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List of earthquakes in New Zealand
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Major active fault zones of New Zealand showing variation in displacement vector along the Pacific–Indo-Australian plate boundary (left) and the distribution of earthquakes (magnitude 5 or greater)
This is a list of large earthquakes that have occurred in New Zealand. Only earthquakes with a magnitude of 6.0 or greater are listed, except for a few that had a moderate impact. Aftershocks are not included, unless they were of great significance or contributed to a death toll, such as the M 6.3 2011 Christchurch earthquake and the M 7.3 aftershock to the 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake.
Earthquakes occur frequently in New Zealand as the country is situated in the collision zone between the Indo-Australian and Pacific tectonic plates, part of the Pacific Basin Ring of Fire, where many earthquakes and volcanoes occur. Most events occur along the main ranges running from Fiordland in the southwest to East Cape in the northeast. This axis follows the boundary between the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates. Large earthquakes are less common along the central Alpine Fault, where the plates are not subducting and the forces are accommodated in different ways.
The largest city within the highest-risk zone is the nation's capital, Wellington, followed by Hastings then Napier. All these cities have experienced severe earthquakes since European settlement. About 14,000 earthquakes occur in and around the country each year, of which between 150 and 200 are big enough to be felt.[1] As a result, New Zealand has very stringent building regulations.
Quite early on, European settlers were faced with the reality of earthquakes in their new home. On 26 May 1840, the new settlement at Port Nicholson was struck by the first of a number of earthquakes and tremors.[2] Early settlers learned fairly quickly the importance of using appropriate building methods in an earthquake-prone country. The 1848 earthquake, centred in Marlborough, caused great damage to the brick and masonry buildings in Wellington, and the city was rebuilt mainly in wood; consequently it suffered comparatively little damage in the 8.2 magnitude earthquake of 1855, which lifted the land 2–3m.[3] Many buildings in Hastings and Napier were damaged in the 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake. New building regulations meant that any new buildings constructed afterwards attempted to take earthquake shaking into account in building design.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Pre-19th century
2 19th century
3 1900–1949
4 1950–1999
5 2000–2009
6 2010–present
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Pre-19th century[edit]
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information
1100 Alpine Fault South Island 7.6–8.3 [4]
1460 Wellington Region Wellington 8.0 8.0 25 km 41.39°S 174.80°E [5]
1610-20 Alpine Fault South Island 7.6–8.3 [4][6]
1717 Alpine Fault South Island 8.1 [4][6]
19th century[edit]
Information for earthquakes before 1840 are later estimates.
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information
1815 New Plymouth Taranaki 7.0 [7] 25 km 38.99°S 174.00°E
1817 Fiordland South Island 7.0 [8] 25 km 45.99°S 167.00°E
1826 Fiordland South Island 8.0 [9] 8.0 25 km 44.99°S 167.00°E
1835 South Auckland Auckland 7.0 [10] 25 km 36.99°S 175.00°E Apparently a large shallow earthquake followed by aftershocks. Evidence rests on a single report that has so far not been verified[11]
1838 Waitotara Forest Manawatu 7.0 [12] 25 km 39.39°S 176.10°E
26 May 1840 Paraparaumu Wellington 6.0 [13] 25 km 41.00°S 175.00°E
8 Jul 1843 Near Taihape Manawatu 7.6 [14] 7.6 12 km 39.59°S 176.20°E 2 1843 Wanganui earthquake
13 Jul 1846 Snares Islands Southland 6.3 [15] 25 km 47.00°S 166.00°E
19 Nov 1846 Karamea West Coast 6.5 [16] 25 km 41.00°S 172.00°E
4 Dec 1846 Wellington Wellington 6.0 [17] 25 km 41.00°S 174.50°E
16 Oct 1848 Blenheim Marlborough 7.4 [18] 7.8 12 km 41.89°S 173.60°E 3 1848 Marlborough earthquake
27 Jul 1851 Motueka Tasman 6.0 [19] 25 km 41.00°S 173.00°E
23 Jan 1855 Lake Wairarapa Wairarapa 8.2[20] 8.2 33 km 41.198°S 175.20°E 9 1855 Wairarapa earthquake[21][22][23][24]
23 Feb 1863 Waipukurau Hawke's Bay 7.5[25] 25 km 40.00°S 176.50°E 1863 Hawke's Bay earthquake[26][27]
19 Oct 1868 Cape Farewell Tasman 7.2 [28] 12 km[29] 40.20°S 173.00°E Felt throughout Central New Zealand
5 Jun 1869 Christchurch Canterbury 4.7[30]–5.7[31] 5 km 43.55°S 172.60°E 1869 Christchurch earthquake
18 Jul 1876 Palmerston North Manawatu 6.8 [32] 50 km 40.19°S 175.80°E Felt strongly in Palmerston North
25 Jun 1881 Palmerston North Manawatu 6.7 [33] 33 km 40.39°S 175.60°E Felt strongly in Palmerston North
5 Dec 1881 Castle Hill[34] Canterbury 6.0 [35] 12 km 43.13°S 171.77°E Damaged stone buildings in Christchurch, including ChristChurch Cathedral[36]
1 Sep 1888 Lewis Pass Canterbury 7.0 [37] 7.1 12 km 42.59°S 172.55°E 1888 North Canterbury earthquake
23 Jun 1891 Port Waikato Auckland 6.2 [38] 12 km 37.43°S 174.43°E Felt in Auckland/Waikato
12 Feb 1893 Nelson Tasman Bay 6.7 [39] 70 km 40.99°S 173.80°E Felt throughout Central New Zealand
18 Aug 1895 Taupo Bay of Plenty 6.0 [40] 12 km 38.80°S 176.80°E Felt throughout Central New Zealand
8 Dec 1897 Wanganui Manawatu 6.5 [41] 40 km 39.99°S, 175.00°E Felt throughout North Island, Strong in Wanganui
1900–1949[edit]
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information
16 Nov 1901 Cheviot North Canterbury 6.8 [42] 12 km 42.74°S 173.35°E 1 1901 Cheviot earthquake
9 Aug 1904 Cape Turnagain Hawke's Bay 7.0 [43] 7.2 16 km 40.40°S 176.40°E 1904 Cape Turnagain earthquake
7 Oct 1914 East Cape Gisborne 6.6 [44] 12 km 37.80°S 178.20°E Felt throughout eastern North Island
22 Nov 1914 Tauranga Bay of Plenty 7.3 [45] 300 km 37.49°S 176.50°E Felt throughout North Island
1 May 1917 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 8.0 50 km 29.00°S 177.00°W Felt throughout New Zealand[46]
6 Aug 1917 Castlepoint Manawatu 6.8 [47] 12 km 40.80°S 176.00°E Felt throughout North Island
3 Nov 1918 Puysegur Trench South of New Zealand 6.8 [48] 50 km 47.00°S 165.40°E Felt throughout Southland
29 Jun 1921 Kaweka Forest Hawke's Bay 7.0 [49] 80 km 39.29°S 176.40°E Felt throughout North Island
25 Dec 1922 Motunau North Canterbury 6.4 20 km 42.99°S 173.00°E Felt throughout Upper half of South Island
9 Mar 1929 Arthur's Pass Canterbury 7.0 [50] 12 km 42.83°S 171.83°E 1929 Arthur's Pass earthquake
17 Jun 1929 Murchison West Coast 7.3 [51] 7.8 20 km 41.69°S 172.20°E 17 1929 Murchison earthquake
23 Jun 1929 Murchison West Coast 6.5 [52] 12 km 41.78°S 172.32°E
12 Feb 1930 Porangahau Hawke's Bay 6.2 33 km 40.39°S 176.55°E Felt throughout lower half of North Island
3 Feb 1931 North of Napier Hawke's Bay 7.4 [53] 7.8 20 km 39.29°S 177.00°E 256 1931 Hawke's Bay earthquake
13 Feb 1931 East of Napier Hawke's Bay 7.3 [54] 30 km 39.55°S 177.31°E Aftershock to M 7.4 event
16 Sep 1932 Wairoa Hawke's Bay 6.9 [55] 12 km 38.95°S 177.59°E Caused further damage to the already devastated Hawke's Bay.
5 Mar 1934 Pahiatua Manawatu 7.2 [56] 12 km 40.54°S 176.29°E 2 1934 Pahiatua earthquake
15 Mar 1934 Wairoa Hawke's Bay 6.3 25 km 39.31°S 177.23°E Felt strongly in Hawke's Bay and Gisborne
24 May 1936 Whakatane Bay of Plenty 6.5 [57] 150 km 37.99°S 177.00°E Felt in North Island
16 Dec 1938 Fiordland Southland 7.0 60 km 44.99°S 167.00°E Felt throughout South Island
11 Feb 1939 Fiordland Southland 7.0 [58] 25 km 45.00°S 167.50°E Felt throughout South Island
26 Feb 1940 Hastings Hawke's Bay 6.0 25 km 39.50°S 176.50°E Felt throughout North Island
24 Jun 1942 Masterton Wairarapa 6.9 [59] 12 km 40.96°S 175.69°E 1[60] June 1942 Wairarapa earthquake
1 Aug 1942 Masterton Wairarapa 6.8 [61] 40 km 41.01°S 175.52°E 1 August 1942 Wairarapa earthquake
17 Feb 1943 Te Anau Southland 6.5 123 km 45.29°S 168.00°E Felt throughout South Island
2 Aug 1943 Te Anau Southland 6.1 [62] 33 km 45.64°S 166.67°E Felt throughout South Island
2 Sep 1945 Stewart Island Southland 6.5 [63] 12 km 47.47°S, 166.12°E Felt throughout Southland and Otago
26 Jun 1946 Lake Coleridge Canterbury 6.5[64] 12 km 43.30°S 171.47°E Mainshock
26 Mar 1947 Offshore Poverty Bay Gisborne 7.1 38.55°S 178.42°E 1947 Gisborne earthquakes and tsunami
17 May 1947 Offshore Tolaga Bay Gisborne 7.1 38.21°S 178.60°E 1947 Gisborne earthquakes and tsunami
22 May 1948 Hanmer Springs North Canterbury 6.4 12 km 42.49°S 173.00°E Mainshock
22 May 1948 Cheviot North Canterbury 6.2 12 km 42.83°S 173.05°E Separate event triggered by the M 6.4 earthquake 5 minutes prior
9 Feb 1949 Hawera Taranaki 6.4 199 km 39.67°S 174.35°E Felt throughout North Island
1950–1999[edit]
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information
10 Feb 1951 Porangahau Hawke's Bay 6.1 33 km 40.21°S 177.04°E Felt throughout North Island [65]
24 Jun 1951 Toaroa Junction Manawatu 6.3 33 km 39.45°S 176.20°E Felt throughout North Island
29 Sep 1953 Tauranga Bay of Plenty 7.2 [66] 273 km 37.59°S 176.48°E Felt throughout North Island
27 Feb 1955 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 7.8 18 km 28.40°S 175.37°W Felt in the East half of North Island
29 Dec 1956 Matawai Gisborne 6.1 6.1 33 km 39.72°S 176.87°E Felt strongly along the East Coast of the North Island
31 Jan 1958 Waipawa Hawke's Bay 6.1 12 km 30.30°S 177.50°E
14 Sep 1959 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 7.8 35 km 28.82°S 177.07°W Felt in the East half of North Island
28 Mar 1960 Mokau Taranaki 6.6 [67] 237 km 39.04°S 174.81°E Doublet earthquake to 6.5 event
28 Mar 1960 Mokau Taranaki 6.5 [68] 209 km 39.04°S 174.77°E Doublet earthquake to 6.6 event
25 May 1960 Milford Sound Southland 6.3 12 km 44.17°S 167.72°E
27 Dec 1961 Martinborough Wellington 6.2 12 km 41.51°S 176.11°E Struck offshore, 65 km east of Martinborough
18 Dec 1963 Raoul Islands Kermadec Islands 7.7 35 km 24.77°S 176.52°W Felt in the East half of North Island
11 April 1965 Kaikoura North Canterbury 6.1 12 km 42.76°S 173.87°E Felt in Kaikoura/North Canterbury
21 May 1965 George Sound Southland 6.4 101 km 44.94°S 167.36°E
4 Mar 1966 Gisborne East Cape 6.0 33 km 38.73°S 178.11°E Felt in Gisborne
23 April 1966 Cook Strait Marlborough 5.8 5.8 12 km 41.64°S 174.54°E Caused damage in Wellington
24 May 1968 Inangahua Junction West Coast 6.7[69] 7.1[69] 12 km 41.75°S 172.04°E 2 1968 Inangahua earthquake
6 Jan 1973 Taupo Waikato 7.0 163 km 39.03°S 175.26°E Felt throughout New Zealand
5 May 1976 Milford Sound Southland 6.6 12 km 44.67°S 167.38°E
15 Jan 1976 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 7.8 43 km 29.21°S 177.63°W Foreshock to M 8.2 event
15 Jan 1976 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 8.2 31 km 29.17°S 177.31°W Main shock
18 Jan 1977 Cook Strait Marlborough 6.0 33 km 41.84°S 174.58°E
12 Oct 1979 Puysegur Trench South of New Zealand 6.5 12 km 46.70°S 166.03°E
31 Dec 1984 White Island Bay of Plenty 6.3 12 km 36.59°S 177.55°E Felt around the Bay of Plenty
21 Oct 1986 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 8.3 33 km 28.15°S 176.29°W Felt throughout New Zealand[70]
2 Mar 1987 Edgecumbe Bay of Plenty 6.1 6.5 10 km 37.88°S 176.80°E 1987 Edgecumbe earthquake
4 Jun 1988 Te Anau Southland 6.1 73 km 45.12°S 167.29°E
24 May 1989 Puysegur Trench South of New Zealand 8.2 Felt in the South Island
31 May 1989 Doubtful Sound Southland 6.1 23 km 45.33°S 166.87°E
13 May 1990 Weber Manawatu 6.2[71] 6.4[71] 29 km 40.42S 176.47°E Mainshock
28 Jan 1991 Buller Ranges West Coast 6.1 9.9 km 41.90°S 171.65°E Foreshock to M 6.3 event
29 Jan 1991 Buller Ranges West Coast 6.3 17.3 km 41.90°S 171.72°E Mainshock
8 Sep 1991 South Taranaki Bight Manawatu 6.3 86 km 40.24°S 175.16°E Felt throughout North Island
27 May 1992 Wairau Valley Marlborough 6.8 79 km 41.60°S 173.66°E Felt in Central New Zealand
21 June 1992 White Island Bay of Plenty 6.1 5 km 37.57°S 176.82°E Felt in Bay of Plenty
10 Aug 1993 Secretary Island Southland 6.7 7.0 5 km 45.21°S 166.70°E Felt as far away as Australia
10 Aug 1993 Gisborne East Cape 6.3 45 km 38.52°S 177.90°E Felt strongly in Gisborne.
11 Apr 1993 Hastings Hawke's Bay 6.1 37 km 39.72°S 176.71°E Felt strongly throughout Hawke's Bay
18 Jun 1994 Arthur's Pass Canterbury 6.7 [72] 6.7 4 km 43.00°S 171.47°E Mainshock
19 Jun 1994 Lake Coleridge Canterbury 6.1 5 km 43.16°S, 171.47°E Triggered from the M 6.7 Arthur's Pass event
24 Nov 1995 Arthur's Pass Canterbury 6.3 7 km 42.95°S, 171.81°E Felt strongly in the South Island
6 Feb 1995 NE of New Zealand East Cape 7.0 12 km 37.7°7S 179.68°E Mainshock
10 Feb 1995 NE of New Zealand East Cape 6.6 12 km 37.92°7S 179.51°E
25 May 1997 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 7.9 339 km 33.61°S 177.80°E Felt throughout North Island and upper half of South Island
20 Apr 1998 Taumaranui Manawatu 6.7 [73] 232 km 39,02S 174.92°E Felt throughout the North Island
25 Oct 1999 Taupo Waikato 7.0 160 km 38.56S 175.91°E Felt throughout New Zealand
2000–2009[edit]
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information
15 Aug 2000 L'Esperance Rock Kermadec Islands 7.6 [74] 436 km 31.94°S 178.55°E Felt in Christchurch
1 Nov 2000 Fiordland Southland 6.2 [75] 9 km 45.12°S 166.95°E
21 Aug 2001 NE of New Zealand East Cape 7.1 [76] 7.1 33 km 36.98°S 179.16°E Felt in the Gisborne area
21 Oct 2001 NE of New Zealand East Cape 6.3 12 km 36.89°S 179.86°E Felt in the Gisborne area
8 Dec 2001 Haast West Coast 6.2 5 km 44.11°S 168.60°E Mainshock
22 Aug 2003 Fiordland Southland 7.0 [77] 7.2 24 km 45.19°S, 166.83°E Felt throughout South Island
22 Nov 2004 Puysegur Trench South of New Zealand 7.1 [78] 7.0 12 km 46.57°S 165.08°E Reportedly felt as far north as Hamilton.
14 Mar 2005 Opunake Manawatu-Wanganui 6.4 154 km 40.17°S 173.63°E Felt strongly throughout central New Zealand
16 May 2006 L'Esperance Rock Kermadec Islands 7.5 [79] 7.4 150 km 31.56°S, 179.30°W Felt in East half of New Zealand
16 May 2006 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 7.1 33 km 31.98°S, 177.21°W Felt in East half on North Island
16 Oct 2007 Fiordland Southland 6.7 [80] 6.7 5 km 44.72°S 167.39°E Felt lower half of South Island
9 Dec 2007 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 7.8 152 km 25.99°S 177.51°W Felt in East half of New Zealand
20 Dec 2007 Gisborne East Cape 6.7 [81] 6.6 44 km 38.89°S 178.44°E 2007 Gisborne earthquake
25 Aug 2008 Hastings Hawke's Bay 5.9 31 km 39.71°S 176.85°E 2008 Hastings earthquake
15 Jul 2009 Puysegur Trench South of New Zealand 6.1 [82] 33 km 46.07°S 165.75°E Felt throughout Southland and Otago
15 Jul 2009 Dusky Sound Southland 7.8 [83] 12 km 45.76°S 166.58°E 2009 Fiordland earthquake
2010–present[edit]
Date
Location
Region
Magnitude (ML)
Magnitude (MW)
Magnitude (Mb)
Depth
Latitude
Longitude
Fatalities
Further information
4 Sep 2010 Darfield Canterbury 7.1 7.0 6.4 11 km 43.52°S 172.16°E 2010 Canterbury earthquake[84][85]
22 Feb 2011 Christchurch Canterbury 6.3 6.1 6.1 6 km 43.58S 172.67E 185 [86] 2011 Christchurch earthquake[87][88]
13 Jun 2011 Christchurch Canterbury 6.4 5.9 6.0 7 km 43.56°S 172.73°E 1 June 2011 Christchurch earthquake[89][90]
5 Jul 2011 Taupo Waikato 6.5 5.5 5.4 153 km 38.65°S 175.70°E Felt throughout New Zealand.[91][92]
7 Jul 2011 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 7.6 7.6 7.0 20 km 29.31°S 176.20°W Felt as far away as Christchurch.[93][94]
22 Oct 2011 Raoul Island Kermadec Islands 7.3 7.4 6.5 33 km 28.99°S 176.18°W Felt in eastern half of the North Island.[95][96]
23 Dec 2011 Christchurch Canterbury 6.0 5.9 5.7 7 km 43.52°S 172.74°E Caused damage in the Christchurch region.[97][98]
3 Jul 2012 South Taranaki Bight Taranaki 6.5 6.3 5.9 254 km 40.00°S 173.75°E 2012 Opunake earthquake[99][100]
21 Jul 2013 Cook Strait Marlborough 6.5 6.5 6.1 17 km 41.61°S 174.33°E 2013 Seddon earthquake[101][102]
16 Aug 2013 Lake Grassmere Marlborough 6.6 6.5 6.0 8 km 41.73°S 174.15°E 2013 Lake Grassmere earthquake[103][104]
16 Aug 2013 Lake Grassmere Marlborough 6.0 5.9 5.8 8 km 41.67°S 174.26°E Largest aftershock to 2013 Lake Grassmere earthquake[105][106]
20 Jan 2014 Eketahuna Wairarapa 6.2 6.1 5.8 34 km 40.62°S 175.85°E 2014 Eketahuna earthquake[107][108]
13 Oct 2014 Fiordland Southland 6.2 5.8 5.4 9 km 46.29°S 165.87°E [109][110]
14 Oct 2014 NE of Whakatane Bay of Plenty 6.5 5.7 82 km 34.90°S 179.65°E [111][112]
17 Nov 2014 NE of Gisborne Gisborne 6.5 6.7 6.2 22 km 37.68°S 179.68°E Felt strongly across the North Island[113][114]
6 Jan 2015 W of Arthur's Pass Canterbury 6.0 5.6 5.5 5 km 43.06°S 171.25°E Felt throughout the South Island[115][116]
24 Apr 2015 SE of St Arnaud Marlborough 6.2 6.1 6.0 52 km 42.09°S 173.07°E Felt throughout New Zealand[117][118]
2 Feb 2016 E of Macauley Island Kermadec Islands 6.6 6.2 6.3 366 km 31.65°S 177.74°E Felt widely in the North Island.[119]
14 Feb 2016 Christchurch Canterbury 5.7 5.8 15 km 43.5°S 172.83°E 2016 Christchurch earthquake[120][121]
2 Sep 2016 NE of East Cape East Cape 7.1 7.1 55 km 37.01°S 179.63°E 2016 Te Araroa earthquake[122][123]
14 Nov 2016 Culverden North Canterbury 7.8 7.8[124][125] 15 km 42.757°S 173.077°E 2[126] 2016 Kaikoura earthquake[127]
11 Jul 2017 NW of Auckland Island South Tasman Sea 6.6 6.6 6.3 10 km 49.546°S 164.031°E [128]
See also[edit]
Canterbury Earthquake Response and Recovery Act 2010
Earthquake Commission
List of disasters in New Zealand by death toll
Shaky Isles – a nickname for New Zealand
List of tsunamis affecting New Zealand
Volcanology of New Zealand
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". Retrieved 15 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". www.geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M7.0 - South Island of New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "List of deceased - Christchurch earthquake". New Zealand Police. 3 May 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". www.geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M6.1 - South Island of New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". www.geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M5.9 - South Island of New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". www.geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M5.5 - North Island of New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". www.geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M7.6 - Kermadec Islands region". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". www.geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M7.4 - Kermadec Islands region". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". www.geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M5.9 - South Island of New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". www.geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M6.3 - Cook Strait, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand Earthquake Report -- Magnitude 6.5, Sunday, July 21, 2013 at 5:09:30 pm (NZST)". GNS Science. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "M6.5 - 46km ESE of Blenheim, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand Earthquake Report -- Magnitude 6.6, Friday, August 16, 2013 at 2:31:05 pm (NZST)". GNS Science. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
Jump up ^ "M6.5 - 29km SE of Blenheim, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand Earthquake Report -- Magnitude 6.0, Friday, 16 August 2013 at 5:31:16 pm (NZST)". GNS Science. Retrieved 6 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "M5.9 - 30km ESE of Blenheim, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand Earthquake Report Magnitude 6.2, Monday, January 20, 2014 at 3:52:45 pm (NZDT)". GeoNet. 21 January 2014. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "M6.1 - 35km NNE of Masterton, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand Earthquake Report Magnitude 6.2, Mon, Oct 13 2014, 6:13:41 pm (NZDT)". GNS Science. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "M5.8 - 159km W of Riverton, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "New Zealand Earthquake Report Magnitude 6.5, Tue, Oct 14 2014, 5:12:30 pm (NZDT)". GNS Science. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "M5.7 - South of the Kermadec Islands". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". www.geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M6.7 - 183km NE of Gisborne, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M5.6 - 43km SSE of Hokitika, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "M6.1 - 67km NW of Kaikoura, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2015-12-12.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes". geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
Jump up ^ "5.9 magnitude earthquake hits near Christchurch, New Zealand". smh.com.au. Retrieved 2016-02-14.
Jump up ^ "GeoNet - Quakes - Magnitude 5.7, Sun, Feb 14 2016, 1:13:43 pm (NZDT)". geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2016-02-14.
Jump up ^ "Magnitude 7.1, Fri, Sep 2 2016, 4:37:55 am (NZST)". geonet.org.nz. Retrieved 2016-09-04.
Jump up ^ "M7.1 - 166km NE of Gisborne, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2016-09-04.
Jump up ^ "Magnitude 7.8, Mon, Nov 14 2016, 12:02:56 am (NZDT)". GeoNet. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "M7.8 – 53km NNE of Amberley, New Zealand". United States Geological Survey. 13 November 2016. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Elvey, Suz; Walker, Marc; Kitching, Chris. "Two deaths reported as quake recovery continues". Mirror.co.uk. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "M7.8 – 53km NNE of Amberley, New Zealand: Origin". earthquake.usgs.gov. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2016-11-13.
Jump up ^ "M 6.6 - 198km NW of Auckland Island, New Zealand". earthquake.usgs.gov. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
General
Dench, Alison (2005). Essential Dates: A Timeline of New Zealand History. Auckland: Random House. ISBN 1-86941-689-9.
Eiby, G. A. (1957); Earthquakes (London, Frederick Muller) Page 159 has Table of (16) Major Earthquakes in New Zealand 1848–1942, from R. C. Hayes.
Henderson, J (1937); The West Nelson Earthquakes of 1929, Bulletin No. 55 of Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Wellington, Government Printer)
External links[edit]
Geonet: NZ's geological hazard monitoring system
GNS Science: NZ Government research site
Simulation of a Magnitude 8.4 Megathrust Quake in New Zealand – GNS Science
[show]
v
t
e
Earthquakes in New Zealand
Pre-colonisation
1100 Alpine Fault
1460 Wellington
1600s Alpine Fault
1717 Alpine Fault
1815 New Plymouth
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1826 Fiordland
1835 Manukau
1838 Waitotara Forest
19th century
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20th century
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1968 Inangahua†
1979 Invercargill
1986 Raoul Island
1987 Edgecumbe
21st century
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2007 Gisborne
2009 Fiordland
2010 Canterbury
February 2011 Christchurch†
June 2011 Christchurch†
2013 Seddon
2014 Eketahuna
2016 Christchurch
2016 Te Araroa
2016 Kaikoura†
Related articles
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Earthquake Commission
† indicates earthquake known to have resulted in fatalities
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South Island
Alpine Fault
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Awatere Fault
Clarence Fault
Elliott Fault
Hope Fault
Hundalee Fault
Kekerengu Fault
Wairau Fault
Canterbury Fault System
Christchurch Fault
Greendale Fault
Port Hills Fault
Other
Oceanic Faults
Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone (Hikurangi Margin
Hikurangi Trench
Kermadec Trench)
Macquarie Fault
List of earthquakes in New Zealand
Pacific Plate
Indo-Australian Plate
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IndiGo
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with IndyGo.
This article is about the airline. For the colour, see Indigo. For other uses, see Indigo (disambiguation).
IndiGo
IATA
ICAO
Callsign
6E IGO IFLY
Founded
2005
Commenced operations
4 August 2006 (2006-08-04)
Operating bases
[citation needed]
Chennai International Airport (Chennai)
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport (Mumbai)
Indira Gandhi International Airport (Delhi)
Kempegowda International Airport (Bengaluru)
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport (Kolkata)
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport (Hyderabad)
Fleet size
161
Destinations
49
Parent company
Interglobe Aviation Ltd [1]
Traded as
BSE: 539448
NSE: INDIGO
Headquarters
Gurgaon, India[2]
Key people
Rakesh Gangwal, Co-Founder
Rahul Bhatia, Co-Founder and MD
Aditya Ghosh, President
Revenue
₹16,601 crore (US$2.5 billion) (FY2016-2017)[3]
Net income
₹1,989 crore (US$300 million) (FY2016-2017)[3]
Employees
12,362 (2015–16)[4]
Website
www.goindigo.in
IndiGo is a low-cost airline headquartered at Gurgaon, Haryana, India. It is the largest airline in India by passengers carried and fleet size, with a 39.9% market share as of February 2018.[5] It is also the largest individual Asian low-cost carrier in terms of jet fleet size and passengers carried, and the Seventh largest carrier in Asia with over 46 million passengers carried in 2017. The airline operates to 50 destinations both domestic and international. It has its primary hub at Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi.[6]
The airline was founded as a private company, by Rahul Bhatia of InterGlobe Enterprises; and Rakesh Gangwal, a United States-based expatriate Indian; in 2006. It took delivery of its first aircraft in July 2006 and commenced operations a month later. The airline became the largest Indian carrier in passenger market share in 2012. The company went public in November 2015.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Corporate affairs and identity
2.1 Logo and livery
3 Destinations
4 Fleet
4.1 Fleet developments
5 Services
6 Awards and achievements
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
IndiGo was founded in 2006 as a private company by Rahul Bhatia of InterGlobe Enterprises and Rakesh Gangwal, a United States-based NRI.[8] InterGlobe had a 51.12% stake in IndiGo and 47.88% was held by Gangwal's Virginia-based company Caelum Investments.[9][10] IndiGo placed a firm order for 100 Airbus A320-200 aircraft in June 2005 with plans to begin operations in mid-2006.[11] IndiGo took delivery of its first Airbus aircraft on 28 July 2006, nearly one year after placing the order.[12] It commenced operations on 4 August 2006 with a service from New Delhi to Imphal via Guwahati.[13] By the end of 2006, the airline had six aircraft and nine more aircraft were acquired in 2007.[13] In December 2010, IndiGo replaced state-run carrier Air India as the third largest airline in India, behind Kingfisher Airlines and Jet Airways with a passenger market share of 17.3%.[14]
In 2011, IndiGo placed an order for 180 Airbus A320 aircraft in a deal worth US$15 billion.[15] In January 2011, after completing five years of operations, the airline got permission to launch international flights.[16] The airline launched international services in September 2011.[17] In December 2011, the DGCA expressed reservations that the rapid expansion could impact passenger safety.[18]
In February 2012, IndiGo took delivery of its 50th aircraft, less than six years after it began operations in 2006.[19] For the quarter ending March 2012, IndiGo was the most profitable airline in India and became the second largest airline in India in terms of passenger market share.[20] On 17 August 2012, IndiGo became the largest airline in India in terms of market share surpassing Jet Airways, six years after commencing operations.[21]
In January 2013, IndiGo was the second-fastest-growing low-cost carrier in Asia behind Indonesian airline Lion Air.[22] In February 2013, following the announcement of the civil aviation ministry that it would allow IndiGo to take delivery of only five aircraft that year, the airline planned to introduce low-cost regional flights by setting up a subsidiary. Later, IndiGo announced that it planned to seek permission from the ministry to acquire four more aircraft, therefore taking delivery of nine aircraft in 2013.[23] As of March 2014, IndiGo is the second-largest low-cost carrier in Asia in terms of seats flown.[24]
In August 2015, IndiGo placed an order of 250 Airbus A320neo aircraft worth $27 billion, making it the largest single order ever in Airbus history.[25] IndiGo announced a ₹3,200 crore (US$490 million) initial public offering on 19 October 2015 which opened on 27 October 2015.[26][27]
Corporate affairs and identity[edit]
IndiGo uses as an Indigo-sky blue livery as seen on the Airbus A320 aircraft
IndiGo is headquartered in Gurgaon, India.[2]
Logo and livery[edit]
Twenty dots arranged in the shape of an aircraft serves as the logo of the airline.[28] The airline uses a two tone blue livery on a white background with the belly of the aircraft painted in Indigo with the logo in white.[29] The flight attendants wear a single-piece navy-blue tunic with a cap and a thin indigo belt designed by fashion designer Rajesh Pratap Singh and make-up artist Ambika Pillai.[30] The airline has the tagline on-time focusing on punctuality.[30]
Destinations[edit]
Main article: IndiGo destinations
As of January 2018, IndiGo operates more than 1000 daily flights to 48 destinations, 41 in India and 8 abroad.[31][32][33][34] Its main base is located at Delhi,[35] with additional bases at Bangalore,[36] Chennai,[37] Hyderabad,[38] Kolkata,[37] Mumbai,[37] Jaipur and Ahmedabad.[39] In January 2011, IndiGo received a license to operate international flights after completing five years of operations.[40] IndiGo's first international service was launched between New Delhi and Dubai on 1 September 2011.[17] International services were later expanded to serve Bangkok, Singapore, Muscat, Kathmandu, Sharjah & Doha.[17]
Fleet[edit]
IndiGo Airbus A320neo
An Airbus A320 in IndiGo colours before delivery at Toulouse
As of March 2018[update], IndiGo operates the following aircraft:[41]
IndiGo fleet
Aircraft
In Service
Orders
Passengers[42]
Notes
Airbus A320-200 124 — 180
Airbus A320neo 32 373[citation needed] 180
186
Airbus A321neo-LR — 25[41] TBA Delivery starting from 2019[43]
ATR 72-600 6[44] 45 74[45] 20 to be delivered by December 2018[46]
Total
162
443
Fleet developments[edit]
IndiGo placed an order for 100 Airbus A320-200 aircraft worth US$6 billion in June 2005 during the Paris Air Show with plans to commence operations in mid-2006.[11][47][48] The airline received its first A320 in July 2006 and planned to induct 100 aircraft by 2015–2016.[49] IndiGo signed a memorandum of understanding for an additional 180 Airbus A320 aircraft including 150 with the New Engine Option (NEO) worth US$15 billion on 11 January 2011. In 2012, the airline took delivery of its 50th aircraft[19] and the 100th aircraft was delivered on 4 November 2014, completing its initial order ahead of schedule.[50]
The Airbus A320neo family aircraft ordered in 2011 were to be delivered starting 2015.[51] However, due to a delay in the production and delivery of these aircraft, IndiGo dry-leased a total of 22 used aircraft to cope with the demand.[52] On 15 October 2014, IndiGo expressed its intention to order a further 250 A320neo aircraft worth US$25.7 billion at list prices.[53] On 15 August 2015, IndiGo confirmed the order for 250 A320neo aircraft for $26.5 billion. The order also provides IndiGo the flexibility to convert some A320neos to A321neos that can seat more passengers and fly on longer routes.[54] The order of 250 jets was Airbus' single largest order by number of aircraft.[55] IndiGo received the first A320neo in March 2016.[56][57]
In May 2017, IndiGo has tentatively signed for 50 ATR 72-600 for the UDAN regional connectivity scheme, to be delivered from the year end for up to 20 by the end of 2018.[58] IndiGo took delivery of its first ATR 72-600 on 17 December 2017.[59]
Services[edit]
Being a low-cost carrier, IndiGo offers only economy class seating. To keep fares low, IndiGo does not provide complimentary meals in any of its flights, though it does have a buy-on board in-flight meal programme.[60] No in-flight entertainment is available. Hello 6E, the in-flight magazine published by IndiGo, is available for passengers to read.[61] IndiGo offers premium services, where the passengers can avail additional benefits like a pre-assigned seat, multiple cancellations and priority check-in at a higher fare.[62] Indigo also has a In-Flight Shop in which you can buy models and other daily use items.
Awards and achievements[edit]
IndiGo has won the following awards:
Best low-cost carrier by the Airline Passengers Association of India (2007)[63]
Best low-cost carrier at the Galileo Express Travel Awards (2008)[63]
Best low cost airline by CNBC Awaaz (2009, 2013)[63]
Best low-cost carrier in C Asia/ India by SKYTRAX (2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016)[63]
Best LCC Aviation award for excellence by Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation (2015)[64]
See also[edit]
List of airlines of India
List of airports in India
List of companies of India
Transport in India
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "DGCA airline operator list". dgca.nic.in. Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Contact us, IndiGo". IndiGo. Archived from the original on 13 June 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "IndiGo profit soars 53% in fiscal 2016". The Hindu Business Line. Retrieved 4 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Rajesh Pandathil and Kishor Kadam (6 June 2017). "Air India has 5 times more debt than Jet Airways, 16 times than IndiGo: A comparison in 15 charts". Firstpost. Archived from the original on 7 June 2017. Retrieved 9 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "OPERATOR". dgca.nic.in. Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Chowdhury, Anirban (13 February 2018). "Wolfgang Prock-Schauer's latest assignment: Taking IndiGo on a long haul". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo listed on stock exchange, soars 15 per cent". The Indian Express. 10 November 2015. Archived from the original on 17 February 2018. Retrieved 17 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Owner of India's biggest airline files for IPO". CNBC. 30 June 2015. Archived from the original on 29 March 2016. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Padnis, Anees (16 November 2013). "IndiGo gives handsome payback to promoters". Business Standard. Archived from the original on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "FIPB approves proposal to convert Rakesh Gangwal's IndiGo stake to NRI category". The Economic Times. 2 October 2014. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "IndiGo Airlines to fly soon". The Economic Times. 22 June 2005. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo takes delivery of its first brand new Airbus A320 aircraft". The Hindu. 29 July 2006. Archived from the original on 29 July 2006. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Indigo's first flight to take-off on Aug 4". The Economic Times. 13 July 2006. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo pips Air India to become No. 3 airline". Indian Express. 21 December 2010. Archived from the original on 23 January 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo airline picks up 180 jets". The Economic Times. 13 January 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo gets govt nod to launch international operations". Rediff. 11 January 2011. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kumar, Vinay (14 June 2011). "IndiGo to launch international flights from Sept. 1". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 3 March 2018. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo, SpiceJet airlines violate mandatory safety norms: DGCA". India Today. 9 January 2012. Archived from the original on 11 March 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "IndiGo gets delivery of its 50th Airbus A-320 aircraft". The Economic Times. 10 February 2012. Retrieved 16 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Mishra, Mihir (21 February 2012). "A tale of two airlines: Kingfisher vs IndiGo". Business Standard. Archived from the original on 29 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo flies past Jet to become largest airline". Business Standard. 18 August 2012. Archived from the original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo among the fastest expanding airlines globally". Business Standard. 2 January 2013. Archived from the original on 4 January 2013. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo to set up regional airline to tap small towns". The Economic Times. 13 February 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2013.
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Jump up ^ "IndiGo orders 250 planes". Times of India. 18 August 2015. Archived from the original on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
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Jump up ^ "IndiGo Experience". IndiGo. Archived from the original on 4 April 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "The man behind IndiGo's amazing success". Rediff. 8 February 2011. Archived from the original on 30 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Saxton, Aditi (17 February 2011). "The IndiGo brand story". CNN. Archived from the original on 29 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Airlines to operate 14,869 flights per week in summer schedule". The Economic Times. 18 March 2016. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
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Jump up ^ "IndiGo soars above Jet Airways, Air India". Mint. 23 June 2015. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo commences Colombo operations". United News of India. 20 January 2018. Archived from the original on 28 January 2018.
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^ Jump up to: a b c "IndiGo commences seventh route to Dubai". Anna.aero. 17 December 2014. Archived from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "IndiGo starts new domestic route from Hyderabad". Anna.aero. 6 August 2014. Archived from the original on 19 September 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
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Jump up ^ "IndiGo Airlines to fly to Dubai, Bangkok, Singapore from September". The Economic Times. New Delhi. 14 June 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Airbus Orders and deliveries". Airbus. March 2018. Archived from the original on 9 April 2018.
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Jump up ^ "IndiGo Facts and Figures".
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Jump up ^ Indigo Financial Results (PDF) (Report). IndiGo. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 10 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Airbus wins $6bn order from India". BBC News. 16 June 2005. Archived from the original on 3 July 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2010.
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Jump up ^ "Airbus delays A320neo delivery for Indian airline IndiGo". Reuters. 21 December 2016. Archived from the original on 26 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
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Jump up ^ "IndiGo 6E Plus". IndiGo. Archived from the original on 26 November 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "IndiGo makes it three in a row with CNBC AWAAZ Travel Award '09". domain-b.com. 1 September 2009. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Neogi, Subhro (8 October 2015). "IndiGo named CAPA low cost carrier of the year at World Aviation Summit". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
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Threshold potential
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A. A schematic view of an idealized action potential illustrates its various phases as the action potential passes a point on a cell membrane. B. Actual recordings of action potentials are often distorted compared to the schematic view because of variations in electrophysiological techniques used to make the recording.
In neuroscience, the threshold potential is the critical level to which a membrane potential must be depolarized to initiate an action potential. Threshold potentials are necessary to regulate and propagate signaling in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Most often, the threshold potential is a membrane potential value between –50 and –55 mV,[1] but can vary based upon several factors. A neuron's resting membrane potential (–70 mV) can be altered to either increase or decrease likelihood of reaching threshold via sodium and potassium ions. An influx of sodium into the cell through open, voltage-gated sodium channels can depolarize the membrane past threshold and thus excite it while an efflux of potassium or influx of chloride can hyperpolarize the cell and thus inhibit threshold from being reached.
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Physiological function and characteristics
2.1 Resting membrane potential
2.2 Depolarization
2.3 Variations
3 Tracking techniques
3.1 "Threshold electrotonus"
4 Clinical significance
4.1 Febrile seizures
4.2 ALS and diabetes
4.3 Arrythmia
4.3.1 Use of medications
4.3.2 Role of diet
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Discovery[edit]
Initial experiments revolved around the concept that any electrical change that is brought about in neurons must occur through the action of ions. The German physical chemist Walther Nernst applied this concept in experiments to discover nervous excitability, and concluded that the local excitatory process through a semi-permeable membrane depends upon the ionic concentration. Also, ion concentration was shown to be the limiting factor in excitation. If the proper concentration of ions was attained, excitation would certainly occur.[2] This was the basis for discovering the threshold value.
Along with reconstructing the action potential in the 1950s, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley were also able to experimentally determine the mechanism behind the threshold for excitation. It is known as the Hodgkin–Huxley model. Through use of voltage clamp techniques on a squid giant axon, they discovered that excitable tissues generally exhibit the phenomenon that a certain membrane potential must be reached in order to fire an action potential. Since the experiment yielded results through the observation of ionic conductance changes, Hodgkin and Huxley used these terms to discuss the threshold potential. They initially suggested that there must be a discontinuity in the conductance of either sodium or potassium, but in reality both conductances tended to vary smoothly along with the membrane potential.[3]
They soon discovered that at threshold potential, the inward and outward currents, of sodium and potassium ions respectively, were exactly equal and opposite. As opposed to the resting membrane potential, the threshold potential's conditions exhibited a balance of currents that were unstable. Instability refers to the fact that any further depolarization activates even more voltage-gated sodium channels, and the incoming sodium depolarizing current overcomes the delayed outward current of potassium.[4] At resting level, on the other hand, the potassium and sodium currents are equal and opposite in a stable manner, where a sudden, continuous flow of ions should not result. The basis is that at a certain level of depolarization, when the currents are equal and opposite in an unstable manner, any further entry of positive charge generates an action potential. This specific value of depolarization (in mV) is otherwise known as the threshold potential.
Physiological function and characteristics[edit]
The threshold value controls whether or not the incoming stimuli are sufficient to generate an action potential. It relies on a balance of incoming inhibitory and excitatory stimuli. The potentials generated by the stimuli are additive, and they may reach threshold depending on their frequency and amplitude. Normal functioning of the central nervous system entails a summation of synaptic inputs made largely onto a neuron's dendritic tree. These local graded potentials, which are primarily associated with external stimuli, reach the axon initial segment and build until they manage to reach the threshold value.[5] The larger the stimulus, the greater the depolarization, or attempt to reach threshold. The task of depolarization requires several key steps that rely on anatomical factors of the cell. The ion conductances involved depend on the membrane potential and also the time after the membrane potential changes.[6]
Resting membrane potential[edit]
The phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane is, in itself, highly impermeable to ions. The complete structure of the cell membrane includes many proteins that are embedded in or completely cross the lipid bilayer. Some of those proteins allow for the highly specific passage of ions, ion channels. Leak potassium channels allow potassium to flow through the membrane in response to the disparity in concentrations of potassium inside (high concentration) and outside the cell (low). The loss of positive(+) charges of the potassium(K+) ions from the inside of the cell results in a negative potential there compared to the extracellular surface of the membrane.[7] A much smaller "leak" of sodium(Na+) into the cell results in the actual resting potential, about –70 mV, being less negative than the calculated potential for K+ alone, the equilibrium potential, about –90 mV.[7] The sodium-potassium ATPase is an active transporter within the membrane that pumps potassium (2 ions) back into the cell and sodium (3 ions) out of the cell, maintaining the concentrations of both ions as well as preserving the voltage polarization.
Depolarization[edit]
However, once a stimulus activates the voltage-gated sodium channels to open, positive sodium ions flood into the cell and the voltage increases. This process can also be initiated by ligand or neurotransmitter binding to a ligand-gated channel. More sodium is outside the cell relative to the inside, and the positive charge within the cell propels the outflow of potassium ions through delayed-rectifier voltage-gated potassium channels. Since the potassium channels within the cell membrane are delayed, any further entrance of sodium activates more and more voltage-gated sodium channels. Depolarization above threshold results in an increase in the conductance of Na sufficient for inward sodium movement to swamp outward potassium movement immediately.[3] If the influx of sodium ions fails to reach threshold, then sodium conductance does not increase a sufficient amount to override the resting potassium conductance. If successful, the sudden influx of positive charge depolarizes the membrane, and potassium is delayed in re-establishing, or hyperpolarizing, the cell. Sodium influx depolarizes the cell in attempt to establish its own equilibrium potential (about +52 mV) to make the inside of the cell more positive relative to the outside.
Variations[edit]
The value of threshold can vary according to numerous factors. Changes in the ion conductances of sodium or potassium can lead to either a raised or lowered value of threshold. Additionally, the diameter of the axon, density of voltage activated sodium channels, and properties of sodium channels within the axon all affect the threshold value.[8] Typically in the axon or dendrite, there are small depolarizing or hyperpolarizing signals resulting from a prior stimulus. The passive spread of these signals depend on the passive electrical properties of the cell. The signals can only continue along the neuron to cause an action potential further down if they are strong enough to make it past the cell's membrane resistance and capacitance. For example, a neuron with a large diameter has more ionic channels in its membrane than a smaller cell, resulting in a lower resistance to the flow of ionic current. The current spreads quicker in a cell with less resistance, and is more likely to reach the threshold at other portions of the neuron.[3]
The threshold potential has also been shown experimentally to adapt to slow changes in input characteristics by regulating sodium channel density as well as inactivating these sodium channels overall. Hyperpolarization by the delayed-rectifier potassium channels causes a relative refractory period that makes it much more difficult to reach threshold. The delayed-rectifier potassium channels are responsible for the late outward phase of the action potential, where they open at a different voltage stimulus compared to the quickly activated sodium channels. They rectify, or repair, the balance of ions across the membrane by opening and letting potassium flow down its concentration gradient from inside to outside the cell. They close slowly as well, resulting in an outward flow of positive charge that exceeds the balance necessary. It results in excess negativity in the cell, requiring an extremely large stimulus and resulting depolarization to cause a response.
Tracking techniques[edit]
Threshold tracking techniques test nerve excitability, and depend on the properties of axonal membranes and sites of stimulation. They are extremely sensitive to the membrane potential and changes in this potential. These tests can measure and compare a control threshold (or resting threshold) to a threshold produced by a change in the environment, by a preceding single impulse, an impulse train, or a subthreshold current.[9] Measuring changes in threshold can indicate changes in membrane potential, axonal properties, and/or the integrity of the myelin sheath.
Threshold tracking allows for the strength of a test stimulus to be adjusted by a computer in order to activate a defined fraction of the maximal nerve or muscle potential. A threshold tracking experiment consists of a 1-ms stimulus being applied to a nerve in regular intervals.[10] The action potential is recorded downstream from the triggering impulse. The stimulus is automatically decreased in steps of a set percentage until the response falls below the target (generation of an action potential). Thereafter, the stimulus is stepped up or down depending on whether the previous response was lesser or greater than the target response until a resting (or control) threshold has been established. Nerve excitability can then be changed by altering the nerve environment or applying additional currents. Since the value of a single threshold current provides little valuable information because it varies within and between subjects, pairs of threshold measurements, comparing the control threshold to thresholds produced by refractoriness, supernormality, strength-duration time constant or "threshold electrotonus" are more useful in scientific and clinical study.[11]
Tracking threshold has advantages over other electrophysiological techniques, like the constant stimulus method. This technique can track threshold changes within a dynamic range of 200% and in general give more insight into axonal properties than other tests.[12] Also, this technique allows for changes in threshold to be given a quantitative value, which when mathematically converted into a percentage, can be used to compare single fiber and multifiber preparations, different neuronal sites, and nerve excitability in different species.[12]
"Threshold electrotonus"[edit]
A specific threshold tracking technique is threshold electrotonus, which uses the threshold tracking set-up to produce long-lasting subthreshold depolarizing or hyperpolarizing currents within a membrane. Changes in cell excitability can be observed and recorded by creating these long-lasting currents. Threshold decrease is evident during extensive depolarization, and threshold increase is evident with extensive hyperpolarization. With hyperpolarization, there is an increase in the resistance of the internodal membrane due to closure of potassium channels, and the resulting plot "fans out". Depolarization produces has the opposite effect, activating potassium channels, producing a plot that "fans in".[13]
The most important factor determining threshold electrotonus is membrane potential, so threshold electrotonus can also be used as an index of membrane potential. Furthermore, it can be used to identify characteristics of significant medical conditions through comparing the effects of those conditions on threshold potential with the effects viewed experimentally. For example, ischemia and depolarization cause the same "fanning in" effect of the electrotonus waveforms. This observation leads to the conclusion that ischemia may result from over-activation of potassium channels.[14]
Clinical significance[edit]
The role of the threshold potential has been implicated in a clinical context, namely in the functioning of the nervous system itself as well as in the cardiovascular system.
Febrile seizures[edit]
A febrile seizure, or "fever fit", is a convulsion associated with a significant rise in body temperature, occurring most commonly in early childhood. Repeated episodes of childhood febrile seizures are associated with an increased risk of temporal lobe epilepsy in adulthood.[15]
With patch clamp recording, an analogous state was replicated in vitro in rat cortical neurons after induction of febrile body temperatures; a notable decrease in threshold potential was observed. The mechanism for this decrease possibly involves suppression of inhibition mediated by the GABAB receptor with excessive heat exposure.[15]
ALS and diabetes[edit]
Abnormalities in neuronal excitability have been noted in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and diabetes patients. While the mechanism ultimately responsible for the variance differs between the two conditions, tests through a response to ischemia indicate a similar resistance, ironically, to ischemia and resulting paresthesias. As ischemia occurs through inhibition of the sodium-potassium pump, abnormalities in the threshold potential are hence implicated.[12]
Arrythmia[edit]
Since the 1940s, the concept of diastolic depolarization, or "pacemaker potential", has become established; this mechanism is a characteristic distinctive of cardiac tissue.[16] When the threshold is reached and the resulting action potential fires, a heartbeat results from the interactions; however, when this heartbeat occurs at an irregular time, a potentially serious condition known as arrythmia may result.
Use of medications[edit]
A variety of drugs can present prolongation of the QT interval as a side effect. Prolongation of this interval is a result of a delay in sodium and calcium channel inactivation; without proper channel inactivation, the threshold potential is reached prematurely and thus arrhythmia tends to result.[17] These drugs, known as pro-arrhythmic agents, include antimicrobials, antipsychotics, methadone, and, ironically, antiarrhythmic agents.[18] The use of such agents is particularly frequent in intensive care units, and special care must be exercised when QT intervals are prolonged in such patients: arrhythmias as a result of prolonged QT intervals include the potentially fatal torsades de pointes, or TdP.[17]
Role of diet[edit]
Diet may be a variable in the risk of arrhythmia. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, found in fish oils, serve a role in the prevention of arrhythmias.[19] By inhibiting the voltage-dependent sodium current, these oils shift the threshold potential to a more positive value; therefore, an action potential requires increased depolarization.[19] Clinically therapeutic use of these extracts remains a subject of research, but a strong correlation is established between regular consumption of fish oil and lower frequency of hospitalization for atrial fibrillation, a severe and increasingly common arrythmia.[20]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Seifter 2005, p. 55.
Jump up ^ Rushton 1927, p. 358.
^ Jump up to: a b c Nicholls 2012, p. 121.
Jump up ^ Nicholls 2012, p. 122.
Jump up ^ Stuart 1997, p. 127.
Jump up ^ Trautwein 1963, p. 330.
^ Jump up to: a b Nicholls 2012, p. 144.
Jump up ^ Trautwein 1963, p. 281.
Jump up ^ Bostock 1997, p. 137.
Jump up ^ Bostock 1997, p. 138.
Jump up ^ Burke 2001, p. 1576.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bostock 1997, p. 141.
Jump up ^ Burke 2001, p. 1581.
Jump up ^ Bostock 1997, p. 150.
^ Jump up to: a b Wang 2011, p. 87.
Jump up ^ Monfredi 2010, p. 1392.
^ Jump up to: a b Nelson 2011, p. 292.
Jump up ^ Nelson 2011, p. 291.
^ Jump up to: a b Savelieva 2010, p. 213.
Jump up ^ Savelieva 2010, pp. 213–215.
References[edit]
Bostock, Hugh; Cikurel, Katia; Burke, David (1998). "Threshold tracking techniques in the study of human peripheral nerve". Muscle & Nerve. 21: 137–158. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(199802)21:2<137::AID-MUS1>3.0.CO;2-C.
Burke, D; Kiernan, Matthew C; Bostock, Hugh (2001). "Excitability of human axons". Clinical Neuropysiology. 112 (9): 1575–1585. doi:10.1016/S1388-2457(01)00595-8.
Monfredi, O; Dobrzyński, H; Mondal, T; Boyett, MR; Morris, GM (2010). "The Anatomy and Physiology of the Sinoatrial Node—A Contemporary Review". Pacing and Clinical Electrophysiology. 33 (11): 1392–1406. doi:10.1111/j.1540-8159.2010.02838.x. PMID 20946278.
Nelson, S; Leung, J (2011). "QTc Prolongation in the Intensive Care Unit: A Review of Offending Agents". AACN Advanced Critical Care. 22 (4): 289–295. doi:10.1097/NCI.0b013e31822db49d. PMID 22064575.
Nicholls, J. G.; Martin, A. R.; Fuchs, P. A.; Brown, D. A.; Diamond, M. E.; Weisblat, D. A. (2012). From Neuron to Brain (5th ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
Rushton, W. A. H. (1927). "The effect upon the threshold for nervous excitation of the length of nerve exposed, and the angle between current and nerve". The Journal of Physiology. 63 (4): 357–377. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1927.sp002409. PMC 1514939  . PMID 16993895.
Savelieva, I; Kourliouros, Antonios; Camm, John (2010). "Primary and secondary prevention of atrial fibrillation with statins and polyunsaturated fatty acids: review of evidence and clinical relevance". Naunyn-Schmied Arch Pharmacol. 381 (3): 207–219. doi:10.1007/s00210-009-0468-y.
Seifter, Julian; Ratner, Austin; Sloane, David (2005). Concepts in Medical Physiology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 078174489X.
Stuart, G; Spruston, N; Sakmann, B; Häusser, M (1997). "Action potential initiation and backpropagation in neurons of the mammalian CNS" (PDF). Trends in Neurosciences. 20 (3): 125–131. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(96)10075-8. PMID 9061867.
Trautwein, W (1963). "Generation and conduction of impulses in the heart as affected by drugs". Pharmalogical Reviews. 15 (2): 277–332.
Wang, Y; Qin, J; Han, Y; Cai, J; Xing, G (2011). "Hyperthermia induces epileptiform discharges in cultured rat cortical neurons". Brain Research. 1417: 87–102. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2011.08.027. PMID 21907327.
External links[edit]
Physiology: 1/1ch4/s1ch4_8 - Essentials of Human Physiology
Description at cameron.edu
Diagram at nih.gov
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Threshold_potential&oldid=827545660"
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