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List of most streamed songs on Spotify
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Having been streamed over 1.5 billion times, "Shape of You" by Ed Sheeran (pictured) is the most streamed song on Spotify.
This list of most-streamed songs on Spotify contains the top 100 songs with the most streams of all time, as derived from Spotify charts.[1] As of January 2018, six songs have exceeded 1 billion streams, with Ed Sheeran's "Shape of You" ranked in the top position.[2]
Prior to February 2014, Spotify's most streamed song was "Radioactive" by Imagine Dragons;[3] it was overtaken by Avicii's "Wake Me Up", which became the first song to hit 200 million streams on February 27, 2014.[4] "Wake Me Up" held the streaming record for over a year before being surpassed on May 22, 2015 by Sheeran's "Thinking Out Loud",[5] which became the first song to hit 500 million streams on October 12, 2015.[6] A month later, however, it was surpassed by Major Lazer and DJ Snake's "Lean On", featuring MØ,[7] which held the streaming record for 11 months until Drake's "One Dance", featuring Wizkid and Kyla, overtook it on October 15, 2016.[8] "Shape of You" overtook "One Dance" on September 21, 2017.[2]
As of January 201, the artists with the most singles in the top 100 are Justin Bieber, with a total of 8 singles (3 solo and 5 featured), and The Chainsmokers and The Weeknd each with 5 singles.
As of January 2018, Ed Sheeran is the only artist to have 2 singles pass 1 billion streams on Spotify, with "Shape of You" and "Thinking Out Loud".
The fastest song to reach a billion streams on Spotify is "Shape of You", doing so in 153 days.[9]
Top songs[edit]
Globally[edit]
The following table lists the top 100 most streamed songs on Spotify, with streams rounded to millions, as well as the artist(s), the album it is currently published to Spotify on, and the date it was originally published to Spotify.
For a Spotify Playlist of the Top 100 (Updated Weekly), Click here.
Rank
Song name
Artist(s)
Album
Streams (Millions)
Publication date
1. "Shape of You"[10] Ed Sheeran ÷ [11] 1,546 January 6, 2017
2. "One Dance"[12] Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla Views [13] 1,386 April 5, 2016
3. "Closer"[14] The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey Collage EP [15] 1,193 July 29, 2016
4. "Lean On"[16] Major Lazer and DJ Snake featuring MØ Peace Is the Mission [17] 1,072 March 2, 2015
5. "Sorry"[18] Justin Bieber Purpose [19] 1,014 October 23, 2015
6. "Thinking Out Loud"[20] Ed Sheeran × [21] 1,010 June 21, 2014
7. "Love Yourself"[22] Justin Bieber Purpose [19] 991 November 9, 2015
8. "Despacito (Remix)"[23] Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber Non-album single 979 April 17, 2017
9. "Don't Let Me Down"[24] The Chainsmokers featuring Daya Collage EP [15] 964 February 5, 2016
10. "I Took a Pill in Ibiza (Seeb Remix)"[25] Mike Posner At Night, Alone. [26] 952 July 24, 2015
11. "Starboy"[27] The Weeknd featuring Daft Punk Starboy [27] 892 September 22, 2016
12. "What Do You Mean?"[28] Justin Bieber Purpose [19] 885 August 28, 2015
13. "Let Me Love You"[29] DJ Snake featuring Justin Bieber Encore [30] 885 August 5, 2016
14. "Cold Water"[31] Major Lazer featuring Justin Bieber and MØ Non album single 865 July 21, 2016
15. "Cheap Thrills"[32] Sia This Is Acting [33] 830 December 17, 2015
16. "Cheerleader (Felix Jaehn Remix)"[34] OMI Me 4 U [35] 808 December 2, 2014
17. "Photograph"[36] Ed Sheeran × [21] 807 June 21, 2014
18. "Stressed Out"[37] Twenty One Pilots Blurryface [38] 803 November 10, 2015
19. "Uptown Funk"[39] Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars Uptown Special [40] 801 November 10, 2014
20. "7 Years"[41] Lukas Graham Lukas Graham [42] 793 September 18, 2015
21. "Stitches"[43] Shawn Mendes Handwritten [44] 776 May 5, 2015
22. "This Is What You Came For"[45] Calvin Harris featuring Rihanna Non-album single 770 April 29, 2016
23. "Hello"[46] Adele 25 [47] 770 October 23, 2015
24. "Can't Feel My Face"[48] The Weeknd Beauty Behind the Madness [49] 769 June 8, 2015
25. "Faded"[50] Alan Walker Non-album single 766 December 3, 2015
26. "Work from Home"[51] Fifth Harmony featuring Ty Dolla $ign 7/27 [52] 763 February 26, 2016
27. "Despacito"[53] Luis Fonsi featuring Daddy Yankee Non-album single 762 January 13, 2017
28. "Take Me to Church"[54] Hozier Hozier [55] 750 November 29, 2013
29. "Work"[56] Rihanna featuring Drake ANTI [57] 750 January 27, 2016
30. "Can't Stop the Feeling!"[58] Justin Timberlake TROLLS: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack [59] 738 May 6, 2016
31. "Say You Won't Let Go"[60] James Arthur Back from the Edge [61] 735 September 9, 2016
32. "See You Again"[62] Wiz Khalifa featuring Charlie Puth Furious 7: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack [63] 720 March 10, 2015
33. "Something Just Like This" The Chainsmokers and Coldplay Memories...Do Not Open [64] 720 February 22, 2017
34. "Treat You Better"[65] Shawn Mendes Illuminate [66] 719 June 3, 2016
35. "Stay with Me"[67] Sam Smith In the Lonely Hour [68] 714 April 14, 2014
36. "Light It Up (Remix)"[69] Major Lazer featuring Nyla and Fuse ODG Peace Is the Mission (Extended) [70] 709 November 5, 2015
37. "Heathens"[71] Twenty One Pilots Suicide Squad: The Album [72] 693 June 16, 2016
38. "Hotline Bling"[73] Drake Views [13] 691 July 31, 2015
39. "Where Are Ü Now"[74] Jack Ü with Justin Bieber Skrillex and Diplo Present Jack Ü [75] 688 February 27, 2015
40. "Let Her Go"[76] Passenger All the Little Lights [77] 680 July 24, 2012
41. "Panda"[78] Desiigner New English [79] 679 February 22, 2016
42. "HUMBLE."[80] Kendrick Lamar DAMN.[81] 679 March 30, 2017
43. "All of Me"[82] John Legend Love in the Future [83] 677 August 12, 2013
44. "Rockabye"[84] Clean Bandit featuring Sean Paul and Anne-Marie Non-album single 670 October 21, 2016
45. "Unforgettable" French Montana featuring Swae Lee Jungle Rules 669 April 7, 2017
46. "Me, Myself & I"[85] G-Eazy and Bebe Rexha When It's Dark Out [86] 668 October 14, 2015
47. "Radioactive"[87] Imagine Dragons Night Visions [88] 666 September 4, 2012
48. "Chandelier"[89] Sia 1000 Forms of Fear [90] 665 March 17, 2014
49. "The Hills"[91] The Weeknd Beauty Behind the Madness [49] 661 May 27, 2015
50. "Sugar"[92] Maroon 5 V [93] 660 August 29, 2014
51. "I'm the One" DJ Khaled featuring Justin Bieber, Quavo, Chance the Rapper and Lil Wayne Grateful 659 April 28, 2017
52. "Lush Life" Zara Larsson So Good 651 June 5, 2015
53. "We Don't Talk Anymore" Charlie Puth featuring Selena Gomez Nine Track Mind 642 May 24, 2016
54. "rockstar" Post Malone featuring 21 Savage Non-album single 642 September 15, 2017
55. "Cake by the Ocean" DNCE DNCE 640 September 18, 2015
56. "It Ain't Me" Kygo and Selena Gomez Stargazing 638 February 17, 2017
57. "Love Me Like You Do" Ellie Goulding Fifty Shades of Grey: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 636 January 7, 2015
58. "Ride" Twenty One Pilots Blurryface [38] 632 April 12, 2016
59. "I Don't Wanna Live Forever" ZAYN and Taylor Swift Fifty Shades Darker: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack 631 December 9, 2016
60. "In the Name of Love" Martin Garrix and Bebe Rexha Non-album single 630 July 26, 2016
61. "Too Good" Drake featuring Rihanna Views [13] 625 July 26, 2016
62. "That's What I Like" Bruno Mars 24K Magic 623 November 18, 2016
63. "Counting Stars" OneRepublic Native 621 June 14, 2013
64. "XO TOUR Llif3"[94] Lil Uzi Vert Luv Is Rage 2 [95] 613 February 26, 2017
65. "i hate u, i love u" gnash featuring Olivia O'Brien us 609 February 17, 2016
66. "Can't Hold Us" Macklemore & Ryan Lewis featuring Ray Dalton The Heist 603 August 16, 2011
67. "Fast Car" Jonas Blue featuring Dakota Non-album single 601 December 4, 2015
68. "Side to Side" Ariana Grande featuring Nicki Minaj Dangerous Woman 599 May 20, 2016
69. "Rather Be" Clean Bandit featuring Jess Glynne New Eyes 597 January 17, 2014
70. "Roses" The Chainsmokers featuring Rozes Bouquet 596 June 16, 2015
71. "PILLOWTALK" ZAYN Mind of Mine 593 January 29, 2016
72. "Sugar" Robin Schulz featuring Francesco Yates Sugar 589 July 17, 2015
73. "Demons" Imagine Dragons Night Visions [88] 587 September 4, 2012
74. "Congratulations"[96] Post Malone featuring Quavo Stoney [97] 582 January 31, 2017
75. "Attention" Charlie Puth Non-album single 576 April 21, 2017
76. "Trap Queen" Fetty Wap Fetty Wap 576 April 24, 2014
77. "Starving" Hailee Steinfield and Grey featuring Zedd Haiz 573 July 19, 2016
78. "I Feel It Coming" The Weeknd featuring Daft Punk Starboy [98] 571 November 25, 2016
79. "New Rules" Dua Lipa Dua Lipa 570 June 2, 2017
80. "Wake Me Up"[99] Avicii True 562 June 17, 2013
81. "Firestone" Kygo featuring Conrad Sewell Cloud Nine 558 December 1, 2014
82. "Needed Me" Rihanna ANTI [57] 553 January 28, 2016
83. "Riptide" Vance Joy Dream Your Life Away 551 May 21, 2013
84. "Happy" Pharrell Williams GIRL 550 November 21, 2013
85. "Stay" Zedd and Alessia Cara Non-album single 550 February 23, 2017
86. "Mi Gente" J Balvin and Willy William Non-album single 549 June 30, 2017
87. "Middle" DJ Snake featuring Bipolar Sunshine Encore [30] 549 October 16, 2015
88. "Want to Want Me" Jason Derulo Everything Is 4 547 March 9, 2015
89. "Thunder" Imagine Dragons Evolve 546 April 27, 2017
90. "Paris" The Chainsmokers Memories...Do Not Open [64] 546 January 13, 2017
91. "Earned It" The Weeknd Beauty Behind the Madness [49] 540 January 13, 2015
92. "24K Magic" Bruno Mars 24K Magic 539 October 7, 2016
93. "How Deep Is Your Love" Calvin Harris and Disciples Non-album single 537 July 15, 2015
94. "Mask Off" Future Future 535 February 17, 2017
95. "Perfect" Ed Sheeran ÷ [11] 534 March 3, 2017
96. "Havana" Camila Cabello featuring Young Thug Non-album single 531 August 3, 2017
97. "Stole the Show" Kygo featuring Parson James Cloud Nine 528 March 25, 2017
98. "Believer" Imagine Dragons Evolve 528 February 1, 2017
99. "Call On Me (Ryan Riback Remix)" Starley Non-album single 526 October 13, 2016
100. "Swalla" Jason Derulo featuring Nicki Minaj and Ty Dolla $ign Non-album single 525 February 24, 2017
As of January 9, 2018

Artists With The Most Songs In The Spotify Global 100[edit]
This is a list of the Artists with the most songs in the Spotify Global 100. It includes an artist's solo and featured songs.
For a comprehensive spreadsheet, please click here
Rank
Artist
Total Songs
Solo Top 10
Feat. Top 10
Solo Top 100
Feat. Top 100
1Bil+ Songs
1 Justin Bieber 8 2 1 3 5 1
2 Drake 5 1 4 1 1
3 The Chainsmokers 5 2 5 1
4 The Weeknd 5 5
5 Ed Sheeran 4 3 4 2
6 Imagine Dragons 4 4
7 Rihanna 4 2 2
8 DJ Snake 3 1 3 1
9 Major Lazer 3 1 3 1
10 Bruno Mars 3 2 1
In the United States[edit]
The following table lists the top 10 most streamed songs on Spotify in the United States, as well as the artist(s), the album it is currently published to Spotify on, and the date it was originally published to Spotify.
Streaming totals are derived from the official Kworb charts and are updated as soon as the information is available. Streams are rounded up to closest million.
Rank
Song name
Artist(s)
Album
Streams (millions)
Publication date
Notes
1. "One Dance"[12] Drake featuring Wizkid and Kyla Views [13] 421 April 5, 2016
2. "Closer"[14] The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey Collage EP [15] 370 July 29, 2016
3. "HUMBLE."[80] Kendrick Lamar DAMN. [81] 346 March 30, 2017 [A]
4. "XO TOUR Llif3"[94] Lil Uzi Vert Luv Is Rage 2 [95] 323 March 24, 2017
5. "Congratulations"[96] Post Malone featuring Quavo Stoney [97] 295 November 4, 2016
6. "Starboy"[27] The Weeknd featuring Daft Punk Starboy [98] 290 September 22, 2016
7. "Shape of You"[10] Ed Sheeran ÷ [11] 287 January 6, 2017
8. "Broccoli"[100] DRAM featuring Lil Yachty Big Baby D.R.A.M. [101] 282 April 6, 2016
9. "No Role Modelz"[102] J. Cole 2014 Forest Hills Drive [103] 259 August 4, 2015 [B]
10. "Fake Love"[104] Drake More Life [105] 259 October 29, 2016
As of January 4, 2018
Historical most streamed Spotify songs[edit]
The following table lists the last 6 songs to become Spotify's most streamed song, from 2013 to the present.
Current record
Song name
Publisher*
Streams**
Publication date
Date achieved
Days held
Ref(s)
Notes
"Shape of You"[10] Ed Sheeran 1,318,000,000 January 6, 2017 September 21, 2017 110 [5]
"One Dance"[12] Drake 882,000,000 May 6, 2016 October 15, 2016 340 [8]
"Lean On"[16] Major Lazer 526,000,000 June 1, 2015 November 11, 2015 339 [7]
"Thinking Out Loud"[20] Ed Sheeran 355,000,000 June 21, 2014 May 22, 2015 173 [5]
"Wake Me Up"[99] Avicii 178,000,000 July 30, 2013 January 2014 480+ [3][4] [C]
"Radioactive"[87] Imagine Dragons – January 1, 2012 2013 – [3] [D]
As of January 9, 2018
*The artist or group whose Spotify page the song was published on.
**The approximate number of streams each song had when it became Spotify's most streamed song.
See also[edit]
List of most streamed artists on Spotify
List of most-viewed YouTube videos
List of most-viewed Vevo videos
List of most-disliked YouTube videos
List of most-liked YouTube videos
List of most-subscribed YouTube channels
List of most-followed Twitter accounts
List of most viewed online videos in the first 24 hours
List of most viewed online trailers in the first 24 hours
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "HUMBLE." is the newest song in the top ten.
Jump up ^ "No Role Modelz" is the oldest song in the top ten.
Jump up ^ The exact date and number of streams that "Wake Me Up" had when it surpassed "Radioactive" is unknown. Best estimates were made based on its 3.8 million weekly streams and the 17 million stream difference between the two songs when it reached 200 million streams.[3]
Jump up ^ The exact date and number of streams that "Radioactive" had when it became Spotify's most streamed song is unknown.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Most Streamed Songs of All Time on Spotify". Spotify. December 1, 2016. Retrieved December 5, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ed Sheeran's Shape of You is now Spotify's most-streamed song of all time". Music Business Worldwide. 22 September 2017. Retrieved 30 September 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Avicii and 'Wake Me Up!' become most-streamed song in Spotify history". Music Times. February 28, 2014. Retrieved October 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Book, Ryan (February 27, 2014). "Avicii's 'Wake Me Up' is Spotify's Most-Played Song Ever". Billboard. Retrieved October 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Thinking Out Loud by Ed Sheeran has just surpassed Wake Me Up by Avicii as the most played song ever on Spotify". Reddit. May 22, 2015. Retrieved October 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Weiner, Natalie (October 12, 2015). "Ed Sheeran's 'Thinking Out Loud' Becomes First Song to Hit 500 Million Spotify Streams". Billboard. Retrieved October 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Rishty, David (November 11, 2015). "Major Lazer & DJ Snake's 'Lean On' Becomes Spotify's Most-Streamed Song of All Time". Billboard. Retrieved October 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Stutz, Colin (October 18, 2016). "Drake's 'One Dance' is Spotify's Most-Streamed Song Ever". Billboard. Retrieved October 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Gil (June 8, 2017). "Ed Sheeran's 'Shape of You': One Billion Spotify Plays". Billboard. Retrieved June 13, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Shape of You". Spotify. January 6, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "÷ (Deluxe)". Spotify. March 3, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "One Dance". Spotify. May 6, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Views". Spotify. May 6, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Closer". Spotify. July 29, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Collage EP". Spotify. November 4, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Lean On (feat. MØ & DJ Snake)". Spotify. June 1, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Peace Is The Mission". Spotify. June 1, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sorry". Spotify. November 13, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Purpose (Deluxe)". Spotify. November 13, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Thinking Out Loud". Spotify. June 21, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "x (Deluxe Edition)". Spotify. June 21, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love Yourself". Spotify. November 13, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Despacito". Spotify. April 17, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Don't Let Me Down". Spotify. February 5, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "I Took A Pill In Ibiza - Seeb Remix". Spotify. May 6, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "At Night, Alone". Spotify. May 6, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Starboy". Spotify. November 25, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "What Do You Mean?". Spotify. November 13, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Let Me Love You". Spotify. August 5, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Encore". Spotify. August 5, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Cold Water". Spotify. July 22, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Cheap Thrills". Spotify. December 17, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "This Is Acting". Spotify. January 29, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Cheerleader - Felix Jaehn Remix Radio Edit". Spotify. December 2, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Me 4 U". Spotify. October 16, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Photograph". Spotify. June 22, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Stressed Out". Spotify. April 28, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Blurryface". Spotify. May 15, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Uptown Funk". Spotify. January 12, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Uptown Special". Spotify. January 12, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "7 Years". Spotify. April 1, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Lukas Graham". Spotify. April 1, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Stitches". Spotify. April 14, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Handwritten". Spotify. April 14, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "This Is What You Came For". Spotify. April 29, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Hello". Spotify. October 23, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "25". Spotify. November 20, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Can't Feel My Face". Spotify. August 28, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Beauty Behind The Madness". Spotify. August 28, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Faded". Spotify. December 4, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Work from Home". Spotify. May 27, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "7/27 (Deluxe)". Spotify. May 27, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Despacito". Spotify. January 13, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Take Me to Church". Spotify. November 29, 2013. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Hozier". Spotify. October 7, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Work". Spotify. January 29, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "ANTI". Spotify. January 29, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "CAN'T STOP THE FEELING! (Original Song from DreamWorks Animation's "TROLLS")". Spotify. May 6, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "TROLLS: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack)". Spotify. September 23, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Say You Won't Let Go - From "Back from the Edge"". Spotify. October 28, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Back from the Edge". Spotify. October 28, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "See You Again (feat. Charlie Puth)". Spotify. March 10, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Furious 7: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack". Spotify. March 17, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Memories...Do Not Open". Spotify. April 7, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Treat You Better". Spotify. September 23, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Illuminate". Spotify. September 23, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Stay with Me". Spotify. January 1, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "In The Lonely Hour". Spotify. January 1, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Light It Up (feat. Nyla & Fuse ODG [Remix]". Spotify. November 27, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Peace Is The Mission (Extended)". Spotify. November 27, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Heathens". Spotify. June 16, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Suicide Squad: The Album". Spotify. August 5, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Hotline Bling". Spotify. July 31, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Where Are Ü Now (with Justin Bieber)". Spotify. February 24, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Skrillex and Diplo present Jack Ü". Spotify. February 24, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Let Her Go". Spotify. July 24, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "All the Little Lights". Spotify. August 28, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Panda". Spotify. February 26, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "New English". Spotify. June 26, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "HUMBLE". Spotify. March 30, 2017. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "DAMN". Spotify. March 30, 2017. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "All of Me". Spotify. August 8, 2013. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Love In The Future". Spotify. August 30, 2013. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rockabye - From "Rockabye"". Spotify. October 21, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Me, Myself & I". Spotify. October 14, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "When It's Dark Out". Spotify. December 4, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Radioactive". Spotify. January 1, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Night Visions". Spotify. January 1, 2012. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Chandelier". Spotify. March 17, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "1000 Forms Of Fear". Spotify. July 14, 2014. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Hills". Spotify. August 28, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sugar". Spotify. May 15, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "V". Spotify. May 15, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "XO TOUR Llif3". Spotify. March 24, 2017. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Luv Is Rage 2". Spotify. March 24, 2017. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Congratulations". Spotify. November 4, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Stoney (Deluxe)". Spotify. November 4, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Cite error: The named reference Starboy album was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Jump up to: a b "Wake Me Up". Spotify. July 30, 2013. Retrieved March 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Broccoli (feat. Lil Yachty)". Spotify. April 6, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Big Baby D.R.A.M". Spotify. April 6, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference No Role Modelz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference 2014 Forest Hills Drive was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ "Fake Love". Spotify. October 29, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ "More Life". Spotify. October 29, 2016. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
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Cell damage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Cell damage can occur as a result of an adverse stimulus which disrupts the normal homeostasis of affected cells.[1] Among other causes, this can be due to physical, chemical, infectious, biological, nutritional or immunological factors. Cell damage can be reversible or irreversible. Depending on the extent of injury, the cellular response may be adaptive and where possible, homeostasis is restored.[2] Cell death occurs when the severity of the injury exceeds the cell’s ability to repair itself.[1] Cell death is relative to both the length of exposure to a harmful stimulus and the severity of the damage caused.[2] Cell death may occur by necrosis or apoptosis.
Contents
[hide]
1 Causes
2 Targets
3 Types of damage
3.1 Sub-lethal (reversible)
3.1.1 Cellular swelling
3.1.2 Fatty change
3.2 Lethal
3.2.1 Necrosis
3.2.2 Apoptosis
4 Repair
4.1 Regeneration
4.2 Replacement
5 Biochemical changes in cellular injury
6 DNA damage and repair
6.1 DNA damage
6.2 Repair of DNA damages
7 See also
8 References
Causes[edit]
Physical agents such as heat or radiation can damage a cell by literally cooking or coagulating their contents.
Impaired nutrient supply, such as lack of oxygen or glucose, or impaired production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) may deprive the cell of essential materials needed to survive.[3]
Targets[edit]
The most notable components of the cell that are targets of cell damage are the DNA and the cell membrane.
DNA damage: In human cells, both normal metabolic activities and environmental factors such as ultraviolet light and other radiations can cause DNA damage, resulting in as many as one million individual molecular lesions per cell per day.[4]
Membrane damage: damage to the cell membrane disturbs the state of cell electrolytes, e.g. calcium, which when constantly increased, induces apoptosis.
Types of damage[edit]
Some cell damage can be reversed once the stress is removed or if compensatory cellular changes occur. Full function may return to cells but in some cases a degree of injury will remain.[citation needed]
Sub-lethal (reversible)[edit]
Cellular swelling[edit]
Cellular swelling (or cloudy swelling) may occur due to cellular hypoxia, which damages the sodium-potassium membrane pump; it is reversible when the cause is eliminated.[5] Cellular swelling is the first manifestation of almost all forms of injury to cells. When it affects many cells in an organ, it causes some pallor, increased turgor, and increase in weight of the organ. On microscopic examination, small clear vacuoles may be seen within the cytoplasm; these represent distended and pinched-off segments of the endoplasmic reticulum. This pattern of non-lethal injury is sometimes called hydropic change or vacuolar degeneration.[6] Hydropic degeneration is a severe form of cloudy swelling. It occurs with hypokalemia due to vomiting or diarrhea.
The ultrastructural changes of reversible cell injury include:
Blebbing
Blunting
distortion of microvilli
loosening of intercellular attachments
mitochondrial changes
dilation of the endoplasmic reticulum
Fatty change[edit]
The cell has been damaged and is unable to adequately metabolize fat. Small vacuoles of fat accumulate and become dispersed within cytoplasm. Mild fatty change may have no effect on cell function; however more severe fatty change can impair cellular function. In the liver, the enlargement of hepatocytes due to fatty change may compress adjacent bile canaliculi, leading to cholestasis. Depending on the cause and severity of the lipid accumulation, fatty change is generally reversible. Fatty Change is also known as fatty degeneration, fatty metamorphosis, or fatty steatosis.
Lethal[edit]
Necrosis[edit]
Necrosis is characterised by cytoplasmic swelling, irreversible damage to the plasma membrane, and organelle breakdown leading to cell death.[7] The stages of cellular necrosis include pyknosis; clumping of chromosomes and shrinking of the nucleus of the cell, karyorrhexis; fragmentation of the nucleus and break up of the chromatin into unstructured granules, and karyolysis; dissolution of the cell nucleus.[8] Cytosolic components that leak through the damaged plasma membrane into the extracellular space can incur an inflammatory response.[9]
There are six types of necrosis:[10]
Coagulative necrosis
Liquefactive necrosis
Caseous necrosis
Fat necrosis
Fibroid necrosis
Gangrenous necrosis
Apoptosis[edit]
Apoptosis is the programmed cell death of superfluous or potentially harmful cells in the body. It is an energy dependent process mediated by proteolytic enzymes called caspases, which trigger cell death through the cleaving of specific proteins in the cytoplasm and nucleus.[11] The dying cells shrink and condense into apoptotic bodies. The cell surface is altered so as to display properties which lead to rapid phagocytosis by macrophages or neighbouring cells.[11] Unlike necrotic cell death, neighbouring cells are not damaged by apoptosis as cytosolic products are safely isolated by membranes prior to undergoing phagocytosis.[9] In the average adult between 50 and 70 billion cells die each day due to apoptosis. Inhibition of apoptosis can result in a number of cancers, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, and viral infections. Hyperactive apoptosis can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, hematologic diseases, and tissue damage. Keshav Rathour
Repair[edit]
When a cell is damaged the body will try to repair or replace the cell to continue normal functions. If a cell dies the body will remove it and replace it with another functioning cell, or fill the gap with connective tissue to provide structural support for the remaining cells. The motto of the repair process is to fill a gap caused by the damaged cells to regain structural continuity. Normal cells try to regenerate the damaged cells but this cannot always happen. Asexual reproduction is what repairs cells
Regeneration[edit]
Regeneration of parenchyma cells, or the functional cells, of an organism. The body can make more cells to replace the damaged cells keeping the organ or tissue intact and fully functional.
Replacement[edit]
When a cell cannot be regenerated the body will replace it with stromal connective tissue to maintain tissue/organ function. Stromal cells are the cells that support the parenchymal cells in any organ. Fibroblasts, immune cells, pericytes, and inflammatory cells are the most common types of stromal cells.[12]
Biochemical changes in cellular injury[edit]
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) depletion is a common biological alteration that occurs with cellular injury. This change can happen despite the inciting agent of the cell damage. A reduction in intracellular ATP can have a number of functional and morphologic consequences during cell injury. These effects include:
Failure of the ATP dependent pumps (Na+
/K+
pump and Ca2+
pump), resulting in a net influx of Na+
and Ca2+
ions and osmotic swelling.
ATP-depleted cells begin to undertake anaerobic metabolism to derive energy from glycogen which is known as 'glycogenolysis'.
A consequent decrease in the intracellular pH of the cell arises, which mediates harmful enzymatic processes.
Early clumping of nuclear chromatin then occurs, known as 'pyknosis', and leads to eventual cell death.[13]
DNA damage and repair[edit]
DNA damage[edit]
DNA damage (or RNA damage in the case of some virus genomes) appears to be a fundamental problem for life. As noted by Haynes,[14] the subunits of DNA are not endowed with any peculiar kind of quantum mechanical stability, and thus DNA is vulnerable to all the "chemical horrors" that might befall any such molecule in a warm aqueous medium. These chemical horrors are DNA damages that include various types of modification of the DNA bases, single- and double-strand breaks, and inter-strand cross-links (see DNA damage (naturally occurring). DNA damages are distinct from mutations although both are errors in the DNA. Whereas DNA damages are abnormal chemical and structural alterations, mutations ordinarily involve the normal four bases in new arrangements. Mutations can be replicated, and thus inherited when the DNA replicates. In contrast, DNA damages are altered structures that cannot, themselves, be replicated.
Several different repair processes can remove DNA damages (see chart in DNA repair). However, those DNA damages that remain un-repaired can have detrimental consequences. DNA damages may block replication or gene transcription. These blockages can lead to cell death. In multicellular organisms, cell death in response to DNA damage may occur by a programmed process, apoptosis.[15] Alternatively, when a DNA polymerase replicates a template strand containing a damaged site, it may inaccurately bypass the damage and, as a consequence, introduce an incorrect base leading to a mutation. Experimentally, mutation rates increase substantially in cells defective in DNA mismatch repair[16][17] or in Homologous recombinational repair (HRR).[18]
In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, DNA genomes are vulnerable to attack by reactive chemicals naturally produced in the intracellular environment and by agents from external sources. An important internal source of DNA damage in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes is reactive oxygen species (ROS) formed as byproducts of normal aerobic metabolism. For eukaryotes, oxidative reactions are a major source of DNA damage (see DNA damage (naturally occurring) and Sedelnikova et al.[19]). In humans, about 10,000 oxidative DNA damages occur per cell per day.[20] In the rat, which has a higher metabolic rate than humans, about 100,000 oxidative DNA damages occur per cell per day. In aerobically growing bacteria, ROS appear to be a major source of DNA damage, as indicated by the observation that 89% of spontaneously occurring base substitution mutations are caused by introduction of ROS-induced single-strand damages followed by error-prone replication past these damages.[21] Oxidative DNA damages usually involve only one of the DNA strands at any damaged site, but about 1–2% of damages involve both strands.[22] The double-strand damages include double-strand breaks (DSBs) and inter-strand crosslinks. For humans, the estimated average number of endogenous DNA DSBs per cell occurring at each cell generation is about 50.[23] This level of formation of DSBs likely reflects the natural level of damages caused, in large part, by ROS produced by active metabolism.
Repair of DNA damages[edit]
Five major pathways are employed in repairing different types of DNA damages. These five pathways are nucleotide excision repair, base excision repair, mismatch repair, non-homologous end joining and homologous recombinational repair (HRR) (see chart in DNA repair) and reference.[15] Only HRR can accurately repair double strand damages, such as DSBs. The HRR pathway requires that a second homologous chromosome be available to allow recovery of the information lost by the first chromosome due to the double-strand damage.
DNA damage appears to play a key role in mammalian aging, and an adequate level of DNA repair promotes longevity (see DNA damage theory of aging and reference.[24]). In addition, an increased incidence of DNA damage and/or reduced DNA repair cause an increased risk of cancer (see Cancer, Carcinogenesis and Neoplasm) and reference[24]). Furthermore, the ability of HRR to accurately and efficiently repair double-strand DNA damages likely played a key role in the evolution of sexual reproduction (see Evolution of sexual reproduction and reference.[25] In extant eukaryotes, HRR during meiosis provides the major benefit of maintaining fertility.[25]
See also[edit]
Cellular adaptation
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Cobb, J. P.; et al. (1996). "Mechanisms of cell injury and death". British Journal of Anaesthesia.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolf, Ronni; et al. (2011). Emergency Dermatology. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–10. ISBN 9780521717335.
Jump up ^ Klaassen, C.D., Ed.: Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2007 [2001].
Jump up ^ Lodish H, Berk A, Matsudaira P, Kaiser CA, Krieger M, Scott MP, Zipursky SL, Darnell J. (2004). Molecular Biology of the Cell, WH Freeman: New York, NY. 5th ed., p. 963
Jump up ^ Hayes, A.W., Ed.: Principles and Methods of Toxicology Fourth Edition, Raven Press, New York, 2001 and 5th edition (2008).
Jump up ^ "Cellular Swelling." Humpath.com-Human Pathology. Humpath.com, 30 Jan 2006. Web. 21 Mar 2013.
Jump up ^ Festjens, Nele; Vanden Berghe, Tom; Vandenabeele, Peter (2006-09-01). "Necrosis, a well-orchestrated form of cell demise: Signalling cascades, important mediators and concomitant immune response". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics. Mitochondria: from Molecular Insight to Physiology and Pathology. 1757 (9–10): 1371–1387. doi:10.1016/j.bbabio.2006.06.014.
Jump up ^ "Medical Definition of PYKNOSIS". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2016-04-16.
^ Jump up to: a b Proskuryakov, Sergey Y. a; Konoplyannikov, Anatoli G; Gabai, Vladimir L (2003-02-01). "Necrosis: a specific form of programmed cell death?". Experimental Cell Research. 283 (1): 1–16. PMID 12565815. doi:10.1016/S0014-4827(02)00027-7.
Jump up ^ "What Is Necrosis? - Definition & Types - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com". Study.com. Retrieved 2016-04-16.
^ Jump up to: a b Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002-01-01). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science. ISBN 0815332181.
Jump up ^ Hardman, J. G.; Limburd, L. E.; Gilman, A. G., eds. (2000). Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-135469-7.
Jump up ^ Chien, S; Toledo-Pereyra, L, eds. (2008). "’Metabolic Management - Organ Procurement and Preservation For Transplantation". Landes Bioscience Springer, New York. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Haynes RH (1988). Biological context of DNA repair. In: Friedberg EC & Hanawalt PC editors, Mechanisms and Consequences of DNA Damage Processing, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited, 1988 pp. 577-584. ISBN 0471502693, 9780471502692
^ Jump up to: a b Bernstein, C; Bernstein, H; Payne, CM; Garewal, H (2002). "DNA repair/pro-apoptotic dual-role proteins in five major DNA repair pathways: fail-safe protection against carcinogenesis". Mutat Res. 511 (2): 145–178. PMID 12052432. doi:10.1016/s1383-5742(02)00009-1.
Jump up ^ Narayanan, L; Fritzell, JA; Baker, SM; Liskay, RM; Glazer, PM (1997). "Elevated levels of mutation in multiple tissues of mice deficient in the DNA mismatch repair gene Pms2". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 94 (7): 3122–3127. PMC 20332  . PMID 9096356. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.7.3122.
Jump up ^ Hegan, DC; Narayanan, L; Jirik, FR; Edelmann, W; Liskay, RM; Glazer, PM (2006). "Differing patterns of genetic instability in mice deficient in the mismatch repair genes Pms2, Mlh1, Msh2, Msh3 and Msh6". Carcinogenesis. 27 (12): 2402–2408. PMC 2612936  . PMID 16728433. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgl079.
Jump up ^ Tutt, AN; van Oostrom, CT; Ross, GM; van Steeg, H; Ashworth, A (2002). "Disruption of Brca2 increases the spontaneous mutation rate in vivo: synergism with ionizing radiation". EMBO Rep. 3 (3): 255–260. PMC 1084010  . PMID 11850397. doi:10.1093/embo-reports/kvf037.
Jump up ^ Sedelnikova, OA; Redon, CE; Dickey, JS; Nakamura, AJ; Georgakilas, AG; Bonner, WM (2010). "Role of oxidatively induced DNA lesions in human pathogenesis". Mutat Res. 704 (1–3): 152–159. PMC 3074954  . PMID 20060490. doi:10.1016/j.mrrev.2009.12.005.
Jump up ^ Ames, BN; Shigenaga, MK; Hagen, TM (September 1993). "Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of aging". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90: 7915–22. PMC 47258  . PMID 8367443. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.17.7915.
Jump up ^ Sakai, A; Nakanishi, M; Yoshiyama, K; Maki, H (2006). "Impact of reactive oxygen species on spontaneous mutagenesis in Escherichia coli". Genes Cells. 11 (7): 767–778. PMID 16824196. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2443.2006.00982.x.
Jump up ^ Massie, HR; Samis, HV; Baird, MB (1972). "The kinetics of degradation of DNA and RNA by H2O2". Biochim Biophys Acta. 272 (4): 539–548. PMID 5065779. doi:10.1016/0005-2787(72)90509-6.
Jump up ^ Vilenchik, MM; Knudson, AG (2003). "Endogenous DNA double-strand breaks: production, fidelity of repair, and induction of cancer". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 100 (22): 12871–12876. PMC 240711  . PMID 14566050. doi:10.1073/pnas.2135498100.
^ Jump up to: a b Bernstein H, Payne CM, Bernstein C, Garewal H, Dvorak K (2008). Cancer and aging as consequences of un-repaired DNA damage. In: New Research on DNA Damages (Editors: Honoka Kimura and Aoi Suzuki) Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York, Chapter 1, pp. 1-47. open access, but read only https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=43247 ISBN 1604565810 ISBN 978-1604565812
^ Jump up to: a b Harris Bernstein, Carol Bernstein and Richard E. Michod (2011). Meiosis as an Evolutionary Adaptation for DNA Repair. Chapter 19 in DNA Repair. Inna Kruman editor. InTech Open Publisher. DOI: 10.5772/25117 http://www.intechopen.com/books/dna-repair/meiosis-as-an-evolutionary-adaptation-for-dna-repair
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Ploidy
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This article's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Diploid cells have twice the number of chromosomes as haploid cells.
Ploidy is the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes.
Somatic cells, tissues and individuals can be described according to the number of sets present (the ploidy level): monoploid (1 set), diploid (2 sets), triploid (3 sets), tetraploid (4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid[1] or septaploid[2] (7 sets), etc. The generic term polyploid is used to describe cells with three or more chromosome sets.[3][4]
Humans are diploid organisms, carrying two complete sets of chromosomes: one set of 23 chromosomes from their father and one set of 23 chromosomes from their mother. The two sets combined provide a full complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of chromosomes is called the chromosome number. When a species has a varying chromosome number, e.g. a diploid and tetraploid form, the chromosome number is called diploid number in the diploid form, and tetraploid number in the tetraploid form.
The number of chromosomes found in a single complete set of chromosomes is called the monoploid number (x). The haploid number (n) is unique to gametes (sperm or egg cells), and refers to the total number of chromosomes found in a gamete, which under normal conditions is half the total number of chromosomes in a somatic cell.
The haploid number for humans (half of 46) is 23; and the monoploid number equals 46 divided by the ploidy level of 2, which is also 23. When a human germ cell undergoes meiosis the two sets of 23 chromosomes are split in half to form gametes. After fusion of a male and a female gamete (fertilization) both containing 1 set of 23 chromosomes, the resulting zygote has 46 chromosomes: 2 sets of 23 chromosomes (22 autosomes, and 1 allosome).
The common potato (Solanum tuberosum) is an example of a tetraploid organism, carrying four sets of chromosomes. The potato plant inherits two sets of 12 chromosomes from the pollen parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a full complement of 48 chromosomes. The haploid number (half of 48) is 24. The monoploid number equals the chromosome number divided by the ploidy level: 48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12.
The commercial common potato crop is propagated vegetatively (asexual reproduction through mitosis),[5] in which case new individuals are produced from a single parent, without the involvement of gametes and fertilization, and all the offspring are genetically equal to each other and to the parent.
Variation in euploidy for organisms with x=11
Ploidy
Nr of chromosomes
Somatic
Gametic
Diploid 2x=22 2n=22 n=11
Tetraploid 4x=44 2n=44 n=22
Hexaploid 6x=66 2n=66 n=33
Octoploid 8x=88 2n=88 n=44
Because the chromosome number is generally reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis, the somatic cells of the body inherit and maintain the chromosome number of the zygote. However, in many situations somatic cells double their copy number by means of endoreduplication as an aspect of cellular differentiation. For example, the hearts of two-year-old children contain 85% diploid and 15% tetraploid nuclei, but by 12 years of age the proportions become approximately equal, and adults examined contained 27% diploid, 71% tetraploid and 2% octaploid nuclei.[6]
When a germ cell with an uneven number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis, the chromosomes can't be evenly divided between two cells resulting in aneuploid gametes. Triploid organisms for instance are usually sterile. Because of this, triploidy is a common way of making seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in 3 sets of chromosomes the condition is called triploid syndrome.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Case studies
3 Haploid and monoploid
4 Diploid
5 Homoploid
6 Zygoidy and azygoidy
7 Polyploidy
8 Variable or indefinite ploidy
9 Polyploidy in bacteria and archaea
10 Mixoploidy
11 Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy
12 Euploidy
13 Possible adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy
14 References
15 Bibliography
16 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term ploidy is a back-formation from haploidy and diploidy. Ploid is a combination of Ancient Greek -παλτος (-paltos), -πλος (-plos), -πλόος (-plóos, "fold"), and -oid from Ancient Greek -ειδής (-eidḗs), -οειδής (-oeidḗs), from εἶδος (eîdos, “form, likeness”). The principle meaning of the Greek word ἁπλόος haplóos is "two-fold",[7] from ἅμα, which means, "at once, at the same time".[8] From this comes the secondary sense of "single", since folding double produces a unity. It is in this latter sense that it appears in modern genetics. διπλόος diplóos means "duplex" or "two-fold". Diploid therefore means "duplex-shaped" (compare 'humanoid', "human-shaped").
Eduard Strasburger, coined the terms haploid and diploid in 1905:
Schließlich wäre es vielleicht erwünscht, wenn den Bezeichnungen Gametophyt und Sporophyt, die sich allein nur auf Pflanzen mit einfacher und mit doppelter Chromosomenzahl anwenden lassen, solche zur Seite gestellt würden, welche auch für das Tierreich passen. Ich erlaube mir zu diesem Zwecke die Worte Haploid und Diploid, bezw. haploidische und diploidische Generation vorzuschlagen.[9][10]
Some authors suggest that Strasburger based the terms on Weismann's conception of the id (or germ plasm),[11][12][13] hence haplo-id and diplo-id. The two terms were brought into the English language from German through William Henry Lang's 1908 translation of an 1906 textbook by Strasburger and colleagues.[14][citation needed]
Technically, ploidy refers to the nucleus. Though at times authors may report the total ploidy of all nuclei present within the cell membrane of a syncytium,[15] usually the ploidy of the nuclei present will be described. For example, a fungal dikaryon with two haploid nuclei is distinguished from the diploid in which the chromosomes share a nucleus and can be shuffled together.[16] Nonetheless, because in most situations there is only one nucleus, it is commonplace to speak of the ploidy of a cell.
Case studies[edit]
It is also possible on rare occasions for the ploidy to increase in the germline, which can result in polyploid offspring and ultimately polyploid species. This is an important evolutionary mechanism in both plants and animals.[17] As a result, it becomes desirable to distinguish between the ploidy of a species or variety as it presently breeds and that of an ancestor. The number of chromosomes in the ancestral (non-homologous) set is called the monoploid number (x), and is distinct from the haploid number (n) in the organism as it now reproduces. Both numbers n, and x, apply to every cell of a given organism.[citation needed]
Common wheat is an organism where x and n differ. It has six sets of chromosomes, two sets from each of three different diploid species that are its distant ancestors. The somatic cells are hexaploid, with six sets of chromosomes, 2n = 6x = 42 (where the monoploid number x = 7 and the haploid number n = 21). The gametes are haploid for their own species, but triploid, with three sets of chromosomes, by comparison to a probable evolutionary ancestor, einkorn wheat.[citation needed]
Tetraploidy (four sets of chromosomes, 2n = 4x) is common in plants, and also occurs in amphibians, reptiles, and insects. For example, species of Xenopus (African toads) form a ploidy series, featuring diploid (X.tropicalis, 2n = 20), tetraploid (for example X.laevis, 4n = 36), octaploid (for example X.wittei, 8n = 72) and dodecaploid (for example X.ruwenzoriensis, 12n = 108) species.[18]
Over evolutionary time scales in which chromosomal polymorphisms accumulate, these changes become less apparent by karyotype - for example, humans are generally regarded as diploid, but the 2R hypothesis has confirmed two rounds of whole genome duplication in early vertebrate ancestors.
Ploidy can also differ with life cycle.[19][20] In some insects it differs by caste. In humans, only the gametes are haploid, but in the Australian bulldog ant, Myrmecia pilosula, a haplodiploid species, haploid individuals of this species have a single chromosome, and diploid individuals have two chromosomes.[21] In Entamoeba, the ploidy level varies from 4n to 40n in a single population.[22] Alternation of generations occurs in many plants.
Some studies suggest that selection is more likely to favor diploidy in host species and haploidy in parasite species.[23]
Haploid and monoploid[edit]
1.Haploid organism are on the left and Diploid organism on the right. 2.This is an haploid egg carrying the dominant purple gene. 3.This is a haploid sperm carrying the recessive blue gene. 4.This is a diploid sperm carrying the recessive blue gene. 5.This is an diploid egg carrying the dominant purple gene. 6.This is the short lived diploid state of haploid organisms. 7.This is the first stage of a zygote which has just been fertilized by a sperm. 8.The spores released by the diploid structure either express the mothers dominate gene or the fathers recessive gene. 9. The baby's cells express the dominant or recessive.
The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell is haploid if it has a single set of chromosomes, each one not being part of a pair. By extension a cell may be called haploid if its nucleus is haploid, and an organism may be called haploid if its body cells (somatic cells) are haploid. The number of chromosomes in a single set is called the haploid number, given the symbol n. If the number of chromosomes in the set is 1 (n=1) then the nucleus (or cell, organism) may be called monoploid.
Gametes (sperm and ova) are haploid cells. The haploid gametes produced by most organisms combine to form a zygote with n pairs of chromosomes, i.e. 2n chromosomes in total. The chromosomes in each pair, one of which comes from the sperm and one from the egg, are said to be homologous. Cells and organisms with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called diploid. For example, most animals are diploid and produce haploid gametes. During meiosis, sex cell precursors have their number of chromosomes halved by randomly "choosing" one member of each pair of chromosomes, resulting in haploid gametes. Because homologous chromosomes usually differ genetically, gametes usually differ genetically from one another.[citation needed]
All plants and many fungi and algae switch between a haploid and a diploid state, with one of the stages emphasized over the other. This is called alternation of generations. Most fungi and algae are haploid during the principal stage of their lifecycle, as are plants like mosses. Most animals are diploid, but male bees, wasps, and ants are haploid organisms because they develop from unfertilized, haploid eggs, while females (workers and queens) are diploid, making their system haplodiploid.
In some cases there is evidence that the n chromosomes in a haploid set have resulted from duplications of an originally smaller set of chromosomes. This "base" number – the number of apparently originally unique chromosomes in a haploid set – is called the monoploid number,[24] also known as basic or cardinal number,[25] or fundamental number.[26][27] As an example, the chromosomes of common wheat are believed to be derived from three different ancestral species, each of which had 7 chromosomes in its haploid gametes. The monoploid number is thus 7 and the haploid number is 3 × 7 = 21. In general n is a multiple of x. The somatic cells in a wheat plant have six sets of 7 chromosomes: three sets from the egg and three sets from the sperm which fused to form the plant, giving a total of 42 chromosomes. As a formula, for wheat 2n = 6x = 42, so that the haploid number n is 21 and the monoploid number x is 7. The gametes of common wheat are considered to be haploid, since they contain half the genetic information of somatic cells, but they are not monoploid, as they still contain three complete sets of chromosomes (n = 3x).[28]
In the case of wheat, the origin of its haploid number of 21 chromosomes from three sets of 7 chromosomes can be demonstrated. In many other organisms, although the number of chromosomes may have originated in this way, this is no longer clear, and the monoploid number is regarded as the same as the haploid number. Thus in humans, x = n = 23.
Diploid[edit]
For other uses, see Diploid (crystallography).
Diploid cells have two homologous copies of each chromosome, usually one from the mother and one from the father. All or nearly all mammals are diploid organisms. The suspected tetraploid (possessing four chromosome sets) plains viscacha rat (Tympanoctomys barrerae) and golden vizcacha rat (Pipanacoctomys aureus)[29] have been regarded as the only known exceptions (as of 2004).[30] However, some genetic studies have rejected any polyploidism in mammals as unlikely, and suggest that amplification and dispersion of repetitive sequences best explain the large genome size of these two rodents.[31] All normal diploid individuals have some small fraction of cells that display polyploidy. Human diploid cells have 46 chromosomes (the somatic number, 2n) and human haploid gametes (egg and sperm) have 23 chromosomes (n). Retroviruses that contain two copies of their RNA genome in each viral particle are also said to be diploid. Examples include human foamy virus, human T-lymphotropic virus, and HIV.[32]
Homoploid[edit]
"Homoploid" means "at the same ploidy level", i.e. having the same number of homologous chromosomes. For example, homoploid hybridization is where the offspring have the same ploidy level as the two parental species. This contrasts with a common situation in plants where chromosome doubling accompanies, or happens soon after hybridization. Similarly, homoploid speciation contrasts with polyploid speciation.[citation needed]
Zygoidy and azygoidy[edit]
Zygoidy is the state where the chromosomes are paired and can undergo meiosis. The zygoid state of a species may be diploid or polyploid.[33][34] In the azygoid state the chromosomes are unpaired. It may be the natural state of some asexual species or may occur after meiosis. In diploid organisms the azygoid state is monoploid. (see below for dihaploidy)
Polyploidy[edit]
Main article: Polyploidy
Polyploidy is the state where all cells have multiple sets of chromosomes beyond the basic set, usually 3 or more. Specific terms are triploid (3 sets), tetraploid (4 sets), pentaploid (5 sets), hexaploid (6 sets), heptaploid[1] or septaploid[2] (7 sets) octoploid (8 sets), nonaploid (9 sets), decaploid (10 sets), undecaploid (11 sets), dodecaploid (12 sets), tridecaploid (13 sets), tetradecaploid (14 sets) etc.[35][36][37][38] Some higher ploidies include hexadecaploid (16 sets), dotriacontaploid (32 sets), and tetrahexacontaploid (64 sets),[39] though Greek terminology may be set aside for readability in cases of higher ploidy (such as "16-ploid").[37] Polytene chromosomes of plants and fruit flies can be 1024-ploid.[40][41] Ploidy of systems such as the salivary gland, elaiosome, endosperm, and trophoblast can exceed this, up to 1048576-ploid in the silk glands of the commercial silkworm Bombyx mori.[15]
The chromosome sets may be from the same species or from closely related species. In the latter case, these are known as allopolyploids (or amphidiploids, which are allopolyploids that behave as if they were normal diploids). Allopolyploids are formed from the hybridization of two separate species. In plants, this probably most often occurs from the pairing of meiotically unreduced gametes, and not by diploid–diploid hybridization followed by chromosome doubling.[42] The so-called Brassica triangle is an example of allopolyploidy, where three different parent species have hybridized in all possible pair combinations to produce three new species.
Polyploidy occurs commonly in plants, but rarely in animals. Even in diploid organisms, many somatic cells are polyploid due to a process called endoreduplication where duplication of the genome occurs without mitosis (cell division).
The extreme in polyploidy occurs in the fern genus Ophioglossum, the adder's-tongues, in which polyploidy results in chromosome counts in the hundreds, or, in at least one case, well over one thousand.
It is also possible for polyploid organisms to revert to lower ploidy by means of haploidisation.
Variable or indefinite ploidy[edit]
Depending on growth conditions, prokaryotes such as bacteria may have a chromosome copy number of 1 to 4, and that number is commonly fractional, counting portions of the chromosome partly replicated at a given time. This is because under exponential growth conditions the cells are able to replicate their DNA faster than they can divide.
In ciliates, the macronucleus is called ampliploid, because only part of the genome is amplified.[43]
Polyploidy in bacteria and archaea[edit]
Polyploidy is a characteristic of the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans [44] and of the archaeon Halobacterium salinarum.[45] These two species are highly resistant to ionizing radiation and desiccation, conditions that induce DNA double-strand breaks.[46][47] This resistance appears to be due to efficient homologous recombinational repair.
Mixoploidy[edit]
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Mixoploidy refers to the presence of two cell lines, one diploid and one polyploid, coexisting within the same organism. Though polyploidy in humans is not viable, mixoploidy has been found in live adults and children.[48] There are two types: diploid-triploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 chromosomes and some have 69,[49] and diploid-tetraploid mixoploidy, in which some cells have 46 and some have 92 chromosomes. It is a major topic of cytology.
Dihaploidy and polyhaploidy[edit]
Not to be confused with haplodiploidy (where diploid and haploid individuals are different sexes).
Dihaploid and polyhaploid cells are formed by haploidisation of polyploids, i.e., by halving the chromosome constitution.
Dihaploids (which are diploid) are important for selective breeding of tetraploid crop plants (notably potatoes), because selection is faster with diploids than with tetraploids. Tetraploids can be reconstituted from the diploids, for example by somatic fusion.
The term “dihaploid” was coined by Bender[50] to combine in one word the number of genome copies (diploid) and their origin (haploid). The term is well established in this original sense,[51][52] but it has also been used for doubled monoploids or doubled haploids, which are homozygous and used for genetic research.[53]
Euploidy[edit]
Euploidy is the state of a cell or organism having one or more than one set of the same set of chromosomes, possibly excluding the sex-determining chromosomes. For example, most human cells have 2 of each of the 23 homologous monoploid chromosomes, for a total of 46 chromosomes. A human cell with an extra set out of the 23 normal ones would be considered euploid. Euploid karyotypes would consequentially be a multiple of the haploid number, which in humans is 23. Aneuploidy is the state where one or more chromosomes of a normal set are missing or present in more than their usual number of copies. Unlike euploidy, aneuploid karyotypes will not be a multiple of the haploid number. In humans, examples of aneuploidy include having a single extra chromosome (such as Down syndrome), or missing a chromosome (such as Turner syndrome). Aneuploid karyotypes are given names with the suffix -somy (rather than -ploidy, used for euploid karyotypes), such as trisomy and monosomy.
Possible adaptive and ecological significance of variation in ploidy[edit]
A study comparing the karyotypes of endangered or invasive plants with those of their relatives found that being polyploid as opposed to diploid is associated with a 14% lower risk of being endangered, and a 20% greater chance of being invasive.[54] Polyploidy may be associated with increased vigor and adaptability.[55]
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Jump up ^ * Sprague G.F.; Russell W.A.; Penny L.H. (1960). "Mutations affecting quantitative traits in the selfed progeny of double monoploid maize stocks". Genetics. 45 (7): 855–866.
Jump up ^ Pandit, M. K.; Pocock, M. J. O.; Kunin, W. E. (2011-03-28). "Ploidy influences rarity and invasiveness in plants". Journal of Ecology. Wiley-Blackwell. 99: 1108–1115. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01838.x.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Natasha (2011-04-06). "Ecologists find genomic clues to invasive and endangered plants". nature.com. Nature Publishing Group. doi:10.1038/news.2011.213. Retrieved 2011-04-07.
Bibliography[edit]
Griffiths, A. J. et al. 2000. An introduction to genetic analysis, 7th ed. W. H. Freeman, New York ISBN 0-7167-3520-2
External links[edit]
Some eukaryotic genome-scale or genome size databases and other sources which may contain the ploidy of many organisms:
Animal genome size database
Plant genome size database
Fungal genome size database
Protist genome-scale database of Ensembl Genomes
Nuismer S.; Otto S.P. (2004). "Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 101: 11036–11039. doi:10.1073/pnas.0403151101. (Supporting Data Set, with information on ploidy level and number of chromosomes of several protists)
Chromosome number and ploidy mutations YouTube tutorial video
[hide]
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Cytogenetics: chromosomes
Basic
concepts
Karyotype
Ploidy
Genetic material/Genome
Chromatin
Euchromatin
Heterochromatin
Chromosome
Chromatid
Nucleosome
Nuclear organization
Types
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Mitosis
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Aneuploidy
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Structures
Telomere: Telomere-binding protein (TINF2)
Protamine
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F
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See also
Extrachromosomal DNA
Plasmid
List of organisms by chromosome count
List of chromosome lengths for various organisms
List of sequenced genomes
International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ploidy&oldid=817677999"
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values: صيغة صبغية – Arabic

values: ডিপ্লয়েড – Bangla

values: Плоіднасць – Belarusian

values: Хаплоиден набор – Bulgarian

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https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidija
Ploidija – Bosnian
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https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidie
Ploidie – Czech
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https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidi
Ploidi – Danish
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https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidsus
Ploidsus – Estonian
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https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploido
Ploido – Esperanto
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values: پلوئیدی – Persian

values: Պոլիպլուդիա – Armenian

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https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploido
Ploido – Ido
io
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interlanguage-link-target

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https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia
Ploidia – Italian
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https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia
Ploidia – Latin
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https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia
Ploidia – Hungarian
hu
hu
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values: Плоидност – Macedonian

values: ക്രോമസോം സംഖ്യ – Malayalam

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https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploiditet
Ploiditet – Norwegian
no
no
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https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploiditet
Ploiditet – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
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https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia
Ploidia – Polish
pl
pl
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https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia
Ploidia – Portuguese
pt
pt
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values: Плоидность – Russian

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https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidy
Ploidy – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

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https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia
Ploidia – Slovak
sk
sk
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values: Плоидија – Serbian

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https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidija
Ploidija – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
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https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidia
Ploidia – Finnish
fi
fi
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https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploiditet
Ploiditet – Swedish
sv
sv
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values: மடியநிலை – Tamil

values: พล็อยดี – Thai

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https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploitlik
Ploitlik – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values: Плоїдність – Ukrainian

values: تکریر – Urdu

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