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Las Vegas Stadium
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For the stadium originally known as Las Vegas Stadium, see Sam Boyd Stadium.
Las Vegas Stadium
Artist's rendering showing the front of Las Vegas Stadium with the retractable windows and planned Al Davis memorial torch.
Former names
Raiders Stadium
(in early renderings)
Location
Paradise, Nevada
Coordinates
36°05′26.7″N 115°11′01.4″W / 36.090750°N 115.183722°W / 36.090750; -115.183722Coordinates: 36°05′26.7″N 115°11′01.4″W / 36.090750°N 115.183722°W / 36.090750; -115.183722
Public transit
Las Vegas Monorail
at Mandalay Bay (proposed)
Owner
Las Vegas Stadium Authority
(Clark County Commission)
Operator
Las Vegas Raiders
Executive suites
100[1]
Capacity
65,000–72,000 (larger events)
Acreage
62 acres (25 ha)
Surface
Grass (Raiders)
Field Turf (UNLV)
Construction
Broke ground
November 13, 2017 (2017-11-13)
Construction cost
US$1.8 billion[2]
Architect
MANICA Architecture
HNTB
Project manager
ICON Venue Group[3]
Structural engineer
ARUP[4]
Services engineer
Smith Seckman Reid, Inc.[5]
General contractor
Mortenson Construction
McCarthy Construction[6]
Tenants
Las Vegas Raiders (NFL) (2020–) planned
UNLV Rebels (NCAA) (2020–) planned
Las Vegas Bowl (NCAA) (2020–) planned
Website
lasvegasstadium.raiders.com
Las Vegas Stadium is the working name for a domed stadium under construction in Paradise, Nevada for the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League (NFL) and the UNLV Rebels football team of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV). It is located on about 62 acres west of Mandalay Bay at Russell Road and Hacienda Avenue and between Polaris Avenue and Dean Martin Drive, just west of Interstate 15. Construction of the $1.8 billion stadium began in September 2017 and is expected to be completed in time for the 2020 NFL season.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 2016
1.2 2017
1.3 2018
2 Financing
3 Design
4 Tenants and events
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
2016[edit]
In January 2016, reports emerged that Las Vegas Sands was considering developing a stadium in conjunction with Majestic Realty and UNLV, on a 42-acre site on Tropicana Avenue owned by UNLV.[7] UNLV had been in the market to for a new stadium to replace Sam Boyd Stadium since at least 2011.[8] Raiders owner Mark Davis visited Las Vegas on January 29 to tour the site and meet with Sands chairman Sheldon Adelson and other local figures.[9] The Raiders, who had been trying to get a new stadium built for the team since the 1980s, had just missed out on relocating to Los Angeles that same month and were at an impasse in Oakland. In order for the team to relocate to Las Vegas, a new stadium was required, since Sam Boyd Stadium was undersized for the NFL and there were no other professional-caliber stadiums in Nevada.
On March 21, 2016, when asked about Las Vegas, Davis said, "I think the Raiders like the Las Vegas plan," and "it's a very very very intriguing and exciting plan." Davis also met with Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval about the stadium plan. On April 1, 2016, Davis met with UNLV officials and toured Sam Boyd Stadium to evaluate whether it could serve as a temporary home for the team.
On April 28, 2016, Davis said he wanted to move the Raiders to Las Vegas and pledged $500 million toward the construction of the proposed $2.4-billion domed stadium.[10][11] "Together we can turn the Silver State into the silver and black state," Davis said.[10][12]
In the spring of 2016, the board of directors of Las Vegas Sands rejected Adelson's stadium proposal. Adelson decided to move ahead with the stadium as an individual investment, pledging $650 million of his personal wealth to the project.[13]
The viability of the Tropicana Avenue site was called into serious question in June 2016, when Southwest Airlines objected to the location because its proximity to the northern end of one of McCarran Airport's runways could negatively affect the safety and capacity of air traffic at the airport.[14] The list of potential locations soon expanded to nine candidates, including the sites of the Wild Wild West casino, the Wynn golf course, the Riviera casino, the Las Vegas Festival Grounds, and Cashman Center.[15] By September, the list was narrowed to two possibilities: the Bali Hai Golf Club, south of Mandalay Bay, and a vacant lot on Russell Road, just west of Interstate 15.[16]
On August 25, 2016, the Raiders filed a trademark application for "Las Vegas Raiders" on the same day renderings of a proposed stadium design were released.[17] On September 15, 2016, the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee unanimously voted to recommend and approve $750 million for the Las Vegas stadium plan.[18]
Majestic Realty revealed in October 2016 that it had withdrawn from the stadium project.[19]
Sandoval called a special session of the Nevada Legislature to consider the stadium and other tourism-related proposals in October 2016.[20] The funding bill for the stadium was approved by a 16–5 vote in the Senate and by 28–13 in the Assembly, and was signed into law by Sandoval on October 17.[21][22][23][24] The bill allowed Clark County to increase its hotel tax to raise the $750 million in funding.[25]
2017[edit]
2015 view of the stadium site, adjacent to Mandalay Bay and Interstate 15
The Raiders filed relocation papers on January 19 to move from Oakland to Las Vegas.[26] On January 26, 2017, the Raiders submitted a proposed lease agreement for the stadium. It was reported that the Raiders had selected the Russell Road site as the stadium location, the team would pay one dollar in rent, and that they could control the naming rights for both the stadium and plaza and in addition keep signage sponsorship revenue.[27]
Days after the Raiders' announced proposal, Adelson dropped out of the stadium project, pulling his proposed $650 million contribution[28] Shortly after this announcement, Goldman Sachs, which had planned to finance part of the project, withdrew as well. As a result, the Raiders were expected to increase their contribution from $500 million to $1.15 billion.[29]
On March 6, the Raiders revealed Bank of America would lend $650 million to replace the Adelson portion of the funding.[30]
NFL owners voted to approve the move by a margin of 31 to 1 on March 27.[31][32][33] The next day, the Raiders and the Las Vegas Stadium Authority began accepting deposits for season tickets for the new stadium.[34] The Raiders announced that they planned to remain in Oakland until the stadium was complete.
The Raiders closed the purchase of the land for the stadium at the Russell Road site on May 1. The purchase price was reported at $77.5 million.[35] On May 11, it was announced that in a joint venture Mortenson Construction and McCarthy Construction would be the developers for the stadium. Mortenson previously worked on U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis. The stadium authority approved a stadium lease with the Raiders on May 18.[36] The lease was to be for 30 years with four successive extension options of five years each.[37]
On September 18, construction activity began on the stadium site with site preparation.[38] A groundbreaking ceremony was held on November 13.[39][40] The ceremony featured NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell, Raiders owner Mark Davis, his mother Carol Davis, various Raiders legends including Howie Long, Jim Plunkett, Tom Flores, and Ray Guy, Las Vegas and Nevada politicians such as Governor Brian Sandoval, Las Vegas Mayor Carolyn Goodman, Clark County Commissioner Steve Sisolak and stadium authority head Steve Hill. The event was hosted by George Lopez and included other celebrities like Carlos Santana, longtime Vegas icon Wayne Newton, and Howie D and Nick Carter of the Backstreet Boys. There was also a tribute to the victims of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting that happened nearby with Judith Hill and the Las Vegas House of Blues Gospel Choir performing ‘Rise up’ while 58 beams of light symbolizing the 58 victims were lit.[41]
2018[edit]
In January, construction crews began blasting caliche rock with dynamite to excavate and create the stadium bowl.[42] On February 3, the Raiders opened a 7,500-square-foot stadium preview center at Town Square, located a few miles from the stadium site, featuring interactive exhibits and team memorabilia, with plans for simulations of views from individual seats and a large-scale stadium model.[43]
Financing[edit]
The budget for development of the stadium is estimated at $1.8 billion. Of this, $78 million was spent to purchase the land, $1.33 billion is estimated to be spent on construction, $123 million on furniture, fixtures, and equipment, $234 million on design and engineering, and $31 million on utilities and infrastructure.[44][45] Some reports gave a budget of $1.9 billion, which also included $100 million to build a separate Raiders practice facility.[46]
The financing for the project is expected to come in the form of $750 million in public funding and $1.1 billion from the Raiders.[47] The public portion of the funding will come from municipal bonds issued by Clark County, backed by the proceeds of a special tax on hotel rooms in the Las Vegas area, which took effect in March 2017.[48] The Raiders' contribution was expected to include a $650 million loan from Bank of America, $200 million from the NFL's stadium loan program, and $300 million from sales of personal seat licenses at the stadium, naming rights for the stadium, and sponsorships.[49]
Local government cannot receive any rent or revenue sharing from the stadium, because such an arrangement would not be compatible with the tax-exempt status of the bonds.[50] Proponents instead argued that the public financing would be justified by increased economic activity and tax revenue related to the stadium.[51] Critics have argued that the economic projections were based on overly optimistic assumptions.[52][53]
A total of $645 million in construction bonds sold out in 90 minutes in April 2018, representing Clark County's contribution to the project beyond room taxes already collected.[54]
Design[edit]
For Las Vegas Stadium, Mark Davis retained the same architecture firm, MANICA Architecture, that had designed the previously proposed Carson Stadium near Los Angeles.[55][56] Davis retained much the look from the Carson stadium because he "fell in love with the overall design of it".[57] The stadium will be a 10 level domed stadium with a clear ETFE roof, silver and black exterior and large retractable curtain-like side windows facing the Las Vegas Strip.[58] The design includes a large torch in one end that will house a flame in honor of Al Davis, the late long-time owner of the Raiders.[59]
Updated renderings released after the relocation vote passed show the stadium with a roll-in natural grass field similar to the one at University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona.[60] In an August 17, 2017 Las Vegas Stadium Authority meeting it was revealed that the stadium will have a designated pickup/drop off loop for ride sharing services such as Uber and Lyft, a first for a stadium in the NFL.
Tenants and events[edit]
The stadium will replace Sam Boyd Stadium and will serve as the home of both the Raiders and the UNLV Rebels football program. In addition, it will host the annual Las Vegas Bowl.[61]
Stadium backers project 20 to 25 additional events per year, with plausible possibilities including the Super Bowl, the Pro Bowl, the NFL Draft, the NCAA Final Four, the USA Sevens rugby tournament, the Monster Jam World Finals, boxing matches, Ultimate Fighting Championship events, the Pac-12 Football Championship Game, neutral-site college football games, international soccer matches, concerts, and corporate shows.[62][63][64]
David Beckham visited Las Vegas in 2016 to advocate for the stadium as a possible home for his Major League Soccer expansion team,[65] although he ultimately announced the launch of the team with a stadium in Miami.[66]
In August 2017, the Raiders, along with the city and the state, submitted a bid to the Canada-Mexico-United States World Cup bid committee to be considered as a site for the 2026 FIFA World Cup. If the three nations are chosen to host the World Cup, the stadium would be in the running to be one of at least 12 venues for the tournament.[67]
See also[edit]
National Football League portal
College Football portal
Las Vegas portal
Las Vegas Ballpark
Sports in the Las Vegas metropolitan area
T-Mobile Arena
Oakland Raiders relocation to Las Vegas
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Final cost of Raiders stadium in Las Vegas pegged at $1.8 billion". LasVegasSun.com. 2018-03-21. Retrieved 2018-03-23.
Jump up ^ "Clark County Stadium Authority Financing Plan Discussion Materials" (PDF). Las Vegas Stadium Authority. August 17, 2017. Retrieved December 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Las Vegas Stadium | Procurement Package 1a & 1b" (PDF). July 12, 2017. Retrieved December 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Las Vegas Stadium | Procurement Package 2a" (PDF). September 12, 2017. Retrieved December 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Halter, Nick (May 12, 2017). "Report: Mortenson will build football stadium for Raiders in Las Vegas (slideshow)". Minneapolis–St. Paul Business Journal. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Stutz, Howard (January 28, 2016). "Las Vegas Sands proposes $1B domed stadium; Adelson to meet with Raiders owner". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bleakley, Caroline (2011-02-01). "Details of New UNLV Stadium Project Released". LASVEGASNOW. Retrieved 2018-01-14.
Jump up ^ Bradley, Bill (February 1, 2016). "Raiders owner Mark Davis says 'brand would do well' in Las Vegas". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Raiders owner willing to give $20M toward Las Vegas stadium". National Football League. Associated Press. April 28, 2016. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Gutierrez, Paul (April 28, 2016). "Raiders owner Mark Davis says he wants to move team to Las Vegas". ESPN.com. ESPN. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Oakland Raiders owner willing to spend $500 million to move team to Vegas". Fox News Channel. Associated Press. April 28, 2016. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (August 28, 2016). "Adelson commits personal wealth to back stadium plan". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Rindels, Michelle (July 1, 2016). "Southwest Airlines doesn't want stadium next to airport". Las Vegas Sun. Associated Press. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Morris, J.D. (July 15, 2016). "Scouting report: Examining the pros, cons of potential NFL stadium sites". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Valley, Jackie (September 7, 2016). "As Las Vegas' NFL stadium marches toward reality, burning questions remain". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Perez, A.J. (August 25, 2016). "Oakland Raiders file to trademark 'Las Vegas Raiders' name". USA Today. Retrieved August 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Stadium plan to lure Raiders to Las Vegas passes vote". National Football League. Associated Press. September 15, 2016. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (October 6, 2016). "Majestic Realty bows out of Las Vegas stadium development team". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Special session kicks off to consider NFL stadium funding". Las Vegas Sun. October 10, 2016. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Chereb, Sandra; Whaley, Sean (October 11, 2016). "Raiders stadium project for Las Vegas clears Nevada Senate in 16-5 vote". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved October 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Las Vegas stadium plan gains approval from Nevada Legislature". National Football League. Associated Press. October 14, 2016. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Nevada governor signs bill to approve Las Vegas stadium plan". National Football League. Associated Press. October 17, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Spousta, Tom (October 17, 2016). "Gov. Brian Sandoval signs Raiders stadium bill — VIDEO". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved October 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Hickey, John (November 16, 2016). "Tax increases designed to lure Raiders to Las Vegas go through". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Around the NFL staff (January 19, 2017). "Oakland Raiders file Las Vegas relocation paperwork". National Football League. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Damien, Levi (January 26, 2017). "Las Vegas stadium proposal details revealed: Raiders get naming rights, one dollar rent, pick preferred site, more". Silver and Black Pride. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (January 30, 2017). "Adelsons withdraw investment from proposed Raiders stadium in Las Vegas". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved January 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Raiders boost Vegas commitment to $1.2 billion, operations, risk". espn.com. ESPN. January 30, 2017. Retrieved January 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ Saraceno, Jon (March 6, 2017). "Raiders' Las Vegas Stadium Gets Boost from Bank of America". Las Vegas Review Journal. Retrieved March 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Rosenthal, Gregg (March 27, 2017). "NFL team owners approve Raiders' move to Las Vegas". National Football League. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Raiders Media Relations (March 27, 2017). "Raiders Receive NFL Approval For Las Vegas Relocation". Oakland Raiders. Retrieved March 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Michael David Smith (March 27, 2017). "Raiders' move to Las Vegas approved". Profootballtalk.com. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Gutierrez, Paul (March 28, 2017). "Raiders already taking deposits for season tickets in Las Vegas". ESPN. Retrieved March 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (May 1, 2017). "Raiders close purchase on 62-acre stadium site in Las Vegas". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Polacek, Scott (May 18, 2017). "Raiders' Vegas Lease Agreement Unanimously Approved by Stadium Authority Board". Bleacher Report. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Stadium Lease Agreement between Clark County Stadium Authority and [Raiders Stadium Events Company]" (PDF).
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Jump up ^ "Raiders breaking ground on new Las Vegas stadium — LIVESTREAM". Las Vegas Review-Journal. 2017-11-14. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Raiders break ground on new stadium in Las Vegas". NFL. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mark Davis plays ceremonial shovel like guitar, other highlights, quotes, pics from Raiders Las Vegas stadium ground breaking". Silver And Black Pride. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
Jump up ^ Sapienza, Vince. "Rock blasting begins on Raiders stadium site". Retrieved 2018-01-12.
Jump up ^ "Silver and black history: Stadium preview center in Vegas filled with Raiders memorabilia". LasVegasSun.com. 2018-02-03. Retrieved 2018-02-03.
Jump up ^ Pro Forma Stadium Project Budget Report (PDF) (Report). Las Vegas Stadium Authority. March 17, 2018. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Becker, Jon (May 1, 2017). "Raiders purchase land for new Las Vegas stadium". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Akers, Mick (March 21, 2018). "Final cost of Raiders stadium in Las Vegas pegged at $1.8 billion". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (March 19, 2018). "Revenue from Las Vegas room taxes surges in January". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Candee, Adam (March 17, 2017). "Room-tax money for NFL stadium starts to flow before Raiders' move finalized". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Candee, Adam (April 7, 2017). "What that $100 Raiders deposit actually gets you". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard N. (March 7, 2017). "Details of lease agreement between Las Vegas officials, Raiders emerging". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Messerly, Megan; Valley, Jackie (October 5, 2016). "Digging into economic projections tied to a Raiders move to Las Vegas". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hobson, Will (January 24, 2017). "To lure Raiders, Nevada officials willing to bet big — with public money". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Nocera, Joe (October 21, 2016). "N.F.L. Stadium in Las Vegas May Be an Ego Boost, but Not an Economic One". The New York Times. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "All bonds for Las Vegas Raiders stadium sold in 90 minutes". 12 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Nusca, Andrew. "This Is the Stunning $2 Billion Stadium Where the Las Vegas Raiders Will Play". Fortune.com. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Schwab, Frank (August 25, 2016). "Raiders apply for 'Las Vegas Raiders' trademark; stadium renderings". Yahoo! Sports. Retrieved August 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Davis on taking the new stadium plans from Carson to Las Vegas #Raiders". Vic Tafur on Twitter. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
Jump up ^ Velotta, Richard (15 August 2017). "First look at details of new Raiders stadium in Las Vegas may answer questions". Las Vegas Review-Journal.
Jump up ^ "Oakland Raiders pitch a $1.9 billion Las Vegas stadium - Archpaper.com". archpaper.com. Retrieved October 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Damien, Levi (March 27, 2017). "New video, pics of Raiders Las Vegas stadium renderings". Silver and Black Pride. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bonagura, Kyle (March 31, 2017). "Can Las Vegas become a new destination in college football?". ESPN. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Candee, Adam (March 31, 2017). "Beyond the pigskin: What events are needed for stadium's long-term viability". Las Vegas Sun. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Weissberg, Brad (March 29, 2017). "Raiders brand, Vegas brand unite". Venues Today. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bonagura, Kyle (March 31, 2017). "Can Las Vegas become a new destination in college football?". ESPN. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Straus, Brian (December 12, 2016). "Time ticking on Beckham's Miami MLS team amid deadline, Las Vegas speculation". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved April 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Madigan, Nick (January 29, 2018). "For David Beckham and M.L.S., a Miami Marriage at Last". Retrieved 2018-02-01.
Jump up ^ Prince, Todd (August 15, 2017). "Las Vegas Raiders stadium considered for 2026 FIFA World Cup". Las Vegas Review-Journal. Retrieved 2018-02-01.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Las Vegas Stadium.
Official website
Proposed Las Vegas Stadium Virtual Tour from the National Football League (NFL)'s official YouTube channel
Construction page for stadium from Mortenson | McCarthy
Las Vegas Stadium Authority
Stadium webcam
Preceded by
Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum Home of the
Las Vegas Raiders
2020–future Succeeded by
none
Preceded by
Sam Boyd Stadium Home of
UNLV Rebels football
2020–future Succeeded by
none
Preceded by
Sam Boyd Stadium Host of
Las Vegas Bowl
2020–future Succeeded by
none
[show]
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[show]
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[show]
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Brain size
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs attention from an expert in biology. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article. WikiProject Biology may be able to help recruit an expert. (September 2009)
Brain size and morphology varies considerably between different species.
The size of the brain is a frequent topic of study within the fields of anatomy and evolution. Brain size can be measured by weight or by volume (via MRI scans or by skull volume). The relationship between brain size and intelligence is frequently a topic of research.
Contents
[hide]
1 Humans
1.1 Changes over time
1.2 Biogeographic variation
1.3 Changes over the lifespan
1.4 Sex
1.5 Race
1.6 Genetic contribution
1.7 Intelligence
2 Other animals
3 Cranial capacity
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 Further reading
Humans[edit]
Studies on human brain size, largely based on participants of European ancestry, tend to find an average adult brain volume of 1260 cubic centimeters (cm3) for men and 1130 cm3 for women. There is, however, substantial variation between individuals;[1] one study of 46 adults, aged 22–49 years and of mainly European descent, found an average brain volume of 1273.6 cm3 for men, with a range of 1052.9 to 1498.5 cm3, and 1131.1 cm3 for women, with a range of 974.9 to 1398.1 cm3.[2]
The right cerebral hemisphere is typically larger than the left, whereas the cerebellar hemispheres are typically closer in size. The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.5 kg (3.3 lb).[3] The average weight is about 1370 g in men and about 1200 g in women.[4]
Changes over time[edit]
Brain size has increased considerably over the course of humans' recent evolutionary history. Homo erectus, a relative of humans, had a brain size of 1,100 cm3. Homo floresiensis, with a brain size of 380 cm3.[5] Neanderthals had a slightly larger brain than modern humans,[6] perhaps due to larger visual systems.[7]
Some studies suggest that the average brain size has been decreasing over the past 28,000 years.[8][9] Others suggest that the cranial capacity for males is unchanged, but that the cranial capacity of females has increased.[10]
Biogeographic variation[edit]
Average cranial volume by geographic ancestry (Beals et al. 1984[11])
Average cranial capacity in humans varies significantly depending on geographic ancestry in humans, in the range of 1,200 to 1,450 cm3 between populations. Larger cranial volume is associated with climatic region, the largest averages being found in populations of Siberia and the Arctic. For this reason, Beals et al. (1984) proposed that the primary reason for the variation is climatic adaptation, favoring large round heads in colder climates because they conserve heat and slender heads in warm climates closer to the equator (see Bergmann's rule and Allen's rule).[11]
Changes over the lifespan[edit]
A baby's brain at birth averages 369 cm3 and increases during the first year of life to about 961 cm3, after which the growth rate declines. Brain volume peaks at the age of 40 years, after which it begins to decline by 5% per decade, speeding up at around 70 years.[12] Total cerebral and gray matter volumes peak between 10 and 20 years (earlier in girls than in boys) of age, whereas white matter and ventricular volumes increase. There is a general pattern in which neural development peaks in childhood and declines in adolescence, a process known as synaptic pruning. Overall white matter volume does not appear to decline with age, although there is variation among brain regions.[13]
Sex[edit]
Average brain weight for males and females over lifespan. From the study Changes in brain weights during the span of human life.
The average brain weight in adult males is 1,345 grams; in adult females, 1,222 grams.[14] Males have been found to have, on average, greater cerebral, cerebellar, and cerebral cortical lobar volumes, except possibly left parietal.[15]
When covaried for intracranial volume, height, and weight, one study found that women have a higher percentage of gray matter, whereas men have a higher percentage of white matter and cerebrospinal fluid. There was high variability among individuals, however.[16] Yaki (2011) found no statistically significant gender differences in the gray matter ratio for most ages in a sample of 758 women and 702 men aged 20–69.[17]
Consistent with findings in adults, average cerebral volume is approximately 10% larger in boys than in girls. However, such differences should not be construed as imparting any sort of functional advantage or disadvantage; gross structural measures may not reflect functionally relevant factors such as neuronal connectivity and receptor density. Moreover, brain volumes, even in narrowly defined groups (e.g. children of the same age), may vary by as much as 50%.[18] Young girls have, on average, larger hippocampi, whereas young boys have larger amygdalas.[16]
Significant dynamic changes in brain structure take place throughout adulthood, with substantial variation between individuals. In later decades, men show greater volume loss in whole brain volume and in the frontal lobes, and temporal lobes, whereas in women there is increased volume loss in the hippocampi and parietal lobes.[16] Men show a steeper decline in global gray matter volume, although in both sexes it varies by region with some areas exhibiting little or no age effect.
Race[edit]
See also: Race and intelligence
In the 19th century, American anthropologist Samuel George Morton reported that whites had the greatest average cranial capacity, followed, in descending order, by Native Americans and blacks. Stephen Jay Gould argued in 1978[19] and in his subsequent book the Mismeasure of Man that Morton unconsciously misrepresented his data and that when it was properly interpreted, it showed no significant racial differences in cranial capacity. This claim was criticized in a 2011 paper, which concluded that Morton did not manipulate his results, unconsciously or otherwise.[20] This paper has, in turn, been criticized for making unwarranted conclusions as to whether Gould's claims of bias were correct or not.[21][22]
J. Philippe Rushton published multiple studies in the 1980s to 2000s claiming that average brain size was lowest in blacks (Negroids) and highest in East Asians (Mongoloids), with whites (Caucasoids) in between the two.[23] His work in this area has been criticized for relying on flawed studies, for failing to consider explanations other than genetics for the observed differences, and for ignoring other studies with contradictory conclusions.[24][25] Nathan Brody has also argued that the evidence regarding racial differences in brain size is not conclusive, and that, even if one accepts it, this difference does not support a genetic hypothesis regarding racial differences in intelligence.[26] Critics of the hereditarian position also note that the difference in mean brain size between blacks and whites is smaller than 1 standard deviation and is insufficient to explain the vast majority of the black-white IQ gap.[27]
Genetic contribution[edit]
Adult twin studies indicate that heritability of overall brain size in adulthood is high (between 66% and 97%). Infant brain volumes are also highly heritable, with heritability of total brain volume in neonates of around .8-.9.[28]
Heritability varies regionally within the brain, with high heritabilities of frontal lobe volumes (90-95%), moderate estimates in the hippocampi (40-69%), and environmental factors influencing several medial brain areas[citation needed]. In addition, lateral ventricle volume appears to be mainly explained by environmental factors, suggesting such factors also play a role in the surrounding brain tissue.
Early studies yielded suggestive candidate genes.[29][30] Much larger genome-wide studies have now yielded highly replicable associations for at least 8 genes linked to cortical and subcortical brain volume in a study of over 32,000 humans.[31]
Intelligence[edit]
See also: Neuroscience and intelligence § Brain size
Studies demonstrate a correlation between brain size and intelligence, with larger brains predicting higher intelligence. It is however not clear if the correlation is causal.[32] The majority of MRI studies report moderate correlations around 0.3 to 0.4 between brain volume and intelligence.[33][34] In healthy adults, the correlation of total brain volume and IQ is ~ 0.4 [35] The correlation appears to be related to the known small correlation of height with intelligence, which can be explained almost entirely by greater brain volume.[36]
Studies have sought particular regions that are more correlated with IQ than whole-brain volume. While consistent associations are observed within the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, the hippocampus, and the cerebellum, unique variation in these regions account for a relatively small amount of variance in IQ.[34][37] The search for specific brain regions that correlate highly with cognitive measures designed to be specific has not yielded clear results.[2]
There may be sex differences in the volume-IQ association. Some evidence suggests that while IQ correlates equally with frontal lobe volume, it may correlate more with parietal lobe volumes in men and with Broca's area in women, corresponding to spatial versus language specializations.[16]
Small studies have attempted to link brain volume with functional measures such as P300 auditory evoked potentials but finding no association.[38][39] Studies attempting to related sibling differences in IQ to differences in brain volume are hampered by relatively small sample sizes and the noisy nature of such difference scores, yielding weak evidence for cross-trait cross-sib correlations.[32]
Other animals[edit]
The largest brains are those of sperm whales, weighing about 8 kg (18 lb), and killer whales, weighing about 12–15 lb (5.4–6.8 kg). An elephant's brain weighs just over 5 kg (11 lb) and a bottlenose dolphin's 1.5 to 1.7 kg (3.3 to 3.7 lb).
Brain size tends to vary according to body size. The relationship is not proportional, however; the brain-to-body mass ratio varies. The largest ratio found is in the shrew.[40] Averaging brain weight across all orders of mammals, it follows a power law, with an exponent of about 0.75.[41] This power law formula applies to the "average" brain of mammals taken as a whole, but each family (cats, rodents, primates, etc.) departs from it to some degree, in a way that generally reflects the overall "sophistication" of behavior.[42] Primates, for a given body size, have brains 5 to 10 times as large as the formula predicts. Predators tend to have relatively larger brains than the animals they prey on; placental mammals (the great majority) have relatively larger brains than marsupials such as the opossum.
When the mammalian brain increases in size, not all parts increase at the same rate.[43] In particular, the larger the brain of a species, the greater the fraction taken up by the cortex. Thus, in the species with the largest brains, most of their volume is filled with cortex: this applies not only to humans, but also to animals such as dolphins, whales or elephants.
Not all investigators are happy with the amount of attention that has been paid to brain size. Roth and Dicke, for example, have argued that factors other than size are more highly correlated with intelligence, such as the number of cortical neurons and the speed of their connections.[44] Moreover, they point out that intelligence depends not just on the amount of brain tissue, but on the details of how it is structured. It is also well known that crows, ravens, and grey parrots are quite intelligent even though they have small brains.
Cranial capacity[edit]
Cranial capacity is a measure of the volume of the interior of the cranium (also called the braincase or brainpan or skull) of those vertebrates who have both a cranium and a brain. The volume of the cranium is used as a rough indicator of the size of the brain, although due to the thickness of the membranes that surround the brain, brain volume is less than cranial capacity. Cranial Capacity is often tested by filling the cranial cavity with particulate material (as mustard seed or small shot) and measuring the volume of the latter. However, this method of measuring cranial capacity must be validated in each species to know whether it is an accurate representation of the braincase.[45][46]
Knowledge of the volume of the cranial cavity can be important information for the study of different populations with various differences like geographical, racial, or ethnic origin. Other things, such as nutrition, can also affect cranial capacity.[47]
The volume of the human braincase has increased as humans have evolved (see Homininae), starting from about 600 cm3 in Homo habilis up to 1740 cm3 in Homo neanderthalensis, which was the hominid with the biggest brain size.[48][49]
In an attempt to use cranial capacity as an objective indicator of brain size, the encephalization quotient (EQ) was developed in 1973 by Harry Jerison. It compares the size of the brain of the specimen to the expected brain size of animals with roughly the same weight.[50] This way a more objective judgement can be made on the cranial capacity of an individual animal. A large scientific collection of brain endocasts and measurements of cranial capacity has been compiled by Holloway et al. (2005).[51]
Examples of cranial capacity
Apes
Orangutans: 275–500 cm3 (16.8–30.5 cu in)
Chimpanzees: 275–500 cm3 (16.8–30.5 cu in)
Gorillas: 340–752 cm3 (20.7–45.9 cu in)
Hominins[citation needed]
Australopithecus afarensis: 445.8 cm3 (27.20 cu in)
Australopithecus africanus: 491.2 cm3 (29.97 cu in)
Homo habilis: 610.3 cm3 (37.24 cu in)
Homo erectus: 1,092.9 cm3 (66.69 cu in)
Homo erectus soloensis: 1,155.8 cm3 (70.53 cu in)
Homo heidelbergensis: 1,262.8 cm3 (77.06 cu in)
Homo neanderthalensis: 1,427.2 cm3 (87.09 cu in)
Homo sapiens: 1,496.5 cm3 (91.32 cu in)

Modern Humans[52][53]
Individual range, without cephalic disorder: 900–2,100 cm3 (55–128 cu in)
Global group means range: 1,085–1,581 cm3 (66.2–96.5 cu in)
Average: 1,353 cm3 (82.6 cu in)
See also[edit]
Brain-to-body mass ratio
Encephalization quotient
Craniometry — includes historical discussion
Human brain
Neuroscience and intelligence
Schauenberg's index
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Cosgrove, KP; Mazure CM; Staley JK (2007). "Evolving knowledge of sex differences in brain structure, function, and chemistry". Biol Psychiatry. 62 (8): 847–55. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.03.001. PMC 2711771  . PMID 17544382.
^ Jump up to: a b Allen et al., 2002
Jump up ^ Parent, A; Carpenter MB (1995). "Ch. 1". Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy. Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-683-06752-1.
Jump up ^ Harrison, Paul J.; Freemantle, Nick; Geddes, John R. (2003-11-01). "Meta-analysis of brain weight in schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Research. 64 (1): 25–34. doi:10.1016/s0920-9964(02)00502-9. ISSN 0920-9964. PMID 14511798.
Jump up ^ Brown, P.; Sutikna, T.; Morwood, M. J.; Soejono, R. P.; Jatmiko; Saptomo, E. Wayhu; Due, Rokus Awe (October 2004). "A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia". Nature. 431 (7012): 1055–1061. doi:10.1038/nature02999. PMID 15514638.
Jump up ^ Holloway, 1995
Jump up ^ Pearce, Eiluned; Stringer, Chris; Dunbar, R. I. M. (2013-05-07). "New insights into differences in brain organization between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 280 (1758): 20130168. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.0168. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 3619466  . PMID 23486442.
Jump up ^ "If Modern Humans Are So Smart, Why Are Our Brains Shrinking?". DiscoverMagazine.com. 2011-01-20. Retrieved 2014-03-05.
Jump up ^ Henneberg, Maciej (1988). "Decrease of human skull size in the Holocene". Human Biology. 60: 395–405. JSTOR 41464021.
Jump up ^ Rushton, John Philippe (1992). "Cranial capacity related to sex, rank, and race in a stratified random sample of 6,325 U.S. military personnel". Intelligence. 16 (3–4): 401–413. doi:10.1016/0160-2896(92)90017-l.
^ Jump up to: a b Kenneth L. Beals, Courtland L. Smith, and Stephen M. Dodd, "Brain Size, Cranial Morphology, Climate, and Time Machines" CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY V01. 25, NO 01984 (3 June 1984), fig. p. 304. "We offer an alternative hypothesis that suggests that hominid expansion into regions of cold climate produced change in head shape. Such change in shape contributed to the increased cranial volume. Bioclimatic effects directly upon body size (and indirectly upon brain size) in combination with cranial globularity appear to be a fairly powerful explanation of ethnic group differences." "Morphological Adaptation to Climate in Modern Homo sapiens Crania: The Importance of Basicranial Breadth". Wioletta Nowaczewska, Pawe D browski1 and Lukasz KuŸmiñski.
Jump up ^ Peters, R. (2006). "Ageing and the brain". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 82: 84–8. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2005.036665. PMC 2596698  . PMID 16461469.
Jump up ^ Good et al., 2001
Jump up ^ Kelley Hays; David S. Reader in Gender archaeology. Routlegde. Retrieved 2014-09-21.
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Further reading[edit]
Jabr, Ferris (28 November 2015). "How Humans Ended Up With Freakishly Huge Brains". Wired. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
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