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Priesthood in the Catholic Church
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Two Catholic priests celebrating mass
The ministerial orders of the Roman Catholic Church (for similar but different rules among Eastern Catholics see Eastern Catholic Church) are those of bishop, presbyter (more commonly called priest in English), and deacon. The ordained priesthood and the common priesthood (or priesthood of all the baptized faithful) are different in function and essence.[1][2] The Catholic Church teaches that when a man participates in priesthood, he participates in the priesthood of Christ Himself. All men who, through the Sacrament of Holy Orders, have become priests participate in Christ's priesthood; they act in persona Christi Capitis, in the person of Christ, the Head of His Body, the Church.[3]
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Unlike usage in English, "the Latin words sacerdos and sacerdotium are used to refer in general to the ministerial priesthood shared by bishops and presbyters. The words presbyter, presbyterium and presbyteratus refer to priests in the English use of the word or presbyters."[4] According to the Annuario Pontificio 2016, as of December 31, 2014, there were 415,792 Catholic priests worldwide, including both diocesan priests and priests in the religious orders.[5] A priest of the regular clergy is commonly addressed with the title "Father" (abbreviated Fr., in the Roman Catholic and some other Christian churches).[6]
The state of consecrated life or monasticism is a separate, third distinct vocational state from the clergy and the laity. As an overview, there are the members of the laity—who are married or unmarried, and the clergy—the bishops, priests, and deacons. Deacons are male and usually belong to the diocesan clergy, but, unlike almost all Latin-rite (Western Catholic) priests and all bishops from Eastern or Western Catholicism, they may marry as laymen before their ordination as clergy.[7]
Members of institutes of consecrated life, or monks, can be either clergy or non-ordained members of the religious order (male or female non-ordained religious are not to be considered laypersons in the strict sense—they take certain vows and are not free to marry once they have made solemn profession of vows; all female religious are non-ordained, they may be sisters living to some degree of activity in a communal state, or nuns living in cloister or some other type of isolation). The male members of religious orders, whether living in monastic communities or cloistered in isolation, and who are ordained priests or deacons constitute what is called the religious or regular clergy, distinct from the diocesan or secular clergy. Those ordained priests or deacons who are not members of some sort of religious order (secular priests) most often serve as clergy to a specific church or in an office of a specific diocese or in Rome.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Theology of the priesthood
2.1 Passover and Christ
3 Education
4 Rite of ordination
5 Clerical celibacy
5.1 Early Christianity
5.2 After the Great Schism
6 Duties of a Catholic priest
7 Numbers
7.1 Asia
7.1.1 Singapore
7.2 Europe
7.2.1 Belgium
7.2.2 France
7.2.3 Luxembourg
7.2.4 Poland
7.2.5 Sweden
7.2.6 Switzerland
7.3 North America
7.3.1 Mexico
7.3.2 United States
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
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The Old Testament describes how God made his people "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation,"[9] and within the twelve tribes of Israel, the tribe of Levi was chosen to be set apart for the liturgical service of offering sacrifice as priests.[10] The priest was understood as a mediator between God and human beings who offers sacrifices and intercedes for the people.
The New Testament depicts Jesus as the "great high priest" of the New Covenant who, instead of offering the ritual animal sacrifices prescribed by the Jewish Law, offers himself on the cross as the true and perfect sacrifice.[11] The Catholic priesthood is a participation in this priesthood of Christ, and therefore traces its origins to Jesus Christ himself. Thus, the New Testament says that as high priest, Jesus has made the Church "a kingdom of priests for his God and Father."[12] All who are baptized are given a share in the priesthood of Christ; that is, they are conformed to Christ and made capable of offering true worship and praise to God as Christians. "The whole community of believers is, as such, priestly."[13]
The ministerial priesthood of Catholic priests and bishops—what most people think of as "the Catholic priesthood"—has a distinct history. This ministerial priesthood is at the service of the priesthood of all believers and involves the direct consecration of a man to Christ through the sacrament of orders, so that he can act in the person of Christ for the sake of the Christian faithful, above all in dispensing the sacraments. It is understood to have begun at the Last Supper, when Jesus Christ instituted the Eucharist in the presence of the Twelve Apostles, commanding them to "do this in memory of me."
The Catholic priesthood, therefore, is a share in the priesthood of Christ and traces its historical origins to the Twelve Apostles appointed by Christ. Those apostles in turn selected other men to succeed them as the bishops (episkopoi, Greek for "overseers") of the Christian communities, with whom were associated presbyters (presbyteroi, Greek for "elders") and deacons (diakonoi, Greek for "servants"). As communities multiplied and grew in size, the bishops appointed more and more presbyters to preside at the Eucharist in place of the bishop in the multiple communities in each region. The diaconate evolved as the liturgical assistants of the bishop and his delegate for the administration of Church funds and programmes for the poor. Today, the rank of "presbyter" is typically what one thinks of as a priest, although technically both a bishop and a presbyter are "priests" in the sense that they share in Christ's ministerial priesthood and offer sacrifice to God in the person of Christ.[14]
Theology of the priesthood[edit]
Ordination to the priesthood (Latin rite). Devotional card, 1925.
See also: Sacerdotalism
Passover and Christ[edit]
The theology of the Catholic priesthood is rooted in the priesthood of Christ and to some degree shares elements of the ancient Hebraic priesthood as well.[15] A priest is one who presides over a sacrifice and offers that sacrifice and prayers to God on behalf of believers. Jewish priesthood which functioned at the temple in Jerusalem offered animal sacrifices at various times throughout the year for a variety of reasons.
In Christian theology, Jesus is the Lamb provided by God himself as a sacrifice for the sins of the world. Before his death on the cross, Jesus celebrated the Passover with his disciples (the Last Supper) and offered blessings over the bread and wine respectively, saying: "Take and eat. This is my body" and "Drink from this all of you, for this is my blood, the blood of the covenant, poured out for the forgiveness of sins." (Matthew 26:26–28 Jerusalem Bible). The next day Christ's body and blood were visibly sacrificed on the cross.
Catholics believe that it is this same body, sacrificed on the cross and risen on the third day and united with Christ's divinity, soul and blood which is made present in the offering of each Eucharistic sacrifice which is called the Eucharist. However, Catholicism does not believe that transubstantiation and the doctrine of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist involves a material change in the 'accidental' features: i.e. under normal circumstances, scientific analysis of the Eucharistic elements would indicate the physical-material properties of wine and bread.
Thus Catholic priests, in presiding at the Eucharist, join each offering of the Eucharistic elements in union with the sacrifice of Christ.[16] Through their celebration of the Holy Eucharist, they make present the one eternal sacrifice of Christ on the cross.
Catholicism does not teach that Christ is sacrificed again and again, but that "The sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are one single sacrifice.".[17] Instead, the Catholic Church holds the Jewish concept of memorial in which "..the memorial is not merely a recollection of past events....these events become in a certain way present and real." and thus "...the sacrifice Christ offered once and for all on the cross remains ever present."[18] Properly speaking, in Catholic theology, expressed by Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Only Christ is the true priest, the others being only his ministers."[19] Thus, Catholic clergy share in the one, unique, Priesthood of Christ.[20]
Education[edit]
See also: Candidacy, Deacon, and List of Roman Catholic seminaries
The Canon law of the Catholic Church holds that the priesthood is a sacred and perpetual vocational state, not just a profession (which is a reason for, and symbolized by, the state of celibacy). There are programs of formation and studies which aim to enable the future priest to effectively serve his ministry. These programs are demanded by canon law (in the Latin rite, canons 232–264) which also refers to the Bishops' Conferences for local more detailed regulation. As a general rule, education is extensive and lasts at least five or six years, depending on the national Programme of Priestly Formation.[21]
In the United States, priests must have a four-year university degree in philosophy plus an additional four to five years of graduate-level seminary formation in theology with a focus on Biblical research. A Master of Divinity is the most common degree.
In Scotland, there is a mandatory year of preparation before entering seminary for a year dedicated to spiritual formation, followed by several years of study.
In Europe, Australasia and North America, seminarians usually graduate with a Master of Divinity or a Master of Theology degree, which is a four-year professional degree (as opposed to a Master of Arts which is an academic degree). At least four years are to be in theological studies at the major seminary.[22]
In Germany and Austria, priest candidates graduate with an academic degree (Magister theologiae, Diplom-Theologe, Master of Arts in Theology). The degree takes five years' and is preceded by a year of spiritual formation (plus learning of the ancient languages) and followed by two years of pastoral practice (during which the candidate is ordained to the deaconate). Usually, priests spend all of that time in a seminary except one "free year".
In Africa, Asia and South America, programmes are more flexible, being developed according to the age and academic abilities of those preparing for ordination.
Regardless of where a person prepares for ordination, it includes not only academic but also human, social, spiritual and pastoral formation. The purpose of seminary education is ultimately to prepare men to be pastors of souls.[23] In the end, however, each individual Ordinary (such as a bishop or Superior General) is responsible for the official call to priesthood, and only a bishop may ordain. Any ordinations done before the normally scheduled time (before study completion) must have the explicit approval of the bishop.
Rite of ordination[edit]
During the rite of ordination, after the bishop the priests present lay their hands on the ordinands
Coat of arms of a Catholic priest
Main article: Holy Orders (Catholic Church)
The Rite of Ordination is what "makes" one a priest, having already been a deacon and with the minister of Holy Orders being a validly ordained bishop.[24]
The Rite of Ordination occurs within the context of Holy Mass. After being called forward and presented to the assembly, the candidates are interrogated. Each promises to diligently perform the duties of the Priesthood and to respect and obey his ordinary (bishop or religious superior). Then the candidates lie prostrate before the altar, while the assembled faithful kneel and pray for the help of all the saints in the singing of the Litany of the Saints.
The essential part of the rite is when the bishop silently lays his hands upon each candidate (followed by all priests present), before offering the consecratory prayer, addressed to God the Father, invoking the power of the Holy Spirit upon those being ordained.
After the consecratory prayer, the newly ordained is vested with the stole and chasuble of those belonging to the Ministerial Priesthood and then the bishop anoints his hands with chrism before presenting him with the chalice and paten which he will use when presiding at the Eucharist. Following this, the gifts of bread and wine are brought forward by the people and given to the new priest; then all the priests present, concelebrate the Eucharist with the newly ordained taking the place of honour at the right of the bishop. If there are several newly ordained, it is they who gather closest to the bishop during the Eucharistic Prayer.
The laying of hands of the priesthood is found in 1 Timothy 4:14:
Do not neglect the gift you have, which was conferred on you through the prophetic word with the imposition of hands of the presbyterate."
The following is the full text of the Rite during the Mass (after the Prelude, the Introit, the Procession, the Opening Hymn, the Kyrie, the Gloria, the Opening Prayer, and the First and Second Readings and the Gospel have all taken place), taken from a program for an ordination of priests for the Diocese of Peoria in 2015:
The Calling of the Candidates: Those to be ordained are called by name, they stand in their place and answer: "Present".
The Presentation of the Priest Candidates:
Vocation Director: Most Reverend Father, Holy Mother Church asks you to ordain these, our brothers, to the responsibility of the Priesthood.
Bishop: Do you know them to be worthy?
Vocation Director: After inquiry among the Christian people and upon the recommendation of those responsible, I testify that they have been found worthy.
Bishop: Relying on the help of the Lord God and our Savior Jesus Christ, we choose these men, our brothers, for the Order of the Priesthood.
All: Thanks be to God.
Homily of the Bishop
Promise of the Elect:
Bishop: My dear sons, before you enter the Order of the Priesthood, you must declare before the people of God your intention to undertake this office. Do you resolve, with the help of the Holy Spirit, to discharge without fail the office of Priesthood in the presbyteral rank, as worthy fellow workers with the Order of Bishops in caring for the Lord's flock?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: Do you resolve to exercise the ministry of the word worthily and wisely, preaching the Gospel and teaching the Catholic faith?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: Do you resolve to celebrate faithfully and reverently, in accord with the Church's tradition, the mysteries of Christ, especially the Sacrifice of the Eucharist and the Sacrament of Reconciliation, for the glory of God and the sanctification of the Christian people?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: Do you resolve to implore with us God's mercy upon the people entrusted to your care by observing the command to pray without ceasing?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: Do you resolve to be united more closely every day to Christ the High Priest, who offered himself for us to the Father as a pure Sacrifice, and with him to consecrate yourselves to God for the salvation of all?
Elect: I do, with the help of God.
Promise of Obedience of the Priest Candidates:
Each of the candidates goes to the Bishop and, kneeling before him, places his joined hands between those of the Bishop.
Bishop: Do you promise respect and obedience to me and my successors?
Elect: I do.
Bishop: May God, who has begun this good work in you bring it to fulfillment.
Invitation to Prayer
Litany of the Saints
Laying on of Hands: The Bishop first lays hands on the head of each candidate, followed by the concelebrating priests and all the priests present.
Prayer of Consecration
Investiture with the Stole and Chasuble
Anointing of Hands: The Bishop receives the linen gremial and anoints with Sacred Chrism the palms of each new priest as he kneels before him.
Procession of the Gifts of Bread and Wine by the relatives of the ordained and Offertory Hymn
Presentation of the Gifts
The Bishop stands and gives the kiss of peace to the new priests, followed by the concelebrants and all the priests present. The Liturgy of the Eucharist (the Preparation of the Altar, the Sanctus, the Memorial Acclamation, the Great Amen, the Lamb of God (Agnus Dei), the Communion Antiphon and Hymn, and the Prayer after Communion and Solemn Blessing and Dismissal) then proceeds as normal, with the newly ordained to the immediate right of the Bishop and the other celebrants.
Clerical celibacy[edit]
Main article: Clerical celibacy (Catholic Church)
Early Christianity[edit]
The earliest Christians were Jews and Jewish tradition has always deemed the married state as more spiritual than the celibate state.[25] However Christian tradition places a high valuation on chastity as a special gift of God. The life of a priest involves being conformed to Christ. It is known that the Apostle Peter had a spouse from Gospel stories of Peter's mother-in-law sick with fever (Matt 8:14, Mark 1:29, Luke 4:38)[26] and from Paul's mention that Peter took along a believing wife in his ministry (1 Cor 9:5).
From its beginnings, the idea of clerical celibacy has been contested in canon courts, in theology, and in religious practices. Celibacy for Roman Catholic priests was not mandated under canon law for the universal church until the Second Lateran Council in 1139.[27]
The Council of Elvira in Spain (c. 305–306) was the first council to call for clerical celibacy. In February 385, Pope Siricius wrote the Directa decretal, which was a long letter to Spanish bishop Himerius of Tarragona, replying to the bishop’s requests on various subjects, which had been sent several months earlier to Pope Damasus I.[28] It was the first of a series of documents published by the Church's magisterium that claimed apostolic origin for clerical celibacy and reminded ministers of the altar of the perpetual continence required.
After the Great Schism[edit]
A Ukrainian Catholic priest at a St. Joseph the Betrothed Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (His wedding ring appears on his right hand as per Byzantine tradition).
Within a century of the Great Schism of 1054, the Churches of the East and West arrived at different disciplines as to abstaining from sexual contact during marriage. In the East, candidates for the Priesthood could be married with permission to have regular sexual relations with their wives, but were required to abstain before celebrating the Eucharist. An unmarried person, once ordained, could not marry. Additionally, the Christian East required that, before becoming a bishop, a priest separate from his wife (she was permitted to object), with her typically becoming a nun. In the East, more normally, bishops are chosen from those priests who are monks and are thus unmarried.
In the West, the law of celibacy became mandatory by Pope Gregory VII at the Roman Synod of 1074.[29][30] This law mandated that, in order to become a candidate for ordination, a man could not be married. The law remains in effect in the Latin Church, although not for those who are priests of the Eastern Catholic Churches, who remain under their own discipline. The issue of mandatory celibacy in the Latin Church continues to be debated.[citation needed]
Duties of a Catholic priest[edit]
Three main aspects to the priesthood: offering the Eucharist, hearing confessions, and counseling.[31] Whilst continuing to hold the importance of these three aspects of priesthood, the church now has a significantly broader understanding. Priests are also responsible for daily recitation of the principal and minor offices of the Liturgy of the Hours.[32] Priests are the only ministers of the Sacrament of Penance[33] and Anointing of the Sick.[34][35] They are the ordinary ministers of Baptism and witnesses to Holy Matrimony.[36]
Numbers[edit]
Worldwide, the number of priests has remained fairly steady since 1970, decreasing by about 5,000. This stagnation is due to a balance of large growth in Africa and Asia and a significant decrease in North America and Europe.
Historical number of priests worldwide
Year
Priests
±%
1970
419,728 —
1975
404,783 −3.6%
1980
413,600 +2.2%
1985
403,480 −2.4%
Year
Priests
±%
1990
403,173 −0.1%
1995
404,750 +0.4%
2000
405,178 +0.1%
2005
406,411 +0.3%
Year
Priests
±%
2010
412,236 +1.4%
2014
414,313 +0.5%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
Asia[edit]
Singapore[edit]
Historical number of priests in Singapore
Year
Priests
±%
1950
43 —
1969
105 +144.2%
1980
90 −14.3%
Year
Priests
±%
1990
119 +32.2%
2000
140 +17.6%
2004
137 −2.1%
Year
Priests
±%
2010
131 −4.4%
2014
145 +10.7%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
Europe[edit]
Belgium[edit]
Historical number of priests in Belgium
Year
Priests
±%
1950
14,690 —
1970
12,100 −17.6%
1980
12,741 +5.3%
Year
Priests
±%
1990
9,912 −22.2%
2000
6,989 −29.5%
2004
6,366 −8.9%
Year
Priests
±%
2013
5,595 −12.1%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
France[edit]
Historical number of priests in France
Year
Priests
±%
1955
40,000 —
1978
32,475 −18.8%
Year
Priests
±%
2003
17,473 −46.2%
2006
15,440 −11.6%
Year
Priests
±%
2013
14,000 −9.3%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
Luxembourg[edit]
Historical number of priests in Luxembourg
Year
Priests
±%
1950
601 —
1969
524 −12.8%
Year
Priests
±%
1980
457 −12.8%
1990
352 −23.0%
Year
Priests
±%
2004
248 −29.5%
2013
205 −17.3%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
Poland[edit]
Historical number of priests in Poland
Year
Priests
±%
1848
2,218 —
Year
Priests
±%
1912
6,500 +193.1%
Year
Priests
±%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
Sweden[edit]
Historical number of priests in Sweden
Year
Priests
±%
1949
45 —
1969
80 +77.8%
1980
99 +23.8%
Year
Priests
±%
1990
110 +11.1%
2000
134 +21.8%
2004
151 +12.7%
Year
Priests
±%
2010
156 +3.3%
2014
159 +1.9%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
Switzerland[edit]
Historical number of priests in Switzerland
Year
Priests
±%
1970
2,877 —
Year
Priests
±%
1989
2,100 −27.0%
Year
Priests
±%
2009
1,441 −31.4%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
North America[edit]
Mexico[edit]
Historical number of priests in Mexico
Year
Priests
±%
1980
10,192 —
1990
11,641 +14.2%
Year
Priests
±%
2000
14,176 +21.8%
2010
16,856 +18.9%
Year
Priests
±%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
United States[edit]
Historical number of priests in the US
Year
Priests
±%
1930
27,000 —
1950
50,500 +87.0%
1965
58,632 +16.1%
1970
59,192 +1.0%
1975
58,909 −0.5%
Year
Priests
±%
1980
58,398 −0.9%
1985
57,317 −1.9%
1990
52,124 −9.1%
1995
49,054 −5.9%
2000
45,699 −6.8%
Year
Priests
±%
2005
41,399 −9.4%
2010
39,993 −3.4%
2015
37,192 −7.0%
Includes both diocesan and religious priests.
See also[edit]
Catholicism portal
List of Catholic priests
Priest shortage
Religious minister
Vocational discernment in the Catholic Church
Amovibility, some canon law applying to priests
Ordination of women and the Catholic Church
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lumen Gentium 10
Jump up ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Can a Woman Be a Priest in the Catholic Church?". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Woestman, Wm., The Sacrament of Orders and the Clerical State St Paul's University Press: Ottawa, 2006, p. 8, see also De Ordinatione
Jump up ^ Junno Arocho Esteves, Vatican statistics report increase in baptized Catholics worldwide, Catholic News Service (March 7, 2016).
Jump up ^ "Father".
Jump up ^ "Code of Canon Law – IntraText". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Cf. Code of Canon Law, canon 266
Jump up ^ Ex 19:6; cf. Isa 61:6. (NIV)
Jump up ^ Cf. Num 1:48–53; Josh 13:33.
Jump up ^ Hebrews 5:1–10; Catechism of the Catholic Church #1546.
Jump up ^ Rev 1:6; cf. Rev 5:9–10; 1 Pet 2:5,9.
Jump up ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church #1546
Jump up ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church #1547–57; Aidan Nichols, Holy Order: The Apostolic Ministry from the New Testament to the Second Vatican Council
Jump up ^ "Priesthood". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Taylor Marshall, The Crucified Rabbi: Judaism and the Origins of the Catholic Christianity, Saint John Press, 2009 ISBN 978-0-578-03834-6 pp. 91–92
Jump up ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church – Part 2 Section 2 Chapter 1 Article 3". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church – Part 2 Section 2 Chapter 1 Article 3". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Catechism of the Catholic Church – The sacrament of Holy Orders". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Presbyterorum ordinis". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ can. 242.1 CIC 1983
Jump up ^ can. 235.1, CIC 1983
Jump up ^ Presbyterorum ordinis 4
Jump up ^ "Code of Canon Law: text – IntraText CT". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Judaica, second ed, vol 4, 2007, New York: Thomson Gale, 537
Jump up ^ Audet, Jean, Structures of Christian Priesthood, New York: doubleday 1961
Jump up ^ The New Catholic Encyclopedia, Washington, DC: Catholic University of America: Washington, vol 3, 366
Jump up ^ "Current Sales Email Promotions - Christianbook.com". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ John Trigilio, Kenneth Brighenti. Catholicism for Dummies, p. 221 (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011). ISBN 978-1-118-07778-8
Jump up ^ Helen Parish, Clerical Celibacy In The West: c. 1100–1700, p. 100, footnotes 45 and 46 (Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2010). ISBN 978-0-7546-3949-7
Jump up ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Priesthood". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ Congregation for Divine Worship, Institutio generalis de Liturgia horarum Feb. 2, 1971
Jump up ^ "Code of Canon Law - IntraText". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Code of Canon Law – IntraText". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Code of Canon Law – IntraText". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Code of Canon Law – IntraText". Retrieved 2 July 2016.
External links[edit]
VISION Vocation Guide information about Roman Catholic priesthood and religious life with directory of men's religious communities and diocesan links.
Milwaukee Holy Orders: The Making of a Priest Documentary produced by Milwaukee PBS
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Rhetorical question
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Protest in Germany against alleged electoral fraud in Iran in 2009
A rhetorical question is a figure of speech in the form of a question that is asked to make a point rather than to elicit an answer.[1] Though a rhetorical question does not require a direct answer, in many cases it may be intended to start a discussion or at least draw an acknowledgement that the listener understands the intended message.
A common example is the question "Can't you do anything right?" This question, when posed, is intended not to ask about the listener's ability, but rather to insinuate the listener's lack of ability.
Contents
[hide]
1 Different forms
1.1 Negative assertions
1.2 Rhetorical questions as metaphors
1.3 Other forms
2 Punctuation
3 Quotes
4 See also
5 Notes
6 External links
Different forms[edit]
Negative assertions[edit]
A rhetorical question may be intended as a challenge. The question is often difficult or impossible to answer. In the example, What have the Romans ever done for us? (Monty Python's Life of Brian) the question functions as a negative assertion. It is intended to mean The Romans have never done anything for us!. When Shakespeare's Mark Antony exclaims: Here was a Caesar! when comes such another? it functions as an assertion that Caesar possesses such rare qualities they may never be seen again. (Julius Caesar, Act 3, scene 2, 257)
Negative assertions may function as positives in sarcastic contexts. For example, in Smoking can lead to lung cancer. Who knew?! the question functions as an assertion that the truth of the statement should have been utterly obvious.
Rhetorical questions as metaphors[edit]
Rhetorical questions are often used as a metaphor for a question already asked. Examples may be found in the song Maria from the 1959 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical, The Sound of Music, in which the How do you solve a problem like Maria? is repeatedly answered with another question: How do you catch a cloud and pin it down?, How do you keep a wave upon the sand? and How do you hold a moonbeam in your hand? These responses may be taken as asserting that "the problem of Maria" cannot be solved; and furthermore the choice of cloud, wave and moonbeam as metaphors for Maria give insight into her character and the nature of the problem.
In the vernacular, this form of rhetorical question is most often seen as rhetorical affirmation, where the certainty or obviousness of the answer to a question is expressed by asking another, often humorous, question for which the answer is equally obvious; popular examples include Does a bear shit in the woods?, Is the sky blue? and Is the Pope Catholic?[2][3][4]
Other forms[edit]
Sometimes the implied answer to a rhetorical question is "Yes, but I wish it were not so" or vice versa:
O mighty Caesar! dost thou lie so low?
Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils,
Shrunk to this little measure?
—  Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, III.i.148
Similarly in the Bob Dylan song "Blowin' in the Wind", the rhetorical question is asked, "And how many deaths will it take till we know, that too many people have died?"[relevant? – discuss]
Another common form is the expression of doubt by questioning a statement just made; for example by appending the following to a sentence: "or did he?", "or is it?", for as in, "The butler did it... or did he?"
It is also common to use a rhetorical question to bring an end to a debate or to finalize a decision. For example, when internally deciding whether to perform an action, one may shove aside the dialogue with a simple, "Eh, why not?"
Rhetorical questions may be signaled by marker phrases; questions that include "after all", or "by any chance" may be intended as rhetorical.[5]
Punctuation[edit]
Depending on the context, a rhetorical question may be punctuated by a question mark (?), full stop (.), or exclamation mark (!),[6] but some sources argue that it is required to use a question mark for any question, rhetorical or not.[7]
In the 1580s, English printer Henry Denham invented a "rhetorical question mark" for use at the end of a rhetorical question; however, it fell out of use in the 17th century. It was the reverse of an ordinary question mark, so that instead of the main opening pointing back into the sentence, it opened away from it.[8]
Quotes[edit]
"The effectiveness of rhetorical questions in argument comes from their dramatic quality. They suggest dialogue, especially when the speaker both asks and answers them himself, as if he were playing two parts on the stage. They are not always impassioned; they may be mildly ironical or merely argumentative: but they are always to some extent dramatic, and, if used to excess, they tend to give one’s style a theatrical air."[9]
"Rhetorical questioning is…a fairly conscious technique adopted by a speaker for deliberate ends, and it is used infrequently, proportional to the length of the dialogue, oration, or conversation."[10]
See also[edit]
Aporia
Hypothetical question
Suggestive question
Complex question
Presupposition
Double-barreled question
Loaded question
Implicature
No such thing as a stupid question
Performative contradiction
Betteridge's law of headlines
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Gideon O. Burton, Brigham Young University. "Rhetorical questions". specialized language definitions. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
Jump up ^ Powell, Chris; Paton, George E. C. (1988). Humour in society: resistance and control. Macmillan. p. 67. ISBN 0-333-44070-6.
Jump up ^ Moon, Rosamund (1998). Fixed expressions and idioms in English: a corpus-based approach (Oxford studies in lexicography and lexicology). Oxford University Press. p. 158. ISBN 0-19-823614-X.
Jump up ^ Fergusson, Rosalind; Partridge, Eric (1994). Shorter dictionary of catch phrases. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 0-415-10051-8.
Jump up ^ Javier Gutiérrez Rexach, "Rhetorical Questions, Relevance and Scales", Ohio State University, 1998
Jump up ^ http://www.whitesmoke.com/punctuation-question-mark.html#rhe Whitesmoke
Jump up ^ http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/marks/question.htm
Jump up ^ Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots & Leaves, 2003. p. 142. ISBN 1-59240-087-6.
Jump up ^ Gardiner, J (1907). "Manual of Composition and Rhetoric". Ginn & Company. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Boyd, Boyd (1997). Electronic Discourse: Linguistics Individuals in Virtual Space. Albany: State University of New York Press.
External links[edit]
What is a rhetorical question?
Audio illustrations of the rhetorical question
A short definition of the term
Paul Brians, Washington State University. "Common Errors in English". Grammatical Errors in the English Language. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
Roger Kreuz, Aaron Ashley, and Kathryn Bartlett, University of Memphis. "Twisting Arms: Figurative Language Effects in Persuasive Discourse" (PDF). psychology research paper. Retrieved 2008-03-27. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhetorical_question&oldid=819477220"
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