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Germ theory of disease
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Scanning electron microscope image of Vibrio cholerae. This is the bacterium that causes cholera.
The germ theory of disease is the currently accepted scientific theory of disease. It states that many diseases are caused by microorganisms. These small organisms, too small to see without magnification, invade humans, animals, and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause a disease. "Germ" may refer to not just a bacterium but to any type of microorganism, especially one which causes disease, such as protists, fungi, viruses, prions, or viroids.[1] Microorganisms that cause disease are called pathogens, and the diseases they cause are called infectious diseases. Even when a pathogen is the principal cause of a disease, environmental and hereditary factors often influence the severity of the disease, and whether a potential host individual becomes infected when exposed to the pathogen.
The germ theory was proposed by Girolamo Fracastoro in 1546, and expanded upon by Marcus von Plenciz in 1762. Such views were held in disdain, however, and Galen's miasma theory remained dominant among scientists and doctors. The nature of this doctrine prevented them from understanding how diseases actually progressed, with predictable consequences. By the early nineteenth century, smallpox vaccination was commonplace in Europe, though doctors were unaware of how it worked or how to extend the principle to other diseases. Similar treatments had been prevalent in India from just before AD 1000.[2] [N 1] A transitional period began in the late 1850s with the work of Louis Pasteur. This work was later extended by Robert Koch in the 1880s. By the end of the 1880s the miasma theory was struggling to compete with the germ theory of disease. Eventually, a "golden era" of bacteriology ensued, during which the theory quickly led to the identification of the actual organisms that cause many diseases.[3][4] Viruses were discovered in the 1890s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Miasma theory
2 Development
2.1 Pre-19th century
2.2 Agostino Bassi
2.3 Ignaz Semmelweis
2.4 Gideon Mantell
2.5 John Snow
2.6 Louis Pasteur
2.7 Robert Koch
3 Sanitation
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Miasma theory[edit]
A representation by Robert Seymour of the cholera epidemic depicts the spread of the disease in the form of poisonous air.
Main article: Miasma theory
The miasma theory was the predominant theory of disease transmission before the germ theory took hold towards the end of the 19th century. It held that diseases such as cholera, chlamydia infection, or the Black Death were caused by a miasma (μίασμα, Ancient Greek: "pollution"), a noxious form of "bad air" emanating from rotting organic matter.[5] Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that was identifiable by its foul smell. The theory posited that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infections, according to the theory, were not passed between individuals but would affect those within a locale that gave rise to such vapors.[citation needed]
Development[edit]
Pre-19th century[edit]
In Antiquity, the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460 – c. 400 BC) was the first person to state, in his account of the plague of Athens, that diseases could spread from an infected person to others.[6][7] One theory of the spread of contagious diseases that were not spread by direct contact was that they were spread by "seeds" (Latin: semina) that were present in the air. In his poem, De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things, ca. 56 BC), the Roman poet Lucretius (ca. 99 BC – ca. 55 BC) stated that the world contained various "seeds", some of which could sicken a person if they were inhaled or if they contaminated his food.[8][9] The Roman statesman Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC) wrote, in his Rerum rusticarum libri III (Three Books on Agriculture, 36 BC): "Precautions must also be taken in the neighborhood of swamps […] because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases."[10] The Greek physician Galen (AD 129 – ca. 200/ca. 216) speculated in his On Initial Causes (ca. AD 175) that some patients might have "seeds of fever".[11] In his On the Different Types of Fever (ca. AD 175), Galen speculated that plagues were spread by "certain seeds of plague", which were present in the air.[12] And in his Epidemics (ca. AD 176–178), Galen explained that patients might relapse during recovery from a fever because some "seed of the disease" lurked in their bodies, which would cause a recurrence of the disease if the patients didn't follow a physician's therapeutic regimen.[13]
During the Middle Ages, Isidore of Seville (ca. 560 – 636) mentioned "plague-bearing seeds" (pestifera semina) in his On the Nature of Things (ca. AD 613).[14] Later in 1345, Tommaso del Garbo (ca. 1305–1370) of Bologna, Italy mentioned Galen's "seeds of plague" in his work Commentaria non parum utilia in libros Galeni (Helpful commentaries on the books of Galen).[15]
The Italian scholar and physician Girolamo Fracastoro proposed in 1546 in his book De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seed-like entities (seminaria morbi) that transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or even without contact over long distances. The diseases were categorised based on how they were transmitted, and how long they could lie dormant.
Italian physician Francesco Redi provided early evidence against spontaneous generation. He devised an experiment in 1668 in which he used three jars. He placed a meatloaf and egg in each of the three jars. He had one of the jars open, another one tightly sealed, and the last one covered with gauze. After a few days, he observed that the meatloaf in the open jar was covered by maggots, and the jar covered with gauze had maggots on the surface of the gauze. However, the tightly sealed jar had no maggots inside or outside it. He also noticed that the maggots were found only on surfaces that were accessible by flies. From this he concluded that spontaneous generation is not a plausible theory.
Microorganisms are said to have been first directly observed in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, an early pioneer in microbiology. Yet Athanasius Kircher may have done so prior. When Rome was struck by the bubonic plague in 1656, Kircher spent days on end caring for the sick. Searching for a cure, Kircher observed microorganisms under the microscope and invented the germ theory of disease, which he outlined in his Scrutinium pestis physico-medicum (Rome 1658).[16] Building on Leeuwenhoek's work, physician Nicolas Andry argued in 1700 that microorganisms he called "worms" were responsible for smallpox and other diseases.[17]
In 1720, Richard Bradley theorised that the plague and 'all pestilential distempers' were caused by 'poisonous insects', living creatures viewable only with the help of microscopes.[18]
In 1762, the Austrian physician Marcus Antonius von Plenciz (1705-1786) published a book titled Opera medico-physica. It outlined a theory of contagion stating that specific 'animalculae' in the soil and the air were responsible for causing specific diseases. Von Plenciz noted the distinction between diseases which are both epidemic and contagious (like measles and dysentry), and diseases which are contagious but not epidemic (like rabies and leprosy).[19] The book cites Anton van Leeuwenhoek to show how ubitquitous such animalculae are, and was unique for describing the presence of germs in ulcerating wounds. Ultimately, the theory espoused by von Plenciz was not accepted by the scientific community.
Agostino Bassi[edit]
The Italian Agostino Bassi was the first person to prove that a disease was caused by a microorganism when he conducted a series of experiments between 1808 and 1813, demonstrating that a "vegetable parasite" caused a disease in silkworms known as calcinaccio—this disease was devastating the French silk industry at the time. The "vegetable parasite" is now known to be a fungus pathogenic to insects called Beauveria bassiana (named after Bassi).
Ignaz Semmelweis[edit]
Ignaz Semmelweis, a Hungarian obstetrician working at the Vienna General Hospital (Allgemeines Krankenhaus) in 1847, noticed the dramatically high maternal mortality from puerperal fever following births assisted by doctors and medical students. However, those attended by midwives were relatively safe. Investigating further, Semmelweis made the connection between puerperal fever and examinations of delivering women by doctors, and further realized that these physicians had usually come directly from autopsies. Asserting that puerperal fever was a contagious disease and that matter from autopsies were implicated in its development, Semmelweis made doctors wash their hands with chlorinated lime water before examining pregnant women, thereby reducing the mortality rate from 18% to 2.2% at his hospital. Nevertheless, he and his theories were rejected by most of the contemporary medical establishment.
Gideon Mantell[edit]
Gideon Mantell, the Sussex doctor more famous for discovering dinosaur fossils, spent time with his microscope, and speculated in his Thoughts On Animalcules (1850) that perhaps "many of the most serious maladies which afflict humanity, are produced by peculiar states of invisible animalcular life".[20]
John Snow[edit]
Main article: 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
Original map by John Snow showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854
John Snow was a skeptic of the then-dominant miasma theory. Even though the germ theory of disease pioneered by Girolamo Fracastoro had not yet achieved full development or widespread currency, Snow demonstrated a clear understanding of germ theory in his writings. He first published his theory in an 1849 essay On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, in which he correctly suggested that the fecal-oral route was the mode of communication, and that the disease replicated itself in the lower intestines. He even proposed in his 1855 edition of the work, that the structure of cholera was that of a cell.
Having rejected effluvia and the poisoning of the blood in the first instance, and being led to the conclusion that the disease is something that acts directly on the alimentary canal, the excretions of the sick at once suggest themselves as containing some material which being accidentally swallowed might attach itself to the mucous membrane of the small intestines, and there multiply itself by appropriation of surrounding matter, in virtue of molecular changes going on within it, or capable of going on, as soon as it is placed in congenial circumstances.
—  John Snow (1849)
For the morbid matter of cholera having the property of reproducing its own kind, must necessarily have some sort of structure, most likely that of a cell. It is no objection to this view that the structure of the cholera poison cannot be recognized by the microscope, for the matter of smallpox and of chancre can only be recognized by their effects, and not by their physical properties.
—  John Snow (1855)
Snow's 1849 recommendation that water be "filtered and boiled before it is used" is one of the first practical applications of germ theory in the area of public health and is the antecedent to the modern boil-water advisory.
In 1855 he published a second edition of his article, documenting his more elaborate investigation of the effect of the water supply in the Soho, London epidemic of 1854.
By talking to local residents, he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from the Broad Street pump did not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to disable the well pump by removing its handle. This action has been commonly credited as ending the outbreak, but Snow observed that the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline.[21]
Snow later used a dot map to illustrate the cluster of cholera cases around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. He showed that the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the Thames and delivering the water to homes, leading to an increased incidence of cholera. Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as one of the founding events of the science of epidemiology.
Later, researchers discovered that this public well had been dug only three feet from an old cesspit, which had begun to leak fecal bacteria.[citation needed] The diapers of a baby, who had contracted cholera from another source, had been washed into this cesspit. Its opening was originally under a nearby house, which had been rebuilt farther away after a fire. The city had widened the street and the cesspit was lost. It was common at the time to have a cesspit under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil.
After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the handle on the Broad Street pump. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterward they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant accepting the fecal-oral method transmission of disease, which they dismissed.[22]
Louis Pasteur[edit]
Louis Pasteur’s pasteurization experiment illustrates the fact that the spoilage of liquid was caused by particles in the air rather than the air itself. These experiments were important pieces of evidence supporting the idea of Germ Theory of Disease.
The more formal experiments on the relationship between germ and disease were conducted by Louis Pasteur between the year
1860 and 1864. He discovered the pathology of the puerperal fever[23] and the pyogenic vibrio in the blood, and suggested using boric acid to kill these microorganisms before and after confinement.
Pasteur further demonstrated between 1860 and 1864 that fermentation and the growth of microorganisms in nutrient broths did not proceed by spontaneous generation. He exposed freshly boiled broth to air in vessels that contained a filter to stop all particles passing through to the growth medium, and even with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not pass dust particles. Nothing grew in the broths: therefore the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than being generated within the broth.
Pasteur discovered that another serious disease of silkworms, pébrine, was caused by a small microscopic organism now known as Nosema bombycis (1870). Pasteur saved France's silk industry by developing a method to screen silkworms eggs for those that were not infected, a method that is still used today to control this and other silkworm diseases.
Robert Koch[edit]
Robert Koch is known for developing four basic criteria (known as Koch's postulates) for demonstrating, in a scientifically sound manner, that a disease is caused by a particular organism. These postulates grew out of his seminal work with anthrax using purified cultures of the pathogen that had been isolated from diseased animals.
Koch's postulates were developed in the 19th century as general guidelines to identify pathogens that could be isolated with the techniques of the day.[24] Even in Koch's time, it was recognized that some infectious agents were clearly responsible for disease even though they did not fulfill all of the postulates.[25][26] Attempts to rigidly apply Koch's postulates to the diagnosis of viral diseases in the late 19th century, at a time when viruses could not be seen or isolated in culture, may have impeded the early development of the field of virology.[27][28] Currently, a number of infectious agents are accepted as the cause of disease despite their not fulfilling all of Koch's postulates.[29] Therefore, while Koch's postulates retain historical importance and continue to inform the approach to microbiologic diagnosis, fulfillment of all four postulates is not required to demonstrate causality.
Koch's postulates have also influenced scientists who examine microbial pathogenesis from a molecular point of view. In the 1980s, a molecular version of Koch's postulates was developed to guide the identification of microbial genes encoding virulence factors.[30]
Koch's postulates:
The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy organisms.
The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture.
The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism.
The microorganism must be reisolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original specific causative agent.
However, Koch abandoned the universalist requirement of the first postulate altogether when he discovered asymptomatic carriers of cholera[26] and, later, of typhoid fever. Asymptomatic or subclinical infection carriers are now known to be a common feature of many infectious diseases, especially viruses such as polio, herpes simplex, HIV, and hepatitis C. As a specific example, all doctors and virologists agree that poliovirus causes paralysis in just a few infected subjects, and the success of the polio vaccine in preventing disease supports the conviction that the poliovirus is the causative agent.
The third postulate specifies "should", not "must", because as Koch himself proved in regard to both tuberculosis and cholera,[25] not all organisms exposed to an infectious agent will acquire the infection. Noninfection may be due to such factors as general health and proper immune functioning; acquired immunity from previous exposure or vaccination; or genetic immunity, as with the resistance to malaria conferred by possessing at least one sickle cell allele.
The second postulate may also be suspended for certain microorganisms or entities that cannot (at the present time) be grown in pure culture, such as prions responsible for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.[31] In summary, a body of evidence that satisfies Koch's postulates is sufficient but not necessary to establish causation.
Sanitation[edit]
In the 1870s, Joseph Lister was instrumental in developing practical applications of the germ theory of disease with respect to sanitation in medical settings and aseptic surgical techniques—partly through the use of carbolic acid (phenol) as an antiseptic.
See also[edit]
Molecular and Cellular Biology portal
Alexander Fleming
Cell theory
Epidemiology
Germ theory denialism
Robert Hooke
Rudolf Virchow
Zymotic disease
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ In a 1767 report to the College of Physicians in London, John Zephaniah Holwell mentions the practice of Smallpox vaccinations by Ayurvedic doctors and their explanations of the cause of the disease.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "germ – definition of germ in English from the Oxford dictionary". oxforddictionaries.com.
Jump up ^ Henderson, Donald A; Moss, Bernard (1999). Smallpox and Vaccinia, Vaccines. W. B. Saunders Company.
Jump up ^ "BRIEF HISTORY DURING THE SNOW ERA". ucla.edu.
Jump up ^ "Germ Theory". jrank.org.
Jump up ^ John M. Last, ed. (2007), ""miasma theory"", A Dictionary of Public Health, Westminster College, Pennsylvania: Oxford University Press
Jump up ^ Singer, Charles and Dorothea (1917) "The scientific position of Girolamo Fracastoro [1478?–1553] with especial reference to the source, character and influence of his theory of infection," Annals of Medical History, 1 : 1–34 ; see p. 14.
Jump up ^ Thucydides with Richard Crawley, trans., History of the Peloponnesian War (London, England: J.M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1910), Book III, § 51, pp. 131–132. From pp. 131–132: " … there was the awful spectacle of men dying like sheep, through having caught the infection in nursing each other. This caused the greatest mortality. On the one hand, if they were afraid to visit each other, they perished from neglect; indeed many houses were emptied of their inmates for want of a nurse: on the other, if they ventured to do so, death was the consequence."
Jump up ^ Nutton, Vivian (1983) "The seeds of disease: an explanation of contagion and infection from the Greeks to the Renaissance," Medical History, 27 (1) : 1–34 ; see p. 10. Available at: U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health
Jump up ^ Lucretius with Rev. John S. Watson, trans., On the Nature of Things (London, England: Henry G. Bohn, 1851), Book VI, lines 1093–1130, pp. 291–292 ; see especially p. 292. From p. 292: "This new malady and pest, therefore, either suddenly falls into the water, or penetrates into the very corn, or into other food of men and cattle. Or even, as may be the case, the infection remains suspended in the air itself; and when, as we breathe, we inhale the air mingled with it, we must necessarily absorb those seeds of disease into our body."
Jump up ^ Varro, Marcus Terentius with Lloyd Storr-Best, trans., Varro On Farming (London, England: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1912), Book 1, Ch. XII, p. 39.
Jump up ^ Nutton (1983), p. 4
Jump up ^ Nutton (1983), p. 6
Jump up ^ Nutton (1983), p. 7
Jump up ^ Nutton (1983), p. 20
Jump up ^ Nutton (1983), p. 21
Jump up ^ "The Life and Work of Athanaseus Kircher, S.J." mjt.org.
Jump up ^ "The History of the Germ Theory". The British Medical Journal. 1 (1415): 312. 1888.
Jump up ^ Melvin Santer, ‘Richard Bradley: A Unified, Living Agent Theory of the Cause of Infectious Diseases of Plants, Animals, and Humans in the First Decades of the 18th Century’, in Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, Volume 52, Number 4, Autumn, 2009, pp. 566-578
Jump up ^ Winslow, Charles-Edward Amory (1967). Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas. Hafner Publishing Co Ltd. ISBN 978-0028548807.
Jump up ^ Pg. 90 of "The invisible world revealed by the microscope or, thoughts on animalcules.", second edition, 1850 (May have appeared in first edition, too. (Revise date in article to 1846, if so.))
Jump up ^ John Snow (1849). On the Mode of Communication of Cholera. London: J. Churchill. There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it
Jump up ^ Chapelle, Frank (2005). "Ch. 5: Hidden Life, Hidden Death". Wellsprings. New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-8135-3614-9.
Jump up ^ Pasteur, Louis (1880) [May 1880]. "(translated from French)" [On the extension of the germ theory to the etiology of certain common diseases]. Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences. XC. Ernst, H.C. (trans). pp. 1033–44.
Jump up ^ Walker L, Levine H, Jucker M (2006). "Koch's postulates and infectious proteins". Acta Neuropathologica. 112 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1007/s00401-006-0072-x. PMID 16703338.
^ Jump up to: a b Koch Robert (1884). "Die Aetiologie der Tuberkulose". Mittheilungen aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte. 2. pp. 1–88.
^ Jump up to: a b Koch Robert (1893). "Über den augenblicklichen Stand der bakteriologischen Choleradiagnose". Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten (in German). 14: 319–333. doi:10.1007/BF02284324.
Jump up ^ Brock TD (1999). Robert Koch: a life in medicine and bacteriology. Washington DC: American Society of Microbiology Press. ISBN 1-55581-143-4.
Jump up ^ Evans AS (May 1976). "Causation and disease: the Henle-Koch postulates revisited". Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 49 (2): 175–95. PMC 2595276  . PMID 782050.
Jump up ^ Jacomo V, Kelly P, Raoult D (2002). "Natural history of Bartonella infections (an exception to Koch's postulate)". Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology. 9 (1): 8–18. doi:10.1128/CDLI.9.1.8-18.2002. PMC 119901  . PMID 11777823.
Jump up ^ Falkow S (1988). "Molecular Koch's postulates applied to microbial pathogenicity". Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 10 (Suppl 2): S274–6. doi:10.1093/cid/10.Supplement_2.S274. PMID 3055197.
Jump up ^ Inglis TJ (November 2007). "Principia aetiologica: taking causality beyond Koch's postulates". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 56 (Pt 11): 1419–22. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.47179-0. PMID 17965339.
[1]
External links[edit]
Stephen T. Abedon [1] Supplemental Lecture (98/03/28 update)
William C. Campbell The Germ Theory Timeline
Science's war on infectious diseases
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122 Leadenhall Street
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Leadenhall Building
Leadenhall Building (with the Heron Tower and 30 St Mary Axe in the background and the Lloyd's building in front) viewed from the Monument in 2014
Alternative names
The Cheesegrater
General information
Status
Complete
Type
Office
Architectural style
Post-modern / High-tech
Location
London, United Kingdom
Completed
June 2013
Opened
July 2014
Cost
£286 million
Height
Roof
225 metres (738 ft)[1]
Technical details
Floor count
48
Floor area
84,424 m2 (908,730 sq ft)
Design and construction
Architect
Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners
Structural engineer
Arup
Website
www.theleadenhallbuilding.com
122 Leadenhall Street is an address on Leadenhall Street in London where the 225 m (737 ft) tall Leadenhall Building is located. The commercial skyscraper, opened in July 2014, is designed by Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners and informally known as "The Cheesegrater" because of its distinctive wedge shape.[2] It is one of a number of new tall buildings recently completed or under construction in the City of London financial district, including 20 Fenchurch Street, The Pinnacle, and The Scalpel.
The site is adjacent to the Lloyd's building, also designed by Rogers, which is the current home of the insurance market Lloyd's of London.[2] Until 2007 the Leadenhall site was occupied by a building owned by the developer British Land and designed by Gollins Melvin Ward Partnership that was constructed in the 1960s. That building was demolished in preparation for redevelopment of the site. By December 2009, the site was cleared but construction had stalled. The project, initially delayed due to the financial crisis, was revived in October 2010 and Oxford Properties is now co-developing the property in partnership with British Land.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Previous building
3 The Leadenhall Building
4 Tenancy
4.1 List of tenants
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Prior to the site's previous redevelopment in the 1960s, it had been used as the head office of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company (P&O) for over a century. Since 1840, P&O had worked in the rent-free offices of Willcox & Anderson. However, business east of the Gulf of Suez increased in the late-1840s resulting in the company needing newer and larger offices. It was the P&O directors' obligation to provide new space. In November 1845, the King's Arms inn and hotel at 122 Leadenhall Street was put up for sale. The freehold was bought by P&O for £7,250, which then commissioned an architect, Beachcroft, to design a new building. The cost of the new building was estimated at £8,000. In March 1848, P&O moved into the new office.[4]
In 1854, P&O unsuccessfully attempted to purchase the neighbouring building at 121 Leadenhall Street, however they were eventually able to take a lease from the charity which held it. They also bought leases of 80 years from St. Thomas's Hospital on the residential properties at Nos. 123, 124 and 125 Leadenhall Street which were demolished to create a new frontage at No. 122. The new building provided more office space, some of which was for rent, and a spacious new courtyard.[4]
By the mid-1960s P&O needed to redevelop the site to provide increased office space again. At the same time, the Commercial Union Assurance Company was also planning a redevelopment on an adjacent site on the corner of St. Mary Axe. However, due to a number of issues affecting both sites, notably poor access to the Commercial Union site and the restricted width of the P&O site, it was not possible to obtain planning consents that would optimise the amount of floor space desired by either company. As a result, the two companies decided to participate in a joint development that would involve the reallocation of site boundaries and the creation of an open concourse area at the junction of Leadenhall Street and St. Mary Axe. Both companies would have frontages to the new concourse and would retain site areas equivalent to those enclosed by the original boundaries.
Previous building[edit]
The 1969 building at 122 Leadenhall Street in a black and white photograph taken in 2007
When completed in 1969, the building at 122 Leadenhall Street was 54 m (177 ft) tall with 14 stories above and three storeys under ground.[5] It was originally designed as a pair with the Commercial Union headquarters (now called St. Helen's) by the architects Gollins Melvin Ward Partnership. The two buildings have a central compressional concrete core and have suspended floors which hang using the steel 'chords' visible on the exterior of the building, which are hung from power trusses at the top of the building (and in the case of No. 1 Undershaft, a further central power-truss). It is an example of a tension structure; at the time, it was considered one of the most complex glass-fronted buildings in the United Kingdom. The architect acknowledged the influence of Mies van der Rohe.
The building was extensively damaged by an IRA bomb in the early-1990s and subsequently had to be reclad. It was occupied by various tenants until November 2006, including the Italian International Bank and Calyon.
The 1969 building undergoing demolition in 2007
In 2007–08, the building was demolished to make way for a new development designed by Richard Rogers. The demolition was undertaken by McGee Group Ltd, with Bovis Lend Lease acting as construction manager. The contract value was £16 million. The first phase of demolition was conventional: after securing the site, the contractors performed a soft strip of the interior and an asbestos survey prior to demolishing the low level structures up to podium level. After this, the suspended structure of the building required an unconventional demolition approach that successively dismantled each office floor from the lowest upwards. To achieve this, the contractors installed a structural deck that acted both as a work platform for the demolition work and as a safety barrier. This was jacked upwards as each successive office floor was removed. When all the office floors and upper support trusses had been removed, the concrete core was de-stressed and demolished. Concurrently, the 25,000 cubic metre basement was propped and excavated. The contract took just over two years to complete.[6]
The Leadenhall Building[edit]
Designed by Richard Rogers and developed by British Land and Oxford Properties, the new Leadenhall Building is 225 m (737 ft) tall, with 48 floors. With its distinctive wedge-shaped profile it has been nicknamed the Cheesegrater,[7][8] a name originally given to it by the City of London Corporation's chief planning officer, Peter Rees, who upon seeing a model of the concept "told Richard Rogers I could imagine his wife using it to grate parmesan. [The name] stuck."[9]
The planning application was submitted to the City of London Corporation in February 2004 and was approved in May 2005.[10] In 2006 Scheme Design (RIBA Stage D) started. In a statement made to the London Stock Exchange on 14 August 2008, British Land said it was delaying the project, which was due to start in October 2010.[11] On 22 December 2010, the developer announced the project was moving forward with contracts being signed for the 50/50 joint venture with Oxford Properties.[8]
The new tower features a tapered glass façade on one side which reveals steel bracings, along with a ladder frame to emphasize the vertical appearance of the building. It also appears to anchor the tower to the ground, giving a sense of strength. Unlike other tall buildings, which typically use a concrete core to provide stability, the steel megaframe, engineered by Arup, provides stability to the entire structure and is the world's tallest of its kind. The base features a 30m high atrium. This will be open to the public and will extend the adjacent plaza. The flat side of the building is also encased in glass, and houses the mechanical services – in particular the elevator shafts. These have been turned into an architectural feature in a vein similar to the neighboring Lloyd's building – they deliberately show off the elevator machinery with bright orange painted counterweights and the actual elevator motors themselves.
This unusual design's main drawback is the building's relatively small floorspace (84,424 m²) for a building of its height. However, it is hoped that the slanting wedge-shaped design will have less impact on the protected sightline of St Paul's Cathedral when viewed from Fleet Street and the west.
The development is expected to cost approximately £286 million.[12]
In July 2011, British Land and Oxford Properties announced that Laing O'Rourke was the main contractor for the works of the new Leadenhall Building. Throughout 2011, construction began with the basement floors. By December 2012, the steelwork had progressed up to the fifth mega-level, with topping out expected in February or March. The glass cladding had also begun to rise. By June 2013, the steelwork of the building was completely topped out with the glass cladding covering almost half the building.
The construction of the building was the subject of an episode of the Super Skyscrapers documentary series by the American television channel PBS in February 2014.[13]
Tenancy[edit]
The development has succeeded in attracting tenants, especially in contrast to the nearby part-built Pinnacle and completed Heron Tower. In May 2011, it was announced that the lower 10 floors of the Leadenhall Building have been pre-let to insurance broker Aon, which moved its global headquarters to London from Chicago.[14] Insurance group Amlin has also agreed terms on a 20-year lease of the 18th to 24th floors as well as the top floor — the 45th — from March 2015, for a total of 111,000 sq ft of office space.[15]
List of tenants[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Aegon
Affinity
Amlin
Aon
Brit Insurance
Clydesdale Bank
DRW
FM Global
Fidelis
IPSoft
Kames Capital
OMERS
Petredec
Quadrature
Rothsay Life
RSHP
Sabadell
Servcorp
See also[edit]
London portal
Architecture portal
City of London landmarks
Leadenhall Market
List of tallest buildings and structures in London
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Planning Applications". City of London. 04/00111/FULEIA – Documents > South Elevation. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Booth, Robert (13 August 2014). "Inside the Cheesegrater – London's latest skyscraper". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "British Land and Oxford Properties Announce Completion of Joint Venture Agreement to Develop 610,000 sq ft Leadenhall Building". British Land. 22 December 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Freda Harcourt; Edward Harcourt, Sarah Palmer (2006). Flagships of Imperialism: the P&O Company and the politics of empire from its origins to 1867. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-7393-6.
Jump up ^ 122 Leadenhall Street at Emporis
Jump up ^ Case study McGee
Jump up ^ "Building 49 – The Leadenhall Building". SkyscraperNews.com. 11 July 2007. Archived from the original on 5 August 2007. Retrieved 3 August 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "British Land and Oxford Properties Announce Completion of Joint Venture Agreement to Develop 610,000 sq ft Leadenhall Building". Retrieved 23 September 2011.
Jump up ^ The Cheesegrater: Richard Rogers sprinkles the Square Mile | Art and design. The Guardian. Retrieved on 26 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Planning Applications". City of London. 04/00111/FULEIA. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Hipwell, Deirdre (23 October 2010). "Canadians join British Land to build the 'Cheese Grater'". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 24 October 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
Jump up ^ E-architect: 122 Leadenhall Street
Jump up ^ Building the Future PBS. Retrieved: 12 February 2014.
Jump up ^ British Land pre-lets 10 floors of office space to Aon in the Cheese Grater building
Jump up ^ Insurer Amlin rents space in the Cheesegrater. Telegraph. Retrieved on 26 July 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 122 Leadenhall Street.
Information on the 1969 building
Coordinates: 51°30′50″N 0°04′56″W / 51.5139°N 0.0822°W / 51.5139; -0.0822
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Spring training
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A 1994 Grapefruit League game at the LA Dodgers' former camp in Vero Beach, Florida
In Major League Baseball (MLB), spring training is a series of practices and exhibition games preceding the start of the regular season. Spring training allows new players to try out for roster and position spots, and gives existing players practice time prior to competitive play. Spring training has always attracted fan attention, drawing crowds who travel to the warmer climates to enjoy the weather and watch their favorite teams play, and spring training usually coincides with spring break for many US college students.
Spring training typically starts in mid-February and continues until just before Opening Day of the regular season, traditionally the first week of April. In some years, teams not scheduled to play on Opening Day will play spring training games that day. Pitchers and catchers report to spring training first because pitchers benefit from a longer training period. A few days later, position players arrive and team practice begins.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Spring training locations by team
2.1 Grapefruit League
2.2 Cactus League
3 Statistics
4 Extended spring training
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
History[edit]
A 2007 Cactus League game between the Cubs and the White Sox at HoHoKam Park.
Spring training by major league teams in sites other than their regular season game sites first became popular in the 1890s and by 1910 was in wide use. Hot Springs, Arkansas has been called the original "birthplace" of Spring Training baseball. The location of Hot Springs and the concept of getting the players ready for the upcoming season was the brainchild of Chicago White Stockings (today's Chicago Cubs) team President Albert Spalding and Cap Anson. In 1886, the White Stockings traveled to Hot Springs to prepare for the upcoming season.[1][2] Practicing at the Hot Springs Baseball Grounds, the White Stockings had a successful season and other teams took notice and began holding spring training in Hot Springs.[2] The Cleveland Spiders, Detroit Tigers, Pittsburgh Pirates, Cincinnati Reds, Brooklyn Dodgers and Boston Red Sox followed the White Stockings to Hot Springs. Whittington Park/Ban Johnson Park (1894), Majestic Park (1909) and Fogel Field (1912) were all built in Hot Springs to host Major League teams.[3][4]
1885 Chicago White Stockings (known today as the Chicago Cubs) Top Row: George Gore, Silver Flint, Cap Anson, Jim McCormick, Mike 'King' Kelly, Fred Pfeffer; Bottom Row: Jimmy Ryan, Ned Williamson, Abner Dalrymple, Tom Burns, Jim Clarkson, Billy Sunday
Famously, a young pitcher named Babe Ruth of the Boston Red Sox was playing an emergency game at first base on St. Patrick's Day, 1918, his first time playing the field. Ruth would hit two home runs that day in Hot Springs, and the second was a 573-foot shot that landed across the street from Whittington Park in a pond of the Arkansas Alligator Farm and Petting Zoo. Soon he was playing the field more often.[5][6][7] Over 130 Major League Baseball Hall of Famers, including such names as Ruth, Cy Young, Cap Anson, Honus Wagner, Ty Cobb, Tris Speaker, Walter Johnson, Rogers Hornsby, Mel Ott and Jimmie Foxx were involved in Hot Springs Spring Training games.[8] The First Boys of Spring is a 2015 documentary about Hot Springs Spring Training. The film was narrated by area native, actor Billy Bob Thornton, and produced by filmmaker Larry Foley.[9][10][11] The documentary began airing nationally on the MLB Network in February, 2016.[12]
Babe Ruth hit a 573-foot home run in spring training, 1918. He led the league with 11 home runs and had a 13-7 record as the Red Sox won the 1918 World Series
Early training sites include the St. Louis Cardinals in Hot Springs, Arkansas, and Tulsa, Oklahoma; the New York Yankees in New Orleans and later Phoenix, Arizona, when the team was owned by Del Webb; the Chicago Cubs in Los Angeles when owned by William Wrigley Jr.; the St. Louis Browns and later the Kansas City Athletics in San Diego then in West Palm Beach, Florida; the Pittsburgh Pirates in Honolulu and other teams joined in by the early 1940s. The Detroit Tigers are credited with being the first team to conduct spring training camp in Arizona. They trained in Phoenix at Riverside Park at Central Avenue and the Salt River in 1929.[13]
The Philadelphia Phillies were the first of the current major-league teams to train in Florida, when they spent two weeks in Jacksonville, Florida in 1889.[14] Spring training in Florida began in earnest in 1913, when the Chicago Cubs played in Tampa, and the Cleveland Indians in Pensacola. One year later, two other teams moved to Florida for spring training, the real start of the Grapefruit League. Except for a couple of years during World War II, when travel restrictions prevented teams training south of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, Florida hosted more than half of the spring training teams through 2009. Since 2010, major league teams have been equally divided during spring training, with 15 teams in Florida and 15 teams in Arizona.[15] All but six of the major league teams have gone to spring training in Florida at one time or another. Many of the most famous players in baseball history (Ruth, Gehrig, Musial, Cobb, Mays, DiMaggio, Berra, Mantle, and many more) have called Florida home for 4–6 weeks every spring.[16]
According to the autobiography of former Cleveland Indians owner Bill Veeck, the avoidance of racism was one reason the Cactus League was established.[17] In 1947, Veeck was the owner of the minor league Milwaukee Brewers and the team trained in Ocala, Florida. Veeck inadvertently sat in the Black section of the segregated stands and engaged in conversation with a couple of fans. According to Veeck's book, the local law enforcement told Veeck he could not sit in that section, and then called the Ocala mayor when Veeck argued back. The mayor finally backed down when Veeck threatened to take his team elsewhere for spring training and promised to let the country know why.
Main article: Baseball color line
Veeck sold the Brewers in 1945 and retired to his ranch in Tucson, Arizona, but soon purchased the Cleveland Indians in 1946. He decided to buck tradition and train the Indians in Tucson and convinced the New York Giants to give Phoenix a try. Thus the Cactus League was born.[18] Veeck then signed Larry Doby to the Indians. Doby was the second African-American to play MLB in the 20th century, and the first for the American League.[19]
While Florida and Arizona now host all Major League Baseball teams for spring training, this has not always been the case. The Brooklyn Dodgers trained in Havana, Cuba in 1947 and 1949, and in the Dominican Republic in 1948.[20] The New York Yankees also trained in the early 1950s in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Spring training camps and games were also held in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and various cities of northern Mexico, sometimes by visiting major league teams in the 1950s and 1960s.
The Braves Spring Training game against the Mets in 2008.
During World War II, most teams held an abbreviated spring training within easy reach of their cities. In order to conserve rail transport during the war, 1943's Spring Training was limited to an area east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River. The Chicago White Sox held camp in French Lick, Indiana; the Washington Senators in College Park, Maryland; and the New York Yankees in Asbury Park, New Jersey.[21]
Before and shortly after big league baseball reached the West Coast, a number of teams trained in the state of California or along the state boundary. The Chicago Cubs trained on Catalina Island in the 1920s, '30s, and '40s. For example, early in their history, the then-California Angels held spring training in Palm Springs, California from 1961 to 1993, the San Diego Padres in Yuma, Arizona from 1969 to 1993, the Oakland Athletics in Las Vegas in the 1970s, and various major league teams had trained in Riverside, San Bernardino, and El Centro near the Mexican border.
Arizona had just eight teams in the Cactus League in 1989, with the other fourteen in Florida.[22]
The concept of spring training is not limited to North America; the Japanese professional baseball leagues' teams adopted spring training and preseason game sites across East Asia such as South Korea, the Philippines, and Taiwan; the Pacific Islands (most notably in Hawaii); and two cities in the United States: Salinas, California and Yuma, Arizona on the Mexican border.
Spring training locations by team[edit]
Further information: List of Major League Baseball spring training ballparks
Generally, teams train in either Florida or Arizona based on their geographic location in the U.S., with eastern teams playing in Florida and western teams training in Arizona; the exceptions being the Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, Milwaukee Brewers, and the two Chicago-based teams all training in Arizona; and the Houston Astros, Minnesota Twins and St. Louis Cardinals training in Florida. The last west-coast team to train in Florida was the Los Angeles Dodgers, who moved to Arizona in 2009.
In modern training, teams that train in Florida will play other Florida-training teams in their exhibition games, regardless of regular-season league affiliations. Likewise, Arizona-training teams will play other Arizona teams. These have been nicknamed the Grapefruit League and Cactus League, respectively, after plants typical of the respective states.
Spring training teams can play colleges, minor league baseball clubs, intra-squad games (members of the same team play against each other), split-squad games (games when one team is scheduled for two games in one day, so the team splits into two squads and each squad plays in one of the games), and B Games (unofficial Spring Training games where statistics and standings are not counted).[23] In years when the World Baseball Classic occurs, the national teams in the tournament prepare by playing major league teams. The players union will sometimes field a team if many free agents are unsigned by the start of spring training.[24]
Grapefruit League[edit]
Astros, Nationals
Blue Jays
Braves
Cardinals, Marlins
Mets
Orioles
Pirates
Phillies
Rays
Red Sox
Tigers
Twins
Yankees
Current Grapefruit League team locations:
One team
Two teams
The origin of the name "Grapefruit League" has several versions. One popular myth was that Casey Stengel threw a grapefruit at Brooklyn Dodgers manager Wilbert Robinson. The accepted version is that aviator Ruth Law threw the grapefruit. In 1915, Law had been throwing golf balls from her airplane to advertise a golf course. Someone suggested throwing a baseball from her airplane. Robinson, whose team was in the Daytona Beach area for spring training, agreed to try to catch the baseball. Flying 525 feet above Robinson, Law realized she had forgotten her baseball and threw a grapefruit that she had. When Robinson tried to catch it, the grapefruit exploded in his face.[25][26][27]
The list of spring training locations by team in the Grapefruit League in Florida.[28]
Team
Ballpark
City
Atlanta Braves Champion Stadium Lake Buena Vista
Baltimore Orioles Ed Smith Stadium Sarasota
Boston Red Sox JetBlue Park at Fenway South Fort Myers
Detroit Tigers Publix Field at Joker Marchant Stadium Lakeland
Houston Astros FITTEAM Ballpark of the Palm Beaches West Palm Beach
Miami Marlins Roger Dean Stadium Jupiter
Minnesota Twins Hammond Stadium Fort Myers
New York Mets First Data Field Port St. Lucie
New York Yankees George M. Steinbrenner Field Tampa
Philadelphia Phillies Spectrum Field Clearwater
Pittsburgh Pirates LECOM Park Bradenton
St. Louis Cardinals Roger Dean Stadium Jupiter
Tampa Bay Rays Charlotte Sports Park Port Charlotte
Toronto Blue Jays Florida Auto Exchange Stadium Dunedin
Washington Nationals FITTEAM Ballpark of the Palm Beaches West Palm Beach
In January 2017, the Braves announced a formal agreement to move their spring training home to a new park in North Port, Florida starting in 2019.[29]
Cactus League[edit]
Mariners, Padres
Rangers, Royals
Indians, Reds
Brewers
Dodgers, White Sox
Angels
A's
Cubs
D'Backs, Rockies
Giants
Current Cactus League team locations:
(Maricopa County
Unlike the Grapefruit League, teams in the Cactus League often share stadiums; of the 15 teams who train in Arizona, only the Cubs, Angels, Brewers, Giants and A's have their own home stadiums.
The newest stadium built for MLB spring training is Sloan Park, the spring training home for the Chicago Cubs in Mesa, Arizona, which opened in February 2014.
According to the Arizona Republic, the Cactus League generates more than $300 million a year in economic impact to the greater Phoenix metropolitan area economy. The Arizona Republic newspaper reports that more than $500 million has been spent on "building eight new stadiums and renovating two others for the 15 teams in the Valley."[30]
Attendance set a new record at 2011 Cactus League games with 1.59 million attending games at the various stadiums in the Phoenix metro area. Much of the attendance surge is attributed to the Salt River Fields at Talking Stick venue that accounted for 22 percent of the Cactus League attendance.[31]
The list of spring training locations by team in the Cactus League in Arizona.[28]
Team
Ballpark
City
Arizona Diamondbacks Salt River Fields at Talking Stick Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community
Chicago Cubs Sloan Park Mesa
Chicago White Sox Camelback Ranch Glendale
Cincinnati Reds Goodyear Ballpark Goodyear
Cleveland Indians Goodyear Ballpark Goodyear
Colorado Rockies Salt River Fields at Talking Stick Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community
Kansas City Royals Surprise Stadium Surprise
Los Angeles Angels Tempe Diablo Stadium Tempe
Los Angeles Dodgers Camelback Ranch Glendale
Milwaukee Brewers Maryvale Baseball Park Phoenix
Oakland Athletics Hohokam Stadium Mesa
San Diego Padres Peoria Sports Complex Peoria
San Francisco Giants Scottsdale Stadium Scottsdale
Seattle Mariners Peoria Sports Complex Peoria
Texas Rangers Surprise Stadium Surprise
Statistics[edit]
Statistics are recorded during spring training games, but they are not combined with the listed statistics for regular season games, and unusual performances which would have broken records if accomplished during the regular season are considered to be unofficial.
For example, on March 14, 2000, the Red Sox used six pitchers to achieve a 5–0 perfect game victory over the Toronto Blue Jays. A perfect game is considered a crowning accomplishment during the regular season or postseason, but in spring training it attracts little notice. Starting pitcher Pedro Martínez, who lost a perfect game in extra innings in 1995 while pitching for the former Montreal Expos, was talking to reporters at the conclusion of the game, rather than watching the final pitches. Reliever Rod Beck, who finished the game, did not realize the nature of his accomplishment until informed by catcher Joe Sidall. Many fans also left before the game's conclusion.[32]
Although spring training statistics are unofficial, teams frequently use players' spring training performances as a way of assigning starting roles and roster spots on the club.
Extended spring training[edit]
An extended spring training game between the Red Sox and Orioles in Sarasota, Florida during the 2008 season.
Minor league players participate in spring training following a telescoped schedule that generally lasts from March 1–31. At its conclusion, most players are assigned to full-season Class A, AA, or AAA farm team rosters to begin the regular minor league season. However, those players deemed unready for a full-season campaign—through inexperience or injury—are assigned to "extended spring training", a structured program of workouts, rehabilitation sessions, simulated games, and exhibition games based in the major league parent team's minor league training complex. If a player is deemed ready to participate in full-season league action, he is promoted to an appropriate-level farm club. When the "short season" Class A and rookie leagues begin play in late June, extended spring training players are assigned to those rosters, placed on the disabled list, or released.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "arlington hotel, oaklawn, gangster museum, hot springs baseball trail, historical landmarks - Hot Springs, Arkansas".
^ Jump up to: a b "Major League Spring Training in Hot Springs - Encyclopedia of Arkansas".
Jump up ^ "Ban Johnson Park-Whittington Park/Majestic Park/Fogel Field - Hot Springs Arkansas - Major League Spring Training grounds".
Jump up ^ "Untold Stories".
Jump up ^ "From a Fan: Rare Photos of Babe Ruth in Hot Springs Babe Ruth Central: Babe Ruth, Babe Ruth Photos, Babe Ruth Statistics, Babe Ruth Biography".
Jump up ^ Budd Bailey. "Road Trips!".
Jump up ^ "Bill Jenkinson".
Jump up ^ "Historic Baseball Trail Documenting Hot Springs as Birthplace of Spring Baseball Will Open on March 29; 45 Percent of Hall of Fame, Other Legendary Players Included". Yahoo Finance. 26 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Boys of Spring - Arkansas Life".
Jump up ^ "Home".
Jump up ^ "Larry Foley". Larry Foley.
Jump up ^ "MLB Network to air 'First Boys of Spring' doc". Major League Baseball.
Jump up ^ The Arizona Republic: "Cactus League: Then and Now." Source: Rodney Johson, the Society for American Baseball Research. March 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ Philadelphia Inquirer, March 1889; SABR Spring Training Database, http://sabr.org/content/spring-training-database (restricted access), Retrieved January 25, 2012.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Rodney (2012). "From Dust to Diamonds: The Evolution of the Cactus League". CactusLeague.com. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Arsenault, Raymond. "Spring Training Baseball in Florida – Our Roots Run Deep". Retrieved May 16, 2011.
Jump up ^ Veeck, Bill and Linn, Edward (2001). Veeck as in Wreck: The Autobiography of Bill Veeck. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-671-67540-0. pgs. 171–172.
Jump up ^ "Buckhorn Baths: A unique Mesa landmark".
Jump up ^ "Larry Doby" Retrieved 2010-03-20.
Jump up ^ Echevarría, Roberto González (1988). "The '47 Dodgers on Havana: Baseball at a Crossroads". Spring Training. Vanguard Publications. Retrieved January 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Suehsdorf, A. D. (1978). The Great American Baseball Scrapbook, p. 103. Random House. ISBN 0-394-50253-1.
Jump up ^ Clarke, Ric (March 9, 1989). "Florida lobbies for Cactus League teams". Spokesman-Review. (Spokane, Washington). Cox News Service. p. D5.
Jump up ^ "Thomas debuts in B game". Retrieved March 8, 2008.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (8 February 2018). "Players Union Will Host Spring Training Camp for Free Agents". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Gardner, Dakota (March 13, 2014). "The amazing story of 'Uncle Robbie' Robinson's plane-assisted grapefruit catch". mlb.com.
Jump up ^ "Wilbert Robinson". National Baseball Hall of Fame.
Jump up ^ Semchuck, Alex. "Wilbert Robinson". Society for American Baseball Research.
^ Jump up to: a b "Spring Training Official Website". MLB. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
Jump up ^ Murdock, Zack (January 17, 2017). "Atlanta Braves pick Sarasota County for spring training". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Retrieved February 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Arizona Diamondbacks, Colorado Rockies break in new park".
Jump up ^ The Arizona Republic. "A successful spring: New venue helps Cactus League set attendance mark." Peter Corbett. March 30, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Martinez, 5 relievers pitch perfect game", Jimmy Golen, the Associated Press, published March 15, 2000, Retrieved February 22, 2007.
Further reading[edit]
Milani, Jerry (October 19, 2011). "Hot Springs Historic Baseball Trail Features Hall Of Famers". Baseball Digest. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
Sanchez, Jesse (January 10, 2010). "Cactus League expands from humble roots". MLB. Retrieved January 9, 2010.
External links[edit]
Baseball portal
Spring Training on MLB.com official website
Grapefruit League official website
Cactus League official website
Spring Training Magazine Information
Spring Training Tips – A guide to enjoying everything about Spring Training
Cactus League History and Exhibition
Cactus League Schedules, Stadium Info and Travel Info From Arizona Tourism
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