] Two examples of this are when a series of tornadoes hit the state of Indiana on November 22, 1992, and injured at least nine people.[8] Another notable non-season tornado was where a tornado struck the area of McLean County, Illinois. Even though the tornado was during a winter month, it blew 20 railroad cars off their tracks, and hauled a camper over 100 yards (91 m).[8]
During the winter months of the year, tornadoes have been known to hit the Southern United States and Southeastern United States the most, but have hit other areas as well.[8] One notable recent example of a winter tornado outbreak was the 2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak on February 5 and February 6, 2008. 84 tornadoes occurred over the course of the outbreak. The storm system produced several destructive tornadoes in heavily populated areas, most notably in the Memphis metropolitan area, in Jackson, Tennessee, and the northeastern end of the Nashville metropolitan area. At least 57 people were killed across four states and 18 counties, with hundreds of others injured.[9] The outbreak was the deadliest of the modern NEXRAD doppler radar era, until the 2011 Super Outbreak killed over 348 people (324 of which were tornado-related). It was the deadliest single outbreak since the May 31, 1985 outbreak, which killed 76 across Ohio and Pennsylvania, as well claiming 12 victims in Ontario, Canada. It was also the deadliest outbreak in both Tennessee and Kentucky since the 1974 Super Outbreak.[10]
Usually, tornadoes hit specific areas of the United States in specific seasons. During the winter months, tornadoes are usually spotted in the Southern area of the country, as well as states near the Gulf of Mexico.[11] This is due to cold air moving southward reaching its southern limit of expansion, and stopping over the Gulf Coast.[11] As spring comes, hot air progressively moves back into the Gulf Coast. This pushes the mass of colder air forward out of the Gulf States and into the Southeastern states, where tornado frequency is highest in April.[11]
As spring passes and summer begins, the mass of warm moist air moves northwest into the Great Plains and Midwestern states.[11] During the months of May and June, tornado activity is as its peak in the southern Great Plains. The air mass then moves northward into the Northern Great Plains and the Great Lakes area, causing a tornado activity peak in these areas during the summer months.[11] During the late summer and early fall months, tornado activity in the United States tapers off.[11] This is due to the relatively small difference between the temperature at the boundary of the hot air mass and the cool air mass at that time and an extension of the Bermuda High sitting over parts of the United States.[11] Though there may be some thunderstorms, they don't often become severe enough to spawn tornadoes.[11]
Tornadoes may be formed out of season, especially during the months of hurricane season in the Gulf Coast states and Southeastern states. Because these areas are prone to hurricanes, they may be struck with tornadoes that are spawned from hurricanes.[12] Tornadoes are most likely to form in the right-front quadrant of the hurricane, but can also form in rain bands associated with the storm.[12] This is caused by the large amount of vertical wind shear to the right of the storm.[13] Tornadoes are also spawned from U.S. hurricanes due to the moistness of the air at the landfall of the storm, which makes conditions favorable for a supercell storm to develop within the hurricane.[14]
Contents
[hide]
1 Regional activity
1.1 Midwest
1.2 South
1.3 East and Northeast
1.4 West and Southwest
1.5 Alaska and Hawaii
2 Intensity
3 Impacts
3.1 Injuries and fatalities
3.2 Damages
4 Forecasting
5 Research activities
6 See also
7 Notes
8 External links
Regional activity[edit]
Average annual tornado reports in the United States.
Tornadoes have been documented in every U.S. state (not including the non-state territories of Guam, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico) at least once since 1950, although some regions and states are hit by tornadoes far more than others.[15] For example, the average number of tornadoes to hit the states of Alaska, Rhode Island, and Vermont is less than one, while the state of Oklahoma receives an average of 52 tornadoes per year, and the state of Texas is hit with 126 tornadoes in an average year.[16] The state with the most tornadoes per unit area is Florida, though most are weak tornadoes of EF0 or EF1 intensity.[17] A number of Florida's tornadoes occur along the edge of hurricanes that strike the state.[18] The state with the highest number of strong tornadoes per unit area is Oklahoma.[19] States such as Oklahoma and Kansas have much lower population densities than Florida, so tornadoes may go unreported.[20]
Midwest[edit]
The Midwestern states are very prone to tornado activity, as it is part of "Tornado Alley."[21] States included in the area that are hit by tornadoes the most are Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Iowa, and South Dakota.[21] The Midwestern States are often hit by tornadoes during the late spring and early summer months, especially the months of May and June.[11] This is due to the aforementioned air mass moving northward into the Midwest and combining with another air mass that move southward from Canada.[11] This creates unstable air, creating the potential for storms to strike the most during these months.[11] The frequency begins to decrease in the middle of the summer, as the air mass moves northward into the Great Lakes states.[11]
A Doppler On Wheels unit observing a tornado near Attica, Kansas.
A very notable recent storm that has hit this area was the Northwood, Kansas tornado, in the May 2007 Tornado Outbreak. The tornado apparently strengthened as it neared Northwood, and at 9:38 pm CDT (0238 UTC), storm chasers reported that it had grown to over 1⁄2 mile (0.8 km) in diameter.[22] Several satellite tornadoes were observed as the very large wedge approached the town of Greensburg, Kansas. It was an estimated 1.7 miles (2.7 km) in diameter and was later confirmed to have been an EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale (the highest possible rating). Based on the damage produced, winds inside the tornado were estimated to have been in excess of 205 mph (330 km/h).[23]
Nebraska is fifth overall for sheer numbers of tornadoes, while Indiana has had 88 violent tornado reports from the 1950–2006 period, more than any state except Oklahoma.[15] Iowa reported 3'900 almost as many as Texas.[15] The deadliest tornado in US history, the Tri-State Tornado, struck Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana in March 1925.[24] St. Louis, Missouri and neighboring East St. Louis, Illinois have been hit more than once by violent tornadoes, the most notorious of which was the St. Louis Tornado of May 1896.[25] The New Richmond Tornado of May 1899 and the Flint, Michigan tornado of June 1953 also rank amongst the deadliest tornadoes in US history.[26] The region was badly hit by the Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak in April 1965 and by the Super Outbreak of April 1974. According to NCDC figures for the 1950 to 2006 period, Nebraska reported 2,440 tornadoes followed by Iowa (2,185), Illinois (2,086), Missouri (1,922), South Dakota (1,487), Minnesota (1,477), Indiana (1,327), North Dakota (1,216), Wisconsin (1,185), Michigan (981), and Ohio (916).[15]
South[edit]
The Southern United States has suffered more tornado fatalities than any other part of the country.[27] Some areas experience repeated damaging tornado events, such as the Tennessee Valley and in northern Alabama. The state of Alabama is tied for the most reported F5 tornadoes.[28] For the period 1950 to 2006, three hundred and fifty eight people were killed by tornadoes in Alabama, ranking the state third nationwide behind Texas (521) and neighboring Mississippi (404).[15] Fourth is Arkansas (336) and fifth is Tennessee with 271 fatalities.[15]
Tornado disasters to affect the southern USA include the Great Natchez Tornado of May 1840 - second deadliest on record in the US, behind only the Tri-State Tornado.[26] Other outbreaks included the Tupelo-Gainesville tornado outbreak of April 1936, the 1908 Southeast tornado outbreak of April 1908 and the Candlestick Park Tornado of 1966. Alabama and Kentucky were very badly affected by the Super Outbreak of 1974. The 2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak was the deadliest tornado outbreak in the USA in 23 years.[26] 58 people lost their lives with Tennessee, Arkansas, and Kentucky particularly badly affected. The 2011 Super Outbreak devastated much of the South, leaving 348 people dead.
Hurricanes and other tropical storms can also generate tornadoes. Louisiana and the coastal regions of Mississippi and Alabama are most at risk from these storms. The Atlantic seaboard states can be affected too. According to NCDC figures for the 1950 to 2006 period, Mississippi reported 1,787 tornadoes, followed by Arkansas (1,644), Louisiana (1,608), Alabama (1,579), Georgia (1,324), North Carolina (1,042), Tennessee (892), South Carolina (819), Kentucky (710) and Virginia (565).[15] West Virginia, by contrast, is one of the least vulnerable states of all with just 120 tornadoes reported over the period.[15]
East and Northeast[edit]
A waterspout near Florida.
The Northeastern U.S. to the east of the Appalachian Mountains is much less vulnerable to violent tornadoes but is by no means immune. One of the most extraordinary tornadoes in history struck Worcester, Massachusetts. This F4 tornado struck the city on 9 June 1953 and killed 90 people.[29] The tornado was generated by the same storm system that delivered a devastating tornado to the town of Flint, Michigan.[29]
Areas further south - notably Pennsylvania and Maryland - and areas to the west of the Appalachians are more vulnerable to tornadoes. NCDC figures for the period 1950 to 2006 show that Pennsylvania reported 697 tornadoes, followed by New York State (358), Maryland (269), Massachusetts (153), New Jersey (144), Maine (101), New Hampshire (86), Connecticut (82), Delaware (58), Vermont (37), Rhode Island (9), and the District of Columbia (1).[15] The worst tornado outbreak in the Northeast occurred in Pennsylvania on May 31, 1985, and produced the only F5 tornado in the region to date.[30]
Florida is one of the most tornado prone states, with only Texas, Kansas and Oklahoma reporting more storms.[15] During the period 1950 to 2006, Florida reported 2,884 tornadoes according to NCDC figures.[15] However, Florida tornadoes are usually weak in comparison with those that strike the Plains and the Southern states - there have been only four reports of F4 strength tornadoes since 1950 and none of F5 strength.[16] Florida experiences more thunderstorms than any other state but fewer supercell storms.[16] Florida tornadoes are more often spawned by the frequent ordinary thunderstorms that occur over the state. Hurricanes and other tropical storms can generate large numbers of tornadoes.[31] Non-supercell tornadoes are rarely as strong as supercell-generated storms.[32]
Florida's most violent tornadoes generally occur during the winter months, when the state is most vulnerable to invasions of cold air that help generate such storms.[11] In recent years there have been some particularly disastrous tornado events. During the night of February 22 and 23, 1998, an F3 tornado struck Kissimmee and killed 25 people. Later that night, another F3 tornado struck Seminole and Volusia counties and killed 13 people (see Kissimmee Tornado Outbreak).[33] On February 2, 2007, an EF3 tornado struck Lake County with 21 fatalities resulting - see 2007 Central Florida Tornadoes.[34]
West and Southwest[edit]
Of the states around the Rocky Mountains, Colorado reports by far the greatest numbers of tornadoes. Eastern Colorado, both climatically and physically, has much more in common with the neighboring Plains states of Kansas and Nebraska than with the mountainous areas further west. Small cities such as Limon, Kit Carson, Thurman, and Flagler are some places in Eastern Colorado that have experienced dangerous tornadoes.[35] The same can be said, to a lesser extent, of eastern Wyoming. Tornadoes are less frequent in mountainous areas.[36] Of the states in this region - according to NCDC figures for the 1950 to 2006 period - Colorado reported 1,617 tornadoes, followed by Wyoming with 560, Montana (345), Idaho (175), and Utah (114).[15]
In the Southwestern United States, New Mexico reported 485 tornadoes during the 1950 to 2006 period (NCDC figures), California reported 355, Arizona reported 209, and Nevada reported 75.[15] New Mexico borders the notoriously tornado prone states of Texas and Oklahoma, hence the noticeably higher figures. Most of the tornadoes here happen in the very eastern part of the state. New Mexico's region and the desert landscape of the state help prevent the amount of twisters that happen in Oklahoma and Texas.[15] Arizona and New Mexico experience regular summer thunderstorms during their monsoon season. These are sometimes tornadic but rarely produce violent tornadoes.
The Pacific Northwest is perhaps the least vulnerable region. NCDC figures for the 1950 to 2006 period show that Washington reported just 96 tornadoes for the entire period and that Oregon reported 91.[15] However, Portland, Oregon and neighboring Vancouver, Washington were hit by a deadly tornado on 5 April 1972. This storm was the deadliest to hit the United States that year.[37]
Alaska and Hawaii[edit]
Alaska has only been hit by 2 tornadoes between 1950 and 2006 (the first being November 4, 1959[38] and the other was August 2, 2005[39]); both were only F0. Hawaii has only been hit by 49 tornadoes since 1950.
Intensity[edit]
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (April 2014)
A powerful tornado hits the town of Dimmitt, Texas.
Tornadoes creates different damage depending how fast its wind speeds it is. The Fujita Scale classifies a tornado by its wind speeds. For example, if the tornado's wind speeds are low, then it is classified as a F0 tornado. If the tornado's wind speeds are about 200 miles per hour or at 200 miles per hour, then it is classified as a F5 tornado. In the United States, tornadoes have been known to form at high and low intensities. The probability of a high intensity or violent tornado differs by location across the country.[40] For example, due to the high frequency of tornadoes in the "Tornado Alley" area mentioned before, a more violent tornado would be more likely to form there due to the strength of the thunderstorms produced by the two bordering air masses.[41] The states with the highest number of F5 and EF5 rated tornadoes since data was available in 1950 are Alabama and Oklahoma, each with seven tornadoes. Iowa, Kansas, and Texas each are tied for second most with six.[28] The state with the highest number of F5 and EF5 tornadoes per square mile, however, was Iowa.[42] The state with the most number of tornadoes classified as "violent", or F4 and F5, is Kentucky, and the state with the highest average intensity ranking for tornadoes is Alabama.[42]
Tornadoes that are classified as EF4 and EF5 (or "violent tornadoes") on the Enhanced Fujita Scale only account for an average of two percent of all tornadoes in the United States each year.[43] However, these high intensity storms do account for an average of seventy percent of all tornado-related deaths in the United States each year.[44] These storms can have winds of over 200 miles per hour (320 km/h) and stay on the ground for over an hour.[45]
The United States has seen 58 F5 and EF5 (the highest intensity and damage ranking) tornadoes since records began in 1950.[28] No tornadoes prior to 1950 were officially ranked F5, due to inadequate engineering data and other information on the historical tornadoes. From 1950–1970 tornadoes were assessed retrogressively, primarily using information recorded in government databases, and newspaper photographs and descriptions. Beginning in 1971, tornadoes were rated by the NWS using on-site damage surveys.[46]
On May 3, 1999, a storm produced a violent tornado in the vicinity of Oklahoma City and was a part of the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak, which also brought many violent storms to the states of Kansas, Arkansas, and Tennessee.[47] In total, the storm produced 66 tornadoes over four states.[47] The strong F5 storm took place near the town of Bridge Creek, Oklahoma, located in Grady County.[47] During the storm, a group of students in meteorology from the University of Oklahoma had chased the storm on a Doppler on Wheels (or DOW), which scans storms while attached to a car.[47] Doppler on Wheels data from the nearby storm revealed winds of 301 ± 20 miles per hour (484 ± 32 km/h), which was over the wind speed in the F5 classification of that time.[47] Though the wind speed was over the F5 maximum, the tornado was not named the first ever F6 storm, as there was no F6 classification.[47] Other scientists reviewed the DOW data taken by the students, and concluded that the estimated wind speed may have been inaccurate, but still over 300 miles per hour (130 m/s).[47] Also, the wind speed recorded was taken from over 200 feet (61 m) above ground level.[47] The National Weather Service also did a damage check, and found that the damage was that of an average F5 tornado.[47]
Impacts[edit]
Injuries and fatalities[edit]
The United States receives over 80 deaths and 1,500 injuries associated with tornadoes each year.[3][48] According to the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration, most tornado deaths are caused by people not following instructions on what to do the right way.[3] They also mention that some people are not even warned that a tornadic storm is coming, while others get a warning, but do not believe that a tornado will hit their area.[3] In 2012, 68 people were killed by tornadoes in the United States.[49] Kentucky was the state with the most fatalities, having 22.[49] Kentucky was followed by Indiana (13), Illinois (9), Missouri and Oklahoma (6), Ohio (4), Alabama and Tennessee (3), and Florida and Kansas (1).[49]
Over 39 percent of all tornado-related deaths and many injuries come from residents of mobile homes.[50] It is a widespread myth that tornadoes are "attracted" to mobile home parks, and cause the most fatalities there because they hit there the most.[50] This is not true. However, mobile homes do often have poor construction and do not provide adequate protection during a tornado event.[50] An example to confirm this occurred in April 1991, when a very powerful tornado struck the town of Andover, Kansas. When the town was hit, eighty-four homes and fourteen businesses were destroyed by the tornado, but with no fatalities and only minor injuries.[51] After the tornado hit Andover, it swept through a mobile home park consisting of 223 trailers.[51] The park did have a tornado shelter, to which over 200 residents fled and survived without injuries.[51] Others that did not take shelter in the tornado shelter stayed in their mobile homes, and thirteen of them were killed by the tornado.[51]
Damages[edit]
The Enhanced Fujita Scale is a scale ll that classifies tornado strength from weakest, an EF0 tornado, to strongest, an EF5 tornado, by the damage the tornado caused to property and infrastructure. An EF0 tornado has winds from 65-85 MPH (105-137 KPH), may take off a roof or damage gutters, and can bring down tree limbs. If a tornado causes no damage because it did not occur in a populated area, it is always classed as EFO. An EF5 tornado has winds over 200 MPH (322 KPH) and can totally destroy reinforced concrete structures, even throwing rail cars a considerable distance.
Forecasting[edit]
Until recently there was little hope of forecasting these systems. Meteorologists could identify those conditions that were likely to produce severe weather and generate a watch. If a tornado was spotted a warning was issued. More recently Doppler radar allows investigators to see a circulation develop in the storm. Because of their size and intensity, there are few storm observations. Increasing information has been gathered in the field from those chasing the storm.
Research activities[edit]
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (March 2013)

See also[edit]
Tornado climatology
List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes
Climate of the United States
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ (Douglas, p. 76)
Jump up ^ Perkins, Sid (2002-05-11). "Tornado Alley, USA". Science News. pp. 296–298. Archived from the original on 2006-08-25. Retrieved 2006-09-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Tornadoes: Nature's Most Violent Storms". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
Jump up ^ (Bluestein, p. 6)
Jump up ^ (Bluestein, p. 9)
^ Jump up to: a b (Douglas, p. 79)
Jump up ^ (Douglas, p. 78)
^ Jump up to: a b c d (Lyons, pp. 177–178)
Jump up ^ CNN (February 6, 2008). "Severe weather, tornadoes kill dozens across South". CNN.com. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
Jump up ^ TVNZ (February 8, 2008). "Tornado toll rises to 57". TVNZ.co.nz. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Tornado". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tornadoes". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ (Bluestein, p. 155)
Jump up ^ (Bluestein, p. 156)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "Tornado Ranks by State". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Where tornadoes strike the most". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. USA Today.com. 2007-11-01. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Tornado Climatology". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. February 27, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ (Douglas, p. 114)
Jump up ^ Stevens, William (May 11, 1999). "Oklahoma Tornado Offers Hints Of How a Killer Storm Is Born". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Population Influences on Tornado Reports in the United States" (PDF). University of Missouri. April 28, 2005. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
^ Jump up to: a b (Lyons 176)
Jump up ^ Robb Lawson. "Barton and Ellsworth County Tornado". National Weather Service. Retrieved 2007-05-05.
Jump up ^ CNN. "Survivors sought as more storms threaten Plains". Archived from the original on 2007-05-09. Retrieved 2007-05-06.
Jump up ^ Henry, Alfred (June 3, 1925). "Monthly Weather Review" (PDF). American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
Jump up ^ "St. Louis City Tornadoes". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The 25 Deadliest U.S. Tornadoes". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
Jump up ^ "Tornado Fatality Information". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c F5 and EF5 Tornadoes of the United States
^ Jump up to: a b Pombo, Jamy. "Worcester Tornado: 50 Years Later". The Boston Channel.com (WCVB). Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
Jump up ^ Dornsife, Paul. "Pennsylvania Tornado Outbreak of May 31, 1985". Pennsylvania State University. Archived from the original on July 4, 2012. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
Jump up ^ (Douglas, pp. 114–115)
Jump up ^ (Douglas, p. 81)
Jump up ^ "The Central Florida Tornado Outbreak of February 22nd & 23rd, 1998". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 2008-02-10. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
Jump up ^ "The Groundhog Day Tornado Outbreak". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. February 17, 2008. Archived from the original on April 30, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
Jump up ^ Doesken, Nolan. "Climate of Colorado". Colorado State University. Retrieved 2008-07-17.
Jump up ^ (Lyons, p. 182)
Jump up ^ (Lyons, p. 186)
Jump up ^ http://www.tornadoproject.com/alltorns/aktorn.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.alaskadispatch.com/article/tornado-alaska
Jump up ^ (Douglas, p. 80)
Jump up ^ (Douglas, p. 84)
^ Jump up to: a b (Douglas, p. 187)
Jump up ^ (Douglas, p. 176)
Jump up ^ (Douglas, pp. 176–177)
Jump up ^ (Douglas, p. 177)
Jump up ^ McDonald, James R. (January 2001). "T. Theodore Fujita: His Contribution to Tornado Knowledge through Damage Documentation and the Fujita Scale". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. American Meteorological Society. 82 (1): 63–72. Bibcode:2001BAMS...82...63M. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(2001)000<0063:TTFHCT>2.3.CO;2.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i (Douglas, p. 85)
Jump up ^ Statistics on the ten deadliest tornados in the US, Time. May 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c "2012 Tornado Fatality Information". National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c (Douglas, p. 94)
^ Jump up to: a b c d (Douglas, p. 95)
External links[edit]
NOAA severe weather page
United States Year to date tornado reports
U.S. Severe Weather and Meteorology and Climatology
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
Chasing Tornadoes (National Geographic Magazine)
National Wind Institute at Texas Tech University
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