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Climate of Florida
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Köppen climate classification types of Florida
The climate of the north and central parts of the US state of Florida is humid subtropical. South Florida has a tropical climate.[1] There is a defined rainy season from May through October, when air mass thundershowers that build in the heat of the day drop heavy but brief summer rainfall. Late summer and early fall bring decaying tropical lows (and occasionally landfalling tropical cyclones) that contribute to late summer and early fall rains.
In October the dry season sets in across much of Florida (starting early in the month in northern Florida and near the end of the month in deep southern Florida) and lasts until late April in most years. Fronts from mid-latitude storms north of Florida occasionally pass through northern and central parts of the state which bring light and brief winter rainfall. Mid and late winter can become severely dry in Florida. In some years the dry season becomes quite severe and water restrictions are imposed to conserve water[citation needed]. While most areas of Florida do not experience any type of frozen precipitation, northern Florida can see fleeting snow or sleet a few times each decade.
The Gulf Stream running through the Florida Straits and then north off the Florida East Coast keeps temperatures moderate a few miles inland from around Stuart on the east coast to Ft. Myers on the west side of the state year round, with few extremes in temperature. The tropical ocean current also provides warm sea surface temperatures, giving Florida beaches the warmest ocean surf waters on the United States mainland.
Contents
[hide]
1 Pressure
2 Wind
2.1 African dust outbreaks
2.2 Winter
2.3 Summer
3 Fog
4 Precipitation
4.1 Averages
4.2 Extremes
4.3 Snowfall
5 Thunderstorms
5.1 Tornadoes
6 Tropical cyclones
7 Effect of climate cycles
8 Climates of selected Florida cities
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Pressure[edit]
The low pressure measured from an extratropical cyclone was 28.84 inches/976.7 hPa during the Storm of the Century (1993).[2] From a tropical cyclone, the lowest pressure measured was 26.35 inches/892 hPa in the Florida Keys during the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935.[3] The highest known pressure measured statewide was 30.74 inches/1041.1 hPa in Tallahassee on February 5, 1996 and January 4, 1979.[2]
Wind[edit]
Over the winter prevailing winds are out of the north across the panhandle south to near Orlando, but are variable in the rest of the state. The summer season sees generally east and southeast winds across the peninsula. During the summer months, the average wind pattern implies a surface ridge axis which normally lies across central Florida, with easterly winds from Tampa southward and southwest winds across northern Florida. The peak wind gust during the 1930 through 1997 period was 115 mph (100 knots) at Miami International Airport during Hurricane Andrew.[4]
African dust outbreaks[edit]
In July the trade winds south of the northward-moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward into Florida. On occasion, dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge moves into the state, suppressing rainfall and changing the sky from a blue to a white appearance and leads to an increase in red sunsets. Its presence negatively impacts air quality across the Southeastern United States during the summer, by adding to the count of airborne particulates. This is in sharp contrast to the normally clean air over Florida and the southeastern USA, which on average is the cleanest air in the USA.[5] Over 50% of the African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida.[6] Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year.[7] Dust events are possibly linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[8]
Winter[edit]
Fall foliage in North Central Florida.
On average, Florida has the mildest winters in the Continental United States. Average lows range from 65 °F (18 °C) in Key West to near 41 °F (5 °C) degrees Fahrenheit at Tallahassee, while daytime highs range from 64 °F (18 °C) at Tallahassee to 77 °F (25 °C) at Miami.[9][10] Predominant tropical easterly winds across central and southern Florida keep temperatures warm during the winter. Occasional strong cold fronts move southward down the peninsula with freezing or near freezing temperatures on a few nights into inland areas of central Florida every few years. A few times each decade Miami might see a winter night fall below 45 F. El Niño winters tend to be cooler due to increased cloud cover, but tend to have fewer freezes.[11]
Four hardiness zones exist. USDA zone 11b is found in Key West and the Florida Keys where average extreme lows range from 40 to 50 °F (4 to 10 °C). Zone 10 is found in coastal South Florida where annual extreme low temperatures range from 30 to 40 °F (−1 to 4 °C), though parts of coastal Miami Beach are zone 11. Next is zone 9b across interior central Florida, where low temperatures range from 25 to 30 °F (−4 to −1 °C). The coolest, zone 8, is located in northernwestern Florida from roughly Gainesville and northwest including Tallahassee. Low temperatures range from 10 to 20 °F (−12 to −7 °C).[12]
Florida has experienced 12 major freezes. This includes four "impact" freezes, sufficiently severe to kill entire groves of citrus trees, resulting in a noticeable economic effect on citrus growers, prompting them to t groves further south in the state. These impact freezes are indicated by asterisks in the following: Great Freeze of 1894-5*, February 13–14, 1899, February 2–6, 1917, December 12–13, 1934, January 1940, December 12–13, 1957, December 12–13, 1962*, January 18–20, 1977, January 12–14, 1981, December 24–25, 1983*, January 20–22, 1985, and December 22–26, 1989*.[13]
Summer[edit]
See also: Wet season
Typical summer afternoon shower from the Everglades travelling eastward over Downtown Miami.
During the summer, minimal range from near 70 °F (21 °C) in northern Florida to near 80 °F (27 °C) in the Keys. High temperatures during the summer average in the lower 90s Fahrenheit statewide.[14] Relief from the heat during the summer comes in the form of afternoon and evening thunderstorm activity, late morning and afternoon sea breezes off the relatively cooler ocean, and during the passage of a tropical cyclone. The passage of a cold front through the state is rare during the warm season. The record high temperature for the state is 109 °F (43 °C) at Monticello in 1931.[15]
Fog[edit]
Like the remainder of the Southeastern United States, Florida has a winter maximum in dense fog conditions. Unlike the remainder of the region, the maximum in Florida contains roughly half of the annual occurrences per year, on average. Its summer minimum is less than the remainder of the Southeast. The annual number of heavy fog days (with visibility of .25 miles (0.40 km) or less) has ranged from 50 in Tallahassee, to 1 in Key West, the least foggy region in the state. The two types of fog that are most common in Florida are advection and radiational. Fog can be hazardous to early morning commuters. On January 9, 2008, when fog on Interstate 4 combined with smoke from a nearby fire, visibility was reduced to nearly zero. As a result, five individuals died in a 70-car pileup.[16][17]
Precipitation[edit]
Average Rainfall for Florida
Averages[edit]
See also: Dry season and Wet season
Statewide, the highest rainfall amounts occur during the summer months. In northern Florida, there is a weak winter secondary maximum while statewide the driest months of the year are during the spring.[14] During El Niño, Florida sees greater rainfall between November and March.[11] Due to the lack of the secondary maximum across the peninsula, a distinct dry season is seen in the averages from winter through spring. This dry season provokes brush fires annually as temperatures rise during the late spring, before they fade during early June as the rainy season gets underway.
Extremes[edit]
Hurricane Easy's Rainfall across the Southeastern United States
The heaviest rainfall to occur in 24 hours was measured in Yankeetown during Hurricane Easy (1950), 38.70 inches (98.3 cm). This is also the highest known point storm total maximum related to any tropical cyclone which has impacted Florida,[18] and by itself would be the highest known rainfall total for any month from any location within Florida. This rainfall amount remained the national 24-hour rainfall record until Tropical Storm Claudette (1979).[19] Heavy rainfall events have fallen due to stalled fronts near the state as well, and occur during the March through May and October through November timeframe.
The wettest month recorded at a Florida climate station was during May 1891 when Gainesville, Florida received 30.90 inches (78.5 cm).[20] The wettest year on record for a Florida climate station was during 1879 when 127.24 inches (323.2 cm) fell at Pensacola, Florida.[21] The driest year for a climate station statewide was during 1974 when only 19.99 inches (50.8 cm) fell at Key West.[22]
One of the worst years for wildfires was in 1998, at the end of an El Nino cycle. 480 wildfires consumed 500,000 acres (2,000 km2) statewide.[23] In 2010, the National Weather Service issued more fire alerts in Florida than anywhere else in the nation.[24]
A statewide drought began in November 2005, one month after Hurricane Wilma's passage through the state, and persisted until 2009.[25] The previous significant drought occurred in 2000, which was the state's driest year on record.[26]
Snowfall[edit]
Main article: Snow in Florida
Snow in Jacksonville on December 23, 1989
Snowfall is rare in Florida. The earliest recorded occurrence of snow or sleet occurred in 1774 in the far northern portion of the state.[27] The latest occurrence of snow or sleet in the spring fell on January 7, 8 and 9, 2010, as a cold front brought scattered snow flurries in the northern and central portions of the state.[28]
The state record for snowfall is 5 inches (13 cm), set in northern Florida during January 1800, though some debate exists about the accuracy.[29] The earliest in the season that frozen precipitation has fallen was during the Late November 2006 Nor'easter on November 21 across central Florida.[30] The latest in the season that snow or sleet has fallen was on April 8, 2007. Snow flurries has been recorded in the air as far south as Homestead, during a January 19, 1977 event.[31]
Thunderstorms[edit]
Florida reports more thunderstorms than any other US state. Some places report in excess of 90 thunderstorm days per year, making Florida one of the most thundery regions outside of the tropics. Florida receives the highest density of lightning strikes within the United States. Several deaths per year are blamed on lightning, making lightning one of the deadliest weather-related phenomenon in the state. However, since 1992, the number of lightning deaths has been slowly dropping despite a rising population, suggesting that lightning awareness programs are effective. The most likely targets of lightning strikes are construction workers and others who work outside, though 12 percent of the cases occurred indoors to people using electronic devices. Severe thunderstorms can sometimes produce hail, very strong straight line winds and tornadoes. Very heavy rainfall from thunderstorms can result in flash flooding. Thunderstorms occur most often during the summer but can occur at any time of the year.[32]
Tornadoes[edit]
There are more tornadoes per square mile in Florida than any other state.[33][34] However, these tornadoes tend to be much weaker and short-lived than in other states like the Midwest or Great Plains. Strong tornadoes do occasionally form in Florida, usually in conjunctions with a cold frontal passage in the winter or spring. A total of 42 people died in February 1998 from the deadliest such tornado outbreak in Central Florida, which occurred during the nighttime hours.[35]
While tornadoes in the Midwest are more severe, a higher rate of deaths are experienced in Florida, and Brevard County, specifically, due to higher population density and quantity of manufactured homes.[36]
Tropical cyclones[edit]
Hurricane Wilma (2005)
Main article: List of Florida hurricanes
The earliest in the year a tropical cyclone has struck the sunshine state was the Groundhog Day Tropical Storm in 1952. The latest impact was from a hurricane which struck near Tampa on December 1, 1925. The strongest hurricane to strike Florida was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935. Hurricane Easy in 1950 produced the wettest known point total from any tropical cyclone.[18] The record number of hurricane strikes on the state in one season is four in 2004.[37] Hurricanes typically spawn tornadoes within their northeast quadrant.[38]
Tropical cyclones have affected Florida in every month of the year but March. Nearly one-third of the cyclones affected the state in September, and nearly three-fourths of the storms affected the state between August and October, which coincides with the peak of the hurricane season. Portions of the coastline have the lowest return period, or the frequency at which a certain intensity or category of hurricane can be expected within 86 mi (139 km) of a given location, in the country. Monroe County was struck by 26 hurricanes since 1926, which is the greatest total for any county in the United States.[39]
Effect of climate cycles[edit]
El Niño has the following effects on Florida climate: above average rainfall in the spring.[23] This is followed by wildfire threat when rain dries up. Northern Florida is more susceptible to severe weather; below normal temperatures, increased number of low pressure systems in the Gulf of Mexico during the winter, and "almost always" reduces the frequency of storms and hurricanes.[40]
La Niña has the following effects: often dry conditions prevail in late fall, winter and early spring, increased risk of wildfires in spring and summer months, the temperatures average slightly above normal, and the chance of hurricane activity increases substantially.[40]
Long term forecasts are made based on these effects. However, they are easily overridden, in winter, by the Arctic oscillation and North Atlantic oscillations, which can only be predicted about two weeks in advance.[41] These can drop the temperature noticeably from seasonal norms.
Climates of selected Florida cities[edit]
The climate regime for much of the state is humid subtropical (Köppen Cfa), though portions of the Gold Coast of southeast Florida, as well as all of the Florida Keys, qualify as tropical wet-and-dry (Köppen Aw).
A narrow eastern part of the state including Orlando and Jacksonville receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually. The rest of the state, including Miami, receives between 2,800 and 3,200 hours annually.[42]
[hide]Climate data for Pensacola, Florida
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °F (°C)
61.2
(16.2) 64.4
(18) 70.2
(21.2) 76.2
(24.6) 83.4
(28.6) 89.0
(31.7) 90.7
(32.6) 90.1
(32.3) 87.0
(30.6) 79.3
(26.3) 70.3
(21.3) 63.4
(17.4) 77.1
(25.1)
Average low °F (°C)
42.7
(5.9) 45.4
(7.4) 51.7
(10.9) 57.6
(14.2) 65.8
(18.8) 72.1
(22.3) 74.5
(23.6) 74.2
(23.4) 70.4
(21.3) 59.6
(15.3) 51.1
(10.6) 44.7
(7.1) 59.2
(15.1)
Average rainfall inches (mm)
5.34
(135.6) 4.68
(118.9) 6.40
(162.6) 3.89
(98.8) 4.40
(111.8) 6.39
(162.3) 8.02
(203.7) 6.85
(174) 5.75
(146) 4.13
(104.9) 4.46
(113.3) 3.97
(100.8) 64.28
(1,632.7)
Source: NOAA
[43]
[hide]Climate data for Tallahassee, Florida
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °F (°C)
63.9
(17.7) 66.9
(19.4) 73.3
(22.9) 80.0
(26.7) 86.6
(30.3) 90.6
(32.6) 91.5
(33.1) 91.1
(32.8) 88.2
(31.2) 81.0
(27.2) 72.3
(22.4) 65.5
(18.6) 79.2
(26.2)
Average low °F (°C)
39.8
(4.3) 41.8
(5.4) 47.4
(8.6) 53.2
(11.8) 61.9
(16.6) 69.2
(20.7) 71.7
(22.1) 71.8
(22.1) 68.5
(20.3) 57.1
(13.9) 46.8
(8.2) 41.2
(5.1) 55.9
(13.3)
Average rainfall inches (mm)
4.37
(111) 4.86
(123.4) 5.72
(145.3) 3.74
(95) 4.27
(108.5) 7.11
(180.6) 8.27
(210.1) 7.33
(186.2) 5.43
(137.9) 3.17
(80.5) 3.34
(84.8) 4.18
(106.2) 61.79
(1,569.5)
Source: Florida Climate Center
[44]
[hide]Climate data for Jacksonville, Florida
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °F (°C)
65.1
(18.4) 67.8
(19.9) 73.6
(23.1) 79.7
(26.5) 85.8
(29.9) 89.8
(32.1) 91.9
(33.3) 90.8
(32.7) 87.1
(30.6) 80.3
(26.8) 73.0
(22.8) 66.5
(19.2) 79.3
(26.3)
Average low °F (°C)
42.5
(5.8) 44.9
(7.2) 50.2
(10.1) 55.9
(13.3) 63.7
(17.6) 70.2
(21.2) 72.8
(22.7) 72.7
(22.6) 70.1
(21.2) 60.8
(16) 50.7
(10.4) 44.0
(6.7) 58.2
(14.6)
Average rainfall inches (mm)
3.03
(77) 3.42
(86.9) 3.72
(94.5) 2.82
(71.6) 3.40
(86.4) 5.99
(152.1) 6.57
(166.9) 7.23
(183.6) 7.83
(198.9) 3.92
(99.6) 1.90
(48.3) 2.61
(66.3) 62.44
(1,586)
Source: Florida Climate Center
[45]
[hide]Climate data for Orlando, Florida
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °F (°C)
71.8
(22.1) 73.9
(23.3) 78.8
(26) 83.0
(28.3) 88.2
(31.2) 91.0
(32.8) 92.2
(33.4) 92.0
(33.3) 90.3
(32.4) 85.0
(29.4) 78.9
(26.1) 73.3
(22.9) 83.2
(28.4)
Average low °F (°C)
49.9
(9.9) 51.3
(10.7) 55.9
(13.3) 59.9
(15.5) 65.9
(18.8) 71.3
(21.8) 72.6
(22.6) 73.0
(22.8) 71.9
(22.2) 65.5
(18.6) 58.7
(14.8) 52.6
(11.4) 62.4
(16.9)
Average rainfall inches (mm)
2.43
(61.7) 2.35
(59.7) 3.54
(89.9) 2.42
(61.5) 3.74
(95) 7.35
(186.7) 7.15
(181.6) 6.25
(158.8) 5.76
(146.3) 2.73
(69.3) 2.32
(58.9) 2.31
(58.7) 48.35
(1,228.1)
Source: Florida Climate Center
[46]
[hide]Climate data for Tampa, Florida
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °F (°C)
70.1
(21.2) 71.6
(22) 76.3
(24.6) 80.6
(27) 86.3
(30.2) 88.9
(31.6) 89.7
(32.1) 90.0
(32.2) 89.0
(31.7) 84.1
(28.9) 78.0
(25.6) 72.0
(22.2) 81.4
(27.4)
Average low °F (°C)
52.4
(11.3) 53.8
(12.1) 58.5
(14.7) 62.4
(16.9) 68.9
(20.5) 74.0
(23.3) 75.3
(24.1) 75.4
(24.1) 74.3
(23.5) 67.6
(19.8) 60.7
(15.9) 54.7
(12.6) 64.8
(18.2)
Average rainfall inches (mm)
2.27
(57.7) 2.67
(67.8) 2.84
(72.1) 1.80
(45.7) 2.85
(72.4) 5.50
(139.7) 6.49
(164.8) 7.60
(193) 6.54
(166.1) 2.29
(58.2) 1.62
(41.1) 2.30
(58.4) 44.77
(1,137.2)
Source: Florida Climate Center
[47]
[hide]Climate data for Miami, Florida
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °F (°C)
75.7
(24.3) 77.0
(25) 79.7
(26.5) 82.7
(28.2) 85.9
(29.9) 88.3
(31.3) 89.6
(32) 89.9
(32.2) 88.4
(31.3) 85.1
(29.5) 80.6
(27) 76.9
(24.9) 83.3
(28.5)
Average low °F (°C)
59.6
(15.3) 60.9
(16.1) 64.3
(17.9) 68.1
(20.1) 72.2
(22.3) 75.1
(23.9) 76.5
(24.7) 76.8
(24.9) 75.9
(24.4) 72.4
(22.4) 67.7
(19.8) 61.8
(16.6) 69.2
(20.7)
Average rainfall inches (mm)
1.80
(45.7) 2.12
(53.8) 2.49
(63.2) 3.20
(81.3) 5.91
(150.1) 9.33
(237) 6.24
(158.5) 7.97
(202.4) 9.11
(231.4) 6.95
(176.5) 2.92
(74.2) 1.95
(49.5) 59.97
(1,523.2)
Source: Florida Climate Center
[48]
[hide]Climate data for Key West, Florida
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average high °F (°C)
74.7
(23.7) 75.7
(24.3) 78.7
(25.9) 81.7
(27.6) 85.2
(29.6) 88.0
(31.1) 89.4
(31.9) 89.6
(32) 88.2
(31.2) 84.7
(29.3) 80.0
(26.7) 76.1
(24.5) 82.7
(28.2)
Average low °F (°C)
64.7
(18.2) 65.6
(18.7) 68.7
(20.4) 72.0
(22.2) 75.7
(24.3) 78.4
(25.8) 79.6
(26.4) 79.4
(26.3) 78.4
(25.8) 75.7
(24.3) 71.2
(21.8) 66.6
(19.2) 73.0
(22.8)
Average rainfall inches (mm)
1.96
(49.8) 1.60
(40.6) 1.66
(42.2) 1.82
(46.2) 3.07
(78) 4.61
(117.1) 3.69
(93.7) 5.30
(134.6) 6.55
(166.4) 5.02
(127.5) 2.49
(63.2) 2.04
(51.8) 39.83
(1,011.7)
Source: Florida Climate Center
[49]
See also[edit]
Climate
Climatology
List of wettest known tropical cyclones in Florida
Climate of Miami
Climate of the Tampa Bay Area
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Science Daily. African Dust Called A Major Factor Affecting Southeast U.S. Air Quality. Retrieved on June 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Science Daily. Microbes And The Dust They Ride In On Pose Potential Health Risks. Retrieved on June 10, 2007.
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Jump up ^ U. S. Geological Survey. Coral Mortality and African Dust. Retrieved on June 10, 2007.
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Jump up ^ Southeast Regional Climate Center. Key West WSO AP Averages from 1948-2005. Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on June 2, 2007.
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Jump up ^ Kridler, Chris (March 5, 2011). "Freeze frazzled? Seek hardier plants". Florida Today. Melbourne, Florida. pp. 1D.
Jump up ^ "Timeline of major Florida freezes". Florida Today. Melbourne, Florida. January 15, 2017. pp. 14A. Retrieved January 15, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Southeast Regional Climate Center. Historical Climate Summaries for Florida. Retrieved on June 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center. "State Climate Extremes Committee (SCsEC)". Retrieved 2015-02-14.
Jump up ^ Gloria Forthun, M. B. Johnson, W. G. Schmitz, and J. Blume.Trends in Fog Frequency and Duration in the Southeast United States. Retrieved on June 7, 2007.
Jump up ^ Michael Mogil and Kristen L. Seaman. Florida's Climate and Weather. Retrieved on 2012-16-03.
^ Jump up to: a b David Roth. Tropical Cyclone Point Maxima. Retrieved on June 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ David Roth. Hurricane Easy (1950) Rainfall Graphic. Retrieved on June 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ Florida Climate Center. Gainesville Precipitation Data. Retrieved on June 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ Florida Climate Center. Pensacola Precipitation Data. Retrieved on June 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ Florida Climate Center. Key West Precipitation Data. Retrieved on June 2, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Waymer, Jim (March 11, 2010). "Casualties of cold enhance fire fear". Melbourne, Florida: Florida Today. pp. 3A. Archived from the original on March 14, 2010.
Jump up ^ Knapp, Andrew (February 28, 2011). "Wildfire alerts get stricted". Florida Today. Melbourne, Florida. pp. 1A.
Jump up ^ Travis Reed.Drought Saps Fla. Growers, Golf Courses Retrieved on June 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ NOAA. SEVERE DROUGHT CONDITIONS/FIRE DANGER LIKELY TO PERSIST THROUGHOUT CENTRAL FLORIDA. Retrieved on June 2, 2007.
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Jump up ^ [1] Archived January 11, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
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Jump up ^ Local6.com. Snow Falls In Central Florida. Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on November 26, 2006.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service Forecast Office Tallahassee, Florida. Florida's Top 10 Weather Events of the 20th Century. Retrieved on June 3, 2007. Archived October 14, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Charles H. Paxton, J. Colson and N. Carlisle (2008). "P2.13 Florida lightning deaths and injuries 2004-2007". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved September 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Top Ten Tornado Lists", tornadoproject.com, archived from the original on February 4, 2012
Jump up ^ Average Annual Number of Tornadoes, 1991-2010. Downloaded Sunday, 4 August 2013 18:25:05 EDT. Last Updated Monday, 20 May 2013 10:45:01 EDT. From National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Jump up ^ United States Department of Commerce (June 1998). "Service Assessment: Central Florida Tornado Outbreak February 22–23, 1998" (PDF). National Weather Service. Retrieved September 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Study: Florida #1 In Tornadoes and Deaths". Brevard Times. Cocoa Beach, Florida. June 16, 2014. Archived from the original on March 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ National Hurricane Center. Atlantic Tracks File 1851-2006. Retrieved on June 2, 2007.[dead link]
Jump up ^ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division (October 4, 2006). "Frequently Asked Questions: Are TC tornadoes weaker than midlatitude tornadoes?". NOAA. Archived from the original on September 14, 2009. Retrieved July 25, 2006.
Jump up ^ National Hurricane Center (2006). "Tropical Cyclone Climatology". Retrieved October 2, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Florida Disaster Management accessed March 9, 2008 Archived December 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Rice, Doyle (December 28, 2010). "Winter "wild card" in play". Melbourne, Florida: Florida Today. pp. 4A.
Jump up ^ "united states annual sunshine map". HowStuffWorks, Inc. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved March 14, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Pensacola Climate Normals". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Jump up ^ "Tallahassee Climate Normals". Florida Climate Center.
Jump up ^ "Jacksonville Climate Normals". Florida Climate Center.
Jump up ^ "Orlando Climate Normals". Florida Climate Center. Archived from the original on June 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Tampa Climate Normals". Florida Climate Center. Archived from the original on June 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Miami Climate Normals". Florida Climate Center.
Jump up ^ "Key West Climate Normals". Florida Climate Center.
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Net profit
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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It has been suggested that Net income be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since January 2018.
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Net profit, also referred to as the bottom line, net income, or net earnings is a measure of the profitability of a venture after accounting for all costs and taxes. It is the actual profit, and includes the operating expenses that are excluded from gross profit.
A common synonym for net profit when discussing financial statements (which include a balance sheet and an income statement) is the bottom line. This term results from the traditional appearance of an income statement which shows all allocated revenues and expenses over a specified time period with the resulting summation on the bottom line of the report.
In simplistic terms, net profit is the money left over after paying all the expenses of an endeavor. In practice this can get very complex in large organizations or endeavors. The bookkeeper or accountant must itemise and allocate revenues and expenses properly to the specific working scope and context in which the term is applied.
Definitions of the term can, however, vary between the UK and US. In the US, net profit is often associated with net income or profit after tax (see table below).
The net profit margin percentage is a related ratio. This figure is calculated by dividing net profit by revenue or turnover, and it represents profitability, as a percentage.
Contents
[hide]
1 Purpose
2 Construction
2.1 Example
3 Accounting terms
4 See also
5 References
Purpose[edit]
"How does a company decide whether it is successful or not? Probably the most common way is to look at the net profits of the business. Given that companies are collections of projects and markets, individual areas can be judged on how successful they are at adding to the corporate net profit."[1]
Construction[edit]
Net profit: To calculate net profit for a venture (such as a company, division, or project), subtract all costs, including a fair share of total corporate overheads, from the gross revenues or turnover.
Net profit = sales revenue − total costs
Net profit is a measure of the fundamental profitability of the venture. "It is the revenues of the activity less the costs of the activity. The main complication is . . . when needs to be allocated" across ventures. "Almost by definition, overheads are costs that cannot be directly tied to any specific" project, product, or division. "The classic example would be the cost of headquarters staff." "Although it is theoretically possible to calculate profits for any sub-(venture), such as a product or region, often the calculations are rendered suspect by the need to allocate overhead costs." Because overhead costs generally don’t come in neat packages, their allocation across ventures is not an exact science.[1]
Example[edit]
Here is how you reach net profit on a P&L (Profit & Loss) account:
Sales revenue = price (of product) × quantity sold
Gross profit = sales revenue − cost of sales and other direct costs
Operating profit = gross profit − overheads and other indirect costs
EBIT (earnings before interest and taxes) = operating profit + non-operating income
Pretax profit (EBT, earnings before taxes) = operating profit − one off items and redundancy payments, staff restructuring − interest payable
Net profit = Pre-tax profit − tax
Retained earnings = Profit after tax − dividends
Accounting terms[edit]
Net sales = gross sales – (customer discounts, returns, and allowances)
Gross profit = net sales – cost of goods sold
Operating profit = gross profit – total operating expenses
Net profit = operating profit – taxes – interest
Net profit = net sales – cost of goods sold – operating expense – taxes – interest
See also[edit]
EBITDA (earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization)
Net income
Non-profit organization
Revenue
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Farris, Paul W.; Neil T. Bendle; Phillip E. Pfeifer; David J. Reibstein (2010). Marketing Metrics: The Definitive Guide to Measuring Marketing Performance. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN 0137058292. Content from this book used in this article has been licensed for modification and reuse under the Creative Commons Attribute Share Alike 3.0 and Gnu Free Documentation licenses. See talk. The Marketing Accountability Standards Board (MASB) endorses the definitions, purposes, and constructs of classes of measures that appear in Marketing Metrics as part of its ongoing Common Language in Marketing Project.
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Dresden Codex
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Dresden Codex, pages 10 and 11
The Dresden Codex is the oldest surviving book from the Americas, dating to the thirteenth or fourteenth century. The codex was rediscovered in the city of Dresden and is how the Maya book received its present name. It is located in the museum of the Saxon State Library in Dresden, Germany.
The book received serious water damage during World War II. The pages are 8 inches (20 cm) high and can be folded accordion-style; when unfolded the codex is 12 feet (3.7 m) long. It has Mayan hieroglyphs and refers to an original text of some three or four hundred years earlier, describing local history and astronomical tables.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 History
3 Image
4 Deterioration and pagination
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 Further reading
9 External links
Description[edit]
The Dresden Codex contains 78 pages with decorative board covers on the front and back.[1] Most pages have writing on both sides.[1] They have a border of red paint,[2] although many have lost this framing due to age deterioration. The pages are generally divided into three sections; students of the codex have arbitrary labeled these sections a , b , and c .[2] Some pages have just two horizontal sections, while one has four and another five sections.[2] The individual sections with their own theme are generally separated by a red vertical line. Sections are generally divided into two to four columns.[2]
The Dresden Codex is one of four hieroglyphic Maya codices that survived the Spanish Inquisition in the New World.[3] Three, the Dresden, Madrid, and Paris codices, are named after the city where they were ultimately rediscovered.[3][4] The fourth is the Grolier Codex, located at the Grolier Club in New York City.[5] The Dresden Codex is held by the Saxon State and University Library Dresden (SLUB Dresden, Saxon State Library) in Dresden, Germany.[6][7] The Maya codices all have about the same size pages, with a height of about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) and a width of 10 centimetres (3.9 in).[4]
The pictures and glyphs were painted by skilled craftsmen using thin brushes and vegetable dyes.[8] Black and red were the main colors used for many of the pages.[9] Some pages have detailed backgrounds in shades of yellow, green, and the Mayan blue.[10] The codex was written by eight different scribes, who all had their own writing style, glyph designs, and subject matter.[11]
History[edit]
Six pages (55–59, 74) on eclipses (left), multiplication tables, and a flood (far right)
The Dresden Codex is described by historian J. Eric S. Thompson as writings of the indigenous people of the Yucatán Peninsula in southeastern Mexico. Maya historians Peter J. Schmidt, Mercedes de la Garza, and Enrique Nalda confirm this.[12] Thompson further narrows the probable origin of the Dresden Codex to the area of Chichen Itza, because certain picture symbols in the codex are only found on monuments in that location. He also argues that the astronomical tables would support this as the place of origin. Thompson claims that the people of the Yucatán Peninsula were known to have done such studies around 1200 A.D. Thompson also notes the similar ceramic designs in the Chichen Itza area which are known to have ceased in the early thirteenth century.[13] British historian Clive Ruggles suggests, based on the analyses of several scholars, that the Dresden Codex is a copy and was originally written between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries.[14] Thompson narrows the date closer to 1200 to 1250.[15] Maya archaeologist Linton Satterthwaite puts the date when it was made as no later than 1345.[16] It is the oldest surviving book from the Americas.[1][17]
Johann Christian Götze (1692–1749), German theologian and director of the Royal Library at Dresden, purchased the codex from a private owner in Vienna in 1739 while traveling to Italy.[7][13][18] Thompson speculates that the codex was sent as a tribute to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor by Hernán Cortés, governor of Mexico, since examples of local writings and other Maya items were sent to the king in 1519 when he was living in Vienna.[7][19]
First publication in 1811 by Humboldt, who repainted five pages for his atlas
Alexander von Humboldt published pages 47–52 from the Dresden Codex in his 1811 atlas Vues des Cordillères et Monuments des Peuples Indigènes de l'Amérique, the first reproduction of any of its pages. The first copy of the codex was published by Lord Kingsborough in his 1831 Antiquities of Mexico. In 1828 Constantine Samuel Rafinesque had identified this book as being of Maya origin based on its glyphs looking like those found at Palenque.[19][20] Historian Cyrus Thomas made a connection between the codex and the 260 year cycle ("Ahau Katun") of the Maya calendar and the 365 days in a year.[20][21][22][23][24] Ruggles shows that in the codex the Maya related their 260-day calendar to celestial bodies, especially Venus and Mars.[25]
The codex has played a key role in the deciphering of Mayan hieroglyphs.[26] Dresden librarian Ernst Wilhelm Förstemann published the first complete facsimile in 1880.[27] He deciphered the calendar section of the codex, including the Maya numerals used therein.[28] Förstemann determined that these numbers, along with deities and day names, related to the Mayan calendar and the Mayan Long Count calendar.[29] In the 1950s Yuri Knorozov used a phonetic approach based on the De Landa alphabet for decoding the codex, which was followed up in the 1980s by other scholars that did additional deciphering based on this concept.[30]
Paul Schellhas in 1897 and 1904 assigned letters to gods for specific glyphs since they had several possible names. For example God D could be Hunab Ku Itzam Na among several other names and God A could be Cizin (god of death) among others.[31] The Schellhas system of assigning letters for the gods represented by certain glyphs as a noncommittal system was adopted by later researchers of Maya codices.[32]
The Dresden Codex contains accurate astronomical tables,[33] which are recognized by students of the codex for its detailed Venus tables and lunar tables.[34] The lunar series has intervals correlating with eclipses, while the Venus tables correlate with the movements of the planet Venus.[33] The codex also contains astrological tables and ritual schedules.[14][35] The religious references show in a cycle of a 260-day ritual calendar the important Maya royal events.[36] The codex also includes information on the Maya new-year ceremony tradition.[37] The rain god Chaac is represented 134 times.[38]
Image[edit]
The complete Dresden Codex in the correct reading sequence (pages 1–24, 46–74, 25–45) from left to right, including empty pages
Deterioration and pagination[edit]
First page sequencing of the codex by Agostino Aglio
Correct reading order of the pages within the codex
The presentation of the Dresden Codex since 1945
Italian artist and engraver Agostino Aglio, starting in 1826, became the first to transcribe and illustrate the codex completely for Lord Kingsborough, who published it in his nine volumes of Antiquities of Mexico in 1831–1848. The codex then had some damage due to handling, sunlight, and moisture. It received direct water damage that was significantly destructive from being kept in a flooded basement during the bombing of Dresden in World War II.[27] German historian G. Zimmerman noted that the damage was extreme on pages 2, 4, 24, 28, 34, 38, 71 and 72.[2] Certain details of the glyph images have been lost because of this. This shows when the current codex is compared to the Kingsborough copies of 1831-1848 and the Förstemann facsimile editions of 1880 and 1892.[39][40]
Today’s page numbers were assigned to the codex by Agostino Aglio when he became the first to transcribe the manuscript in 1825/26. For this, he divided the original codex into two parts, labeled Codex A and Codex B. He sequenced Codex A on the front side followed by its back side, with the same order on Codex B. Today, historians such as Helmut Deckert and Ferdinand Anders understand that a codex reading should traverse the complete front side followed by the complete back side of the manuscript, i.e., pages 1-24 followed by 46-74 and 25-45.[41] The librarian K. C. Falkenstein adjusted the relative position of pages for “esthetical reasons” in 1836, resulting in today’s two similar length parts.[42] While deciphering the codex, the librarian E. W. Förstemann noticed an error in Aglio’s page assignment of the sheets 1/45 and 2/44, so he correctly reassigned Aglio’s pages 44 and 45 to become pages 1 and 2.[43] The reversal of the sheets 6/40, 7/39 and 8/38 is due to an error when the sheets were returned to their protective glass cabinet after drying from the water damage due to the bombing of Dresden in 1945.[44]
See also[edit]
Aztec codices
Popol Vuh
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Lyons 2011, p. 85.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Thompson 1972, p. 19.
^ Jump up to: a b Ruggles 2005, p. 133.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson 1972, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Sharer 2006, p. 129.
Jump up ^ Coe 1982, p. 4.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sharer 2006, p. 127.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, pp. 3, 15, 16.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, pp. 3, 15, 16, 122.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, pp. 15, 122.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, p. 3, 15.
Jump up ^ Nalda 1998, p. 210.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson 1972, p. 16.
^ Jump up to: a b Ruggles 2005, p. 134.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, pp. 15–16.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, p. 15.
Jump up ^ Anzovin 2000, p. 197.
Jump up ^ Lyons 2011, p. 86.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson 1972, p. 17.
^ Jump up to: a b "Architecture Long Ago". New York Times. New York City. July 12, 1896 – via Newspapers.com .
Jump up ^ Keane 2011, p. 392.
Jump up ^ Thomas 1894, p. 15.
Jump up ^ American Anthropologist 1891, p. 299.
Jump up ^ Smithsonian Institution 1897, p. 36.
Jump up ^ Ruggles 2005, p. 257.
Jump up ^ "SLUB Dresden: The Dresden Maya-Codex". Archived from the original on 4 January 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Coe 1982, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, pp. 71,81,85,105.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, pp. 21,25,62.
Jump up ^ Gugliotta, Guy (May 21, 2013). "New tool for digging into mysteries of Maya culture.". Washington Post (pg E5). Washington, D.C. And Soviet linguistics expert Yuri Knorozov discovered that de Landa's alphabet was actually a phonetic syllabary.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, p. 31.
Jump up ^ Taube 1992, p. 6.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson 1972, pp. 63–69.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, pp. 62–71.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, pp. 32–47.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, p. 3,63,73.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, p. 89–93.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, p. 27.
Jump up ^ Thompson 1972, pp. 18-19.
Jump up ^ Foster 2005, p. 297.
Jump up ^ Deckert 1989, pp. 30-43.
Jump up ^ Deckert 1989, p. 7.
Jump up ^ Deckert 1989, pp. 32-33.
Jump up ^ Deckert 1989, p. 41.
Bibliography[edit]
American Anthropologist (1891). American Anthropologist. American Anthropological Association.
Anzovin, Steven (1 January 2000). Famous First Facts, International Edition: A Record of First Happenings, Discoveries, and Inventions in World History. H.W. Wilson. ISBN 978-0-8242-0958-2. Item 3342 - The first book written in the Americas known to historians is the Dresden Codex.
Coe, S.D. (1982). Maya Hieroglyphic Codices. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, State University of New York at Albany.
Deckert, Helmut (1989). Der Dresdner Maya-Handschrift. Akademische Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt. ISBN 978-3-201-01478-6. (in German)
Foster, Lynn V. (2005). Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518363-4.
Keane, A. H. (9 June 2011). Man: Past and Present. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23410-8.
Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. J. Paul Getty Museum. ISBN 978-1-60606-083-4. It dates from the eleventh or twelfth century, making it the earliest surviving book from the Americas.
Nalda, Enrique (1998). Maya. Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-2129-7.
Ruggles, Clive L. N. (2005). Ancient Astronomy: An Encyclopedia of Cosmologies and Myth. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-477-6.
Sharer, Robert J. (2006). The Ancient Maya. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4817-9.
Smithsonian Institution (1897). Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. U.S. Government Printing Office.
Taube, Karl A. (1992). The Major Gods of Ancient Yucatan. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-204-6.
Thomas, Cyrus (1894). The Maya Year. U.S. Government Printing Office.
Thompson, John Eric Sidney (1972). A Commentary on the Dresden Codex: A Maya Hieroglyphic Book. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 978-0-87169-093-7.
Further reading[edit]
Bricker, V.R. (2007). Literary continuities across the transformation from Maya hieroglyphic to alphabetical writing. Proceedings of The American Philosophical Society, 151(1), 27-42.
Houston, Stephen D. (2001) - The Decipherment of Ancient Maya Writing, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3204-4
Van Stone, Mark (2008). "It's Not the End of the World: What the Ancient Maya Tell Us About 2012." Located online at the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies website.
External links[edit]
Media related to Dresden Codex at Wikimedia Commons
The complete codex (high resolution PDF)
Facsimiles of the codex at the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc., with PDF downloads
The Dresden Codex Lunar Series and Sidereal Astronomy
Dresden Library Information on the Codex
Dresden Library Scans High-resolution scans of the Dresden Codex (site in German, PDF link at right)
3D reconstruction and animation of the Codex Dresden in different conditions
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