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Novichok agent
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Novichok (Russian: Новичо́к, "newcomer") is a series of nerve agents developed by the Soviet Union and Russia between 1971 and 1993.[a][2][3] Russian scientists who developed the agents claim they are the deadliest nerve agents ever made, with some variants possibly five to eight times more potent than VX,[4][5] and others up to ten times more potent than soman.[6]
They were designed as part of a Soviet program codenamed "FOLIANT".[1][7] Five Novichok variants are believed to have been adapted for military use.[8] The most versatile is A-232 (Novichok-5).[9] Novichok agents have never been used on the battlefield. Theresa May, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and many heads of state, said that one such agent was used in the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in England in March 2018.[10] Russia denies producing or researching agents "under the title novichok".[11]
In 2016, Iranian chemists synthesised five Novichok agents for analysis and produced detailed mass spectral data which was added to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Central Analytical Database.[12][13] Previously there had been no detailed descriptions of their spectral properties in open scientific literature.[12][14]
Contents
[hide]
1 Design objectives
2 Disclosure
3 Development and test sites
4 Description of Novichok agents
4.1 Chemistry
5 Effects
6 Use
6.1 Poisoning of Ivan Kivelidi and Zara Ismailova
6.2 Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Design objectives
These agents were designed to achieve four objectives:[15][16]
To be undetectable using standard 1970s and 1980s NATO chemical detection equipment;
To defeat NATO chemical protective gear;
To be safer to handle;
To circumvent the Chemical Weapons Convention list of controlled precursors, classes of chemical and physical form.[17]
Some of these agents are binary weapons, in which precursors for the nerve agents are mixed in a munition to produce the agent just prior to its use. Because the precursors are generally significantly less hazardous than the agents themselves, this technique makes handling and transporting the munitions a great deal simpler. Additionally, precursors to the agents are usually much easier to stabilize than the agents themselves, so this technique also made it possible to increase the shelf life of the agents. This has the disadvantage that careless preparation may produce a non-optimal agent. During the 1980s and 1990s, binary versions of several Soviet agents were developed and are designated as "Novichok" agents. The FOLIANT program may have been influenced by information on a secret American nerve agent code named "GJ" fed to the Soviet Union by a double agent as part of Operation Shocker.[18][19][20]
Disclosure
The Soviet Union and Russia reportedly developed extremely potent fourth-generation chemical weapons from the 1970s until the early 1990s, according to a publication by two chemists, Lev Fyodorov and Vil Mirzayanov in Moskovskiye Novosti weekly in 1992.[21][22][b] The publication appeared just on the eve of Russia's signing of the Chemical Weapons Convention. According to Mirzayanov, the Russian Military Chemical Complex (MCC) was using defense conversion money received from the West for development of a chemical warfare facility.[4][5] Mirzayanov made his disclosure out of environmental concerns. He was the head of a counter-intelligence department and performed measurements outside the chemical weapons facilities to make sure that foreign spies could not detect any traces of production. To his horror, the levels of deadly substances were 80 times greater than the maximum safe concentration.[5][24]
Russian military industrial complex authorities admitted the existence of Novichok agents when they brought a treason case against Mirzayanov. According to expert witness testimonies that three scientists prepared for the KGB, Novichok and other related chemical agents had indeed been produced and therefore Mirzayanov's disclosure represented high treason.[c]
Mirzayanov was arrested on 22 October 1992 and sent to Lefortovo prison for divulging state secrets. He was released later because "not one of the formulas or names of poisonous substances in the Moscow News article was new to the Soviet press, nor were locations ... of testing sites revealed."[5] According to Yevgenia Albats, "the real state secret revealed by Fyodorov and Mirzayanov was that generals had lied—and were still lying—to both the international community and their fellow citizens."[5] Mirzayanov now lives in the U.S.[26]
Further disclosures followed when Vladimir Uglev, one of Russia's leading binary weapons scientists, revealed the existence of A-232/Novichok-5 in an interview with the magazine Novoye Vremya in early 1994.[27] In his 1998 interview with David E. Hoffman for The Washington Post the chemist claimed that he helped invent the A-232 agent, that it's more frostproof, and confirmed that a binary version has been developed from it.[28] Uglev revealed more details in 2018 following the poisoning of the Skripals, stating that "several hundred" compounds were synthesised during the Foliant research but only four agents were weaponised (presumably the Novichok-5, -7, -8 and -9 mentioned by other sources), the first three were liquids and only the last, which was not developed until 1980, could be made into a powder. Unlike the interview 20 years earlier, he denied any binary agents were developed successfully, at least up until his involvement in the research ceased in 1994.[29]
Novichok was referred to in a patent filed in 2008 for an organophosphorus poisoning treatment. The University of Maryland, Baltimore research was part funded by the U.S. Army.[30]
Leonid Rink, who said he had done his doctoral dissertation research on the Novichok agents, [31] confirmed that the structures leaked by Mirzayanov were the correct ones.[32] Leonid Rink himself was convicted in Russia in 1994 for illegally selling the agent.[33][34]
Development and test sites
Stephanie Fitzpatrick, an American geopolitical consultant, has claimed that the Chemical Research Institute in Nukus, Soviet Uzbekistan,[35] produced Novichok agents and The New York Times has reported that U.S. officials said the site was the major research and testing site for Novichok agents.[36][37] Small, experimental batches of the weapons may have been tested on the nearby Ustyurt Plateau.[37] Fitzpatrick also writes that the agents may have been tested in a research centre in Krasnoarmeysk near Moscow.[35] Precursor chemicals were made at the Pavlodar Chemical Plant in Soviet Kazakhstan, which was also thought to be the intended Novichok weapons production site, until its still-under-construction chemical warfare agent production building was demolished in 1987 in view of the forthcoming 1990 Chemical Weapons Accord and the Chemical Weapons Convention.[38][39]
Since its independence in 1991, Uzbekistan has been working with the government of the United States to dismantle and decontaminate the sites where the Novichok agents and other chemical weapons were tested and developed.[35][37] Between 1999[40] and 2002 the United States Department of Defense dismantled the major research and testing site for Novichok at the Chemical Research Institute in Nukus, under a $6 million Cooperative Threat Reduction program.[36][41]
Hamish de Bretton-Gordon, a British chemical weapons expert and former commanding officer of the UK's Joint Chemical, Biological, Radiation and Nuclear Regiment and its NATO equivalent, "dismissed" suggestions that Novichok agents could be found in other places in the former Soviet Union such as Uzbekistan and has asserted that Novichok agents were produced only at Shikhany in Saratov Oblast, Russia.[42] Mirzayanov also says that it was at Shikhany, in 1973, that scientist Pyotr Petrovich Kirpichev first produced Novichok agents; Vladimir Uglev joined him on the project in 1975.[43] According to Mirzayanov, while production took place in Shikhany, the weapon was tested at Nukus between 1986 and 1989.[4]
Following the poisoning of the Skripals, former head of the GosNIIOKhT security department Nikolay Volodin confirmed in an interview to Novaya Gazeta that there have been tests at Nukus, and said that dogs were used.[44]
Description of Novichok agents
Examples of structures claimed as Novichok agents[45][46][47][48][49][50]
Mirzayanov provided the first description of these agents.[24] Dispersed in an ultra-fine powder instead of a gas or a vapor, they have unique qualities. A binary agent was then created that would mimic the same properties but would either be manufactured using materials which are not controlled substances under the CWC,[26] or be undetectable by treaty regime inspections.[37] The most potent compounds from this family, Novichok-5 and Novichok-7, are supposedly around five to eight times more potent than VX.[51] The "Novichok" designation refers to the binary form of the agent, with the final compound being referred to by its code number (e.g. A-232). The first Novichok series compound was in fact the binary form of a known V-series nerve agent, VR,[51] while the later Novichok agents are the binary forms of compounds such as A-232 and A-234.[52]
According to a classified (secret) report by the US Army National Ground Intelligence Center in Military Intelligence Digest dated 24 January 1997,[53] agent designated A-232 and its ethyl analog A-234 developed under the Foliant program "are as toxic as VX, as resistant to treatment as soman, and more difficult to detect and easier to manufacture than VX". The binary versions of the agents reportedly uses acetonitrile and an organic phosphate "that can be disguised as a pesticide precursor."
Example of a declared Novichok derivative, researched in Iran in 2016
Mirzayanov gives somewhat different structures for Novichok agents in his autobiography to those which have been identified by Western experts.[54] He makes clear that a large number of compounds were made, and many of the less potent derivatives were reported in the open literature as new organophosphate insecticides,[55] so that the secret chemical weapons program could be disguised as legitimate pesticide research.
The agent A-234 is also supposedly around five to eight times more potent than VX.[56][51]
The agents are reportedly capable of being delivered as a liquid, aerosol or gas via a variety of systems, including artillery shells, bombs, missiles and spraying devices.[35]
Chemistry
According to chemical weapons expert Jonathan Tucker, the first binary formulation developed under the Foliant program was used to make Substance 33 (VR), very similar to the more widely-known VX, differing only in the alkyl substituents on its nitrogen and oxygen atoms. "This weapon was given the code name Novichok.”[57]
Synthesis of the A230, A232, and A234 structures as described by Steven Hoenig. Ethanediol modified with up to two methyl groups is reacted with phosphorus trichloride to form a ring structure named as a phospholane analogue. The last chlorine atom is replaced by fluorine (nucleophilic substitution). This compound is then reacted with a phosgene oxime-like chloride to open the ring and create the product fluorophosphonate.[58]
A wide range of potential structures have been reported. These all feature the classical organophosphorus core (sometimes with the P=O replaced with P=S or P=Se), which is most commonly depicted as being a phosphoramidate or phosphonate, usually fluorinated (cf. monofluorophosphate). The organic groups are subject to more variety; however, a common substituent is phosgene oxime or analogues thereof. This is a potent chemical weapon in its own right, specifically as a nettle agent, and would be expected to increase the harm done by the Novichok agent. Many claimed structures from this group also contain cross-linking agent motifs which may covalently bind to the acetylcholinesterase enzyme's active site in several places, perhaps explaining the rapid denaturing of the enzyme that is claimed to be characteristic of the Novichok agents.
Zoran Radić, a chemist at the University of California, San Diego, performed an in silico docking study with Mirzayanov's version of the A-232 structure against the active site of the acetylcholinesterase enzyme. The model predicted a tight fit with high binding affinity and formation of a covalent bond to a serine residue in the active site, with a similar binding mode to established nerve agents such as sarin and soman.[59]
Effects
As nerve agents, the Novichok agents belong to the class of organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitors. These chemical compounds inhibit the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, preventing the normal breakdown of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine concentrations then increase at neuromuscular junctions to cause involuntary contraction of all skeletal muscles (cholinergic crisis). This then leads to respiratory and cardiac arrest (as the victim's heart and diaphragm muscles no longer function normally) and finally death from heart failure or suffocation as copious fluid secretions fill the victim's lungs.[60]
The use of a fast-acting peripheral anticholinergic drug such as atropine can block the receptors where acetylcholine acts to prevent poisoning (as in the treatment for poisoning by other acetylcholinesterase inhibitors). Atropine, however, is difficult to administer safely, because its effective dose for nerve agent poisoning is close to the dose at which patients suffer severe side effects such as changes in heart rate and thickening of the bronchial secretions which fill the lungs of someone suffering nerve agent poisoning, so that suctioning of these secretions and other advanced life support techniques may be necessary in addition to administration of atropine to treat nerve agent poisoning.[60]
In the treatment of nerve agent poisoning, atropine is most often administered along with a Hagedorn oxime such as pralidoxime, obidoxime, TMB-4, or HI-6, which reactivates acetylcholinesterase which has been inactivated by phosphorylation by an organophosphorus nerve agent and relieves the respiratory muscle paralysis caused by some nerve agents. Pralidoxime is not effective in reactivating acetylcholinesterase inhibited by some older nerve agents such as soman[60] or the Novichok nerve agents, described in the literature as being up to eight times more toxic than nerve agent VX.[48]
As can be seen with other organophosphate poisonings, novichok agents may cause lasting nerve damage, resulting in permanent disablement of victims, according to Russian scientists.[61] Their effect on humans was demonstrated by the accidental exposure of Andrei Zheleznyakov, one of the scientists involved in their development, to the residue of an unspecified Novichok agent while working in a Moscow laboratory in May 1987. He was critically injured and took ten days to recover consciousness after the incident. He lost the ability to walk and was treated at a secret clinic in Leningrad for three months afterwards. The agent caused permanent harm, with effects that included "chronic weakness in his arms, a toxic hepatitis that gave rise to cirrhosis of the liver, epilepsy, spells of severe depression, and an inability to read or concentrate that left him totally disabled and unable to work." He never recovered and died in July 1992 after five years of deteriorating health.[62]
The US Army has funded studies of the use of galantamine along with atropine in the treatment of a number of nerve agents, including soman and the Novichok agents. An unexpected synergistic interaction was seen to occur between galantamine (given between five hours before to thirty minutes after exposure) and atropine in an amount of 6 mg/kg or higher. Increasing the dose of galantamine from 5 to 8 mg/kg decreased the dose of atropine needed to protect experimental animals from the toxicity of soman in dosages 1.5 times the LD50 (lethal dose in half the animals studied).[30]
Use
Poisoning of Ivan Kivelidi and Zara Ismailova
Supposed Novichok agent formula from the forensic analysis in the Kivelidi case[63]
The forerunner of Novichok agents, substance-33 (frequently also referred to simply as "Novichok")[64] has been reportedly used in 1995 to poison Russian banker Ivan Kivelidi (ru), the head of the Russian Business Round Table, and Zara Ismailova, his secretary.[65][66][67][68][69] According to historians Yuri Felshtinsky and Vladimir Pribylovsky, the murder became "one of the first in the series of poisonings organized by Russia's security services". The Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs analyzed the substance and announced that it was "a phosphorus-based military-grade nerve agent"[70] "whose formula was strictly classified".[70] According to Nesterov, the administrative head of Shikhany, he did not know of "a single case of such poison being sold illegally" and noted that the poison "is used by professional spies".[70]
Vladimir Khutsishvili, a former business partner of the banker, was subsequently convicted for the killings.[65] According to The Independent, "A closed trial found that his business partner had obtained the substance via intermediaries from an employee of the State Research Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology (ru) (GosNIIOKhT),[71] which was involved in the development of Novichoks. However, Khutsishvilli, who claimed that he was innocent, had not been detained at the time of the trial and freely left the country. He was arrested only in 2006 after he returned to Russia, believing that the ten-year old case was closed.[70] According to Felshtinsky and Pribylovsky, Khutsishvilli was framed for the murder by Russia's security services which had access to the chemical agent and used it to organize the murder on the orders of a senior Russian state official.[70]
The employee of GosNIIOKhT Leonard Rink received a one-year suspended sentence for selling Novichok agents to unnamed buyers "of Chechen ethnicity" soon after the poisoning of Kivelidi and Izmailova."[72][73]
Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal
Main article: Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal
On 12 March 2018, the UK government said that a Novichok agent had been used in an attack in the English city of Salisbury on 4 March 2018 in an attempt to kill former GRU officer Sergei Skripal and his daughter Yulia.[74] British Prime Minister Theresa May said in Parliament: "Either this was a direct action by the Russian state against our country, or the Russian government lost control of its potentially catastrophically damaging nerve agent and allowed it to get into the hands of others."[74] On 14 March 2018, the UK expelled 23 Russian diplomats after the Russian government refused to meet the UK's deadline of midnight on 13 March 2018 to give an explanation for the use of the substance.[75]
After the attack, 21 members of the emergency services and public were checked for possible exposure, and three were hospitalised. As of 12 March, one police officer remained in hospital.[74] Five hundred members of the public were advised to decontaminate their possessions to prevent possible long-term exposure, and 180 members of the military and 18 vehicles were deployed to assist with decontamination at locations in and around Salisbury. Up to 38 people in Salisbury have been affected by the agent to an undetermined extent.[76] Addressing the United Nations Security Council, Vassily Nebenzia, the Russian envoy to the UN, responded to the British allegations by denying that Russia had ever produced or researched the agents, stating: "No scientific research or development under the title Novichok were carried out."[11]
Daniel Gerstein, a former senior official at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, said it was possible that Novichok nerve agents had been used before in Britain to assassinate Kremlin targets, but had not been detected: "It's entirely likely that we have seen someone expire from this and not realized it. We realized in this case because they were found unresponsive on a park bench. Had it been a higher dose, maybe they would have died and we would have thought it was natural causes."[77]
On 20 March 2018, Ahmet Üzümcü, Director-General of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), said that it will take "another two to three weeks to finalize the analysis" of samples taken from the poisoning of Skripal.[78]
On April 3, 2018, the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory announced that it was "completely confident" that the agent used was Novichok, although they still did not know the "precise source" of the agent. Experts said that their findings did not challenge the conclusions by UK government: "We provided that information to the Government who have then used a number of other sources to come to the conclusions that they have."[79]
On April 12, 2018 the OPCW announced that their investigations agreed with the conclusions made by the UK about the identity of the chemical used.[80]
See also
Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services
Russia and weapons of mass destruction
References
Notes
Jump up ^ Jonathon B. Tucker writes that approval to commence research into "fourth generation" chemical weapons was given by the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the Soviet Council of Ministers in May 1971. Vil Mirzayanov, the Russian scientist who first alerted the West to the existence of the Novichok agents, states that testing of Novichok-7 was successfully completed in 1993—after the signing of the Chemical Weapons Convention but before Russia ratified the treaty and when it came into force.[1][2]
Jump up ^ Mirzayanov had made a similar disclosure a year earlier in the 10 October 1991 issue of the Moscow newspaper, Kuranty.[23]
Jump up ^ "[T]he talk [by Mirzayanov] about binary weapons was no more than a verbal construct, an argument ex adverso, and only the MCC [Russian Military Chemical Complex] could corroborate or refute this natural assumption. By entangling V. S. Mirzayanov in investigation, the MCC confirmed the stated hypothesis, advancing it to the ranks of proven facts."[25]
References
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Jump up ^ McGregor 2011, p. 166
Jump up ^ "Theresa May accuses Russia of involvement in Skripal's poisoning, as Russian-made prohibited substance discovered". Crime Russia. 13 March 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Stewart, Will. "Were these the first victims of nerve agent Novichok? Russian banker and secretary 'assassinated' in mysterious circumstances 20 years ago". Daily Mirror. Retrieved 13 March 2018. [unreliable source?]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Felshtinsky & Pribylovsky 2009, p. 453–457
Jump up ^ "Secret trial shows risks of nerve agent theft in post-Soviet chaos - experts". Thomson Reuters Foundation. 20 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Why is the UK accusing Russia of launching a nerve agent attack on Sergei Skripal in Salisbury, and what is the evidence?". The Independent. 16 March 2018.
Jump up ^ ""Novichok" has been already used for killing («Новичок» уже убивал)". Novaya Gazeta.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Russian spy: Highly likely Moscow behind attack, says Theresa May". BBC News. 12 March 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Russian spy: UK to expel 23 Russian diplomats". BBC News. 14 March 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Moran, Terry; Vlasto, Chris; Meek, James (March 18, 2018). "Russian ex-spy's poisoning in UK believed from nerve agent in car vents; at least 38 others sickened: Sources". ABCNews.com. Retrieved March 22, 2018. The intelligence officials told ABC News up to 38 individuals in Salisbury have been identified as having been affected by the nerve agent but the full impact is still being assessed and more victims sickened by the agent are expected to be identified
Jump up ^ Barry, Ellen; Yeginsu, Ceylan (13 March 2018). "The nerve agent too deadly to use—until someone did in Britain". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Two to three weeks to analyze samples from Salisbury attack: OPCW". Agence France-Presse. 20 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Defence experts 'unsure' of source behind novichok spy attack". ITV. April 3, 2018. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ "OPCW Issues Report on Technical Assistance Requested by the United Kingdom". www.opcw.org. Retrieved 2018-04-13.
Bibliography
Albats, Yevgenia (1994), The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia — Past, Present, and Future, translated by Fitzpatrick, Catherine A., New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux, ISBN 978-0-374-18104-8
Birstein, Vadim J. (2004), The Perversion Of Knowledge: The True Story of Soviet Science, Westview Press, ISBN 0-8133-4280-5
Darling, Robert G.; Noste, Erin E. (2016), "Future Biological and Chemical Weapons", in Ciottone, Gregory R., Ciottone's Disaster Medicine (Second ed.), Amsterdam: Elsevier, doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-28665-7.00080-7
Croddy, Eric A.; Wirtz, James J.; Larsen, Jeffrey A., eds. (2001), Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Essential Reference Guide, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 978-1-851-09490-5
Ellison, D. Hank (2008), Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents (Second ed.), CRC Press, ISBN 978-0-849-31434-6
Felshtinsky, Yuri; Pribylovsky, Vladimir (2009), The Corporation: Russia and the KGB in the Age of President Putin, London: Encounter Books, ISBN 978-1-594-03246-2
Gupta, Ramesh C., ed. (2015), Handbook of Toxicology of Chemical Warfare Agents, Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-128-00494-4
Hoenig, Steven L. (2007), Compendium of Chemical Warfare Agents, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-34626-7
Kendall, Ronald J.; Presley, Steven M.; Austin, Galen P.; Smith, Philip N. (2008), Advances in Biological and Chemical Terrorism Countermeasures, CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-420-07654-7
McGregor, Paul (2011), Toxic Politics: The Secret History of the Kremlin's Poison Laboratory—from the Special Cabinet to the Death of Litvinenko, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-313-38746-3
Mirzayanov, Vil S. (2008), State Secrets: An Insider's Chronicle of the Russian Chemical Weapons Program, Outskirts Press, ISBN 978-1-4327-2566-2
Pitschmann, Vladimír (2014), "Overall View of Chemical and Biochemical Weapons", Toxins, 6 (6), pp. 1761–1784, doi:10.3390/toxins6061761
Salem, Harry; Katz, Sidney A., eds. (2014), Inhalation Toxicology (3rd ed.), CRC Press, ISBN 978-1-466-55273-9
Tucker, Jonathon B. (2006), War of Nerves, New York: Anchor Books, ISBN 978-0-375-42229-4
Wise, David (2000), Cassidy's Run: The Secret Spy War Over Nerve Gas, Thorndike, ME: G.K. Hall & Co, ISBN 978-0-783-89144-6
Further reading
Kincaid, Cliff (February 1995), "Russia's Dirty Chemical Secret", American Legion Magazine, 138 (2), pp. 32–34, 58
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Novichok agents.
Fedorov, Lev (27 July 1994). "Chemical Weapons in Russia: History, Ecology, Politics". Federation of American Scientists.
"Russian chemical weapons". Federation of American Scientists.
[show]
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VS
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Novichok agents
A-234
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3-Chloro-4-stillbazole
4-(1-Naphthylvinyl)pyridine
Acetylseco hemicholinium-3
Acryloylcholine
AF64A
B115
BETA
CM-54,903
N,N-Dimethylaminoethylacrylate
N,N-Dimethylaminoethylchloroacetate
AChE
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VE
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Reactivators: Asoxime chloride
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Trimedoxime bromide
BChE
Inhibitors: Affinine
Affinisine
Conodurine
Cymserine
Ladostigil
Profenamine (ethopropazine)
Rivastigmine
Tacrine
ZINC-12613047
Many of the other AChE inhibitors listed above
Transporter
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Triethylcholine
Enhancers: Coluracetam
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Others: Bungarotoxins (β-bungarotoxin, γ-bungarotoxin)
Enhancers
LPHN agonists: α-Latrotoxin
Others: Atracotoxin (e.g., robustoxin, versutoxin)
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See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor modulators • Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor modulators
[show]
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text:
Period 3 element
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Period 3 in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Part of a series on the
Periodic table
Periodic table forms[show]
18-column
large cells
32-column (large cells)
Alternative forms
Chemical Galaxy
Janet's left step
Beyond period 7
Fricke
large cells
Pyykkö
Periodic table history[show]
Dmitri Mendeleev
predictions
Discovery of elements
Naming & etymology
for places
for scientists
controversies
(in East Asia)
Systematic element names
Sets of elements
By periodic table structure[hide]
Groups (1–18)
1 (alkali metals)
2 (alkaline earth metals)
3
4
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A period 3 element is one of the chemical elements in the third row (or period) of the periodic table of the chemical elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as their atomic number increases: a new row is begun when the periodic table skips a row and a chemical behaviour begins to repeat, meaning that elements with similar behavior fall into the same vertical columns. The third period contains eight elements: sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and argon. The first two, sodium and magnesium, are members of the s-block of the periodic table, while the others are members of the p-block. Note that there is a 3d subshell, but it is not filled until period 4, such giving the period table its characteristic shape of "two rows at a time". All of the period 3 elements occur in nature and have at least one stable isotope.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Periodic trends
1.1 Atomic radius
1.2 Electronegativity
1.3 Ionization energy
2 Elements
2.1 Sodium
2.2 Magnesium
2.3 Aluminium
2.4 Silicon
2.5 Phosphorus
2.6 Sulfur
2.7 Chlorine
2.8 Argon
3 Biological role
4 Table of elements
5 References
Periodic trends[edit]
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon
Atomic radius[edit]
Calculated period 3 atomic radii in picometers.
Main article: Atomic radius
As the atomic number of elements in Period 3 increases, the atomic radius decreases.
Electronegativity[edit]
Main article: Electronegativity
As the atomic mass of elements in Period 3 increases, the electronegativity increases.
Ionization energy[edit]
Main article: Ionization energy
As the atomic number of elements in Period 3 increases, the amount of energy required to remove its electrons (Ionization energy) increases.
Elements[edit]
Chemical element Chemical series Electron configuration
11 Na Sodium Alkali metal [Ne] 3s1
12 Mg Magnesium Alkaline earth metal [Ne] 3s2
13 Al Aluminium Post-transition metal [Ne] 3s2 3p1
14 Si Silicon Metalloid [Ne] 3s2 3p2
15 P Phosphorus Polyatomic nonmetal [Ne] 3s2 3p3
16 S Sulfur Polyatomic nonmetal [Ne] 3s2 3p4
17 Cl Chlorine Diatomic nonmetal [Ne] 3s2 3p5
18 Ar Argon Noble gas [Ne] 3s2 3p6
Sodium[edit]
Main article: Sodium
Sodium (symbol Na) is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal and is a member of the alkali metals; its only stable isotope is 23Na. It is an abundant element that exists in numerous minerals such as feldspars, sodalite and rock salt. Many salts of sodium are highly soluble in water and are thus present in significant quantities in the Earth's bodies of water, most abundantly in the oceans as sodium chloride.
Many sodium compounds are useful, such as sodium hydroxide (lye) for soapmaking, and sodium chloride for use as a deicing agent and a nutrient.
The free metal, elemental sodium, does not occur in nature but must be prepared from sodium compounds. Elemental sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. The same ion is also a component of many minerals, such as sodium nitrate.
Magnesium[edit]
Main article: Magnesium
Magnesium (symbol Mg) is an alkaline earth metal and has common oxidation number +2. It is the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust[2] and ninth in the known universe as a whole.[3][4] Magnesium is the fourth most common element in the Earth as a whole (behind iron, oxygen and silicon), making up 13% of the planet's mass and a large fraction of planet's mantle. The relative abundance of magnesium is related to the fact that it is easily built up in supernova stars from a sequential addition of three helium nuclei to carbon (which in turn is made from three helium nuclei). Due to magnesium ion's high solubility in water, it is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater.[5]
The free element (metal) is not found naturally on Earth, as it is highly reactive (though once produced, it is coated in a thin layer of oxide [see passivation], which partly masks this reactivity). The free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant white light, making it a useful ingredient in flares. The metal is now mainly obtained by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine. Commercially, the chief use for the metal is as an alloying agent to make aluminium-magnesium alloys, sometimes called "magnalium" or "magnelium". Since magnesium is less dense than aluminium, these alloys are prized for their relative lightness and strength.
Magnesium ions are sour to the taste, and in low concentrations help to impart a natural tartness to fresh mineral waters.
Aluminium[edit]
Main article: Aluminium
Aluminium (symbol Al) or aluminum (American English) is a silvery white member of the boron group of chemical elements and a post-transition metal. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances. Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminium metal is too reactive chemically to occur natively. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals.[6] The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite.
Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are important in other areas of transportation and structural materials. The most useful compounds of aluminium, at least on a weight basis, are the oxides and sulfates.
Silicon[edit]
Main article: Silicon
Silicon (symbol Si) is a tetravalent metalloid. It is less reactive than its chemical analog carbon, the nonmetal directly above it in the periodic table, but more reactive than germanium, the metalloid directly below it in the table. Controversy about silicon's character dates to its discovery: silicon was first prepared and characterized in pure form in 1824, and given the name silicium (from Latin: silicis, flints), with an -ium word-ending to suggest a metal. However, its final name, suggested in 1831, reflects the more physically similar elements carbon and boron.
Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the pure free element in nature. It is most widely distributed in dusts, sands, planetoids, and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the earth's crust (about 28% by mass) after oxygen.[7]
Most silicon is used commercially without being separated, and indeed often with little processing of compounds from nature. These include direct industrial building-use of clays, silica sand and stone. Silica is used in ceramic brick. Silicate goes into Portland cement for mortar and stucco, and when combined with silica sand and gravel, to make concrete. Silicates are also in whiteware ceramics such as porcelain, and in traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass. More modern silicon compounds such as silicon carbide form abrasives and high-strength ceramics. Silicon is the basis of the ubiquitous synthetic silicon-based polymers called silicones.
Elemental silicon also has a large impact on the modern world economy. Although most free silicon is used in the steel refining, aluminum-casting, and fine chemical industries (often to make fumed silica), the relatively small portion of very highly purified silicon that is used in semiconductor electronics (< 10%) is perhaps even more critical. Because of wide use of silicon in integrated circuits, the basis of most computers, a great deal of modern technology depends on it.
Phosphorus[edit]
Main article: Phosphorus
Phosphorus (symbol P) is a multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but due to its high reactivity, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth.
The first form of elemental phosphorus to be produced (white phosphorus, in 1669) emits a faint glow upon exposure to oxygen – hence its name given from Greek mythology, Φωσφόρος meaning "light-bearer" (Latin Lucifer), referring to the "Morning Star", the planet Venus. Although the term "phosphorescence", meaning glow after illumination, derives from this property of phosphorus, the glow of phosphorus originates from oxidation of the white (but not red) phosphorus and should be called chemiluminescence. It is also the lightest element to easily produce stable exceptions to the octet rule.
The vast majority of phosphorus compounds are consumed as fertilizers. Other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides and nerve agents, and matches.[8]
Sulfur[edit]
Main article: Sulfur
Sulfur (symbol S) is an abundant, multivalentnon-metal. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow crystalline solid when at room temperature. Chemically, sulfur can react as either an oxidant or reducing agent. It oxidizes most metals and several nonmetals, including carbon, which leads to its negative charge in most organosulfur compounds, but it reduces several strong oxidants, such as oxygen and fluorine.
In nature, sulfur can be found as the pure element and as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Elemental sulfur crystals are commonly sought after by mineral collectors for their brightly colored polyhedron shapes. Being abundant in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times, mentioned for its uses in ancient Greece, China and Egypt. Sulfur fumes were used as fumigants, and sulfur-containing medicinal mixtures were used as balms and antiparasitics. Sulfur is referenced in the Bible as brimstone in English, with this name still used in several nonscientific terms.[9] Sulfur was considered important enough to receive its own alchemical symbol. It was needed to make the best quality of black gunpowder, and the bright yellow powder was hypothesized by alchemists to contain some of the properties of gold, which they sought to synthesize from it. In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier helped convince the scientific community that sulfur was a basic element, rather than a compound.
Elemental sulfur was once extracted from salt domes where it sometimes occurs in nearly pure form, but this method has been obsolete since the late 20th century. Today, almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas and petroleum. The element's commercial uses are primarily in fertilizers, because of the relatively high requirement of plants for it, and in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, a primary industrial chemical. Other well-known uses for the element are in matches, insecticides and fungicides. Many sulfur compounds are odiferous, and the smell of odorized natural gas, skunk scent, grapefruit, and garlic is due to sulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide produced by living organisms imparts the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes.
Chlorine[edit]
Main article: Chlorine
Chlorine (symbol Cl) is the second lightest halogen, found in the periodic table in group 17. The element forms diatomic molecules under standard conditions, called dichlorine. It has the highest electron affinity and the third highest electronegativity of all the elements; for this reason, chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent.
The most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride, has been known since ancient times; however, around 1630, chlorine gas was obtained by the Belgian chemist and physician Jan Baptist van Helmont. The synthesis and characterization of elemental chlorine occurred in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who called it "dephlogisticated muriatic acid air," having thought he synthesized the oxide obtained from the hydrochloric acid, because acids were thought at the time to necessarily contain oxygen, a number of chemists, including Claude Berthollet, suggested that Scheele's dephlogisticated muriatic acid air must be a combination of oxygen and the yet undiscovered element, and Scheele named the supposed new element within this oxide as muriaticum. The suggestion that this newly discovered gas was a simple element was made in 1809 by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques. This was confirmed by Sir Humphry Davy in 1810, who named it chlorine, from the Greek word χλωρος (chlōros), meaning "green-yellow."
Chlorine is a component of various compounds, including table salt. It is the second most abundant halogen and 21st most abundant chemical element in Earth's crust. The great oxidizing potential of chlorine led it to its bleaching and disinfectant uses, as well as uses of an essential reagent in the chemical industry. As a common disinfectant, chlorine compounds are used in swimming pools to keep them clean and sanitary. In the upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing molecules such as chlorofluorocarbons have been implicated in ozone depletion.
Argon[edit]
Main article: Argon
Argon (symbol Ar) is the third element in group 18 of the periodic table (the noble gases). Argon is the third most common gas in the Earth's atmosphere, at 0.93%, making it more common than carbon dioxide. Nearly all of this argon is radiogenic argon-40 derived from the decay of potassium-40 in the Earth's crust. In the universe, argon-36 is by far the most common argon isotope, being the preferred argon isotope produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in supernovas.
The name "argon" is derived from the Greek word αργον meaning "lazy" or "the inactive one", a reference to the fact that the element undergoes almost no chemical reactions. The complete octet (eight electrons) in the outer atomic shell makes argon stable and resistant to bonding with other elements. Its triple point temperature of 83.8058 K is a defining fixed point in the International Temperature Scale of 1990.
Argon is produced industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air. Argon is mostly used as an inert shielding gas in welding and other high-temperature industrial processes where ordinarily non-reactive substances become reactive; for example, an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning. Argon gas also has uses in incandescent and fluorescent lighting, and other types of gas discharge tubes. Argon makes a distinctive blue-green gas laser.
Biological role[edit]
Sodium is an essential element for all animals and some plants. In animals, sodium ions are used against potassium ions to build up charges on cell membranes, allowing transmission of nerve impulses when the charge is dissipated; it is therefore classified as a dietary inorganic macromineral.
Magnesium is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in the human body; its ions are essential to all living cells, where they play a major role in manipulating important biological polyphosphate compounds like ATP, DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of enzymes thus require magnesium ions to function. Magnesium is also the metallic ion at the center of chlorophyll, and is thus a common additive to fertilizers.[10] Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as common laxatives, antacids (e.g., milk of magnesia), and in a number of situations where stabilization of abnormal nerve excitation and blood vessel spasm is required (e.g., to treat eclampsia).
Despite its prevalence in the environment, aluminium salts are not known to be used by any form of life. In keeping with its pervasiveness, it is well tolerated by plants and animals.[11] Because of their prevalence, potential beneficial (or otherwise) biological roles of aluminium compounds are of continuing interest.
Silicon is an essential element in biology, although only tiny traces of it appear to be required by animals,[12] however various sea sponges need silicon in order to have structure. It is much more important to the metabolism of plants, particularly many grasses, and silicic acid (a type of silica) forms the basis of the striking array of protective shells of the microscopic diatoms.
Phosphorus is essential for life. As phosphate, it is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and also the phospholipids that form all cell membranes. Demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was historically first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate minerals are fossils. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in some aquatic systems. Today, the most important commercial use of phosphorus-based chemicals is the production of fertilizers, to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil.
Sulfur is an essential element for all life, and is widely used in biochemical processes. In metabolic reactions, sulfur compounds serve as both fuels and respiratory (oxygen-replacing) materials for simple organisms. Sulfur in organic form is present in the vitamins biotin and thiamine, the latter being named for the Greek word for sulfur. Sulfur is an important part of many enzymes and in antioxidant molecules like glutathione and thioredoxin. Organically bonded sulfur is a component of all proteins, as the amino acids cysteine and methionine. Disulfide bonds are largely responsible for the mechanical strength and insolubility of the protein keratin, found in outer skin, hair, and feathers, and the element contributes to their pungent odor when burned.
Elemental chlorine is extremely dangerous and poisonous for all lifeforms, and is used as a pulmonary agent in chemical warfare; however, chlorine is necessary to most forms of life, including humans, in form of chloride ions.
Argon has no biological role. Like any gas besides oxygen, argon is an asphyxiant.
Table of elements[edit]
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Period 3 in the periodic table
1
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Group →
↓ Period
3
Sodium11Na Magnesium12Mg Aluminium13Al Silicon14Si Phosphorus15P Sulfur16S Chlorine17Cl Argon18Ar
1 (red)=Gas 3 (black)=Solid 80 (green)=Liquid 109 (gray)=Unknown Color of the atomic number shows state of matter (at 0 °C and 1 atm)
Primordial From decay Synthetic Border shows natural occurrence of the element
Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:
Metal Metalloid Nonmetal
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Period 3 Element from Scienceaid.co.uk
Jump up ^ "Abundance and form of the most abundant elements in Earth's continental crust" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-02-15.
Jump up ^ Housecroft, C. E.; Sharpe, A. G. (2008). Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 305–306. ISBN 978-0131755536.
Jump up ^ Ash, Russell (2005). The Top 10 of Everything 2006: The Ultimate Book of Lists. Dk Pub. ISBN 0-7566-1321-3.
Jump up ^ Anthoni, J Floor (2006). "The chemical composition of seawater".
Jump up ^ Shakhashiri, Bassam Z. "Chemical of the Week: Aluminum". Science is Fun. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
Jump up ^ Nave, R. Abundances of the Elements in the Earth's Crust, Georgia State University
Jump up ^ Herbert Diskowski, Thomas Hofmann "Phosphorus" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.a19_505
Jump up ^ Greenwood, N. N.; & Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edn.), Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
Jump up ^ "Magnesium in health".
Jump up ^ Aluminum Compounds, Inorganic. doi:10.1002/14356007.a01_527.pub2.
Jump up ^ Nielsen, Forrest H. (1984). "Ultratrace Elements in Nutrition". Annual Review of Nutrition. 4: 21–41. doi:10.1146/annurev.nu.04.070184.000321. PMID 6087860.
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values: Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page)

values: Electron configurations of the elements (data page)

values: Electronegativities of the elements (data page)

values: Heat capacities of the elements (data page)

values: Heats of fusion of the elements (data page)

values: Heats of vaporization of the elements (data page)

values: Ionization energies of the elements (data page)

values: Melting points of the elements (data page)

values: List of oxidation states of the elements

values: Speeds of sound of the elements (data page)

values: Thermal conductivities of the elements (data page)

values: Thermal expansion coefficients of the elements (data page)

values: Vapor pressures of the elements (data page)

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Periodic table period

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Stable isotope

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values: Sodium's electron configuration is 2, 8, 1.

values: Magnesium's electron configuration is 2, 8, 2.

values: Aluminium's electron configuration is 2, 8, 3.

values: Silicon's electron configuration is 2, 8, 4.

values: Phosphorus's electron configuration is 2, 8, 5.

values: Sulfur's electron configuration is 2, 8, 6.

values: Chlorine's electron configuration is 2, 8, 7.

values: Argon's electron configuration is 2, 8, 8.

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Chemical series

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Alkali metals

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Earth's crust

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Element abundance

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Integrated circuits

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Valency (chemistry)

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Nitrogen group

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White phosphorus

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Red phosphorus

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Nerve agents

values: Standard conditions for temperature and pressure

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Organosulfur compound

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Standard conditions

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Bleach (chemical)

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Dietary mineral

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Milk of magnesia

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Sea sponges

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Essential element

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values: Magnesium: alkaline earth metal; primordial; solid

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values: Aluminium: post-transition metal; primordial; solid

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values: Phosphorus: polyatomic nonmetal; primordial; solid

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values: Sulfur: polyatomic nonmetal; primordial; solid

values: Chlorine: diatomic nonmetal; primordial; gas

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Primordial element

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values: Meitnerium, 109 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Darmstadtium, 110 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Roentgenium, 111 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Copernicium, 112 (post-transition metal)

values: Nihonium, 113 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Flerovium, 114 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Moscovium, 115 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Livermorium, 116 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Tennessine, 117 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Oganesson, 118 (unknown chemical properties)

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