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Age requirements in gymnastics
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The age requirements in gymnastics are established by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) and regulate the age at which athletes are allowed to participate in senior-level competitions.
In the latter half of the 20th century, a series of controversies arose with regard to gymnast ages, some of them leading to sanctions by FIG, and paving the way for the age requirements to be raised from 14 to 15 in 1981, and then to 16 in 1997.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of age requirements in artistic gymnastics
2 Reasons for age restrictions
3 Current regulations
3.1 Terminology
3.2 Legal exceptions
3.3 Verification procedures
3.4 Response from coaches and federations
4 Age falsification
4.1 Reasons for age falsification
4.2 Major verified cases of age falsification
4.3 2008 Beijing Olympics age controversy
5 References
History of age requirements in artistic gymnastics[edit]
See also: Gymnastics all-around champions by age
Prior to 1981, the minimum required age to compete in senior events sanctioned by the FIG (including the Olympic Games) was 14.[1] The earliest champions in women's gymnastics tended to be in their 20s; most had studied ballet for years before entering the sport. Hungarian gymnast Ágnes Keleti won individual gold medals at the age of 35 at the 1956 Olympics. Larisa Latynina, the first great Soviet gymnast, won her first Olympic all-around medal at the age of 21, her second at 25 and her third at 29; she became the 1958 World Champion while pregnant with her daughter.[2] Czech gymnast Věra Čáslavská, who followed Latynina to become a two-time Olympic all-around champion, was 22 before she started winning gold medals at the highest level of the sport, and won her final Olympic all-around title at the age of 26.[3]
In the 1970s, the average age of Olympic gymnastics competitors began to gradually decrease. While it was not unheard of for teenagers to compete in the 1960s — Ludmilla Tourischeva was sixteen at her first Olympics in 1968 — they slowly became the norm, as difficulty in gymnastics increased.
By the late 1970s, Federations occasionally requested permission to allow slightly underage athletes to compete as seniors. One such example is that of Canadian gymnast Karen Kelsall, who legally competed in the 1976 Olympics at the age of 13. At the time, gymnasts had to turn 14 by the start of the Games to be eligible. Kelsall, with her December 1962 birthday, was five months shy of the requirement but was turning 14 within the Olympic year, and was granted a special exemption by the FIG to compete.[4] Such exemptions were not automatic, however: American gymnast Tracee Talavera, who was named to the United States team for the 1979 World Championships, was deemed ineligible to compete due to her age of 12½ years.[5][6]
In response to the changing demands of the sport, at the 58th Congress of the FIG, held in July 1980 just before the Moscow Olympics, the minimum age was raised from 14 to 15. Under this rule, which went into effect in 1981, gymnasts were required to turn at least 15 years of age in the calendar year to compete in senior-level events.[1] This age requirement remained in place until 1997, when it was raised one more year, from 15 to 16.[7][8]
Reasons for age restrictions[edit]
Age restrictions were designed supposedly not so much to level the playing field in terms of skill and physical advantages, but to allegedly protect child athletes from injury. However, critics dispute the science behind the policy and argue that the answer is to prohibit junior gymnasts from competing in senior competitions.
On the one hand, proponents such as Jeanne Dopbrak, a sports medicine physician at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, contend that "[a child athlete's] immature skeleton just isn't ready to handle the day-to-day stresses that will occur."[9] and that the stresses imposed on only partly developed muscular/skeletal system by gymnastics are almost certain to cause damage that would persist into adulthood. Proponents also point to a 16-year American study of gymnastics injuries which concluded that gymnastics is the most dangerous sport for girls, with injury rates comparable to those found in boys who play soccer, basketball and hockey.[10][11] An athlete whose bones are still growing is more likely than an adult to suffer skeletal injury, because the bones are more porous and the joints not yet fully formed.[12] Lesions, which are precursors to stress fractures, occur in 11 percent of young female gymnasts, compared to 2.3 percent of girls and women in general.[12] The International Gymnastics Federation says that intense physical activity, such as that engaged in by gymnasts training at the elite level, affects the functioning of growth hormones, possibly causing delayed bone growth and the onset of puberty – although the body is able to recover and catch up later if given rest periods.[11]
In addition, proponents contend that practicing elite sports is mentally and emotionally demanding. Young gymnasts at these levels are often pressured to perform by coaches and parents,[11][13] and ex-gymnasts have spoken out about behavioural and psychological problems common to the sport.[14]
Current regulations[edit]
Currently, per the 1997 regulation, gymnasts must be at least 16 years of age, or turning 16 within the calendar year, to compete in senior-level events. For the current Olympic cycle, in order to compete in the 2016 Olympics, a gymnast must have a birth date before January 1, 2001. There is no maximum age restriction, and some gymnasts compete well into their 20s. The oldest female gymnast currently competing in senior international events is Uzbekistan's Oksana Chusovitina,[15] (b. 1975) who was 41 years, 1 month old at the 2016 Summer Olympics. She was 17 years, 1 month old at her first Olympics, the 1992 Summer Olympics.
Terminology[edit]
The term senior, in gymnastics, refers to any world-class gymnast who is age-eligible under F.I.G. rules. The term junior is used to describe any gymnast who competes at a world-class level, but does not meet the F.I.G.'s age minimum. Juniors are judged under the same Code of Points as the seniors, and often exhibit the same level of difficulty in their routines.
Legal exceptions[edit]
The one exception to the F.I.G.'s age restrictions until recently applied to the year before the Olympics, when gymnasts who were one year below the required age, but would be the required age in the Olympic year, were allowed to compete as seniors at the World Championships and other FIG meets. For instance, gymnasts born in 1977 were allowed to compete at senior events in 1991, when they were 14 or turning 14 within the calendar year. Within the last Olympic cycle, gymnasts born in 1992 were permitted to compete as seniors in 2007. This was permitted to allow nations to qualify to the Olympics with their best teams, and to give emerging gymnasts some experience in major competition before the Olympics. However, the FIG eliminated this exception as of the 2012 Olympic cycle.[16]
In addition, the age requirement technically only applies to meets which are sanctioned and regulated directly by the FIG: the Olympics, the World Championships and the World Cup circuit. Many other meets, such as the European Championships, have separate divisions for juniors. Additionally, some competitions, such as the Pan Am Games, the Pacific Rim Championships and the All-Africa Games, have different rules which permit seniors and juniors to compete together. There are also numerous international competitions specifically limited to junior gymnasts, such as the Japan Junior International, Moscow World Stars, the Junior Pan American Championships, and the Youth Olympic Games.
Verification procedures[edit]
According to official statements from the FIG, "the accepted proof of a gymnast’s eligibility for competition is a valid passport issued by the country of residence."[17] This verification process has been criticized by some in the gymnastics community, with the argument that countries can manufacture and submit falsified documents for underage athletes.[18][19][20] In several cases, gymnasts involved in age falsification have verified that they did in fact compete under forged passports provided to them by their federations.[21][22]
Since 2009, gymnasts competing in FIG-sanctioned events at both the senior and junior level have been required to have licenses issued by the Federation. These licenses reportedly verify the competitors' ages based on their passports. However, the licensing does not include any independent verification of submitted passport information.[23]
Response from coaches and federations[edit]
The age limit is arguably one of the most contentious rules in gymnastics, and is frequently debated by coaches, gymnasts and members of the media. While some members of the sport, such as former USA Gymnastics president Bob Colarossi, have expressed support for the age limit of 16, others, such as coach Béla Károlyi, have heavily criticized it.[24]
Supporters of the age restrictions have pointed out that it has encouraged older gymnasts to remain in the sport. The average age of an international gymnast was 18.10 years in 2005. In contrast, in 1994, before the new age requirements, it was 16.49, and in 1989, gymnasts who had reached the age of 17 were already often considered to be of retirement age.[25][26]
Opponents of the rule have countered that by barring younger gymnasts from top level meets, they are denying them valuable competitive experience.[24] They have also argued that junior gymnasts perform and are scored under the same Code of Points as the seniors, perform the same skills, and are thus not avoiding the physical impact of training and performing high-level skills. It is also argued that the current Code of Points, with its increased requirements for difficult skills, is more suited to younger and lighter athletes, and puts older athletes at greater risk of injury.[19]
Age falsification[edit]
Age falsification is the practice of advancing gymnasts' ages to make them age-eligible for senior-level competition. Reports of age falsification among top-level international gymnasts first began to surface in the 1980s, after the age limit was raised from 14 to 15. This has frequently taken the form of inconsistently reported birthdates; at other times, speculation has been raised due to the young appearance of the gymnasts.[8][19] Age falsification has been revealed and confirmed in several ways. In some cases, gymnasts themselves have come forward and publicly confirmed and verified the falsification.[27] In other cases, documents revealing inconsistencies, such as original birth certificates, have been researched and uncovered by the press.[28] Inconsistencies with reported birth dates and ages at international and national competitions have also led to the discovery of age falsification.[29]
Gymnasts who have had their ages falsified, and have spoken about their experiences, have indicated that they were not given a choice in the matter.[21] In a 2002 interview, Romanian gymnast Daniela Silivaş, whose age was advanced two years in the 1980s, noted: "One of the officials of the Federation told me 'Look at the passport, from today you're not 13 years old anymore but 15.' Nobody asked me if I agreed to this, I was just a child. They needed gold medals and everybody who was involved in gymnastics knew about these practices."[22]
While age falsification has been denied among many gymnastics officials, in recent years some have publicly admitted that the practice has occurred. In reference to the falsifications of the early 1990s and 1980s, the head of the Romanian Gymnastics Federation, Nicolae Vieru, was quoted in 2002: "Changing the ages was a worldwide practice...we copied this from others."[8] The FIG has publicly stated that they view age falsification as an unacceptable practice. However, there have only been three cases, those of Kim Gwang Suk in 1993 and Dong Fangxiao and Hong Su Jong in 2010, where the FIG has elected to take any action against a gymnastics federation for age falsification.[19][30]
Reasons for age falsification[edit]
According to many scientific and medical studies, as well as reports from ex-gymnasts, younger gymnasts may have psychological or physical advantages in elite gymnastics competition.
Psychologically, younger gymnasts may be more fearless, and have less visceral appreciation for the potential for injury. They are therefore more likely to perform more dangerous, and more highly scored, routines with confidence and steadiness.[9] “Psychologically, I think they worry less,” former Olympic medallist Nellie Kim told the New York Times.[31] Daniela Silivaş, in her interview, commented, "You should know that I competed better at the age of 13 than at 17. I felt much better, physical (sic) and mentally."[22]
Physically, younger gymnasts, particularly those who have not yet gone through puberty, tend to be lighter, smaller, more pliable and flexible, which aids them in performing more complex skills and gives them a better strength-to-weight ratio. When a gymnast hits puberty, growth spurts and weight gain may affect her centre of gravity, causing mental and physical stress as she must adjust, and in some cases relearn, her moves to compensate.[9][32] Smaller athletes have generally excelled in the more challenging acrobatic elements required by the evolving Code of Points after the 1960s.[13] In addition, older gymnasts may be more prone to certain types of injuries caused by overuse of bones and muscles; younger gymnasts are less likely to have such problems, or more likely to be able to work through pain while injured.[9][13]
Major verified cases of age falsification[edit]
Kim Gwang Suk (North Korea): Kim, the 1991 World Champion on the uneven bars, was active on the international circuit between 1987 and 1993. During this time, several observers claimed she was too young for senior competition. The North Korean Gymnastics Federation submitted inconsistent dates of birth for Kim at various competitions, claiming that she was 15 for three consecutive years. As punishment, the F.I.G. barred the North Korean women's team from the World Championships in 1993. She competed in the 1989 World Championships at the estimated age of 11 or 12.[33] However, she may have been younger than that. At the 1992 Olympics, she claimed she was 17. However, her front teeth were missing, leading Béla Károlyi to speculate that she may have been as young as 10 at the time.[34]
Lavinia Agache (Romania): Agache competed at the 1981 World Championships at the age of 13, under a passport which gave her year of birth as 1967. She was in fact born in 1968. The falsification was suspected as early as 1981; Agache confirmed her 1968 birthdate to International Gymnast magazine in 2000.[6][35][36]
Olga Bicherova (Soviet Union): Bicherova, the 1981 World Champion in the all-around event, was introduced at an early 1981 meet as a 12-year-old, but was claimed to have been born in 1966 at the 1981 World Championships later in the same year.[6][37][38]
Gina Gogean (Romania): Gogean competed in the 1992 Olympics with a passport with a 1977 birth year. However, in 2002 her original birth certificate was uncovered by the media, revealing she had been born in 1978.[8][39]
Alexandra Marinescu (Romania): Marinescu, a World and team Olympic medalist in the mid-1990s, had her birth year advanced from 1982 to 1981 in order to be eligible for the 1995 World Championships and 1996 Olympic Games.[8][21]
Olga Mostepanova (Soviet Union): Mostepanova, who competed at the 1983 and 1985 World Championships and was the all-around gold medalist at the 1984 Friendship Games, has been reported as having 1968 and 1969 birth dates, but has stated that she was actually born in 1970.[40][41]
Daniela Silivaş (Romania): Silivaş, a multiple World and Olympic gold medalist, competed as a junior until 1985, when her birth year was changed from 1972 to 1970. She went on to compete at the 1985 World Championships at the age of 13. Silivaş revealed the falsification to the media in 2002.[22]
Dong Fangxiao (People's Republic of China): Dong was a member of the bronze-medal winning Chinese team at the 2000 Summer Olympics. Her birthdate was listed as January 20, 1983, in the FIG database. However, it was discovered that her accreditation as a technical official at the 2008 Summer Olympics, where she worked as a vault secretary, listed her birthdate as January 23, 1986. Additionally, her blog stated she was born during the Year of the Ox, which would place her birthdate between February 1985 and February 1986. An FIG investigation determined in 2010 that Dong was 14 during the 2000 Olympics and the Chinese team should be stripped of its bronze medal. Dong's 1999 World Championships and World Cup results were vacated.[42] In April 2010, the International Olympic Committee upheld the F.I.G.'s recommendation and nullified both the Chinese team's bronze medal and Dong's individual Olympic placement.[30]
Hong Su Jong (North Korea), the 2007 World Championships silver medalist on vault, was investigated for age discrepancies in 2010. Hong competed at the 2004 Olympics with a March 9, 1985, birth date, but participated in subsequent Asian Games and World Championships meets with a 1986 year of birth. Her 2010 F.I.G. license and 2010 Worlds registration indicated that she was born in 1989. The F.I.G. responded in October 2010 by provisionally banning North Korea from competition for one month, which effectively barred them from the 2010 World Championships.[43] In November 2010, the F.I.G. extended the ban until October 5, 2012, fined the North Korean Federation $20,800, and banned Hong from competing even in national competition within North Korea.[44]
2008 Beijing Olympics age controversy[edit]
See also: 2008 Summer Olympics allegation of underage gymnasts
During the 2008 Summer Olympics the age of four Chinese gymnasts — He Kexin, Jiang Yuyuan, Deng Linlin, and Yang Yilin — was brought into question, with many foreign media outlets speculating that they were underage during the Olympics.[45] Multiple age investigations were conducted at the urging of media, as well as United States Olympic Committee executive Jim Scherr and International Olympic Committee president Jacques Rogge,[46][47] and the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG) found that the gymnasts had met the age requirements and were eligible to compete.[48][49] The Chinese sports administration also acknowledged that mistakes in its paperwork have contributed to the misunderstanding.[50]
References[edit]
Gymnastics portal
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Jump up ^ Gymnastics Canada biography of Karen Kelsall Archived 2008-06-03 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ List of competitive results and bio at Gymn-Forum
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Jump up ^ Turner, Amanda (June 19, 2008). "Ageless Chusovitina Turns". International Gymnast. Archived from the original on 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
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Jump up ^ "Gymnast Age Limitations". NIS FIG Office. 2008-08-09. Archived from the original on 2008-08-21. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
Jump up ^ Armour, Nancy (2008-08-02). "More questions about Chinese gymnasts' ages". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 17 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-02.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Issues of Age Seem to Follow Chinese Gymnasts" Jere Longman, Juliet Macur. The New York Times, July 27, 2008
Jump up ^ Harris, Nick (2008-08-19). "Tweddle the loser as age doubts mar He's triumph". The Independent. Archived from the original on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
^ Jump up to: a b c The Secrets of a Gymnast. Norescu, Andrei, 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Daniela Silivas discusses her age". ProSport. 2002-06-30. Retrieved 2008-07-01.
Jump up ^ Pucin, Diane (2008-08-10). "More age monitoring for women's gymnastics". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 15 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-16.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gymnasts are Old-lympians/Golden Girls going for gold in Sydney" Paula Parrish, Colorado Springs Gazette, September 14, 2000
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^ Jump up to: a b "IOC strips 2000 Games bronze medal from China" Associated Press via USA Today April 28, 2010. Archived 2010-04-28.
Jump up ^ Longman, Jeré and Juliet Macur (2008-07-27). "Records Say Chinese Gymnasts May Be Under Age". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 10, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Row over ages of winning gymnasts". BBC/CBBC Newsround. 2008-08-22. Archived from the original on 5 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-26.
Jump up ^ "Gold Medalist and His Team May Be Barred From Olympic Games : Last Chance for a North Korean Athlete" Christopher Clarey, International Herald Times, Friday, April 19, 1996
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Jump up ^ "Olga Bicherova: The Youngest Champion" Vitali Melik-Karamov, Soviet Life, September 1982
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Jump up ^ FIG: China should be stripped of Sydney bronze Associated Press, February 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ "FIG Rejects Appeal; No Worlds for North Korea " Amanda Turner, International Gymnast, October 14, 2010
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Jump up ^ Macur, Juliet (2008-08-09). "Teeny-Tiny Matter of Age for China's Gymnasts". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
Jump up ^ Hutcheon, Stephen (2008-08-22). "IOC calls for investigation into gymnast's age". smh.com.au. Archived from the original on 22 August 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-22.
Jump up ^ Kent, Jo Ling (2008-08-22). "International Olympic Committee Investigates Underage Gymnasts Claims". ABC News. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
Jump up ^ "Officials say Chinese Olympic gymnasts not underage". International Herald Tribune. 2008-10-02. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
Jump up ^ Macur, Juliet (October 1, 2008). "Ruling Backs Chinese Gymnasts". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-01.
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Successor
Alexander Kerensky
The Russian Provisional Government (Russian: Временное правительство России, tr. Vremennoye pravitel'stvo Rossii) was a provisional government of Russia established immediately following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II of the Russian Empire on 2 March [15 March, New Style] 1917.[1][2] The intention of the provisional government was the organization of elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and its convention. The provisional government lasted approximately eight months, and ceased to exist when the Bolsheviks gained power after the October Revolution in October [November, N.S.] 1917. According to Harold Whitmore Williams the history of eight months during which Russia was ruled by the Provisional Government was the history of the steady and systematic disorganisation of the army.[3]
For most of the life of the Provisional Government, the status of the monarchy was unresolved. This was finally clarified on 1 September [14 September, N.S.], when the Russian Republic was proclaimed, in a decree signed by Kerensky as Minister-President and Zarudny as Minister of Justice.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
1.1 World recognition
2 Formation
3 Initial composition
4 April Crisis
5 July crisis and second coalition government
6 Third coalition
7 Legislative policies and problems
8 Democratization
9 Kornilov affair and declaration of Republic
10 October Revolution
11 See also
12 Footnotes
13 Further reading
13.1 Primary sources
Overview[edit]
The Provisional Government was formed in Petrograd by the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and was led first by Prince Georgy Lvov and then by Alexander Kerensky. It replaced the institution of the Council of Ministers of Russia, members of which after the February Revolution presided in the Chief Office of Admiralty.[citation needed] At the same time the Russian Emperor Nicholas II abdicated in favor of the Grand Duke Michael who agreed that he would accept after the decision of Russian Constituent Assembly. The Provisional Government was unable to make decisive policy decisions due to political factionalism and a breakdown of state structures.[5] This weakness left the government open to strong challenges from both the right and the left. The Provisional Government's chief adversary on the left was the Petrograd Soviet, which tentatively cooperated with the government at first, but then gradually gained control of the army, factories, and railways.[6] The period of competition for authority ended in late October 1917, when Bolsheviks routed the ministers of the Provisional Government in the events known as the October Revolution, and placed power in the hands of the soviets, or "workers' councils," which had given their support to the Bolsheviks. The weakness of the Provisional Government is perhaps best reflected in the derisive nickname given to Kerensky: "persuader-in-chief."[7]
World recognition[edit]
country
date
United States 22 March 1917
United Kingdom 24 March 1917
France
Italy
Formation[edit]
Russian Provisional Government in March 1917
The authority of the Tsar's government began disintegrating on 1 November 1916, when Milyukov attacked the Boris Stürmer government in the Duma. Stürmer was succeeded by Alexander Trepov and Nikolai Golitsyn, both Prime Ministers for only a few weeks. During the February Revolution two rival institutions, the Imperial Duma and the Petrograd Soviet, both located in the Tauride Palace, competed for power. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on 2 March [15 March, N.S.] and Milyukov announced the committee's decision to offer the Regency to his brother, Grand Duke Michael as the next tsar.[8] Grand Duke Michael did not want to take the poisoned chalice[9] and deferred acceptance of imperial power the next day. The Provisional Government was designed to set up elections to the Assembly while maintaining essential government services, but its power was effectively limited by the Petrograd Soviet's growing authority.
Public announcement of the formation of the Provisional Government was made. It was published in Izvestia the day after its formation.[10] The announcement stated the declaration of government
Full and immediate amnesty on all issues political and religious, including: terrorist acts, military uprisings, and agrarian crimes etc.
Freedom of word, press, unions, assemblies, and strikes with spread of political freedoms to military servicemen within the restrictions allowed by military-technical conditions.
Abolition of all hereditary, religious, and national class restrictions.
Immediate preparations for the convocation on basis of universal, equal, secret, and direct vote for the Constituent Assembly which will determine the form of government and the constitution.
Replacement of the police with a public militsiya and its elected chairmanship subordinated to the local authorities.
Elections to the authorities of local self-government on basis of universal, direct, equal, and secret vote.
Non-disarmament and non-withdrawal out of Petrograd the military units participating in the revolution movement.
Under preservation of strict discipline in ranks and performing a military service - elimination of all restrictions for soldiers in the use of public rights granted to all other citizens.
It also said, "The provisional government feels obliged to add that it is not intended to take advantage of military circumstances for any delay in implementing the above reforms and measures."
Initial composition[edit]
Initial composition of the Provisional Government:

Post
Name
Party
Time of appointment
Minister-President and Minister of the Interior Georgy Lvov March 1917
Minister of Foreign Affairs Pavel Milyukov Kadet March 1917
Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-Party April 1917
Minister of War and Navy Alexander Guchkov Octobrist March 1917
Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party April 1917
Minister of Transport Nikolai Nekrasov Kadet March 1917
Minister of Trade and Industry Alexander Konovalov Progressist March 1917
Minister of Justice Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party March 1917
Pavel Pereverzev Socialist-Revolutionary Party April 1917
Minister of Finance Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-Party March 1917
Andrei Shingarev Kadet April 1917
Minister of Education Andrei Manuilov Kadet March 1917
Minister of Agriculture Andrei Shingarev Kadet March 1917
Victor Chernov Socialist-Revolutionary Party April 1917
Minister of Labour Matvey Skobelev Menshevik April 1917
Minister of Food Alexey Peshekhonov Popular Socialists (Russia) April 1917
Minister of Post and Telegraph Irakli Tsereteli Menshevik April 1917
Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod Vladimir Lvov Progressist March 1917
April Crisis[edit]
On 18 April [1 May, N.S.] 1917 minister of Foreign Affairs Pavel Milyukov sent a note to the Allied governments, promising to continue the war to 'its glorious conclusion'. On 20–21 April 1917 massive demonstrations of workers and soldiers erupted against the continuation of war. Demonstrations demanded resignation of Milyukov. They were soon met by the counter-demonstrations organised in his support. General Lavr Kornilov, commander of the Petrograd military district, wished to suppress the disorders, but premier Georgy Lvov refused to resort to violence.
The Provisional Government accepted the resignation of Foreign Minister Milyukov and War Minister Guchkov, and made a proposal to the Petrograd Soviet to form a coalition government. As a result of negotiations, on 22 April 1917 agreement was reached and 6 socialist ministers joined the cabinet.
During this period the Provisional Government merely reflected the will of the Soviet, where left tendencies (Bolshevism) were gaining ground. The Government, however, influenced by the "bourgeois" ministers, tried to base itself on the right wing of the Soviet. Socialist ministers, coming under fire from their left wing Soviet associates, were compelled to pursue a double-faced policy. The Provisional Government was unable to make decisive policy decisions due to political factionalism and a breakdown of state structures.[5]
July crisis and second coalition government[edit]
Kerensky First Government

10th cabinet of Russia
Date formed
July 1917 (see July Days)
Date dissolved
1 September 1917
People and organisations
Head of state
Grand Duke Michael (conditionally)
Alexander Kerensky (de facto)
Head of government
Alexander Kerensky
Member party
Socialist-Revolutionaries
Status in legislature
Coalition
Opposition cabinet
Executive Committee of Petrograd Soviet
Opposition party
RSDLP
Opposition leader
Nikolay Chkheidze / Leon Trotsky
History
Incoming formation
Lvov
Outgoing formation
Kerensky II
Predecessor
Georgy Lvov
Successor
Alexander Kerensky
The July Days took place in Petrograd between 3–7 July [16–20 July, N.S.] 1917, when soldiers and industrial workers in the city took to the streets in opposition to the Provisional Government. After the rising was put down, the Bolsheviks were blamed for it, and their leader Vladimir Lenin went into hiding, while other leaders were arrested.[11]
The result of the events was new protracted crisis in the Provisional Government. "Bourgeois" ministers, belonging to the Constitutional Democratic Party resigned, and no cabinet could be formed to the end of the month. Finally, on 24 July [6 August, N.S.] 1917, a new coalition cabinet, composed mostly of socialists, was formed with Kerensky at its head.
Second coalition:
Post
Name
Party
Minister-President and Minister of War and Navy Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Vice-President, Minister of Finance Nikolai Nekrasov
Minister of Foreign Affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-party
Minister of Internal Affairs Nikolai Avksentiev Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Minister of Transport Piotr Yurenev Kadet
Minister of Trade and Industry Sergei Prokopovich Non-party
Minister of Justice Alexander Zarudny Popular Socialists (Russia)
Minister of Education Sergey Oldenburg Kadet
Minister of Agriculture Victor Chernov Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Minister of Labour Matvey Skobelev Menshevik
Minister of Food Alexey Peshekhonov Popular Socialists (Russia)
Minister of Health Care Ivan Efremov
Minister of Post and Telegraph Alexei Nikitin Menshevik
Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod Vladimir Lvov Progressist
Third coalition[edit]
See also: Directorate (Russia)
Third Russian Provisional Government
From 25 September [8 October, N.S.] 1917.
Post
Name
Party
Minister-President Alexander Kerensky Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Vice-President, Minister of Trade and Industry Alexander Konovalov Kadets
Minister of Foreign Affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko Non-party
Minister of Internal Affairs, Post and Telegraph Alexei Nikitin Menshevik
Minister of War Alexander Verkhovsky
Minister of Navy Dmitry Verderevsky
Minister of Finance Mikhail Bernatsky
Minister of Justice Pavel Malyantovitch Menshevik
Minister of Transport Alexander Liverovsky Non-party
Minister of Education Sergei Salazkin Non-party
Minister of Agriculture Semen Maslov Socialist-Revolutionary Party
Minister of Labour Kuzma Gvozdev Menshevik
Minister of Food Sergei Prokopovich Non-party
Minister of Health Care Nikolai Kishkin Kadet
Minister of Post and Telegraph Alexei Nikitin Menshevik
Minister of Religion Anton Kartashev Kadet
Legislative policies and problems[edit]
Government Seal
With the 1917 February Revolution, Tsar Nicholas II’s abdication, and the formation of a completely new Russian state, Russia’s political spectrum dramatically altered. The tsarist leadership represented an authoritarian, conservative form of governance. The Kadet Party (see Constitutional Democratic Party), composed mostly of liberal intellectuals, formed the greatest opposition to the tsarist regime leading up to the February Revolution. The Kadets transformed from an opposition force into a role of established leadership, as the former opposition party held most of the power in the new Provisional Government, which replaced the tsarist regime. The February Revolution was also accompanied by further politicization of the masses. Politicization of working people led to the leftward shift of the political spectrum.
Many urban workers originally supported the socialist Menshevik Party (see Menshevik), while some, though a small minority in February, favored the more radical Bolshevik Party (see Bolshevik). The Mensheviks often supported the actions of the Provisional Government and believed that the existence of such a government was a necessary step to achieve Communism. On the other hand, the Bolsheviks violently opposed the Provisional Government and desired a more rapid transition to Communism. In the countryside, political ideology also shifted leftward, with many peasants supporting the Socialist Revolutionary Party (see Socialist-Revolutionary Party). The SRs advocated a form of agrarian socialism and land policy that the peasantry overwhelmingly supported. For the most part, urban workers supported the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks (with greater numbers supporting the Bolsheviks as 1917 progressed), while the peasants supported the Socialist Revolutionaries. The rapid development and popularity of these leftist parties turned moderate-liberal parties, such as the Kadets, into "new conservatives." The Provisional Government was mostly composed of "new conservatives," and the new government faced tremendous opposition from the left.
Opposition was most obvious with the development and dominance of the Petrograd Soviet, which represented the socialist views of leftist parties. A dual power structure quickly arose consisting of the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet. While the Provisional Government retained the formal authority to rule over Russia, the Petrograd Soviet maintained actual power. With its control over the army and the railroads, the Petrograd Soviet had the means to enforce policies.[12] The Provisional Government lacked the ability to administer its policies. In fact, local soviets, political organizations mostly of socialists, often maintained discretion when deciding whether or not to implement the Provisional Government’s laws.
Despite its short reign of power and implementation shortcomings, the Provisional Government passed very progressive legislation. The policies enacted by this moderate government (by 1917 Russian standards) represented arguably the most liberal legislation in Europe at the time.[citation needed] The independence of Church from state, the emphasis on rural self governance, and the affirmation of fundamental civil rights (such as freedom of speech, press, and assembly) that the tsarist government had periodically restricted shows the progressivism of the Provisional Government. Other policies included the abolition of capital punishment and economic redistribution in the countryside. The Provisional Government also granted more freedoms to previously suppressed regions of the Russian Empire. Poland was granted independence and Lithuania and Ukraine became more autonomous.[13]
The main obstacle and problem of the Provisional Government was its inability to enforce and administer legislative policies. Foreign policy was the one area in which the Provisional Government was able to exercise its discretion to a great extent. However, the continuation of aggressive foreign policy (for example, the Kerensky Offensive) increased opposition to the government. Domestically, the Provisional Government’s weaknesses were blatant. The dual power structure was in fact dominated by one side, the Petrograd Soviet. Minister of War Alexander Guchkov stated that "We (the Provisional Government) do not have authority, but only the appearance of authority; the real power lies with the Soviet".[14] Severe limitations existed on the Provisional Government's ability to rule.
While it was true that the Provisional Government lacked enforcement ability, prominent members within the Government encouraged bottom-up rule. Politicians such as Prime Minister Georgy Lvov favored devolution of power to decentralized organizations. The Provisional Government did not desire the complete decentralization of power, but certain members definitely advocated more political participation by the masses in the form of grassroots mobilization.
Democratization[edit]
The rise of local organizations, such as trade unions and rural institutions, and the devolution of power within Russian government gave rise to democratization. It is difficult to say that the Provisional Government desired the rise of these powerful, local institutions. As stated in the previous section, some politicians within the Provisional Government advocated the rise of these institutions. Local government bodies had discretionary authority when deciding which Provisional Government laws to implement. For example, institutions that held power in rural areas were quick to implement national laws regarding the peasantry’s use of idle land. Real enforcement power was in the hands of these local institutions and the soviets. Russian historian W.E. Mosse points out, this time period represented "the only time in modern Russian history when the Russian people were able to play a significant part in the shaping of their destinies".[15] While this quote romanticizes Russian society under the Provisional Government, the quote nonetheless shows that important democratic institutions were prominent in 1917 Russia.
Special interest groups also developed throughout 1917. Special interest groups play a large role in every society deemed "democratic" today, and such was the case of Russia in 1917. Many on the far left would argue that the presence of special interest groups represent a form of bourgeois democracy, in which the interests of an elite few are represented to a greater extent than the working masses. The rise of special interest organizations gave people the means to mobilize and play a role in the democratic process. While groups such as trade unions formed to represent the needs of the working classes, professional organizations were also prominent.[16] Professional organizations quickly developed a political side to represent member’s interests. The political involvement of these groups represents a form of democratic participation as the government listened to such groups when formulating policy. Such interest groups played a negligible role in politics before February 1917 and after October 1917.
While professional special interest groups were on the rise, so too were worker organizations, especially in the cities. Beyond the formation of trade unions, factory committees of workers rapidly developed on the plant level of industrial centers. The factory committees represented the most radical viewpoints of the time period. The Bolsheviks gained their popularity within these institutions. Nonetheless, these committees represented the most democratic element of 1917 Russia. However, this form of democracy differed from and went beyond the political democracy advocated by the liberal intellectual elites and moderate socialists of the Provisional Government. Workers established economic democracy, as employees gained managerial power and direct control over their workplace. Worker self-management became a common practice throughout industrial enterprises.[17] As workers became more militant and gained more economic power, they supported the radical Bolshevik party and lifted the Bolsheviks into power in October, 1917. However, the Bolsheviks envisioned party-led control of the economy. Therefore, worker self-management, the ultimate form of economic democracy, disappeared when the Bolsheviks gained control of Russia.
Kornilov affair and declaration of Republic[edit]
Main article: Kornilov affair
The Kornilov affair was an attempted military coup d'état by the then commander-in-chief of the Russian army, General Lavr Kornilov in September 1917 [18](August old style). Due to the extreme weakness of the government at this point, there was talk among the elites of bolstering its power by including Kornilov as a military dictator on the side of Kerensky. The extent to which this deal had indeed been accepted by all parties is still unclear. What is clear, however, is that when Kornilov's troops approached Petrograd, Kerensky branded them as counter-revolutionaries and demanded their arrest. This move can be seen as an attempt to bolster his own power by making him a defender of the revolution against a Napoleon-type figure. However, it had terrible consequences, as Kerensky's move was seen in the army as a betrayal of Kornilov, making them finally disloyal to the Provisional Government. Furthermore, as Kornilov's troops were arrested by the now armed Red Guard, it was the Soviet that was seen to have saved the country from military dictatorship. In order to defend himself and Petrograd, he provided the Bolsheviks with arms as he had little support from the army. When Kornilov did not attack Kerensky, the Bolsheviks did not return their weapons, making them a greater concern to Kerensky and the Provisional Government.
Thus far, the status of the monarchy had been unresolved. This was clarified on 1 September [14 September, N.S.], when the Russian Republic (Российская республика, Rossiyskaya respublika) was proclaimed, in a decree signed by Kerensky as Minister-President and Zarudny as Minister of Justice.[4]
The Decree read as follows:
The Coup of General Kornilov is suppressed. But the turmoil that he spread in the ranks of the army and in the country is great. Once again, a great danger threatens the fate of the country and its freedom. Considering it necessary to put an end to the uncertainty in the political system, and keeping in mind the unanimous and enthusiastic recognition of Republican ideas, which affected the Moscow State Conference, the Provisional Government announces that the state system of the Russian state is the republican system and proclaims the Russian Republic. Urgent need for immediate and decisive action to restore the shocked state system has prompted the Provisional Government to pass the power of government to five individuals from its staff, headed by the Prime Minister. The Provisional Government considers its main objective to be the restoration of public order and the fighting efficiency of the armed forces. Believing that only the concentration of all the surviving forces of the country can help the Motherland out of the difficulty in which it now finds itself, the Provisional Government will seek to expand its membership by attracting to its ranks all those who consider the eternal and general interests of the country more important than the short-term and particular needs of certain parties or classes. The Provisional Government has no doubt that it will succeed in this task in the days ahead.[4]
On 12 September [25, N.S] an All-Russian Democratic Conference was convened, and its presidium decided to create a Pre-Parliament and a Special Constituent Assembly which was to elaborate the future Constitution of Russia. This Constitutional Assembly was to be chaired by Professor N. I. Lazarev and the historian V. M. Gessen.[4] The Provisional Government was expected to continue to administer Russia until the Constituent Assembly had determined the future form of government. On 16 September 1917, the Duma was dissolved by the newly created Directorate.
October Revolution[edit]
Main articles: October Revolution and Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
Milrevcom proclamation about the overthrowing of the Provisional Government
On 25–26 October Red Guard forces under the leadership of Bolshevik commanders launched their final attack on the ineffectual Provisional Government. Most government offices were occupied and controlled by Bolshevik soldiers on the 25th; the last holdout of the Provisional Ministers, the Tsar's Winter Palace on the Neva River bank, was captured on the night of the 26th. Kerensky escaped the Winter Palace raid and fled to Pskov, where he rallied some loyal troops for an attempt to retake the capital. His troops managed to capture Tsarskoe Selo but were beaten the next day at Pulkovo. Kerensky spent the next few weeks in hiding before fleeing the country. He went into exile in France and eventually emigrated to the U.S.
The Bolsheviks then replaced the government with their own. The Little Council (or Underground Provisional Government) met at the house of Sofia Panina briefly in an attempt to resist the Bolsheviks. However this initiative ended on 28 November with the arrest of Panina, Fyodor Kokoshkin, Andrei Ivanovich Shingarev and Prince Pavel Dolgorukov and Panina being the subject of a political trial.[19]
Some academics, such as Pavel Osinsky, argue that the October Revolution was as much a function of the failures of the Provisional Government as it was of the strength of the Bolsheviks. Osinsky described this as "socialism by default" as opposed to "socialism by design." [20]
Riasanovsky argued that the Provisional Government made perhaps its "worst mistake"[7] by not holding elections to the Constituent Assembly soon enough. They wasted time fine-tuning details of the election law, while Russia slipped further into anarchy and economic chaos. By the time the Assembly finally met, Riasanovsky noted, "the Bolsheviks had already gained control of Russia."[21]
See also[edit]
Diplomatic history of World War I
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Manifest of abdication (in Russian)
Jump up ^ "Announcement of the First Provisional Government, 13 March 1917". FirstWorldWar.com. 2002-12-29. Retrieved 2007-12-12.
Jump up ^ Harold Whitmore Williams (1919) The Spirit of the Russian Revolution, p. 14, 15. Russian Liberation Committee, no. 9, 173 Fleet Street. London
^ Jump up to: a b c d The Russian Republic Proclaimed at prlib.ru, accessed 12 June 2017
^ Jump up to: a b "Annotated chronology (notes)". University of Oregon/Alan Kimball. 2004-11-29. Retrieved 2007-12-13.
Jump up ^ Kerensky, Alexander (1927). The Catastrophe— Kerensky’s Own Story of the Russian Revolu. D. Appleton and Company. p. 126. ISBN 0-527-49100-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Riasanovsky, Nicholas (2000). A History of Russia (sixth edition). Oxford University Press. p. 457. ISBN 0-19-512179-1.
Jump up ^ Harold Whitmore Williams (1919), p. 3
Jump up ^ M. Lynch, Reaction and Revolution: Russia 1894-1924 (3rd ed.), Hodder Murray, London 2005, pg. 79
Jump up ^ "Announcement of the First Provisional Government, 3 March 1917". FirstWorldWar.com. 2002-12-29. Retrieved 2007-12-12.
Jump up ^ Christopher Read (2005) Lenin. London, Routledge: 160-2
Jump up ^ Rex A. Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 67
Jump up ^ W. E. Mosse, "Interlude: The Russian Provisional Government 1917," Soviet Studies 15 (1964): 411-412
Jump up ^ Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917, 57
Jump up ^ Mosse, "Interlude: The Russian Provisional Government 1917," 414
Jump up ^ Matthew Rendle, "The Officer Corps, Professionalism, And Democracy In The Russian Revolution," 922
Jump up ^ Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 54-55
Jump up ^ "1917 Free History". Yandex Publishing. Retrieved 8 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Lindenmeyr, Adele (October 2001), "The First Soviet Political Trial: Countess Sofia Panina before the Petrograd Revolutionary Tribunal", The Russian Review, 60: 505–525, doi:10.1111/0036-0341.00188
Jump up ^ Osinsky, Pavel. War, State Collapse, Redistribution: Russian Revolution Revisited, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, Montreal Convention Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada August 2006
Jump up ^ Riasanovsky, Nicholas (2000). A History of Russia (sixth edition). Oxford University Press. p. 458. ISBN 0-19-512179-1.
Further reading[edit]
Abraham, Richard (1987). Kerensky: First Love of the Revolution. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-06108-0.
Acton, Edward, et al. eds. Critical companion to the Russian Revolution, 1914-1921 (Indiana UP, 1997).
Hickey, Michael C. "The Provisional Government and Local Administration in Smolensk in 1917." Journal of Modern Russian History and Historiography 9.1 (2016): 251-274.
Lipatova, Nadezhda V. "On the Verge of the Collapse of Empire: Images of Alexander Kerensky and Mikhail Gorbachev." Europe-Asia Studies 65.2 (2013): 264-289.
Orlovsky, Daniel. "Corporatism or democracy: the Russian Provisional Government of 1917." The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review 24.1 (1997): 15-25.
Thatcher, Ian D. "Post-Soviet Russian Historians and the Russian Provisional Government of 1917." Slavonic & East European Review 93.2 (2015): 315-337. online
Thatcher, Ian D. "Memoirs of the Russian Provisional Government 1917." Revolutionary Russia 27.1 (2014): 1-21.
Primary sources[edit]
Browder, Robert P. and Alexander F. Kerensky, eds. The Russian Provisional Government 1917 (3 vols, Stanford UP, 1961).
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The Book of Eli
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 12th-century English chronicle, see Book of Ely.
The Book of Eli
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
The Hughes brothers
Produced by
Joel Silver
Susan Downey
Andrew Kosove
Broderick Johnson
Denzel Washington
Written by
Gary Whitta
Starring
Denzel Washington
Gary Oldman
Mila Kunis
Ray Stevenson
Jennifer Beals
Music by
Atticus Ross
Leopold Ross
Claudia Sarne
Cinematography
Don Burgess
Edited by
Cindy Mollo
Production
company
Alcon Entertainment
Silver Pictures
Distributed by
Warner Bros. Pictures (USA)
Summit Entertainment (International)
Release date
January 15, 2010 (2010-01-15)
Running time
117 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$80 million[2]
Box office
$157,107,755[3]
The Book of Eli is a 2010 American post-apocalyptic neo-Western action film directed by the Hughes brothers, written by Gary Whitta, and starring Denzel Washington, Gary Oldman, Mila Kunis, Ray Stevenson, and Jennifer Beals. The story revolves around Eli, a nomad in a post-apocalyptic world, who is told by a voice to deliver his copy of a mysterious book to a safe location on the West Coast of the United States. The history of the post-war world is explained along the way, as is the importance of Eli's task. Filming began in February 2009 and took place in New Mexico.[4]
The film has received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 47% of 200 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 5.5 out of 10. The film was released in theaters in January 2010. Alcon Entertainment financed and co-produced the film with Silver Pictures, while it was distributed by Warner Bros. in the United States; international sales were handled by Summit Entertainment.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical reviews
5 Home media
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot
Thirty years after a nuclear apocalypse,[5] Eli (Denzel Washington) travels on foot toward the west coast of the former United States. Along the way he demonstrates uncanny survival and fighting skills, hunting wildlife and swiftly defeating a group of desert bandits who try to ambush him. Searching for water, he arrives in a ramshackle town rebuilt and overseen by Carnegie (Gary Oldman). Carnegie dreams of building more towns and of controlling the people by using the power of a certain book. His henchmen scour the desolate landscape daily in search of it, but to no avail.
In town Eli barters with a store owner, the Engineer (Tom Waits), to recharge the battery of his portable music player. While waiting, he goes across the street to the town bar, where a gang of bikers attack, but he quickly kills all fifteen. Realizing Eli is a literate man like himself, Carnegie asks Eli to stay, making it clear that the offer is non-negotiable. After Carnegie's blind mistress Claudia (Jennifer Beals) gives Eli some food and water, Carnegie orders Claudia's daughter Solara (Mila Kunis) to seduce Eli, but he turns her down. While killing time, she finds his book. Unperturbed, Eli offers to share his food with her, and before they eat, he says grace. The following day, Solara repeats the prayer, but Carnegie overhears them and realizes Solara's words relate to the book he has been seeking. He soon forces Solara to tell him if Eli was reading a book, and realizes Eli's book is the one he wants—a Bible.
Eli sneaks out of his room and Carnegie has his henchmen shoot at Eli, but the bullets seemingly just graze him, as if he is being protected. Eli shoots most of Carnegie's men and hits Carnegie in the leg with a shotgun blast. Solara, having left the town, leads Eli to a cave which is the town's water supply, hoping she can accompany him on his travels. Eli traps her inside and continues on alone. Solara escapes and soon finds herself ambushed by two bandits who attempt to rape her, but Eli reappears and kills them. As they continue on, Eli explains his mission to Solara. According to Eli, his book is the last remaining copy of the Bible, as all other copies were intentionally destroyed following the nuclear war thirty years ago. He says he was led to the book by a voice in his head, which then directed him to travel westward to a place where it would be safe. The voice assured him that he would be protected and guided on his journey.
Eventually, Eli and Solara investigate an isolated house. They fall into a trap, but manage to allay the suspicions of the residents, George (Michael Gambon) and Martha (Frances de la Tour), who invite them in for tea. When Eli realizes that the couple are cannibals, they attempt to leave just as Carnegie and his henchmen arrive. In the ensuing shootout, George, Martha and many of Carnegie's men are killed. While Eli and Solara are captured, Carnegie threatens to kill Solara unless Eli surrenders the Bible. With the Bible now in his possession, Carnegie shoots Eli, leaving him for dead. Solara escapes and drives back to help Eli. Rather than chase her, Carnegie returns to the town, since his sole remaining vehicle is running low on fuel. Solara finds Eli, and they drive until they reach the Golden Gate Bridge, and then row to Alcatraz Island, where they find a group intent on preserving what they can of literature and music. Eli tells the guards that he has a copy of the King James Version of the Bible. Once inside, Eli, revealed to be blind, begins to dictate the Bible from memory to Lombardi (Malcolm McDowell), the leader of the group.[6][5]
Meanwhile, back in the town, the Engineer opens the locked Bible where Carnegie discovers, to his dismay, that it is in Braille, and orders Claudia to read it to him. She pretends that she cannot remember how to read it, telling Carnegie his leg wound has become infected and his men have begun to run amok. At the sanctuary, Eli has died, but not before he finished reciting the entire book. The printing press at Alcatraz begins producing copies of the Bible, and Lombardi places one on a bookshelf between the Torah and Tanakh on one side and the Quran on the other. Solara, though offered sanctuary, chooses to return home, taking with her Eli's sword and other possessions.
Cast
Denzel Washington as Eli
Gary Oldman as Carnegie
Mila Kunis as Solara
Ray Stevenson as Redridge
Jennifer Beals as Claudia
Evan Jones as Martz
Joe Pingue as Hoyt
Frances de la Tour as Martha
Michael Gambon as George
Tom Waits as Engineer
Chris Browning as Hijack Leader
Malcolm McDowell as Lombardi (uncredited)
Production
In May 2007, Columbia Pictures and Warner Bros. signed the Hughes brothers to direct The Book of Eli, based on a script by Gary Whitta. (The brothers had last directed the 2001 film From Hell.)[7] Subsequently, Anthony Peckham rewrote the script, and in September 2008 Denzel Washington won the lead role.[8] The following October, Gary Oldman was cast to star alongside Washington.[9] Principal photography began in February 2009 and took place in New Mexico.[10] Alcon Entertainment financed the film and co-produced with Silver Pictures.[11]
Jeff Imada choreographed the complex fight scenes, which feature the Filipino martial art of Kali. Washington trained for months with Dan Inosanto and Imada for his role.[12]
Reception
Box office
The film was released in North America on January 15, 2010 in 3,111 theaters. It took in $11,672,970—$3,752 per theater, its opening day.[13] By the end of its opening four-day holiday weekend it grossed $38,437,553—$12,355 per theater. It ranked number two, behind Avatar.[14] On its second weekend, it placed third with Legion taking its number two place and grossed $15,732,493—$5,057 per theater.[15] By its third weekend it dropped down to number five and made $8,908,286—$2,897 per theater.[16] The film has come to gross $94,835,059 in the United States and Canada, and $62,256,659 in other markets, with an estimated worldwide total of $157,091,718.[3]
Critical reviews
The film has received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 48% of 188 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 5.5 out of 10. The site's consensus is that "It's certainly uneven, and many viewers will find that its reach exceeds its grasp, but The Book of Eli finds the Hughes brothers injecting some fresh stylish fun into the kind of post-apocalyptic wasteland filmgoers have seen more than enough of lately."[17] Based on 33 critics reviews, Metacritic (another review aggregator) has assigned the film a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[18]
Todd McCarthy of Variety predicted "this will not be one of ... Denzel Washington's bigger grossers."[19] Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert gave the film 3 of 4 stars and said of the film: "You won't be sorry you went. It grips your attention, and then at the end throws in several WTF! moments, which are a bonus."[20] Reviewing the film for The A.V. Club, Scott Tobias graded the film a B, and wrote "At a time when theaters are experiencing a glut of doomsday scenarios, the Hughes' ashen, bombed-out future world looks a little too familiar, no matter how crisply they present it. But the showdown between Washington and a deliciously hammy Oldman complicates the film's overt religiosity...".[21] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a D, calling it "a ponderous dystopian bummer that might be described as The Road Warrior without car chases, or The Road without humanity.[22]
Home media
The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc on May 31, 2010 in the UK and on June 15, 2010 in the United States and Canada. The DVD took the top spot on all three national home video market charts in its first week. It premiered No. 1 on Home Media Magazine's Rental Chart, the Nielsen VideoScan Blu-ray chart, and the Nielsen VideoScan First Alert Sales Chart, where it outdistanced its nearest competitor in sales by a 3 to 1 margin.[23]
See also
Eli (biblical figure)
References
Jump up ^ THE BOOK OF ELI rated 15 by the BBFC
Jump up ^ "Movie projector: 'Book of Eli' first major challenger to 'Avatar'". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Company. January 14, 2010. Retrieved January 22, 2010. Alcon spent $80 million to produce the movie, which stars Denzel Washington.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Book of Eli (2010)". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. Retrieved October 23, 2010.
Jump up ^ Goundry, Nick (February 1, 2010). "The Book of Eli shoots in New Mexico". The Location Guide. Retrieved July 15, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Giroux, Jack (18 January 2010). "Interview, Part 1: Gary Whitta on 'The Book of Eli'". The Film Stage. Retrieved 2 Aug 2017.
Jump up ^ Bakhshian, Sara (January 2010). "'The Book of Eli': Interview with Denzel Washington, Mila Kunis, and Gary Oldman". Retrieved 3 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Michael (May 21, 2007). "Hughes brothers set for 'Book of Eli'". Variety. Retrieved November 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Michael; Dave McNary (September 4, 2008). "Denzel Washington picks up 'Book'". Variety. Retrieved November 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (October 29, 2008). "Gary Oldman joins 'Book of Eli'". Variety. Retrieved November 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ Vozick-Levinson, Simon (February 2009). "Jack Black Rocks 'Yo Gabba Gabba' and More First Looks". Entertainment Weekly. Time Warner. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Gary Oldman joins Denzel on 'Eli'". Reel Suave. October 30, 2008.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Eli – Behind the Scenes:Stunts". Yahoo! Movies. Yahoo!. 2010.
Jump up ^ "Daily Box Office for Friday, January 15, 2010". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. January 15, 2010. Retrieved January 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for January 15–18, 2010 (4-day weekend)". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. January 18, 2010. Retrieved January 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for January 22–24, 2010". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. January 24, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for January 29–31, 2010". Box Office Mojo. IMDb. January 31, 2010. Retrieved February 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Eli (2010)". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved January 3, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Eli: Reviews". Metacritic. CNET Networks. Retrieved January 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ McCarthy, Todd (January 10, 2010). "The Book of Eli Review". 'Variety. Reed Business Information. Retrieved January 13, 2010.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (January 14, 2010). "The Book of Eli review". Chicago Sun-Times. Sun-Times Media Group.
Jump up ^ Tobias, Scott (January 14, 2010). "The Book of Eli". The AV Club. Retrieved August 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Owen Gleiberman (January 15, 2010). "The Book of Eli". Entertainment Weekly. Time Warner. Retrieved January 17, 2010.
Jump up ^ "The Book of Eli Sweeps Video Charts". wowcelebrities.us. June 24, 2010. Retrieved June 24, 2010.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Book of Eli
The Book of Eli at the American Film Institute Catalog
The Book of Eli on IMDb
The Book of Eli at AllMovie
The Book of Eli at Box Office Mojo
The Book of Eli at Rotten Tomatoes
The Book of Eli at Metacritic
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Albert and Allen Hughes
Together
Menace II Society (1993)
Dead Presidents (1995)
American Pimp (1999)
From Hell (2001)
The Book of Eli (2010)
Allen only
Knights of the South Bronx (2005)
New York, I Love You (2008)
Broken City (2013)
The Defiant Ones (2017)
Albert only
Alpha (2018)
[show]
v
t
e
Films by Denzel Washington
Director
Antwone Fisher (2002)
The Great Debaters (2007)
Fences (2016)
Producer
Antwone Fisher (2002)
The Book of Eli (2010)
The Equalizer (2014)
Fences (2016)
The Equalizer 2 (2018)
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