text:
Where Do We Go from Here (Vanessa Williams song)
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"Where Do We Go from Here?"
Single by Vanessa Williams
from the album 'Greatest Hits: The First Ten Years'
Released
January 17, 1996
Recorded
1995
Genre
R&B
soul
orchestral pop
Length
5:12
Label
Mercury Records
Songwriter(s)
David Foster, Evan Kopelson, Douglas Pashley, Linda Thompson-Jenner
Producer(s)
David Foster
Vanessa Williams singles chronology
"You Can't Run"
(1995) "Where Do We Go from Here?"
(1996) "Do You Hear What I Hear?"
(1996)
"You Can't Run"
(1995) "Where Do We Go from Here? "
(1996) "Do You Hear What I Hear?"
(1996)
"Where Do We Go from Here?" is a song by American actress-singer Vanessa Williams. Produced by David Foster,[citation needed] it was featured in the 1996 film Eraser—in which Williams co-stars with Arnold Schwarzenegger—, though not included on its soundtrack album. The song would later appear on Williams' 1998 greatest hits album Greatest Hits: The First Ten Years.
In the U.S., the single peaked at number 71 on the Billboard Hot 100 and climbed to number five on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart.
Music video[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2015)
The official music video for the song was directed by Andy Morahan.[1]
Charts[edit]
Chart (1996)
Peak
position
German singles' charts 87[2]
Swedish singles' charts 30[3]
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 71[4]
U.S. Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs 90[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Vanessa Williams - "Where do we go from here?"". MVDBase.com (video). ASG. 1998–2017. Retrieved November 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Vanessa Williams, Single-Chartverfolgung (in German)". Musicline.de. Retrieved 2011-12-27.
Jump up ^ "Vanessa Williams - Where Do We Go From Here? (song)". SwedishCharts.com. Retrieved 2011-12-27.
^ Jump up to: a b "Where Do We Go from Here? - Vanessa Williams". Billboard.com. Retrieved 2011-12-27.
[hide]
v
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Discography
Awards and nominations
Studio albums
The Right Stuff
The Comfort Zone
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Next
Silver & Gold
Everlasting Love
The Real Thing
Compilations
Greatest Hits: The First Ten Years
Love Songs
Singles
"The Right Stuff"
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"Just for Tonight"
"Love Is"
"The Sweetest Days"
"The Way That You Love"
"Colors of the Wind"
"Where Do We Go from Here"
"Do You Hear What I Hear / The Little Drummer Boy"
"Happiness"
"Oh How the Years Go By"
"Merry Christmas Darling"
"You Are Everything"
"The Real Thing"
Relatives
William A. Feilds
Chris Williams
Jillian Hervey
Related topics
Teri Joseph
Wilhelmina Slater
Renee Perry
Vanessa Williams and Miss America
Book
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Where_Do_We_Go_from_Here_(Vanessa_Williams_song)&oldid=835895373"
Categories:
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text:
Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)"
Single by Marvin Gaye
from the album What's Going On
B-side
"Sad Tomorrows"
Released
June 10, 1971
Format
Vinyl record (7", 45 RPM)
Recorded
Hitsville USA (Studio A); March 1971
Genre
Soul
Length
3:14 (LP version)
2:39 (7" version)
Label
Tamla
Songwriter(s)
Marvin Gaye
Producer(s)
Marvin Gaye
Marvin Gaye singles chronology
"What's Going On"
(1971) "Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)"
(1971) "Inner City Blues (Make Me Wanna Holler)"
(1971)
"What's Going On"
(1971) "Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)"
(1971) "Inner City Blues (Make Me Wanna Holler)"
(1971)
What's Going On track listing
"God is Love"
(5) "Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)"
(6) "Right On"
(7)
"Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)" was the second single from Marvin Gaye's 1971 album, What's Going On. Following the breakthrough of the title track's success, the song, written solely by Gaye, became regarded as one of popular music's most poignant anthems of sorrow regarding the environment. Led by Gaye playing piano, strings conducted by Paul Riser and David Van De Pitte, multi-tracking vocals from Gaye and The Andantes, multiple background instruments provided by The Funk Brothers and a leading sax solo by Wild Bill Moore, the song rose to number 4 on Billboard's Pop Singles chart and number one for two weeks on the R&B Singles charts on August 14 through to August 27, 1971.[1] The distinctive percussive sound heard on the track was a wood block struck by a rubber mallet, drenched in studio reverb.[2] The song also brought Gaye one of his rare appearances on the Adult Contemporary chart, where it peaked at number 34. In Canada, "Mercy Mercy Me" spent two weeks at number 9.[3]
In 1991, a music video of the song was released by Motown Records, featuring appearances by celebrities such as Smokey Robinson, Johnny Gill, Big Daddy Kane, Holly Robinson Peete, Ralph Tresvant, Bobby Brown, Rosie Perez, Bell Biv Devoe, Wesley Snipes, Tyler Collins (singer), Malcolm Jamal Warner, Diana Ross, Stevie Wonder, David Bowie, Stephanie Mills, Debbie Harry and Vanessa L. Williams.
As the single became his second million-seller from What's Going On, the album started on the soul album charts in the top five and began charging up the pop rankings. "Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)" soon became one of Gaye's most famous songs in his extensive catalogue. In 2002 it was his third single recording to win a "Grammy Hall of Fame" Award. As on "Inner City Blues", Bob Babbitt, not James Jamerson, plays the bass line.
Contents
[hide]
1 B-side
2 Personnel
3 Cover versions
4 References
5 External links
B-side[edit]
The B-side, "Sad Tomorrows", was the early version of "Flying High". This song featured on the 40th-anniversary edition of the album. Lyrically, the songs are both the same except "Sad Tomorrows" is a quick two-minute snippet.*
Personnel[edit]
Marvin Gaye – lead and background vocals, piano, mellotron
The Andantes – additional background (harmony) vocals
William "Wild Bill" Moore – tenor saxophone solo
David Van DePitte – string conduction
The Funk Brothers – other instrumentation
Cover versions[edit]
In 1991, Robert Palmer combined the song in a medley with Gaye's 1976 hit "I Want You". Palmer's single reached number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 4 on the Adult Contemporary chart in early 1991. It also hit number 9 on the UK chart.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942–2004. Record Research. p. 226.
Jump up ^ The Percussive Sound of 'Mercy Mercy Me'
Jump up ^ RPM Top Singles, August 14, 1971
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"Hot Pants (Pt. 1)" by James Brown Billboard's Hot Soul number one single
August 14–21, 1971 Succeeded by
"Spanish Harlem" by Aretha Franklin
[show]
v
t
e
Marvin Gaye
Studio
albums
The Soulful Moods of Marvin Gaye (1961)
That Stubborn Kinda Fellow (1962)
When I'm Alone I Cry (1964)
Hello Broadway (1964)
How Sweet It Is to Be Loved by You (1965)
A Tribute to the Great Nat "King" Cole (1965)
Moods of Marvin Gaye (1966)
In the Groove/I Heard It Through the Grapevine! (1968)
M.P.G. (1969)
That's the Way Love Is (1970)
What's Going On (1971)
Trouble Man (1972)
Let's Get It On (1973)
I Want You (1976)
Here, My Dear (1978)
In Our Lifetime (1981)
Midnight Love (1982)
Posthumous
albums
Dream of a Lifetime (1985)
Romantically Yours (1986)
Vulnerable (1997)
Duet albums
Together (with Mary Wells, 1964)
Take Two (with Kim Weston, 1966)
United (with Tammi Terrell, 1967)
You're All I Need (with Tammi Terrell, 1968)
Easy (with Tammi Terrell, 1969)
Diana & Marvin (with Diana Ross, 1973)
Compilations
Greatest Hits (1964)
Greatest Hits, Vol. 2 (1967)
Marvin Gaye and His Girls (1969)
Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell's Greatest Hits (1970)
Super Hits (1970)
Anthology (1974)
Marvin Gaye's Greatest Hits (1976)
Motown Remembers Marvin Gaye: Never Before Released Masters (1986)
The Marvin Gaye Collection (1990)
The Norman Whitfield Sessions (1994)
Love Starved Heart: Rare and Unreleased (1994)
The Very Best of Marvin Gaye (1994)
The Master (1961–1984) (1995)
Marvin Gaye: The Love Songs (2000)
The Complete Duets (2001)
The Very Best of Marvin Gaye (2001)
Live albums
Marvin Gaye Recorded Live on Stage (1963)
Marvin Gaye Live! (1974)
Live at the London Palladium (1977)
Marvin Gaye at the Copa (2005)
Video albums
Greatest Hits Live (Live in Holland 1976) (2000)
Live In Montreux 1980 (2003)
The Real Thing: In Performance (1964–1981) (2006)
Live In Belgium 1981 (2006)
US/UK Top
Ten singles
"Pride and Joy"
"How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)"
"I'll Be Doggone"
"Ain't That Peculiar"
"Your Precious Love"
"If I Could Build My Whole World Around You"
"Ain't Nothing Like the Real Thing"
"You're All I Need to Get By"
"I Heard It Through the Grapevine"
"Too Busy Thinking About My Baby"
"That's the Way Love Is"
"Abraham, Martin and John"
"The Onion Song"
"What's Going On"
"Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)"
"Inner City Blues (Make Me Wanna Holler)"
"Trouble Man"
"Let's Get It On"
"You Are Everything"
"Got to Give It Up"
"Sexual Healing"
Family
Marvin Gay Sr. (father)
Alberta Gay (mother)
Anna Gordy Gaye (first wife)
Denise Gordy (son's birth mother)
Nona Gaye (daughter)
Frankie Gaye (brother)
Gordon Banks (brother-in-law)
Related
topics
Discography
Songs
Albums
Songs by Marvin Gaye
Albums produced by Marvin Gaye
Songs in memory
Songs produced by Marvin Gaye
Personal life
Death
Tributes
The Marquees
Harvey Fuqua
Tammi Terrell
Leon Ware
Marvin's Room
Marvin Is 60: A Tribute Album
Book
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
Marvin Gaye singles discography
1960s: (Tamla)
1961
"Let Your Conscience Be Your Guide"
1962
"Sandman"
"Soldier's Plea"
"Stubborn Kind of Fellow"
"Hitch Hike"
1963
"Pride and Joy"
"Can I Get a Witness"
1964
"You're a Wonderful One"
"Once Upon a Time"
"What's the Matter with You Baby"
"Try It Baby"
"Baby Don't You Do It"
"What Good Am I Without You"
"How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved by You)"
1965
"I'll Be Doggone"
"Pretty Little Baby"
"Ain't That Peculiar"
1966
"One More Heartache"
"Take This Heart of Mine"
"Little Darling (I Need You)"
"It Takes Two"
1967
"Ain't No Mountain High Enough"
"Your Unchanging Love"
"Your Precious Love"
"You"
"If I Could Build My Whole World Around You"/"If This World Were Mine"
1968
"Ain't Nothing Like the Real Thing"
"You're All I Need to Get By"
"Chained"
"Keep On Lovin' Me Honey"
"You Ain't Livin' till You're Lovin'"
"His Eye Is on the Sparrow"
"I Heard It Through the Grapevine"
1969
"Good Lovin' Ain't Easy to Come By"
"Too Busy Thinking About My Baby"
"That's the Way Love Is"
"Abraham, Martin and John"
"What You Gave Me"
"How Can I Forget"
1970s: (Tamla)
1970
"Gonna Give Her All the Love I've Got"
"The Onion Song"
"California Soul"
"The End of Our Road"
1971
"What's Going On"
"Mercy Mercy Me (The Ecology)"
"Inner City Blues (Make Me Wanna Holler)"
"Save the Children"
1972
"You're the Man"
"Trouble Man"
"I Want to Come Home for Christmas"
1973
"Let's Get It On"
"You're a Special Part of Me"
"Stop, Look, Listen (To Your Heart)"
"Come Get to This"
1974
"You Sure Love to Ball"
"My Mistake (Was to Love You)"
"Don't Knock My Love"
"You Are Everything"
"Distant Lover"
1976
"I Want You"
"After the Dance"
"Since I Had You"
1977
"Got to Give It Up"
1978
"Pops, We Love You (A Tribute to Father)"
1979
"A Funky Space Reincarnation"
"Anger"
"Ego Tripping Out"
1980s: (Tamla/
Columbia)
1981
"Praise"
"Heavy Love Affair"
1982
"Sexual Healing"
1983
"My Love Is Waiting"
"'Til Tomorrow"
"Joy"
Posthumous
1985
"Sanctified Lady"
"It's Madness"
"Just Like"
1986
"The World Is Rated X"
1991
"My Last Chance"
1994
"Lucky, Lucky Me"
1995
"This Love Starved Heart Of Mine(It's Killing Me)"
2001
"Music"
2005
"Let's Get It On (The M.P.G. Groove Remix)"
2015
"Where Are We Going"
Book
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
Robert Palmer
Studio albums
Sneakin' Sally Through the Alley (1974)
Pressure Drop (1975)
Some People Can Do What They Like (1976)
Double Fun (1978)
Secrets (1979)
Clues (1980)
Pride (1983)
Riptide (1985)
Heavy Nova (1988)
Don't Explain (1990)
Ridin' High (1992)
Honey (1994)
Rhythm & Blues (1999)
Drive (2003)
Live albums
Maybe It's Live (1982)
Live at the Apollo (2001)
At the BBC (2010)
Compilations
Addictions: Volume 1 (1989)
Addictions: Volume II (1992)
Very Best of Robert Palmer (1995)
Woke Up Laughing (1998)
20th Century Masters (1999)
Singles
"Every Kinda People"
"Best of Both Worlds"
"Bad Case of Loving You (Doctor, Doctor)"
"Can We Still Be Friends"
"Johnny and Mary"
"Looking for Clues"
"Some Guys Have All the Luck"
"Discipline of Love"
"Addicted to Love"
"Hyperactive"
"I Didn't Mean to Turn You On"
"Sweet Lies"
"Simply Irresistible"
"Early in the Morning"
"She Makes My Day"
"Tell Me I'm Not Dreamin' (Too Good to Be True)"
"Change His Ways"
"Life in Detail"
"I'll Be Your Baby Tonight"
"You're Amazing"
" Mercy Mercy Me" / "I Want You"
"Happiness"
"Girl U Want"
"Know by Now"
"You Blow Me Away"
"True Love"
Related articles
Discography
The Power Station
[show]
v
t
e
Boyz II Men
Nathan Morris
Shawn Stockman
Wanya Morris
Marc Nelson
Michael McCary
Studio albums
Cooleyhighharmony
II
Evolution
Nathan Michael Shawn Wanya
Full Circle
Throwback, Vol. 1
The Remedy
Motown: Hitsville USA
Love
Twenty
Collide
Compilation albums
Christmas Interpretations
The Remix Collection
The Ballad Collection
Legacy: The Greatest Hits Collection
Winter/Reflections
Covered: Winter
The Millennium Collection: The Best of Boyz II Men
Singles
"Motownphilly"
"It's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday"
"Uhh Ahh"
"Please Don't Go"
"End of the Road"
"In the Still of the Nite (I'll Remember)"
"Let It Snow"
"I'll Make Love to You"
"On Bended Knee"
"Thank You"
"Water Runs Dry"
"One Sweet Day"
"Brokenhearted"
"Hey Lover"
"4 Seasons of Loneliness"
"A Song for Mama"
"Doin' Just Fine"
"I Will Get There"
"Pass You By"
"Thank You in Advance"
"The Color of Love"
"Relax Your Mind"
"What You Won't Do for Love"
"The Tracks of My Tears"
"Just My Imagination"
"War"
"Mercy Mercy Me"
"I Can't Make You Love Me"
"Iris"
"If You Leave Me Now"
Related topics
Discography
Babyface
The Package Tour
Total Package Tour
Book
Category
Source: Spotify
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercy_Mercy_Me_(The_Ecology)&oldid=838214727"
Categories:
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1991 singles
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Boyz II Men songs
Environmental songs
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Alamo Mission in San Antonio
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The Alamo
The chapel of the Alamo Mission is known as the "Shrine of Texas Liberty"[1]
Location of The Alamo in Texas
Location
300 Alamo Plaza
San Antonio, Texas
USA
Coordinates
29°25′33″N 98°29′10″W / 29.42583°N 98.48611°W / 29.42583; -98.48611Coordinates: 29°25′33″N 98°29′10″W / 29.42583°N 98.48611°W / 29.42583; -98.48611
Name as founded
Misión San Antonio de Valero
Patron
Anthony of Padua
Founding priest(s)
Antonio de San Buenaventura y Olivare
Area
5 acres (2.0 ha)
Built
1718
Native tribe(s)
Spanish name(s)
Coahuiltecans
Governing body
Texas General Land Office
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Type
Cultural
Criteria
ii
Designated
2015 (39th session)
Part of
San Antonio Missions
Reference no.
1466
State Party
United States
Region
Europe and North America
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
Designated
October 15, 1966[2]
Reference no.
66000808[2]
U.S. National Historic Landmark
Designated
December 19, 1960[3]
U.S. Historic district
Contributing property
Designated
July 13, 1977[4]
Part of
Alamo Plaza Historic District
Reference no.
77001425
Texas State Antiquities Landmark
Designated
June 28, 1983
Reference no.
8200001755
The Alamo Mission in San Antonio is commonly called The Alamo and was originally known as Misión San Antonio de Valero. It was founded in the 18th century as a Roman Catholic mission and fortress compound, and today is part of the San Antonio Missions World Heritage Site in San Antonio, Texas, United States. It was the site of the Battle of the Alamo in 1836, and is now a museum in the Alamo Plaza Historic District.
The compound was one of the early Spanish missions in Texas, built for the education of area American Indians after their conversion to Christianity. The mission was secularized in 1793 and then abandoned. Ten years later, it became a fortress housing the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras military unit, who likely gave the mission the name Alamo. During the Texas Revolution, Mexican General Martin Perfecto de Cos surrendered the fort to the Texian Army in December 1835, following the Siege of Béxar. A relatively small number of Texian soldiers then occupied the compound for several months. They were wiped out at the Battle of the Alamo on March 6, 1836. When the Mexican army retreated from Texas several months later, they tore down many of the Alamo walls and burned some of the buildings.
For the next five years, the Alamo was periodically used to garrison soldiers, both Texian and Mexican, but was ultimately abandoned. In 1849, several years after Texas was annexed to the United States, the U.S. Army began renting the facility for use as a quartermaster's depot. The U.S. Army abandoned the mission in 1876 after nearby Fort Sam Houston was established. The Alamo chapel was sold to the state of Texas, which conducted occasional tours but made no effort to restore it. The remaining buildings were sold to a mercantile company which operated them as a wholesale grocery store.
The Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) formed in 1895 and began trying to preserve the Alamo. Adina Emilia De Zavala and Clara Driscoll successfully convinced the state legislature in 1905 to purchase the remaining buildings and to name the DRT as the permanent custodian of the site. Over the next century, periodic attempts were made to transfer control of the Alamo from the DRT. In early 2015, Texas Land Commissioner George P. Bush officially removed control of the Alamo to the Texas General Land Office.[5]
The Alamo and the four missions in the San Antonio Missions National Historical Park were designated UNESCO World Heritage sites on July 5, 2015.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Mission
1.2 Military
1.2.1 Battle of the Alamo
1.2.2 Further military use
1.3 Mercantile
1.4 Ownership transfer
1.5 Restoration
1.6 Ownership dispute
1.7 Modern use
2 See also
3 Gallery
4 Notes
5 References
6 Sources
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
Mission[edit]
In 1716, the Spanish government established several Roman Catholic missions in East Texas. The isolation of the missions—the nearest Spanish settlement, San Juan Bautista, Coahuila was over 400 miles (644 km) away—made it difficult to keep them adequately provisioned.[7] To assist the missionaries, the new governor of Spanish Texas, Martín de Alarcón, wished to establish a way station between the settlements along the Rio Grande and the new missions in East Texas.[8] In April 1718, Alarcón led an expedition to found a new community in Texas.[9] On May 1, the group erected a temporary mud, brush, and straw structure near the headwaters of the San Antonio River.[8][9] This building would serve as a new mission, San Antonio de Valero, named after Saint Anthony of Padua and the viceroy of New Spain, Baltasar de Zúñiga y Guzmán Sotomayor y Sarmiento, Marquess of Valero. The mission, headed by Father Antonio de San Buenaventura y Olivares, was located near a community of Coahuiltecans and was initially populated by three to five Indian converts from Mission San Francisco Solano near San Juan Bautista.[9][10] One mile (two km) north of the mission, Alarcón built a presidio (fort), the Presidio San Antonio de Bexar. Close by, he founded the first civilian community in Texas, San Antonio de Bexar (now San Antonio, Texas).[8][9]
Within a year, the mission moved to the western bank of the river, where it was less likely to flood.[10] Over the next several years, a chain of missions were established nearby.[11] In 1724, after remants of a Gulf Coast hurricane destroyed the existing structures at Mission San Antonio de Valero, the mission was moved to its current location.[12] At the time, the new location was just across the San Antonio River from the town of San Antonio de Bexar, and just north of a group of huts known as La Villita.[13]
Over the next several decades, the mission complex expanded to cover 3 acres (1.2 ha).[13] The first permanent building was likely the two-story, L-shaped stone residence for the priests. The building served as parts of the west and south edges of an inner courtyard.[14] A series of adobe barracks buildings were constructed to house the mission Indians and a textile workshop was erected. By 1744, over 300 Indian converts resided at San Antonio de Valero. The mission was largely self-sufficient, relying on its 2000 head of cattle and 1300 sheep for food and clothing. Each year, the mission's farmland produced up to 2000 bushels of corn and 100 bushels of bean; cotton was also grown.[12]
The first stones were laid for a more permanent church building in 1744,[12] however, the church, its tower and the sacristy collapsed in the late 1750s.[15] Reconstruction began in 1758, with the new chapel located at the south end of the inner courtyard. Constructed of 4 feet (1.2 m) thick limestone blocks, it was intended to be three stories high, topped by a dome, with bell towers on either side.[13] Its shape was a traditional cross, with a long nave and short transepts.[15] Although the first two levels were completed, the bell towers and third story were never begun.[13] While four stone arches were erected to support the planned dome, the dome itself was never built.[16] As the church was never completed, it is unlikely that it was ever used for religious services.[15]
The chapel was intended to be highly decorated. Niches were carved on either side of the door to hold statues. The lower-level niches displayed Saint Francis and Saint Dominic, while the second-level niches contained statues of Saint Clare and Saint Margaret of Cortona. Carvings were also completed around the chapel's door.[13]
This is one of the first drawings depicting Mission San Antonio de Valero. It was created in 1838 by Mary Maverick and clearly shows statues within the niches.
Up to 30 adobe or mud buildings were constructed to serve as workrooms, storerooms, and homes for the Indian residents. As the nearby presidio was perpetually understaffed, the mission was built to withstand attacks by Apache and Comanche raiders.[14] In 1745, 100 mission Indians successfully drove off a band of 300 Apaches which had surrounded the presidio. Their actions saved the presidio, the mission, and likely the town from destruction.[11] Walls were erected around the Indian homes in 1758, likely in response to a massacre at the San Saba mission.[14] The convent and church were not fully enclosed within the 8 feet (2.4 m) walls. The walls were built 2 feet (0.61 m) thick and enclosed an area 480 feet (150 m) long (north-south) and 160 feet (49 m) wide (east-west). For additional protection, a turret housing three cannon was added near the main gate in 1762. By 1793 an additional one-pounder cannon had been placed on a rampart near the convent.[17]
The population of Indians fluctuated, from a high of 328 in 1756 to a low of 44 in 1777.[14] The new commandant general of the interior provinces, Teodoro de Croix, thought the missions were a liability and began taking actions to decrease their influence. In 1778, he ruled that all unbranded cattle belonged to the government. Raiding Apache tribes had stolen most of the mission's horses, making it difficult to round up and brand the cattle. As a result, when the ruling took effect, the mission lost a great deal of its wealth and was unable to support a larger population of converts.[18] By 1793, only 12 Indians remained.[14][Note 1] By this point, few of the hunting and gathering tribes in Texas had not been Christianized. In 1793, Mission San Antonio de Valero was secularized.[19]
Shortly after, the mission was abandoned. Most locals were uninterested in the buildings.[20] Visitors were often more impressed. In 1828, French naturalist Jean Louis Berlandier visited the area. He mentioned the Alamo complex: "An enormous battlement and some barracks are found there, as well as the ruins of a church which could pass for one of the loveliest monuments of the area, even if its architecture is overloaded with ornamentation like all the ecclesiastical buildings of the Spanish colonies."[21]
Military[edit]
In the 19th century, the mission complex became known as "the Alamo". The name may have been derived from the grove of nearby cottonwood trees, known in Spanish as álamo. Alternatively, in 1803, the abandoned compound was occupied by the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras, from Álamo de Parras in Coahuila. Locals often called them simply the "Alamo Company".[16]
During the Mexican War of Independence, parts of the mission frequently served as a political prison.[22] Between 1806 and 1812 it served as San Antonio's first hospital. Spanish records indicate that some renovations were made for this purpose, but no details were provided.[20]
The buildings were transferred from Spanish to Mexican control in 1821 after Mexico gained its independence. Soldiers continued to garrison the complex until December 1835, when General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered to Texian forces during the Texas Revolution. In the few months that Cos supervised the troops garrisoned in San Antonio, he had ordered many improvements to the Alamo.[23] Cos's men likely demolished the four stone arches that were to support a future chapel dome. The debris from these was used to build a ramp to the apse of the chapel building. There, the Mexican soldiers placed three cannon, which could fire over the walls of the roofless building.[24] To close a gap between the church and the barracks (formerly the convent building) and the south wall, the soldiers built a palisade.[24] When Cos retreated, he left behind 19 cannons,[25] including a 16-pounder.[26][27][28]
Battle of the Alamo[edit]
Main article: Battle of the Alamo
You can plainly see that the Alamo never was built by a military people for a fortress.
Letter, dated January 18, 1836, from engineer Green B. Jameson to Sam Houston, commander of the Texian forces.[29]
With Cos's departure, there was no longer an organized garrison of Mexican troops in Texas,[30] and many Texians believed the war was over.[31] Colonel James C. Neill assumed command of the 100 soldiers who remained. Neill requested that an additional 200 men be sent to fortify the Alamo,[32] and expressed fear that his garrison could be starved out of the Alamo after a four-day siege.[33] However, the Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance.[34] Determined to make the best of the situation, Neill and engineer Green B. Jameson began working to fortify the Alamo. Jameson installed the cannons that Cos had left along the walls.[25]
Heeding Neill's warnings, General Sam Houston ordered Colonel James Bowie to take 35–50 men to Bexar to help Neill move all of the artillery and destroy the fortress.[34] There were not enough oxen to move the artillery someplace safer, and most of the men believed the complex was of strategic importance to protecting the settlements to the east. On January 26 the Texian soldiers passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo.[35] On February 11, Neill went on furlough to pursue additional reinforcements and supplies for the garrison. William Travis and James Bowie agreed to share command of the Alamo.[36][37]
1854 drawing – The Alamo chapel would have looked something like this in the 1830s.
On February 23 the Mexican army, under the command of General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, arrived in San Antonio de Bexar.[38] For the next thirteen days, the Mexican Army laid siege to the Alamo, during which work continued on the interior of the Alamo. After Mexican soldiers tried to block the irrigation ditch leading into the fort, Jameson supervised the digging of a well at the south end of the plaza. Although the men hit water, they weakened an earth and timber parapet near the barracks, collapsing it and leaving no way to fire safely over that wall.[39]
The Fall of the Alamo, painted by Theodore Gentilz in 1844, depicts the final assault.
The siege ended in a fierce battle on March 6. As the Mexican army overran the walls, most of the Texians fell back to the long barracks (convent) and the chapel. During the siege, Texians had carved holes in many of the walls of these rooms so that they would be able to fire.[40] Each room had only one door which led into the courtyard[41] and which had been "buttressed by semicircular parapets of dirt secured with cowhides".[42] Some of the rooms even had trenches dug into the floor to provide some cover for the defenders.[43] Mexican soldiers used the abandoned Texian cannon to blow off the doors of the rooms, allowing Mexican soldiers to enter and defeat the Texians.[42]
The last of the Texians to die were the eleven men manning the two 12 lb (5.4 kg) cannon in the chapel.[44][45] The entrance to the church had been barricaded with sandbags, which the Texians were able to fire over. A shot from the 18 lb (8.2 kg) cannon destroyed the barricades, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. With no time to reload, the Texians, including Dickinson, Gregorio Esparza, and Bonham, grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death.[46] Texian Robert Evans was master of ordnance and had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder.[46] If he had succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church.[47]
Santa Anna ordered that the Texian bodies be stacked and burned.[48][Note 2] All, or almost all, of the Texian defenders were killed, although some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell would die several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape.[49][50] Most Alamo historians agree that 400–600 Mexicans were killed or wounded.[51][52][53] This would represent about one-third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which historian Terry Todish stated, was "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards".[51]
Further military use[edit]
Following the battle of the Alamo, one thousand Mexican soldiers, under General Juan Andrade, remained at the mission. For the next two months they repaired and fortified the complex, however no records remain of what improvements they made to the structure.[54] After the Mexican army's defeat at the Battle of San Jacinto and the capture of Santa Anna, the Mexican army agreed to leave Texas, effectively ending the Texas Revolution. As Andrade and his garrison joined the retreat on May 24, they spiked the cannons, tore down many of the Alamo walls, and set fires throughout the complex.[55] Only a few buildings survived their efforts; the chapel was left in ruins, most of the Long Barracks was still standing, and the building that had contained the south wall gate and several rooms was mostly intact.[24]
The Texians briefly used the Alamo as a fortress in December 1836 and again in January 1839. The Mexican army regained control in March 1841 and September 1842 as they briefly took San Antonio de Bexar. According to historians Roberts and Olson, "both groups carved names in the Alamo's walls, dug musket rounds out of the holds, and knocked off stone carvings".[55] Pieces of the debris were sold to tourists, and in 1840 the San Antonio town council passed a resolution allowing local citizens to take stone from the Alamo at a cost of $5 per wagonload.[55] By the late 1840s, even the four statues located on the front wall of the chapel had been removed.[56]
Alamo Plaza in the 1860s
On January 13, 1841, the Republic of Texas legislature passed an act returning the sanctuary of the Alamo to the Roman Catholic Church.[57] By 1845, when Texas was annexed to the United States, a colony of bats occupied the abandoned complex and weeds and grass covered many of the walls.[58]
As the Mexican-American War loomed in 1846, 2000 United States Army soldiers were sent to San Antonio under Brigadier General John Wool. By the end of the year, they had appropriated part of the Alamo complex for the Quartermaster's Department. Within eighteen months, the convent building had been restored to serve as offices and storerooms. The chapel remained vacant, however, as the army, the Roman Catholic Church, and the city of San Antonio bickered over its ownership. An 1855 decision by the Texas Supreme Court reaffirmed that the Catholic Church was the rightful owner of the chapel.[57] Even while litigation was ongoing, the army rented the chapel from the Catholic Church for $150 per month.[58]
Under the army's oversight, the Alamo was greatly repaired. Soldiers cleared the grounds and rebuilt the old convent and the mission walls, primarily from original stone which was strewn along the ground. During the renovations, a new wooden roof was added to the chapel and the campanulate, or bell-shaped facade, was added to the front wall of the chapel. At the time, reports suggested that the soldiers found several skeletons while clearing the rubble from the chapel floor. The new chapel roof was destroyed in a fire in 1861.[58] The army also cut additional windows into the chapel, adding two on the upper level of the facade as well as additional windows on the other three sides of the building.[56] The complex eventually contained a supply depot, offices, storage facilities, a blacksmith shop, and stables.[59]
During the American Civil War, Texas joined the Confederacy, and the Alamo complex was taken over by the Confederate Army.[60] In February 1861, the Texan Militia, under direction from the Texas Secession Convention and led by Ben McCullough and Sam Maverick, confronted General Twiggs, commander of all US Forces in Texas and headquartered at the Alamo. Twiggs elected to surrender and all supplies were turned over to the Texans.[61] Following the Confederacy's defeat, the United States Army again maintained control over the Alamo.[59] Shortly after the war ended, however, the Catholic Church requested that the army vacate the premises so that the Alamo could become a place of worship for local German Catholics. The army refused, and the church made no further attempts at retaking the complex.[60]
Mercantile[edit]
Mercantile firm Hugo & Schmeltzer operated a store on the site in the 1880s.
The army abandoned the Alamo in 1876, when Fort Sam Houston was established in San Antonio. About that time, the Church sold the convent to Honore Grenet, who added a new two-story wood building to the complex. Grenet used the convent and the new building for a wholesale grocery business.[58] After Grenet's death in 1882, his business was purchased by the mercantile firm, Hugo & Schmeltzer, which continued to operate the store.[62]
San Antonio's first rail service began in 1877, and the city's tourism industry began to grow. The city heavily advertised the Alamo, using photographs and drawings that showed only the chapel, not the surrounding city. Many of the visitors were disappointed with their visit; in 1877 tourist Harrier P. Spofford wrote that the chapel was "a reproach to all San Antonio. Its wall is overthrown and removed, its dormitories are piled with military stores, its battle-scarred front has been revamped and repainted and market carts roll to and fro on the spot where flames ascended ... over the funeral pyre of heroes".[63]
Ownership transfer[edit]
In 1883, the Catholic Church sold the chapel to the State of Texas for $20,000. The state hired Tom Rife to manage the building. He gave tours but did not make any efforts to restore the chapel, to the annoyance of many. In the past decades, soldiers and members of the local Masonic lodge, which had used the building for meetings, had inscribed various graffiti on the walls and statues. In May 1887 a devout Catholic who was incensed that Masonic emblems had been inscribed on a statue of Saint Theresa was arrested after breaking into the building and smashing statues with a sledgehammer.[62]
Adina De Zavala
The 50th anniversary of the fall of the Alamo received little attention. In an editorial after the fact, the San Antonio Express called for the formation of a new society that would help recognize important historical events. The Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) organized in 1892 with one of their main goals being to preserve the Alamo.[64] Among its early members was Adina Emilia De Zavala, granddaughter of the Republic of Texas Vice-President Lorenzo de Zavala. Shortly before the turn of the 20th century, Adina de Zavala convinced Gustav Schmeltzer, owner of the convent, to give the DRT first option in purchasing the building if it was ever sold. In 1903, when Schmeltzer wanted to sell the building to a developer, he offered the building first to the DRT for $75,000, which they did not have. During De Zavala's attempts to raise the money, she met Clara Driscoll, an heiress who was very interested in Texas history, especially the Alamo.[65]
Clara Driscoll in 1903
Shortly thereafter, Driscoll joined the DRT and was appointed chair of the San Antonio chapter's fund-raising committee. The DRT negotiated a 30-day option on the property, wherein the group would pay $500 up front, with $4,500 due at the conclusion of the 30 days, with an additional $20,000 due on February 10, 1904, and the remainder paid in five annual installments of $10,000. Driscoll paid the initial $500 deposit out of her personal funds, and when fundraising efforts fell far short (only raising slightly over $1,000 of the needed $4,500), Driscoll paid the balance of the $4,500 from her own pocket.[66]
At the urging of both Driscoll and de Zavala, the Texas Legislature approved $5,000 for the committee to use as part of the next payment. The appropriation was vetoed by Governor S. W. T. Lanham, who said it was "not a justifiable expenditure of the taxpayers' money".[67] DRT members set up a collection booth outside the Alamo and held several fundraising activities, collecting $5,662.23. Driscoll agreed to make up the difference, as well as agreeing to pay the final $50,000. After hearing of her generosity, various newspapers in Texas dubbed her the "Savior of the Alamo".[67] Many groups began to petition the legislature to reimburse Driscoll. In January 1905, de Zavala drafted a bill that was sponsored by representative Samuel Ealy Johnson, Jr. (father of future US President Lyndon Baines Johnson), to reimburse Driscoll and name the DRT custodian of the Alamo. The bill passed, and Driscoll received all of her money back.[67]
This 1907 postcard entreated citizens to Save the Alamo.
Driscoll and de Zavala argued over how best to preserve the building. De Zavala wished to restore the exterior of the buildings to a state similar to its 1836 appearance, focusing on the convent (then called the long barracks), while Driscoll wanted to tear down the long barracks and create a monument similar to those she had seen in Europe: "a city center opened by a large plaza and anchored by an ancient chapel".[68]
Unable to reach an agreement, Driscoll and several others women formed a competing chapter of the DRT named the Alamo Mission chapter. The two chapters argued over which had oversight of the Alamo. Unable to resolve the dispute, in February 1908 the executive committee of the DRT leased out the building.[69] Angry with that decision, de Zavala announced that a syndicate wanted to buy the chapel and tear it down.[69] She then barricaded herself in the Hugo and Schmetlzer building for three days.[70]
In response to de Zavala's actions, on February 12, Governor Thomas Mitchell Campbell ordered that the superintendent of public buildings and grounds take control of the property. Eventually a judge named Driscoll's chapter the official custodians of the Alamo.[71] The DRT later expelled de Zavala and her followers.[72]
Restoration[edit]
Theodore Roosevelt giving a speech at the Alamo, April 7, 1905. The picture shows the building that had been added by Hugo and Schmeltzer.
Driscoll offered to donate the money required to tear down the convent, build a stone wall around the Alamo complex, and convert the interior into a park.[72] The legislature postponed a decision until after the 1910 elections after which Texas had a new governor, Oscar Branch Colquitt. Both de Zavala and Driscoll spoke, and Colquitt toured the property; three months later, Colquitt removed the DRT as official custodians of the Alamo, citing that they had done nothing to restore the property since gaining control. He also announced an intent to rebuild the convent. Shortly thereafter, the legislature paid to demolish the building that had been added by Hugo and Schmeltzer and authorized $5,000 to restore the rest of the complex. The restorations were begun, but not finished, as the appropriations fell short of the costs.[73]
Driscoll, upset over Colquitt's decisions, used her influence as a major donor to the Democratic Party to undermine him. At the time, Colquitt was considered running for U.S. Senate. She told the New York Herald Tribune that "the Daughters desire to have a Spanish garden on the site of the old mission, but the governor will not consider it. Therefore, we are going to fight him from the stump. ... We are also going to make speeches in the districts of State Senators who voted against and killed the amendment" to return control of the mission to the DRT.[74] Subsequently, while Colquitt was out of state on a business trip, Lieutenant Governor William Harding Mayes allowed the removal of the upper-story walls of the long barracks from the convent, leaving only the one-story walls of the west and south portions of the building. This conflict became known as the Second Battle of the Alamo.[74] Upon their deaths in 1945 and 1955, Driscoll and de Zavala, respectively, had their bodies laid in state in the Alamo Chapel.[75]
The Alamo and Downtown San Antonio c. 1920. In the center of the surrounding area are the remains of the "Long Barracks" which had been covered by the Hugo and Schmeltzer building
In 1931, Driscoll convinced the state legislature to purchase two tracts of land between the chapel and Crockett street.[76] In 1935, she convinced the city of San Antonio not to place a fire station in a building near the Alamo; the DRT later purchased that building and made it the DRT library.[77] During the Great Depression, money from the Works Progress Administration and the National Youth Administration was used to construct a wall around the Alamo and a museum, and to raze several non-historic buildings on the Alamo property.[78]
The Alamo was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1960, and was documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1961.[79] It was an inaugural listing on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, and is a contributing property to the Alamo Plaza Historic District, which was designated in 1977. As San Antonio prepared to host the Hemisfair in 1968, the long barracks was roofed and turned into a museum. Few structural changes have taken place since then.[80]
According to Herbert Malloy Mason's Spanish Missions of Texas, the Alamo is one of "the finest examples of Spanish ecclesiastical building on the North American continent".[81][Note 3] The mission, along with others located in San Antonio, is at risk from environmental factors, however. The limestone used to construct the buildings was taken from the banks of the San Antonio River. It expands when confronted with moisture and then contracts when temperatures drop, shedding small pieces of limestone with each cycle. Measures have been taken to partially combat the problem.[82]
Ownership dispute[edit]
In 1988, a theater near the Alamo unveiled a new movie, Alamo ... the Price of Freedom. The 40-minute-long film would be screened several times each day. The movie attracted much protest from Mexican American activists, who decried the anti-Mexican comments and complained that it ignored Tejano contributions to the battle. The movie was re-edited in response to the complaints, but the controversy grew to the point that many activists began pressuring the legislature to move control of the Alamo to the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC).[83] In response to pressure from Hispanic groups, state representative Orlando Garcia of San Antonio began legislative hearings into DRT finances. The DRT agreed to make their financial records more open, and the hearings were canceled.[84]
[The Alamo is] one of the most important history structures in the state. It belongs to everyone, or at least it should. ... [It] shouldn't be managed by any private group–I don't care if it is the Daughters of the Republic of Texas, the Elks, the Muslims, or the Water Buffalo Club.
Texas legislator Ron Wilson, who wished to transfer oversight of the Alamo to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department.[85]
Shortly after that, San Antonio representative Jerry Beauchamp proposed that the Alamo be transferred from the DRT to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Many minority legislators agreed with him.[85] However, the San Antonio mayor, Henry Cisneros, advocated that control remain with the DRT, and the legislature shelved the bill.[85]
Rear view of the main building of the Alamo, 2008
Several years later, Carlos Guerra, a reporter for the San Antonio Express-News, began writing columns attacking the DRT for its handling of the Alamo. Guerra claimed that the DRT had kept the temperature too low within the chapel, a situation which caused the formation of water vapor, which when mixed with automobile exhaust fumes damaged the limestone walls. These allegations prompted the legislature in 1993 to once more attempt to transfer control of the Alamo to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. At the same time, State Senator Gregory Luna filed a competing bill to transfer oversight of the Alamo to the Texas Historical Commission.[86]
By the following year, some advocacy groups in San Antonio had begun pressing for the mission to be turned into a larger historical park. They wished to restore the chapel to its 18th century appearance and focus the complex on its mission days rather than the activities of the Texas Revolution.[86] The DRT was outraged. The head of the group's Alamo Committee, Ana Hartman, claimed that the dispute was gender based. According to her, " "There's something macho about it. Some of the men who are attacking us just resent what has been a successful female venture since 1905."[87]
The dispute was mostly resolved in 1994, when then-Governor George W. Bush vowed to veto any legislation that would displace the DRT as caretakers of the Alamo.[88] Later that year, the DRT erected a marker on the mission grounds recognizing that they had once served as Indian burial grounds.[89]
In 2010, the office of the Texas Attorney General received a complaint that the DRT had been mismanaging not only the site, but the funds allocated for its management, and an investigation was begun.[90]
After two years, the Attorney General's office concluded that the DRT had mismanaged the Alamo, and cited numerous instances of misconduct on the DRT's part, including failing to properly maintain the Alamo in good order and repair, mismanagement of state funds, and breach of fiduciary duty.[91]
During the course of the investigation, in 2011, a state law was passed, signed by then-governor Rick Perry, to transfer custodianship of the Alamo from the DRT to the Texas General Land Office. The transfer was officially enacted in 2015. While the DRT initially objected to the Attorney General's report, and even went so far as to file a lawsuit to prevent the transfer, the organization eventually said that it would work with the Texas GLO to preserve the Alamo for future generations.[92]
Modern use[edit]
Today the site of the Alamo Mission is a museum.
As of 2002, the Alamo welcomed over four million visitors each year, making it one of the most popular historic sites in the United States.[93] Visitors may tour the chapel, as well as the Long Barracks, which contains a small museum with paintings, weapons, and other artifacts from the era of the Texas Revolution.[94] Additional artifacts are displayed in another complex building, alongside a large diorama that recreates the compound as it existed in 1836. A large mural, known as the Wall of History, portrays the history of the Alamo complex from its mission days to modern times.[1]
Alamo entrance
The site has an annual operating budget of $6 million, primarily funded through sales in the gift store.[95][96]
Under the 2011 law, which placed the Alamo under the care of the General Land Office,[97] Commissioner George P. Bush announced on March 12, 2015, that his office will take charge of the daily operations of the Alamo from the Daughters of the Republic of Texas.
In October 2015, the state announced that it is purchasing three historic buildings on Alamo Plaza. B. J. "Red" McCombs, a San Antonio businessman and a member of the Alamo Endowment Board, which raises funds for the preservation and management of the shrine, said that he envisions an expansion program consistent with the reality of the Alamo story to enhance the overall experience of future visitors to the historic site.[98]
The General Land Office and the Alamo Endowment non-profit association have entered into a cooperative agreement to formulate a master plan for both the Alamo Complex and the Alamo Historic District. Future visitors can expect a full historical interpretation of the Alamo from its inception to the battle of 1836 and beyond. Along with four other Spanish colonial missions in San Antonio, the Alamo was designated in 2015 as a World Heritage Site by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, the first in Texas and one of twenty-three in the United States.[99]
Renewed resistance to the General Land Office's master plan for the site, which envisions a quadrupling of the site to include a 100,000 square foot museum, came from the recent consideration to move the Alamo Cenotaph to a different location. Other concerns expressed include the proposed $450 million cost of the project and any efforts to allow political correctness to alter or modify the story of the Alamo.[100]
See also[edit]
NRHP portal
Texas portal
New Spain portal
Alamo Plaza Historic District
Alamo Cenotaph
Battle of the Alamo
Espada Acequia, an aqueduct
Main and Military Plazas Historic District
Spanish Governor's Palace
San Antonio Missions (World Heritage Site)
San Antonio Missions National Historical Park
Spanish missions in Texas
Spanish Texas
Mexican Texas
Texas Revolution
Texas history
Alamo Village, in Brackettville, Texas
National Register of Historic Places listings in Bexar County, Texas
List of National Historic Landmarks in Texas
List of World Heritage Sites in the United States
Gallery[edit]
Alamo
Interior Alamo, cannon, San Antonio, Texas (postcard, circa 1901-1914)
Interior of the Alamo, San Antonio, Texas (postcard, circa 1907-1914)
Under six flags, Alamo, San Antonio, Texas (postcard, circa 1915-1924)
Plaque on a wall at the Alamo, recognizing ownership by the state of Texas and custodianship of the Daughters of the Republic of Texas
A plaque posted in remembrance of the contribution of the Alamo by Clara Driscoll to the state of Texas
Cactus shrub adjacent to main building at the Alamo
Old well and oak tree in courtyard of the Alamo
A stone memorial to the 32 men from Gonzales who perished at the Battle of the Alamo
Memorial poem carved in granite written by a Japanese geography professor in 1914 comparing the Battle to the siege of Nagashino Castle in 1575
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Mason lists the number as 52. Mason (1974), p. 56.
Jump up ^ The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza, whose brother, Francisco Esparza, served in Santa Anna's army and received permission to give Gregorio a proper burial. Edmondson (2000), p. 374.
Jump up ^ Mason believes that the remaining missions in San Antonio, as well as Presidio la Bahia in Goliad, Texas, are in a similar category to the Alamo building. Mason (1974), p. 71.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson (2002), p. 119.
^ Jump up to: a b National Park Service (2010-07-09). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Heintzelman (May 1975), National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Spanish Governor's Palace (PDF), National Park Service, retrieved June 22, 2009 and http://focus.nps.gov/pdfhost/docs/NHLS/Photos/66000808.pdf (852 KB)
Jump up ^ Texas Historic Atlas
Jump up ^ Blanchard, Bobbie. Daughters of the Republic of Texas Sue Land Office, Texas Tribune, March 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ Associated Press. World heritage status for The Alamo, Japan industrial sites, Conroe Courier, July 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ Chipman (1992), pp. 113, 116.
^ Jump up to: a b c Weber (1992), p. 163.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Chipman (1992), p. 117.
^ Jump up to: a b Mason (1974), p. 43.
^ Jump up to: a b Mason (1974, p. 45.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mason (1974), p. 44.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Thompson (2002), p 18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Schoelwer (1985), p. 23.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schoelwer (1985), p. 22.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson (2002), p. 19.
Jump up ^ Schoelwer (1985), p. 24.
Jump up ^ Mason (1974), p. 58.
Jump up ^ Chipman (1992), p. 202.
^ Jump up to: a b Schoelwer (1985), p. 29.
Jump up ^ Schoelwer (1985), p. 26.
Jump up ^ Mason (1974), p. 61.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 10.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thompson (2002), p. 20.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin (1994), p. 111.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 178.
Jump up ^ John Bryant, Alamo cannon, 1997
Jump up ^ Barbara L. Young, "CAYCE, HENRY PETTY," Handbook of Texas Online [1], accessed June 24, 2012. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
Jump up ^ Lord (1961), p. 59.
Jump up ^ Barr (1990), p. 64.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 91.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 29.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 30.
^ Jump up to: a b Todish et al. (1998), p. 31.
Jump up ^ Hopewell (1994), p. 114.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 32.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 120.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 40.
Jump up ^ Nofi (1992), p. 102.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 53.
Jump up ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 370.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin (1994), p. 147.
Jump up ^ Petite (1998), p. 114.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 54.
Jump up ^ Petite (1998), p. 115.
^ Jump up to: a b Edmondson (2000), p. 371.
Jump up ^ Tinkle (1985), p. 216.
Jump up ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 374.
Jump up ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 407.
Jump up ^ Groneman (1990), p. 119.
^ Jump up to: a b Todish et al. (1998), p. 55.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1961), p. 155.
Jump up ^ Nofi (1992), p. 136.
Jump up ^ Thompson (2002), p. 102.
^ Jump up to: a b c Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 200.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson (2002), p. 103.
^ Jump up to: a b Schoelwer (1985), p. 32.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 201.
^ Jump up to: a b Thompson (2002), p. 104.
^ Jump up to: a b Schoelwer (1985), p. 38.
Jump up ^ March 23, 1861 issue, Harpers Weekly
^ Jump up to: a b Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 202.
Jump up ^ Schoelwer (1985), p. 40.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 206.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 207.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 208.
^ Jump up to: a b c Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 209.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 210.
^ Jump up to: a b Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 211.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 198.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 197.
^ Jump up to: a b Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 212.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 213.
^ Jump up to: a b Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 214.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), pp. 227, 229.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 221.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (222).
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 225.
Jump up ^ "Walter Eugene George, Jr. Collection: 1951–2007", Alexander Architectural Archive, University of Texas at Austin Libraries. Retrieved November 29, 2010.
Jump up ^ Schoelwer (1985), p. 59.
Jump up ^ Mason (1974), p. 71.
Jump up ^ Mason (1974), p. 78.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 301.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), pp. 303–4.
^ Jump up to: a b c Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 304.
^ Jump up to: a b Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 307.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 308.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 309.
Jump up ^ Roberts and Olson (2001), p. 310.
Jump up ^ Fernandez, Manny (30 November 2012). "In Texas, Another Skirmish Brews at the Alamo". New York Times. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Perez, Nicole (21 November 2012). "Texas Attorney General's Office alleges DRT mismanaged The Alamo". Graham Media Group. KSAT News. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Rumpg, Sarah (13 March 2015). "Texas Assumes Control of Alamo; Daughters of the Republic of Texas 'Will Always be Honored'". Breitbart. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
Jump up ^ Thompson (2002), p. 108.
Jump up ^ Thompson (2002), p. 121.
Jump up ^ Korn, Marjorie (August 24, 2009), "Hutchison wants more state oversight over Alamo", Houston Chronicle, p. Section B, pp. 2–3, retrieved September 7, 2009
Jump up ^ Huddleston, Scott (September 1, 2011), "State Wants Alamo To Have Director", San Antonio Express News
Jump up ^ Huddleston, Scott (November 18, 2011), "State, DRT agree on Alamo Trademark", San Antonio Express News
Jump up ^ Scott Huddleston and Benjamin Olivo, "Next chapter in Alamo history now is waiting to be written: What buildings' purchase by state means still is to be seen", San Antonio Express-News, October 11, 2015
Jump up ^ George P. Bush and Ivy Taylor, "Agreement marks historic moment for the Alamo", San Antonio Express-News, October 17, 2015, p. A19
Jump up ^ New Battle of the Alamo is brewing over Texas shrine revamp. Star-Telegram October 20, 2017. [2] Accessed October 21, 2017
Sources[edit]
Barr, Alwyn (1996). Black Texans: A history of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (2nd ed.). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2878-X. OCLC 34742519.
Chipman, Donald E. (1992). Spanish Texas, 1519–1821. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77659-4. OCLC 25411908.
Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 1-55622-678-0. OCLC 42842410.
Groneman, Bill (1990). Alamo Defenders, A Genealogy: The People and Their Words. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 0-89015-757-X. OCLC 20670456.
Hardin, Stephen L. (1999). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-73086-1. OCLC 29704011.
Hopewell, Clifford (1994). James Bowie Texas Fighting Man: A Biography. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 0-89015-881-9. OCLC 27223654.
Lord, Walter (1978). A Time to Stand. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-7902-7. OCLC 3893089.
Mason, Herbert Molloy, Jr. (1974). Missions of Texas. Birmingham, AL: Southern Living Books.
Nofi, Albert A. (1992). The Alamo and the Texas War of Independence, September 30, 1835 to April 21, 1836: Heroes, Myths, and History. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, Inc. ISBN 0-938289-10-1. OCLC 25833554.
Petite, Mary Deborah (1999). 1836 Facts about the Alamo and the Texas War for Independence. Mason City, IA: Savas Publishing Company. ISBN 1-882810-35-X. OCLC 41545196.
Roberts, Randy; Olson, James S. (2001). A Line in the Sand: The Alamo in Blood and Memory. The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-83544-4. OCLC 223395265.
Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast (1985). Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience. Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press. ISBN 0-87074-213-2. OCLC 12419738.
Thompson, Frank (2005). The Alamo. Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press. ISBN 1-57441-194-2. OCLC 58480792.
Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1997). Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-1-57168-152-2. OCLC 36783795.
Weber, David J. (1992). The Spanish Frontier in North America. Yale Western Americana Series. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05198-0. OCLC 185691787.
Further reading[edit]
Thompson, Frank (2001). The Alamo: A Cultural History. Taylor Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87833-254-0. OCLC 45463410.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Alamo.
Daughters of the Republic of Texas: Welcome to the Alamo
Alamo Handbook of Texas Online
National Historic Landmarks Program: Alamo
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