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66th Academy Awards
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66th Academy Awards
Official poster
Date
March 21, 1994
Site
Dorothy Chandler Pavilion
Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Hosted by
Whoopi Goldberg
Produced by
Gil Cates
Directed by
Jeff Margolis
Highlights
Best Picture
Schindler's List
Most awards
Schindler's List (7)
Most nominations
Schindler's List (12)
TV in the United States
Network
ABC
Duration
3 hours, 18 minutes[1]
Ratings
46.26 million
31.86% (Nielsen ratings)
← 65th
Academy Awards
67th →
The 66th Academy Awards ceremony, organized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored films released in 1993 and took place on March 21, 1994, at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles beginning at 6:00 p.m. PST / 9:00 p.m. EST. During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 23 categories. The ceremony, televised in the United States by ABC, was produced by Gil Cates and directed by Jeff Margolis.[2][3] Actress Whoopi Goldberg hosted the show for the first time.[4] Nearly a month earlier in a ceremony held at The Beverly Hilton in Beverly Hills, California on February 26, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Laura Dern.[5]
Schindler's List won seven awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Steven Spielberg.[6] Other winners included Jurassic Park and The Piano with three awards each, Philadelphia with two awards, and The Age of Innocence, Belle Epoque, Defending Our Lives, The Fugitive, I Am a Promise: The Children of Stanton Elementary School, Mrs. Doubtfire, Schwarzfahrer and The Wrong Trousers with one. The telecast was watched by more than 46 million viewers in the United States.
Contents
[hide]
1 Winners and nominees
1.1 Awards
1.2 Academy Honorary Award
1.3 Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award
1.4 Films with multiple nominations and awards
2 Presenters and performers
2.1 Presenters
2.2 Performers
3 Ceremony information
3.1 Box office performance of nominees
3.2 Critical reviews
3.3 Ratings and reception
4 In Memoriam
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Winners and nominees[edit]
The nominees for the 66th Academy Awards were announced on February 9, 1994, at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater in Beverly Hills, California, by Academy president Arthur Hiller, and actress Christine Lahti.[7] Schindler's List led all nominees with twelve nominations; The Piano and The Remains of the Day tied for second with eight.[8][9]
The winners were announced during the awards ceremony on March 21, 1994. Best Director nominee Jane Campion was the second woman to be nominated in that category.[10] Holly Hunter and Emma Thompson's nominations in both lead and supporting acting categories marked the first occurrence that two performers earned double acting nominations in the same year.[11] Best Supporting Actress winner Anna Paquin, at age 11, became the second youngest winner of a competitive acting Oscar, behind Tatum O'Neal, who won at age 10 for Paper Moon.[12]
Awards[edit]
Steven Spielberg, Best Director winner
Tom Hanks, Best Actor winner
Holly Hunter, Best Actress winner
Tommy Lee Jones, Best Supporting Actor winner
Anna Paquin, Best Supporting Actress winner
Jane Campion, Best Original Screenplay winner
Nick Park, Best Animated Short Film winner
Allan Starski, Best Art Direction co-winner
Janusz Kamiński, Best Cinematography winner
Winners are listed first, highlighted in boldface, and indicated with a double-dagger ( ).[13]
Best Picture
Schindler's List – Steven Spielberg, Gerald R. Molen, and Branko Lustig, producers
The Fugitive – Arnold Kopelson, producer
In the Name of the Father – Jim Sheridan, producer
The Piano – Jan Chapman, producer
The Remains of the Day – John Calley, Mike Nichols, and Ismail Merchant, producers
Best Director
Steven Spielberg – Schindler's List
Jim Sheridan – In the Name of the Father
Jane Campion – The Piano
James Ivory – The Remains of the Day
Robert Altman – Short Cuts
Best Actor
Tom Hanks – Philadelphia as Andrew Beckett
Daniel Day-Lewis – In the Name of the Father as Gerry Conlon
Laurence Fishburne – What's Love Got to Do with It as Ike Turner
Anthony Hopkins – The Remains of the Day as James Stevens
Liam Neeson – Schindler's List as Oskar Schindler
Best Actress
Holly Hunter – The Piano as Ada McGrath
Angela Bassett – What's Love Got to Do with It as Tina Turner
Stockard Channing – Six Degrees of Separation as Ouisa Kittredge
Emma Thompson – The Remains of the Day as Sarah "Sally" Kenton
Debra Winger – Shadowlands as Joy Davidman
Best Supporting Actor
Tommy Lee Jones – The Fugitive as U.S. Marshal Samuel Gerard
Leonardo DiCaprio – What's Eating Gilbert Grape as Arnie Grape
Ralph Fiennes – Schindler's List as Amon Goeth
John Malkovich – In the Line of Fire as Mitch Leary
Pete Postlethwaite – In the Name of the Father as Giuseppe Conlon
Best Supporting Actress
Anna Paquin – The Piano as Flora McGrath
Holly Hunter – The Firm as Tamara "Tammy" Hemphill
Rosie Perez – Fearless as Carla Rodrigo
Winona Ryder – The Age of Innocence as May Welland
Emma Thompson – In the Name of the Father as Gareth Peirce
Best Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen
The Piano – Jane Campion
Dave – Gary Ross
In the Line of Fire – Jeff Maguire
Philadelphia – Ron Nyswaner
Sleepless in Seattle – Nora Ephron, David S. Ward, and Jeff Arch
Best Screenplay Based on Material Previously Produced or Published
Schindler's List – Steven Zaillian based on the non-fiction book by Thomas Keneally
The Age of Innocence – Martin Scorsese and Jay Cocks based on the novel by Edith Wharton
In the Name of the Father – Jim Sheridan and Terry George based on the autobiographical book Proved Innocent by Gerry Conlon
The Remains of the Day – Ruth Prawer Jhabvala based on the novel by Kazuo Ishiguro
Shadowlands – William Nicholson based on his play
Best Foreign Language Film
Belle Epoque (Spain) in Spanish – Fernando Trueba, director
Farewell My Concubine (Hong Kong) in Mandarin Chinese – Chen Kaige, director
Hedd Wyn (United Kingdom) in Welsh – Paul Turner, director
The Scent of Green Papaya (Vietnam) in Vietnamese – Anh Hung Tran, director
The Wedding Banquet (Taiwan) in Mandarin Chinese – Ang Lee, director
Best Documentary Feature
I Am a Promise: The Children of Stanton Elementary School – Susan Raymond and Alan Raymond
The Broadcast Tapes of Dr. Peter – David Paperny and Arthur Ginsberg
Children of Fate – Susan Todd and Andrew Young
For Better or for Worse – David Collier and Betsy Thompson
The War Room – D. A. Pennebaker and Chris Hegedus
Best Documentary Short Subject
Defending Our Lives – Margaret Lazarus and Renner Wunderlich
Blood Ties: The Life and Work of Sally Mann – Steven Cantor and Peter Spirer
Chicks in White Satin – Elaine Holliman and Jason Schneider
Best Live Action Short Film
Schwarzfahrer – Pepe Danquart
Down on the Waterfront – Stacy Title and Jonathan Penner
The Dutch Master – Susan Seidelman and Jonathan Brett
Partners – Peter Weller and Jana Sue Memel
The Screw (La Vis) – Didier Flamand
Best Animated Short Film
The Wrong Trousers – Nick Park
Blindscape – Stephen Palmer
The Mighty River – Frédéric Back and Hubert Tison
Small Talk – Bob Godfrey and Kevin Baldwin
The Village – Mark Baker
Best Original Score
Schindler's List – John Williams
The Age of Innocence – Elmer Bernstein
The Firm – Dave Grusin
The Fugitive – James Newton Howard
The Remains of the Day – Richard Robbins
Best Original Song
"Streets of Philadelphia" from Philadelphia – Music and Lyrics by Bruce Springsteen
"Again" from Poetic Justice – Music and Lyrics by Janet Jackson, James Harris III and Terry Lewis
"The Day I Fall in Love" from Beethoven's 2nd – Music and Lyrics by Carole Bayer Sager, James Ingram, and Clif Magness
"Philadelphia" from Philadelphia – Music and Lyrics by Neil Young
"A Wink and a Smile" from Sleepless in Seattle – Music by Marc Shaiman; Lyrics by Ramsey McLean
Best Sound
Jurassic Park – Gary Rydstrom, Gary Summers, Ron Judkins, and Shawn Murphy
Cliffhanger – Michael Minkler, Bob Beemer, and Tim Cooney
The Fugitive – Donald O. Mitchell, Michael Herbick, Frank A. Montaño, and Scott D. Smith
Geronimo: An American Legend – Chris Carpenter, Doug Hemphill, Bill W. Benton, and Lee Orloff
Schindler's List – Andy Nelson, Steve Pederson, Scott Millan, and Ron Judkins
Best Sound Effects Editing
Jurassic Park – Gary Rydstrom and Richard Hymns
Cliffhanger – Wylie Stateman and Gregg Baxter
The Fugitive – John Leveque and Bruce Stambler
Best Art Direction
Schindler's List – Art Direction: Allan Starski; Set Decoration: Ewa Braun
Addams Family Values – Art Direction: Ken Adam; Set Decoration: Marvin March
The Age of Innocence – Art Direction: Dante Ferretti; Set Decoration: Robert J. Franco
Orlando – Art Direction: Ben Van Os; Set Decoration: Jan Roelfs
The Remains of the Day – Art Direction: Luciana Arrighi; Set Decoration: Ian Whittaker
Best Makeup
Mrs. Doubtfire – Greg Cannom, Ve Neill, and Yolanda Toussieng
Philadelphia – Carl Fullerton and Alan D'Angerio
Schindler's List – Christina Smith, Matthew Mungle, and Judy Alexander Cory
Best Costume Design
The Age of Innocence – Gabriella Pescucci
Orlando – Sandy Powell
The Piano – Janet Patterson
The Remains of the Day – Jenny Beavan and John Bright
Schindler's List – Anna Biedrzycka Sheppard
Best Cinematography
Schindler's List – Janusz Kamiński
Farewell My Concubine – Gu Changwei
The Fugitive – Michael Chapman
The Piano – Stuart Dryburgh
Searching for Bobby Fischer – Conrad L. Hall
Best Film Editing
Schindler's List – Michael Kahn
The Fugitive – Dennis Virkler, David Finfer, Dean Goodhill, Don Brochu, Richard Nord, and Dov Hoenig
In the Name of the Father – Gerry Hambling
In the Line of Fire – Anne Coates
The Piano – Veronika Jenet
Best Visual Effects
Jurassic Park – Stan Winston, Dennis Muren, Phil Tippett, and Michael Lantieri
Cliffhanger – Neil Krepela, John Richardson, John Bruno, and Pamela Easley
The Nightmare Before Christmas – Pete Kozachik, Eric Leighton, Ariel Velasco Shaw, and Gordon Baker
Academy Honorary Award[edit]
Deborah Kerr[14]
Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award[edit]
Paul Newman[15]
Films with multiple nominations and awards[edit]
The following 16 films had multiple nominations:
Nominations
Film
12 Schindler's List
8 The Piano
The Remains of the Day
7 The Fugitive
In the Name of the Father
5 The Age of Innocence
Philadelphia
3 Cliffhanger
In the Line of Fire
Jurassic Park
2 Farewell My Concubine
The Firm
Orlando
Shadowlands
Sleepless in Seattle
What's Love Got to Do with It
The following four films received multiple awards:
Awards
Film
7 Schindler's List
3 Jurassic Park
The Piano
2 Philadelphia
Presenters and performers[edit]
The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or performed musical numbers:[16][17]
Presenters[edit]
Name(s)
Role
Marshak, LesLes Marshak Announcer for the 66th annual Academy Awards
Hiller, ArthurArthur Hiller (AMPAS president) Gave opening remarks welcoming guests to the awards ceremony
Hanks, TomTom Hanks Presenter of the award for Best Art Direction
Wood, ElijahElijah Wood Presenter of the award for Best Visual Effects
Bridges, JeffJeff Bridges Presenter of the film The Fugitive on the Best Picture segment
Tomei, MarisaMarisa Tomei Presenter of the award for Best Supporting Actor
Chen, JoanJoan Chen
Val Kilmer Presenters of the award for Best Makeup
Neeson, LiamLiam Neeson Presenter of the award for Best Sound Effects Editing
Close, GlennGlenn Close Presenter of the Honorary Academy Award to Deborah Kerr
O'Donnell, RosieRosie O'Donnell Presenters of the awards for Best Animated Short Film and Best Live Action Short Film
Dreyfuss, RichardRichard Dreyfuss Presenter of the film Schindler's List on the Best Picture segment
Cage, NicolasNicolas Cage
Shirley MacLaine Presenters of the award for Best Sound
Hackman, GeneGene Hackman Presenter of the award for Best Supporting Actress
Dern, LauraLaura Dern Presenter of the segment of the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement and Gordon E. Sawyer Award
Depp, JohnnyJohnny Depp Introducer of the performance of Best Song nominee "Philadelphia"
Baldwin, AlecAlec Baldwin Presenter of the film The Remains of the Day on the Best Picture segment
Stone, SharonSharon Stone Presenter of the award Best Costume Design
Kidman, NicoleNicole Kidman
Christian Slater Presenters of the awards for Best Documentary Short Subject and Best Documentary Feature
Hawn, GoldieGoldie Hawn Introducer of the special dance number to the tune of the Best Original Score nominees
Presenter of the award for Best Original Score
Valenti, JackJack Valenti Presenter of the "Film cinematography" montage
Introducer of presenter Kirk Douglas
Douglas, KirkKirk Douglas Presenter of the award for Best Cinematography
Stowe, MadeleineMadeleine Stowe Presenter of the film The Piano on the Best Picture segment
Cruise, TomTom Cruise Presenter of the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award to Paul Newman
Hopkins, AnthonyAnthony Hopkins Presenter of the award for Best Foreign Language Film
Davis, GeenaGeena Davis Presenter of the award for Best Film Editing
Banderas, AntonioAntonio Banderas Introducer of the performance of Best Song nominee "Streets of Philadelphia"
Houston, WhitneyWhitney Houston Presenter of the award for Best Original Song
Irons, JeremyJeremy Irons Presenters of the awards for Best Original Screenplay and Best Adapted Screenplay
Close, GlennGlenn Close Presenter of the In Memoriam tribute
Thompson, EmmaEmma Thompson Presenter of the award for Best Actor
Sutherland, DonaldDonald Sutherland Presenter of the film In the Name of the Father on the Best Picture segment
Pacino, AlAl Pacino Presenter of the award for Best Actress
Eastwood, ClintClint Eastwood Presenter of the award for Best Director
Ford, HarrisonHarrison Ford Presenter of the award for Best Picture
Performers[edit]
Name(s)
Role
Performed
Conti, BillBill Conti Musical arranger Orchestral
Peters, BernadetteBernadette Peters Performer "Putting It Together" from Sunday in the Park with George during the opening number
Jackson, JanetJanet Jackson Performer "Again" from Poetic Justice
Young, NeilNeil Young Performer "Philadelphia" from Philadelphia
Ingram, JamesJames Ingram
Dolly Parton Performers "The Day I Fall in Love" from Beethoven's 2nd
Les Ballets Africains, Les Ballets Africains
National Ballet of Canada
Central Ballet of China
Cuban National Ballet
Dance Theatre of Harlem
Garth Fagan Dance Inc.
Paris Opera Ballet
Shanghai Ballet Troupe[18] Performers Performed dance number synchronized with selections from Best Original Score nominees
Carradine, KeithKeith Carradine Performer "A Wink and a Smile" from Sleepless in Seattle
Springsteen, BruceBruce Springsteen Performer "Streets of Philadelphia" from Philadelphia
Ceremony information[edit]
Whoopi Goldberg hosted the 66th Academy Awards.
Due the negative reception received from the preceding year's ceremony, actor Billy Crystal announced that after overseeing four consecutive Oscar ceremonies, he would not be hosting the 1994 telecast.[19] In a statement released by his publicist, he stated, "After three Grammys, four Oscars and six Comic Reliefs, I'm going to take a break from my hosting duties. I always felt honored to host the show and did my best to carry on the tradition of Bob Hope and Johnny Carson. I hope the new host has as good a time as I did."[20] With Crystal absent to host the Oscars, many media outlets wondered whom producer Gil Cates would hire to emcee the program. Film columnist Jack Matthews suggested that actor Tom Hanks, who would eventually win Best Actor for Philadelphia, should host the show writing that he "has charm, dignity, wit, intelligence and, it's worth mentioning, he's a movie star!"[21] Cates also offered the role to performers Steve Martin, Bette Midler, and Johnny Carson, but they all turned down the opportunity.[21]
After several days of speculation, Cates announced that he hired Oscar-winning actress and comedian Whoopi Goldberg to host the festivities for the first time.[22] By virtue of her selection, Goldberg became both the first African American to host as well as the first woman to host the telecast solo.[23] In an interview with the Los Angeles Times, Cates explained the decision to hire her saying, "She is a highly recognizable star who has millions of fans."[24] He also addressed the media's concerns regarding Goldberg's raunchy and outspoken humor stating, "Some people may think she's potentially dangerous, and she says things that come to her mind. It's going to be exciting for me. The main thing is she wants to do it and she's smart. Whatever she says will be appropriate."[25] Goldberg expressed that she was thrilled to be selected to emcee the 1994 ceremony commenting, "To go from watching to winning to hosting in one lifetime is major."[26]
As with previous ceremonies he produced, Cates centered the show around a theme. This year, he christened the show with the theme "People Behind the Camera" commenting that "It will be a salute to those unseen men and women who make what we see on the screen, the artist and craftspeople responsible for the magic of the movies."[27] In tandem with the theme, the ceremony's opening number featured a montage produced by Chuck Workman saluting the many individuals such as directors, editors, and composers who are involved in moviemaking. During that segment, singer Bernadette Peters performing a modified version of Stephen Sondheim's song "Putting It Together" from his musical Sunday in the Park with George.[28] Filmmaker and editor Carol A. Streit assembled another montage featuring a salute to the work of cinematographers and their contributions to film.[29]
Several other people and elements were also involved with the production of the ceremony. Production designer Roy Christopher designed a new stage for the ceremony which prominently featured five giant Oscar statues each flanked inside metal cones that were illuminated recurrently throughout the show.[30] Film composer and musician Bill Conti served as musical director of the ceremony.[31] Dancer Debbie Allen choreographed a dancer number showcasing the Best Original Score nominees featuring eight prestigious ballet and dance troupes from around the world.[18]
Box office performance of nominees[edit]
At the time of the nominations announcement on February 9, the combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees at the US box office was $261 million, with an average of $52.2 million per film.[32] The Fugitive was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $179 million in domestic box office receipts.[32] The film was followed by Schindler's List ($29.6 million), The Piano ($25.7 million), The Remains of the Day ($19.5 million), and finally In the Name of the Father ($6.5 million).[32]
Of the top 50 grossing movies of the year, 36 nominations went to 14 films on the list. Only The Fugitive (3rd), The Firm (4th), Sleepless in Seattle (6th), In the Line of Fire (7th), Dave (13th), Philadelphia (29th), What's Love Got to Do With It (38th), and The Age of Innocence (49th) were nominated for directing, acting, screenwriting, or Best Picture.[33] The other top 50 box office hits that earned nominations were Jurassic Park (1st), Mrs. Doubtfire (2nd), Cliffhanger (9th), The Nightmare Before Christmas (24th), Addams Family Values (25th), and Beethoven's 2nd (27th).[33]
Critical reviews[edit]
The show received a positive reception from most media publications. The New York Times film critic Janet Maslin raved that the telecast had "less silliness and less small talk, with more emphasis on cleverly chosen film clips and the bona fide Hollywood magic being celebrated." She also praised host Goldberg saying that she "sustained a tone of levity, which became particularly important as the sweep by Schindler's List threatened to bring out great ponderousness in some quarters."[34] Pittsburgh Post-Gazette television critic Robert Bianco commended Goldberg's performance writing that "She never acted like she was too smart or to hip for the show she was hosting; she never smirked like there was a joke she alone was cool enough to get." He also extolled producer Cates by commenting, "In place of the extraneous jokes and terrible production numbers, he gave us a theme that worked and a generous selection of clips to back it up."[35] Anne Thompson of Entertainment Weekly lauded Goldberg by stating, "Her elegant appearance (at least during the first half), her uncharacteristic restraint (she didn't cuss), and her ability to make it funny (despite the very somber speeches) made the ho-hum telecast worth watching."[36]
Some media outlets were more critical of the show. Television critic Howard Rosenberg of the Los Angeles Times lamented that Goldberg's humor "wilted in a blessedly brief 3-hour-and-18-minute telecast." He also wrote that compared with Billy Crystal, her hosting skills were "balmy".[37] Orlando Sentinel film critic Jay Boyar bemoaned that "this year's Oscarcast was only a little more exciting than a wine snob droning on about his favorite vintages."[38] Harold Schindler of The Salt Lake City Tribune remarked that Whoopi's preference for "insider" jokes "left the audience murmuring and most viewers probably scratching their heads." He also added the biggest letdown of the telecast was "Goldberg's seeming ineptness at understanding the moment"[39]
Ratings and reception[edit]
The American telecast on ABC drew in an average of 46.26 million people over its length, which was a 1% increase from the previous year's ceremony.[40][41] However, the show drew lower Nielsen ratings compared to the previous ceremony with 31.86% of households watching over a 49.28 share.[42] In addition, it also drew a lower 18–49 demo rating with a 19.73 rating over a 40.53 share among viewers in that demographic.[42]
In July 1994, the ceremony presentation received seven nominations at the 46th Primetime Emmys.[43][44] Two months later, the ceremony won one of those nominations for Outstanding Technical Direction/Camera/Video for a Miniseries or Special (Averill Perry, Jim Ralston, Kenneth R. Shapiro, Bill Pope, Hector Ramirez, Larry Heider, Dave Levisohn, Blair White, Bill Philben, Ralph Alcocer, Larry Stenman, Bud Holland, David Irete, Tom Geren, Dale Carlson, David Plakos, Ted Ashton, Jeff Mydoc, Chuck Pharis, Jean M. Mason).[45]
In Memoriam[edit]
The annual In Memoriam tribute was presented by actress Glenn Close. The montage featured an excerpt of the main title of Terms of Endearment composed by Michael Gore.[46]
Lillian Gish
Myrna Loy
Joseph Cotten
George McFarland
Ruby Keeler
Telly Savalas
Melina Mercouri
Cesar Romero
Ted Haworth
Vincent Price
Stewart Granger
Samuel Bronston
River Phoenix
Raymond Burr
Cantinflas
Alexis Smith
Joseph L. Mankiewicz
Irene Sharaff
Helen Hayes
John Candy
Sammy Cahn
Ray Sharkey
Federico Fellini
Hervé Villechaize
Don Ameche
Audrey Hepburn
Brandon Lee
Dinah Shore
Fred Gwynne
Vincent Gardenia
See also[edit]
Academy Award portal
14th Golden Raspberry Awards
36th Grammy Awards
46th Primetime Emmy Awards
47th British Academy Film Awards
48th Tony Awards
51st Golden Globe Awards
List of submissions to the 66th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Bianco, Robert (March 22, 1994). "Telecast shines spotlight on movies, not distractions". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Crain Communications. Retrieved December 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Anne (April 1, 1994). "Oscar's List". Entertainment Weekly. Time Warner. Archived from the original on January 1, 2014. Retrieved December 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Howard (March 22, 1994). "Calendar Goes to the Oscars : Whoopi, Better Naughty Than Boring : Awards: Goldberg fails to hit a funny bone or stir up any of the controversy that was hyped the week before the telecast. In fact, her hosting is balmy , particularly compared to predecessor Billy Crystal". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Publishing. Archived from the original on October 22, 2013. Retrieved December 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Boyar, Jay (March 25, 1994). "Oscar Show's Rating: Plenty Of Class, Not Much Excitement". Orlando Sentinel. Tribune Publishing. Archived from the original on January 1, 2014. Retrieved December 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ Schindler, Harold (March 23, 1994). "Spielberg shines at Oscars, but all that gliters isn't Goldberg". The Salt Lake City Tribune. MediaNews Group.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Greg (March 18, 1999). "Call It the Glamour Bowl". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Publishing. Archived from the original on September 28, 2013. Retrieved August 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Gorman, Bill (March 8, 2010). "Academy Awards Averages 41.3 Million Viewers; Most Since 2005". TV by the Numbers. Tribune Media. Archived from the original on March 10, 2010. Retrieved March 12, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Academy Awards ratings" (PDF). Television Bureau of Advertising. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Primetime Emmy Award database". Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on September 26, 2013. Retrieved October 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Emmy Award Nominations 1994 : Nighttime Nominees: A Complete Rundown". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Publishing. July 22, 1994. Archived from the original on October 15, 2013. Retrieved December 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The 46th Annual Emmy Awards: Who Won What: The List of Winners on TV's Annual Night of Nights". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Publishing. September 12, 1994. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Wiley & Bona 1996, p. 932
Bibliography[edit]
Wiley, Mason; Bona, Damien (1996). Inside Oscar: The Unofficial History of the Academy Awards (5 ed.). New York, United States: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-40053-4. OCLC 779680732
Levy, Emanuel (2003). All About Oscar: The History and Politics of the Academy Awards. New York, United States: Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-1452-4.
Pond, Steve (2005). The Big Show: High Times and Dirty Dealings Backstage at the Academy Awards. New York, United States: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-21193-3.
External links[edit]
Official websites
Academy Awards Official website
The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Official website
Oscar's Channel at YouTube (run by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences)
Analysis
1993 Academy Awards Winners and History Filmsite
Academy Awards, USA: 1994 Internet Movie Database
Other resources
The 66th Annual Academy Awards on IMDb
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‡ Dates and years listed for each ceremony were the eligibility period of film release in Los Angeles County. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period was done on a seasonal basis, from August to July. For the 6th ceremony, held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932 to December 31, 1933. Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.
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Parliament of England
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the current debate on a devolved English legislature, see Devolved English parliament.
Parliament of England
Royal coat of arms of England, 1558–1603
Type
Type
Unicameral
(1215–1341 / 1649–1657)
Bicameral
(1341–1649 / 1657–1707)1
Houses
Upper house:
House of Lords
(1341–1649 / 1660–1707)
House of Peers
(1657–1660)
Lower house:
House of Commons
(1341–1707)
History
Established
15 June 1215
(Lords only)
20 January 1265
(Lords and elected Commons)
Disbanded
1 May 1707
Preceded by
Curia Regis
Succeeded by
Parliament of Great Britain
Leadership
Lord Keeper of the Great Seal
William Cowper1
Since 1705
Speaker of the House of Commons
John Smith1
Since 1705
Elections
House of Lords voting system
Ennoblement by the Sovereign or inheritance of an English peerage
House of Commons voting system
First past the post with limited suffrage1
Meeting place
Palace of Westminster, Westminster, London
Footnotes
1Reflecting Parliament as it stood in 1707.
See also: Parliament of Scotland,
Parliament of Ireland
The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England, existing from the early 13th century until 1707, when it became the Parliament of Great Britain after the political union of England and Scotland created the Kingdom of Great Britain.
In 1066, William of Normandy introduced what, in later centuries, became referred to as a feudal system, by which he sought the advice of a council of tenants-in-chief (a person who held land) and ecclesiastics before making laws. In 1215, the tenants-in-chief secured Magna Carta from King John, which established that the king may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of his royal council, which gradually developed into a parliament.
Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I in 1649. After the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, and the subsequent Glorious Revolution of 1688, the supremacy of Parliament was a settled principle and all future English and later British sovereigns were restricted to the role of constitutional monarchs with limited executive authority. The Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its former members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Parliament in the reign of Henry III
1.2 The emergence of parliament as an institution
1.3 King, Lords and Commons
1.4 Rebellion and revolution
1.5 Parliament from the Restoration to the Act of Settlement
1.6 Union: the Parliament of Great Britain
2 Places where Parliament has been held other than London
3 Representation on the English Parliament outside the British Isles
4 See also
5 References
6 Sources
7 External links
History[edit]
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult and seek a measure of acceptance for their policies if they are to enjoy the broad cooperation of their subjects. Early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country. However, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military power bases of their own through major ownership of land and the feudal obligations of their tenants (some of whom held lands on condition of military service). The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of religious law courts.
In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the senior clergy on major decisions, post-Norman Conquest English monarchs called Great Councils. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, the pillars of the feudal system.
When this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of this prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons.
Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215. John's refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war (see First Barons' War).
The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England. The term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in official documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, it is widely believed that the early parliaments had a judicial as well as a legislative function.
During the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance.[1]
Initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention. This was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henry's behalf until he came of age, giving them a taste for power that they would prove unwilling to relinquish. Among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king.
Parliament in the reign of Henry III[edit]
Once the minority of Henry III ended and he took full control of the government, leading peers became increasingly concerned with his style of government, specifically his unwillingness to consult them on decisions he took, and his seeming patronisation of his foreign relatives over his native subjects. Henry's support of a disastrous papal invasion of Sicily was the last straw. In 1258, seven leading barons forced Henry to swear to uphold the Provisions of Oxford, superseded, the following year, by the Provisions of Westminster. This effectively abolished the absolutist Anglo-Norman monarchy, giving power to a council of fifteen barons, and providing for a thrice-yearly meeting of parliament to monitor their performance. Parliament assembled six times between June 1258 and April 1262, most notably at Oxford in 1258.
The French-born nobleman Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, emerged as the leader of this characteristically English rebellion. In the following years, those supporting Montfort and those supporting the king grew more hostile to each other. Henry obtained a papal bull in 1263 exempting him from his oath and both sides began to raise armies. At the Battle of Lewes on 14 May 1264, Henry was defeated and taken prisoner by Montfort's army. However, many of the peers who had initially supported Montfort began to suspect that he had gone too far with his reforming zeal. His support amongst the nobility rapidly declined. So in 1264, Montfort summoned the first parliament in English history without any prior royal authorisation. The archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls and barons were summoned, as were two knights from each shire and two burgesses from each borough. Knights had been summoned to previous councils, but the representation of the boroughs was unprecedented. This was purely a move to consolidate Montfort's position as the legitimate governor of the kingdom, since he had captured Henry and his son Prince Edward (later Edward I) at the Battle of Lewes.
A parliament consisting of representatives of the realm was the logical way for Montfort to establish his authority. In calling this parliament, in a bid to gain popular support, he summoned knights and burgesses from the emerging gentry class, thus turning to his advantage the fact that most of the nobility had abandoned his movement. This parliament was summoned on 14 December 1264. It first met on 20 January 1265 in Westminster Hall[1] and was dissolved on 15 February 1265. It is not certain who actually attended this parliament. Nonetheless, Montfort's scheme was formally adopted by Edward I in the so-called "Model Parliament" of 1295. The attendance at parliament of knights and burgesses historically became known as the summoning of "the Commons", a term derived from the Norman French word "commune", literally translated as the "community of the realm".
Following Edward's escape from captivity, Montfort was defeated and killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265. Henry's authority was restored and the Provisions of Oxford were forgotten, but this was nonetheless a turning point in the history of the Parliament of England. Although he was not obliged by statute to do so, Henry summoned the Commons to parliament three times between September 1268 and April 1270. However, this was not a significant turning point in the history of parliamentary democracy. Subsequently, very little is known about how representatives were selected because, at this time, being sent to parliament was not a prestigious undertaking. But Montfort's decision to summon knights of the shires and burgesses to his parliament did mark the irreversible emergence of the landed gentry as a force in politics. From then on, monarchs could not ignore them, which explains Henry's decision to summon the Commons to several of his post-1265 parliaments.
Even though many peers who had supported the Provisions of Oxford remained active in English public life throughout Henry's reign, the conditions they had laid down for regular parliaments were largely forgotten, as if to symbolise the historical development of the English Parliament via convention rather than statutes and written constitutions.
The emergence of parliament as an institution[edit]
A 16th-century depiction of Edward's parliament
During the reign of Edward I, which began in 1272, the role of Parliament in the government of the English kingdom increased due to Edward's determination to unite England, Wales and Scotland under his rule by force. He was also keen to unite his subjects in order to restore his authority and not face rebellion as was his father's fate. Edward therefore encouraged all sectors of society to submit petitions to parliament detailing their grievances in order for them to be resolved. This seemingly gave all of Edward's subjects a potential role in government and this helped Edward assert his authority. Both the Statute of Westminster 1275 and Statute of Westminster 1285, with the assistance of Robert Burnell, codified the existing law in England.
As the number of petitions being submitted to parliament increased, they came to be dealt with, and often ignored, more and more by ministers of the Crown so as not to block the passage of government business through parliament. However the emergence of petitioning is significant because it is some of the earliest evidence of parliament being used as a forum to address the general grievances of ordinary people. Submitting a petition to parliament is a tradition that continues to this day in the Parliament of the United Kingdom and in most Commonwealth realms.
These developments symbolise the fact that parliament and government were by no means the same thing by this point. If monarchs were going to impose their will on their kingdom, they would have to control parliament rather than be subservient to it.
From Edward's reign onwards, the authority of the English Parliament would depend on the strength or weakness of the incumbent monarch. When the king or queen was strong he or she would wield enough influence to pass their legislation through parliament without much trouble. Some strong monarchs even bypassed it completely, although this was not often possible in the case of financial legislation due to the post-Magna Carta convention of parliament granting taxes. When weak monarchs governed, parliament often became the centre of opposition against them. Subsequently, the composition of parliaments in this period varied depending on the decisions that needed to be taken in them. The nobility and senior clergy were always summoned. From 1265 onwards, when the monarch needed to raise money through taxes, it was usual for knights and burgesses to be summoned too. However, when the king was merely seeking advice, he often only summoned the nobility and the clergy, sometimes with and sometimes without the knights of the shires. On some occasions the Commons were summoned and sent home again once the monarch was finished with them, allowing parliament to continue without them. It was not until the mid-14th century that summoning representatives of the shires and the boroughs became the norm for all parliaments.
One of the moments that marked the emergence of parliament as a true institution in England was the deposition of Edward II. Even though it is debatable whether Edward II was deposed in parliament or by parliament, this remarkable sequence of events consolidated the importance of parliament in the English unwritten constitution. Parliament was also crucial in establishing the legitimacy of the king who replaced Edward II: his son Edward III.
In 1341 the Commons met separately from the nobility and clergy for the first time, creating what was effectively an Upper Chamber and a Lower Chamber, with the knights and burgesses sitting in the latter. This Upper Chamber became known as the House of Lords from 1544 onward, and the Lower Chamber became known as the House of Commons, collectively known as the Houses of Parliament.
The authority of parliament grew under Edward III; it was established that no law could be made, nor any tax levied, without the consent of both Houses and the Sovereign. This development occurred during the reign of Edward III because he was involved in the Hundred Years' War and needed finances. During his conduct of the war, Edward tried to circumvent parliament as much as possible, which caused this edict to be passed.
The Commons came to act with increasing boldness during this period. During the Good Parliament (1376), the Presiding Officer of the lower chamber, Sir Peter de la Mare, complained of heavy taxes, demanded an accounting of the royal expenditures, and criticised the king's management of the military. The Commons even proceeded to impeach some of the king's ministers. The bold Speaker was imprisoned, but was soon released after the death of Edward III. During the reign of the next monarch, Richard II, the Commons once again began to impeach errant ministers of the Crown. They insisted that they could not only control taxation, but also public expenditure. Despite such gains in authority, however, the Commons still remained much less powerful than the House of Lords and the Crown.
This period also saw the introduction of a franchise which limited the number of people who could vote in elections for the House of Commons. From 1430 onwards, the franchise was limited to Forty Shilling Freeholders, that is men who owned freehold property worth forty shillings or more. The Parliament of England legislated the new uniform county franchise, in the statute 8 Hen. 6, c. 7. The Chronological Table of the Statutes does not mention such a 1430 law, as it was included in the Consolidated Statutes as a recital in the Electors of Knights of the Shire Act 1432 (10 Hen. 6, c. 2), which amended and re-enacted the 1430 law to make clear that the resident of a county had to have a forty shilling freehold in that county to be a voter there.
King, Lords and Commons[edit]
During the reign of the Tudor monarchs the modern structure of the English Parliament began to be created. The Tudor monarchy was powerful, and there were often periods of several years when parliament did not sit at all. However the Tudor monarchs were astute enough to realise that they needed parliament to legitimise many of their decisions, mostly out of a need to raise money through taxation legitimately without causing discontent. Thus they consolidated the state of affairs whereby monarchs would call and close parliament as and when they needed it.
By the time Henry Tudor (Henry VII) came to the throne in 1485 the monarch was not a member of either the Upper Chamber or the Lower Chamber. Consequently, the monarch would have to make his or her feelings known to Parliament through his or her supporters in both houses. Proceedings were regulated by the presiding officer in either chamber. From the 1540s the presiding officer in the House of Commons became formally known as the "Speaker", having previously been referred to as the "prolocutor" or "parlour" (a semi-official position, often nominated by the monarch, that had existed ever since Peter de Montfort had acted as the presiding officer of the Oxford Parliament of 1258). This was not an enviable job. When the House of Commons was unhappy it was the Speaker who had to deliver this news to the monarch. This began the tradition whereby the Speaker of the House of Commons is dragged to the Speaker's Chair by other members once elected.
A member of either chamber could present a "bill" to parliament. Bills supported by the monarch were often proposed by members of the Privy Council who sat in parliament. In order for a bill to become law it would have to be approved by a majority of both Houses of Parliament before it passed to the monarch for royal assent or veto. The royal veto was applied several times during the 16th and 17th centuries and it is still the right of the monarch of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms to veto legislation today, although it has not been exercised since 1707 (today such exercise would presumably precipitate a constitutional crisis).
When a bill was enacted into law, this process gave it the approval of each estate of the realm: the King, Lords, and Commons. In reality, this was not a democratic process. The Parliament of England was far from being a democratically representative institution in this period. It was possible to assemble the entire peerage and senior clergy of the realm in one place to form the estate of the Upper Chamber. However, the voting franchise for the House of Commons was small; some historians estimate that it was as little as three per cent of the adult male population; and there was no secret ballot. This meant that elections could be controlled by local grandees, because in many boroughs a majority of voters were in some way dependent on a powerful individual, or else could be bought by money or concessions. If these grandees were supporters of the incumbent monarch, this gave the Crown and its ministers considerable influence over the business of parliament. Many of the men elected to parliament did not relish the prospect of having to act in the interests of others. So a law was enacted, still on the statute book today, whereby it became unlawful for members of the House of Commons to resign their seat unless they were granted a position directly within the patronage of the monarchy (today this latter restriction leads to a legal fiction allowing de facto resignation despite the prohibition, but nevertheless it is a resignation which needs the permission of the Crown). However, it must be emphasised that while several elections to parliament in this period were in some way corrupt by modern standards, many elections involved genuine contests between rival candidates, even though the ballot was not secret.
It was in this period that the Palace of Westminster was established as the seat of the English Parliament. In 1548, the House of Commons was granted a regular meeting place by the Crown, St Stephen's Chapel. This had been a royal chapel. It was made into a debating chamber after Henry VIII became the last monarch to use the Palace of Westminster as a place of residence and following the suppression of the college there. This room became the home of the House of Commons until it was destroyed by fire in 1834, although the interior was altered several times up until then. The structure of this room was pivotal in the development of the Parliament of England. While most modern legislatures sit in a circular chamber, the benches of the British Houses of Parliament are laid out in the form of choir stalls in a chapel, simply because this is the part of the original room that the members of the House of Commons utilised when they were granted use of St Stephen's Chapel. This structure took on a new significance with the emergence of political parties in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, as the tradition began whereby the members of the governing party would sit on the benches to the right of the Speaker and the opposition members on the benches to the left. It is said that the Speaker's chair was placed in front of the chapel's altar. As Members came and went they observed the custom of bowing to the altar and continued to do so, even when it had been taken away, thus then bowing to the Chair, as is still the custom today.[citation needed]
The numbers of the Lords Spiritual diminished under Henry VIII, who commanded the Dissolution of the Monasteries, thereby depriving the abbots and priors of their seats in the Upper House. For the first time, the Lords Temporal were more numerous than the Lords Spiritual. Currently, the Lords Spiritual consist of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester, and twenty-one other English diocesan bishops in seniority of appointment to a diocese.
The Laws in Wales Acts of 1535–42 annexed Wales as part of England and this brought Welsh representatives into the Parliament of England, first elected in 1542.
Rebellion and revolution[edit]
Parliaments of England
1604–1705
Parliament
Date
Blessed Parliament 1604
Addled Parliament 1614
3rd Parliament of King James I 1621
Happy Parliament 1624
Useless Parliament 1625
2nd Parliament of King Charles I 1626
3rd Parliament of King Charles I 1628
Short Parliament 1640 Apr
Long Parliament (1) 1640 Nov
Oxford Parliament 1644
Long Parliament (2) 1645
Rump Parliament (1) 1648
Barebone's Parliament 1653
First Protectorate Parliament 1654
Second Protectorate Parliament 1656
Third Protectorate Parliament 1659
Rump Parliament (2) 1659
Long Parliament (3) 1660
Convention Parliament 1660
Cavalier Parliament 1661
Habeas Corpus Parliament 1679
Exclusion Bill Parliament 1680
Oxford Parliament 1681
Loyal Parliament 1685
Convention Parliament 1689
2nd Parliament of William and Mary 1690
3rd Parliament of King William III 1695
4th Parliament of King William III 1698
5th Parliament of King William III 1701
6th Parliament of King William III 1701 Dec
1st Parliament of Queen Anne 1702
2nd Parliament of Queen Anne 1705
List of Parliaments of England
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Parliament had not always submitted to the wishes of the Tudor monarchs. But parliamentary criticism of the monarchy reached new levels in the 17th century. When the last Tudor monarch, Elizabeth I, died in 1603, King James VI of Scotland came to power as King James I, founding the Stuart monarchy.
In 1628, alarmed by the arbitrary exercise of royal power, the House of Commons submitted to Charles I the Petition of Right, demanding the restoration of their liberties. Though he accepted the petition, Charles later dissolved parliament and ruled without them for eleven years. It was only after the financial disaster of the Scottish Bishops' Wars (1639–1640) that he was forced to recall Parliament so that they could authorise new taxes. This resulted in the calling of the assemblies known historically as the Short Parliament of 1640 and the Long Parliament, which sat with several breaks and in various forms between 1640 and 1660.
The Long Parliament was characterised by the growing number of critics of the king who sat in it. The most prominent of these critics in the House of Commons was John Pym. Tensions between the king and his parliament reached boiling point in January 1642 when Charles entered the House of Commons and tried, unsuccessfully, to arrest Pym and four other members for their alleged treason. The five members had been tipped off about this, and by the time Charles came into the chamber with a group of soldiers they had disappeared. Charles was further humiliated when he asked the Speaker, William Lenthall, to give their whereabouts, which Lenthall famously refused to do.
From then on relations between the king and his parliament deteriorated further. When trouble started to brew in Ireland, both Charles and his parliament raised armies to quell the uprisings by native Catholics there. It was not long before it was clear that these forces would end up fighting each other, leading to the English Civil War which began with the Battle of Edgehill in October 1642: those supporting the cause of parliament were called Parliamentarians (or Roundheads).
Battles between Crown and Parliament would continue throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, but parliament was no longer subservient to the English monarchy. This change was symbolised in the execution of Charles I in January 1649. It is somewhat ironic that this event was not instigated by the elected representatives of the realm. In Pride's Purge of December 1648, the New Model Army (which by then had emerged as the leading force in the parliamentary alliance) purged Parliament of members that did not support them. The remaining "Rump Parliament", as it was later referred to by critics, enacted legislation to put the king on trial for treason. This trial, the outcome of which was a foregone conclusion, led to the execution of the king and the start of an 11-year republic. The House of Lords was abolished and the purged House of Commons governed England until April 1653, when army chief Oliver Cromwell dissolved it following disagreements over religious policy and how to carry out elections to parliament. Cromwell later convened a parliament of religious radicals in 1653, commonly known as Barebone's Parliament, followed by the unicameral First Protectorate Parliament that sat from September 1654 to January 1655 and the Second Protectorate Parliament that sat in two sessions between 1656 and 1658, the first session was unicameral and the second session was bicameral.
Although it is easy to dismiss the English Republic of 1649-60 as nothing more than a Cromwellian military dictatorship, the events that took place in this decade were hugely important in determining the future of parliament. First, it was during the sitting of the first Rump Parliament that members of the House of Commons became known as "MPs" (Members of Parliament). Second, Cromwell gave a huge degree of freedom to his parliaments, although royalists were barred from sitting in all but a handful of cases. His vision of parliament appears to have been largely based on the example of the Elizabethan parliaments. However, he underestimated the extent to which Elizabeth I and her ministers had directly and indirectly influenced the decision-making process of her parliaments. He was thus always surprised when they became troublesome. He ended up dissolving each parliament that he convened. Yet it is worth noting that the structure of the second session of the Second Protectorate Parliament of 1658 was almost identical to the parliamentary structure consolidated in the Glorious Revolution Settlement of 1689.
In 1653 Cromwell had been made head of state with the title Lord Protector of the Realm. The Second Protectorate Parliament offered him the crown. Cromwell rejected this offer, but the governmental structure embodied in the final version of the Humble Petition and Advice was a basis for all future parliaments. It proposed an elected House of Commons as the Lower Chamber, a House of Lords containing peers of the realm as the Upper Chamber, and a constitutional monarchy, subservient to parliament and the laws of the nation, as the executive arm of the state at the top of the tree, assisted in carrying out their duties by a Privy Council. Oliver Cromwell had thus inadvertently presided over the creation of a basis for the future parliamentary government of England. In 1657 he had the Parliament of Scotland unified with the English Parliament.
In terms of the evolution of parliament as an institution, by far the most important development during the republic was the sitting of the Rump Parliament between 1649 and 1653. This proved that parliament could survive without a monarchy and a House of Lords if it wanted to. Future English monarchs would never forget this. Charles I was the last English monarch ever to enter the House of Commons. Even to this day, a Member of the Parliament of the United Kingdom is sent to Buckingham Palace as a ceremonial hostage during the State Opening of Parliament, in order to ensure the safe return of the sovereign from a potentially hostile parliament. During the ceremony the monarch sits on the throne in the House of Lords and signals for the Lord Great Chamberlain to summon the House of Commons to the Lords Chamber. The Lord Great Chamberlain then raises his wand of office to signal to the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, who has been waiting in the central lobby. Black Rod turns and, escorted by the doorkeeper of the House of Lords and an inspector of police, approaches the doors to the chamber of the Commons. The doors are slammed in his face – symbolising the right of the Commons to debate without the presence of the Queen's representative. He then strikes three times with his staff (the Black Rod), and he is admitted.
Parliament from the Restoration to the Act of Settlement[edit]
The revolutionary events that occurred between 1620 and 1689 all took place in the name of parliament. The new status of parliament as the central governmental organ of the English state was consolidated during the events surrounding the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660. Following the death of Oliver Cromwell in September 1658, his son Richard Cromwell succeeded him as Lord Protector, summoning the Third Protectorate Parliament in the process. When this parliament was dissolved following pressure from the army in April 1659, the Rump Parliament was recalled at the insistence of the surviving army grandees. This in turn was dissolved in a coup led by army general John Lambert, leading to the formation of the Committee of Safety, dominated by Lambert and his supporters. When the breakaway forces of George Monck invaded England from Scotland where they had been stationed—without Lambert's supporters putting up a fight—Monck temporarily recalled the Rump Parliament and reversed Pride's Purge by recalling the entirety of the Long Parliament. They then voted to dissolve themselves and call new elections, which were arguably the most democratic for 20 years although the franchise was still very small. This led to the calling of the Convention Parliament which was dominated by royalists. This parliament voted to reinstate the monarchy and the House of Lords. Charles II returned to England as king in May 1660. The Anglo-Scottish parliamentary union that Cromwell had established was dissolved in 1661 when the Scottish Parliament resumed its separate meeting place in Edinburgh.
The Restoration began the tradition whereby all governments looked to parliament for legitimacy. In 1681 Charles II dissolved parliament and ruled without them for the last four years of his reign. This followed bitter disagreements between the king and parliament that had occurred between 1679 and 1681. Charles took a big gamble by doing this. He risked the possibility of a military showdown akin to that of 1642. However he rightly predicted that the nation did not want another civil war. Parliament disbanded without a fight. Events that followed ensured that this would be nothing but a temporary blip.
Charles II died in 1685 and he was succeeded by his brother James II. During his lifetime Charles had always pledged loyalty to the Protestant Church of England, despite his private Catholic sympathies. James was openly Catholic. He attempted to lift restrictions on Catholics taking up public offices. This was bitterly opposed by Protestants in his kingdom. They invited William of Orange,[2] a Protestant who had married Mary, daughter of James II and Anne Hyde to invade England and claim the throne. William assembled an army estimated at 15,000 soldiers (11,000 foot and 4000 horse)[3] and landed at Brixham in southwest England in November, 1688. When many Protestant officers, including James's close adviser, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, defected from the English army to William's invasion force, James fled the country. Parliament then offered the Crown to his Protestant daughter Mary, instead of his son (James Francis Edward Stuart). Mary refused the offer, and instead William and Mary ruled jointly, with both having the right to rule alone on the other's death. As part of the compromise in allowing William to be King—called the Glorious Revolution—Parliament was able to have the 1689 Bill of Rights enacted. Later the 1701 Act of Settlement was approved. These were statutes that lawfully upheld the prominence of parliament for the first time in English history. These events marked the beginning of the English constitutional monarchy and its role as one of the three elements of parliament.
Union: the Parliament of Great Britain[edit]
Main article: Parliament of Great Britain
Following the Treaty of Union in 1707, Acts of Parliament passed in the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland created a new Kingdom of Great Britain and dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new Parliament of Great Britain based in the former home of the English parliament. The Parliament of Great Britain later became the Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1801 when the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was formed through the Act of Union 1800.
Places where Parliament has been held other than London[edit]
York, various
Lincoln, various
Oxford, 1258 (Mad Parliament), 1681
Kenilworth, 1266
Acton Burnell Castle, 1283[4]
Shrewsbury, 1283 (trial of Dafydd ap Gruffydd), 1397 ('Great' Parliament)
Lincoln, 1301
Carlisle, 1307
Northampton 1328
New Sarum (Salisbury), 1330
Winchester, 1332, 1449
Leicester, 1414 (Fire and Faggot Parliament), 1426 (Parliament of Bats)
Reading Abbey, 1453
Coventry, 1459 (Parliament of Devils)
Representation on the English Parliament outside the British Isles[edit]
Two European cities, both annexed from and later ceded to the Kingdom of France were represented in the Parliament as borough constituencies while they were English possessions:
Calais, between 1372 and 1558.
Tournai between 1513 and 1519. (Now in Belgium.)
See also[edit]
History of democracy
History of local government in England
List of Parliaments of England
List of Acts of the Parliament of England to 1483
List of Acts of the Parliament of England, 1485–1601
List of Acts of the Parliament of England, 1603–1641
Witenagemot
Magnum Concilium
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "A Brief Chronology of the House of Commons", Factsheet G3, General Series, August 2010, House of Commons Information Office
Jump up ^ Wouter Troost, William III the Stadholder-King: A Political Biography (2004) ISBN 0-7546-5071-5 p 191
Jump up ^ Troost, pp 204–205
Jump up ^ Virtual Shropshire Archived 30 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Sources[edit]
Blackstone, Sir William. (1765). Commentaries on the Laws of England. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Davies, M. (2003). Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords, 19th ed.
Farnborough, Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron. (1896). Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third, 11th ed. vol 1 online; vol 2 online
Maddicott, John. The Origins of the English Parliament, 924-1327. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2010. ISBN 0-19-958550-4.
Paul Brand. "Review of Maddicott, John Robert, _The Origins of the English Parliament, 924-1327_." in H-Albion, H-Net Reviews. September, 2011. online
Sayles, G. O. The King's Parliament of England (1974), brief survey
"Parliament." (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
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