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Easter egg
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This article is about special eggs painted around Easter. For a secret message hidden in media, see Easter egg (media).
Decorated Easter eggs
Easter eggs, also called Paschal eggs,[1] are decorated eggs that are usually used as gifts on the occasion of Easter. As such, Easter eggs are common during the season of Eastertide (Easter season). The oldest tradition is to use dyed and painted chicken eggs, but a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs wrapped in colourful foil, hand-carved wooden eggs, or plastic eggs filled with confectionery such as chocolate. However, real eggs continue to be used in Eastern European tradition. Although eggs, in general, were a traditional symbol of fertility and rebirth,[2] in Christianity, for the celebration of Eastertide, Easter eggs symbolize the empty tomb of Jesus, from which Jesus resurrected.[3][4][5] In addition, one ancient tradition was the staining of Easter eggs with the colour red "in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion."[3][6] This custom of the Easter egg can be traced to early Christians of Mesopotamia, and from there it spread into Russia and Siberia through the Orthodox Churches, and later into Europe through the Catholic and Protestant Churches.[6][7][8][9] This Christian use of eggs may have been influenced by practices in "pre-dynastic period in Egypt, as well as amid the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete".[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Decoration and symbolism
2.1 Lenten tradition
2.2 Symbolism and related customs
2.3 Colouring
2.4 Patterning
2.5 Use of Easter eggs in decorations
3 Easter egg games
3.1 Egg hunts
3.2 Egg rolling
3.3 Egg tapping
3.4 Egg dance
3.5 Pace egg plays
4 Variants
4.1 Chocolate eggs
4.2 Marzipan eggs
4.3 Artificial eggs
5 Legends
5.1 Christian traditions
5.2 Parallels in other faiths
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
A decorated ostrich egg with Punic artwork
The practice of decorating eggshells as part of spring rituals is ancient,[11] with decorated, engraved ostrich eggs found in Africa which are 60,000 years old.[12] In the pre-dynastic period of Egypt and the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete, eggs were associated with death and rebirth, as well as with kingship, with decorated ostrich eggs, and representations of ostrich eggs in gold and silver, were commonly placed in graves of the ancient Sumerians and Egyptians as early as 5,000 years ago.[13] These cultural relationships may have influenced early Christian and Islamic cultures in those areas, as well as through mercantile, religious, and political links from those areas around the Mediterranean.[10]
Red coloured Easter egg with Christian cross, from the Saint Kosmas Aitolos Greek Orthodox Monastery
The Christian custom of Easter eggs, specifically, started among the early Christians of Mesopotamia, who stained eggs with red colouring "in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion".[7][14][6][8][9] The Christian Church officially adopted the custom, regarding the eggs as a symbol of the resurrection of Jesus, with the Roman Ritual, the first edition of which was published in 1610 but which has texts of much older date, containing among the Easter Blessings of Food, one for eggs, along with those for lamb, bread, and new produce. The blessing is for consumption as a food, rather than decorated.[8][9]
Lord, let the grace of your blessing + come upon these eggs, that they be healthful food for your faithful who eat them in thanksgiving for the resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, who lives and reigns with you forever and ever.[15]
Sociology professor Kenneth Thompson discusses the spread of the Easter egg throughout Christendom, writing that "use of eggs at Easter seems to have come from Persia into the Greek Christian Churches of Mesopotamia, thence to Russia and Siberia through the medium of Orthodox Christianity. From the Greek Church the custom was adopted by either the Roman Catholics or the Protestants and then spread through Europe."[7] Both Thompson, as well as British orientalist Thomas Hyde state that in addition to dying the eggs red, the early Christians of Mesopotamia also stained Easter eggs green and yellow.[6][7]
Influential 19th century folklorist and philologist Jacob Grimm speculates, in the second volume of his Deutsche Mythologie, that the folk custom of Easter eggs among the continental Germanic peoples may have stemmed from springtime festivities of a Germanic goddess known in Old English as Ēostre (namesake of modern English Easter) and possibly known in Old High German as *Ostara (and thus namesake of Modern German Ostern 'Easter'):
The heathen Easter had much in common with May-feast and the reception of spring, particularly in matter of bonfires. Then, through long ages there seem to have lingered among the people Easter-games so-called, which the church itself had to tolerate : I allude especially to the custom of Easter eggs, and to the Easter tale which preachers told from the pulpit for the people's amusement, connecting it with Christian reminiscences.[16]
Although one of the Christian traditions are to use dyed or painted chicken eggs, a modern custom is to substitute chocolate eggs, or plastic eggs filled with candy such as jelly beans. These eggs can be hidden for children to find on Easter morning, which may be left by the Easter Bunny. They may also be put in a basket filled with real or artificial straw to resemble a bird's nest.
Decoration and symbolism[edit]
Main articles: Egg decorating, Pisanica (Croatian), Pysanka, and Święconka
Croatian Easter basket
Blessing of Easter foods in Poland
Red coloured Easter eggs
Lenten tradition[edit]
The Easter egg tradition may also have merged into the celebration of the end of the privations of Lent in the West. Historically, it was traditional to use up all of the household's eggs before Lent began. Eggs were originally forbidden during Lent as well as on other traditional fast days in Western Christianity (this tradition still continues among the Eastern Christian Churches). Likewise, in Eastern Christianity, meat, eggs, and dairy are all prohibited during the Lenten fast.
This established the tradition of Pancake Day being celebrated on Shrove Tuesday. This day, the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday when Lent begins, is also known as Mardi Gras, a French phrase which translates as "Fat Tuesday" to mark the last consumption of eggs and dairy before Lent begins.
In the Orthodox Church, Great Lent begins on Clean Monday, rather than Wednesday, so the household's dairy products would be used up in the preceding week, called Cheesefare Week.
During Lent, since chickens would not stop producing eggs during this time, a larger than usual store might be available at the end of the fast. This surplus, if any, had to be eaten quickly to prevent spoiling. Then, with the coming of Easter, the eating of eggs resumes. Some families cook a special meatloaf with eggs in it to be eaten with the Easter dinner.
One would have been forced to hard boil the eggs that the chickens produced so as not to waste food, and for this reason the Spanish dish hornazo (traditionally eaten on and around Easter) contains hard-boiled eggs as a primary ingredient. In Hungary, eggs are used sliced in potato casseroles around the Easter period.
Symbolism and related customs[edit]
Some Christians symbolically link the cracking open of Easter eggs with the empty tomb of Jesus.[17]
In the Orthodox churches, Easter eggs are blessed by the priest at the end of the Paschal Vigil (which is equivalent to Holy Saturday), and distributed to the faithful. The egg is seen by followers of Christianity as a symbol of resurrection: while being dormant it contains a new life sealed within it.[3][4]
Similarly, in the Roman Catholic Church in Poland, the so-called święconka, i.e. blessing of decorative baskets with a sampling of Easter eggs and other symbolic foods, is one of the most enduring and beloved Polish traditions on Holy Saturday.
During Paschaltide, in some traditions the Pascal greeting with the Easter egg is even extended to the deceased. On either the second Monday or Tuesday of Pascha, after a memorial service people bring blessed eggs to the cemetery and bring the joyous paschal greeting, "Christ has risen", to their beloved departed (see Radonitza).
In Greece, women traditionally dye the eggs with onion skins and vinegar on Thursday (also the day of Communion). These ceremonial eggs are known as kokkina avga. They also bake tsoureki for the Easter Sunday feast.[18] Red Easter eggs are sometimes served along the centerline of tsoureki (braided loaf of bread).[19][20]
In Egypt, it's a tradition to decorate boiled eggs during Sham el-Nessim holiday, which falls every year after the Eastern Christian Easter.
Colouring[edit]
Colors for the Easter eggs
The dying of Easter eggs in different colours is commonplace, with colour being achieved through boiling the egg in natural substances (such as, onion peel (brown colour), oak or alder bark or walnut nutshell (black), beet juice (pink) etc.), or using artificial colourings.
A greater variety of colour was often provided by tying on the onion skin with different coloured woollen yarn. In the North of England these are called pace-eggs or paste-eggs, from a dialectal form of Middle English pasche. They were usually eaten after an egg-jarping (egg tapping) competition.
In the Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, Easter eggs are dyed red to represent the blood of Christ, with further symbolism being found in the hard shell of the egg symbolizing the sealed Tomb of Christ — the cracking of which symbolized his resurrection from the dead.
Patterning[edit]
When boiling them with onion skins leaves can be attached prior to dying to create leaf patterns. The leaves are attached to the eggs before they are dyed with a transparent cloth to wrap the eggs with like inexpensive muslin or nylon stockings, leaving patterns once the leaves are removed after the dyeing process.[21][22] These eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods.
Pysanky[23] are Ukrainian Easter eggs, decorated using a wax-resist (batik) method. The word comes from the verb pysaty, "to write", as the designs are not painted on, but written with beeswax.
Decorating eggs for Easter using wax resistant batik is a popular method in some other eastern European countries.
Use of Easter eggs in decorations[edit]
In some Mediterranean countries, especially in Lebanon, chicken eggs are boiled and decorated by dye and/or painting and used as decoration around the house. Then, on Easter Day, young kids would duel with them saying 'Christ is resurrected, Indeed, He is', breaking and eating them. This also happens in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Ukraine. In Easter Sunday friends and family hit each other's egg with their own. The one whose egg does not break is believed to be in for good luck in the future.
In Germany, eggs decorate trees and bushes as Easter egg trees, and in several areas public wells as Osterbrunnen.
There used to be a custom in Ukraine, during Easter celebrations to have krashanky on a table in a bowl with wheatgrass. The number of the krashanky equalled the number of departed family members.[24]
Ukrainian Easter eggs
Easter eggs from Sorbs
Easter eggs from Lithuania
Perforated egg from Germany, Sleeping Beauty
Norwegian Easter eggs
Easter eggs from Greece
Perforated eggs
Easter eggs from France
American Easter egg from the White House Washington, D.C.
Pace eggs boiled with onion skins and leaf patterns.
Easter eggs decorated with straw
Easter egg from Poland
Easter egg games[edit]
Eggs hidden for an Easter egg hunt
Egg hunts[edit]
An egg hunt is a game in which decorated eggs, which may be hard-boiled chicken eggs, chocolate eggs, or artificial eggs containing candies, are hidden for children to find. The eggs often vary in size, and may be hidden both indoors and outdoors.[25] When the hunt is over, prizes may be given for the largest number of eggs collected, or for the largest or the smallest egg.[25]
The central European Slavic nations (Czechs and Slovaks etc.) have a tradition of gathering eggs by gaining them from the females in return of whipping them with a pony-tail shaped whip made out of fresh willow branches and splashing them with water, by the Ruthenians called polivanja, which is supposed to give them health and beauty.
Cascarones, a Latin American tradition now shared by many US States with high Hispanic demographics, are emptied and dried chicken eggs stuffed with confetti and sealed with a piece of tissue paper. The eggs are hidden in a similar tradition to the American Easter egg hunt and when found the children (and adults) break them over each other's heads.
In order to enable children to take part in egg hunts despite visual impairment, eggs have been created that emit various clicks, beeps, noises, or music so that visually impaired children can easily hunt for Easter eggs.[26]
Egg rolling[edit]
Egg rolling is also a traditional Easter egg game played with eggs at Easter. In the United Kingdom, Germany, and other countries children traditionally rolled eggs down hillsides at Easter.[27] This tradition was taken to the New World by European settlers,[27][28] and continues to this day each Easter with an Easter egg roll on the White House lawn. Different nations have different versions of the game.
Egg tapping[edit]
Eggs after an egg tapping competition (red wins)
In the North of England, during Eastertide, a traditional game is played where hard boiled pace eggs are distributed and each player hits the other player's egg with their own. This is known as "egg tapping", "egg dumping", or "egg jarping". The winner is the holder of the last intact egg. The annual egg jarping world championship is held every year over Easter in Peterlee Cricket Club.[29][citation needed]
It is also practiced in Italy (where is called scuccetta), Bulgaria, Hungary, Croatia, Latvia, Lithuania, Lebanon, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Ukraine, Russia, and other countries. In parts of Austria, Bavaria and German-speaking Switzerland it is called Ostereiertitschen or Eierpecken. In parts of Europe it is also called epper, presumably from the German name Opfer, meaning "offering" and in Greece it is known as tsougrisma. In South Louisiana, this practice is called pocking eggs[30][31] and is slightly different. The Louisiana Creoles hold that the winner eats the eggs of the losers in each round.
In the Greek Orthodox tradition, red eggs are also cracked together when people exchange Easter greetings.
Egg dance[edit]
Egg dance is a traditional Easter game in which eggs are laid on the ground or floor and the goal is to dance among them without damaging any eggs[32] which originated in Germany. In the UK the dance is called the hop-egg.
Pace egg plays[edit]
The Pace Egg plays are traditional village plays, with a rebirth theme. The drama takes the form of a combat between the hero and villain, in which the hero is killed and brought back to life. The plays take place in England during Easter.
In some countries like Sweden, Norway and Germany eggs are used as a table decoration hanging on a tree-branch
Variants[edit]
Chocolate eggs[edit]
In 1873 J.S. Fry & Sons of England introduced the first chocolate Easter egg in Britain.
In Western cultures, the giving of chocolate eggs is now commonplace, with 80 million Easter eggs sold in the UK alone. Formerly, the containers Easter eggs were sold in contained large amounts of plastic, although in the United Kingdom this has gradually been replaced with recyclable paper and cardboard. [33]
Chocolate Easter egg
Chocolate Easter egg bunny
Easter egg with candy.
Gladys as a Chocolate Easter Bunny with Easter eggs
Kinder Surprise egg, manufacted by Ferrero SpA
Marzipan eggs[edit]
In the Indian state of Goa, the Goan Catholic dish Marzipan is used to make easter eggs. In the Philippines, mazapán de pili (Spanish for "pili marzipan") is made from pili nuts.
Marzipan easter eggs
Artificial eggs[edit]
The jewelled Easter eggs made by the Fabergé firm for the two last Russian Tsars are regarded as masterpieces of decorative arts. Most of these creations themselves contained hidden surprises such as clock-work birds, or miniature ships.
In Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and other Central European countries' folk traditions, and making artificial eggs out of porcelain for ladies is common.[34]:45
Easter eggs are frequently depicted in sculpture, including a 27-foot (9 m) sculpture of a pysanka standing in Vegreville, Alberta.
Fabergé egg
Giant easter egg, Bariloche, Argentina
Giant pysanka from Vegreville, Alberta, Canada
Giant easter egg or pisanica in Zagreb, Croatia
Easter egg sculpture in Gogolin
Legends[edit]
Maria Magdalene, 1899 by Viktor M. Vasnetsov, depicted as one of the Myrrhbearers.
Christian traditions[edit]
While the origin of Easter eggs can be explained in the symbolic terms described above, among followers of Eastern Christianity the legend says that Mary Magdalene was bringing cooked eggs to share with the other women at the tomb of Jesus, and the eggs in her basket miraculously turned bright red when she saw the risen Christ.[35]
A different, but not necessarily conflicting legend concerns Mary Magdalene's efforts to spread the Gospel. According to this tradition, after the Ascension of Jesus, Mary went to the Emperor of Rome and greeted him with "Christ has risen," whereupon he pointed to an egg on his table and stated, "Christ has no more risen than that egg is red."
After making this statement it is said the egg immediately turned blood red.[36] Red Easter eggs', known as kokkina avga(κόκκινα αυγά) in Greece and krashanki in Ukraine, are an Easter tradition and a distinct type of Easter egg prepared by various Orthodox Christian peoples.[37][38][39][40] The red eggs are part of Easter custom in many areas and often accompany other traditional Easter foods. Passover haminados are prepared with similar methods. Dark red eggs are a tradition in Greece and represent the blood of Christ shed on the cross.[41] The practice dates to the early Christian church in Mesopotamia.[8][9] In Greece, superstitions of the past included the custom of placing the first-dyed red egg at the home's iconostasis (place where icons are displayed) to ward off evil. The heads and backs of small lambs were also marked with the red dye to protect them.
Parallels in other faiths[edit]
Eggs at the Iranian Nowruz
The egg is widely used as a symbol of the start of new life, just as new life emerges from an egg when the chick hatches out.[2]
Painted eggs are used at the Iranian spring holidays, the Nowruz that marks the first day of spring or Equinox, and the beginning of the year in the Persian calendar. It is celebrated on the day of the astronomical Northward equinox, which usually occurs on March 21 or the previous/following day depending on where it is observed. The painted eggs symbolize fertility and are displayed on the Nowruz table, called Haft-Seen together with various other symbolic objects. There are sometimes one egg for each member of the family. The ancient Zoroastrians painted eggs for Nowruz, their New Year celebration, which falls on the Spring equinox. The tradition continues among Persians of Islamic, Zoroastrian, and other faiths today.[42] The Nowruz tradition has existed for at least 2,500 years. The sculptures on the walls of Persepolis show people carrying eggs for Nowruz to the king.[citation needed]
The Neo-Pagan holiday of Ostara occurs at roughly the same time as Easter. While it is often claimed that the use of painted eggs is an ancient, pre-Christian component of the celebration of Ostara there are no historical accounts that the celebration of Ostara included this practice, apart from the Old High German lullaby which is believed by most to be a modern fabrication. Rather, the use of painted eggs has been adopted under the assumption that it might be a pre-Christian survival.
There are good grounds for the association between hares (later termed Easter bunnies) and bird eggs, through folklore confusion between hares' forms (where they raise their young) and plovers' nests.[43]
In Judaism, a hard-boiled egg is an element of the Passover Seder, representing festival sacrifice. The children's game of hunting for the afikomen (a half-piece of matzo) has similarities to the Easter egg hunt tradition, by which the child who finds the hidden bread will be awarded a prize. In other homes, the children hide the afikoman and a parent must look for it; when the parents give up, the children demand a prize for revealing its location.
See also[edit]
Washi Egg
Balut
Century egg
Chinese red eggs
Cascarón
Easter Bilby
Egg decorating in Slavic culture
Festum Ovorum
Kinder Surprise
List of egg dishes
List of foods with religious symbolism
Resurrection of Jesus
Salted duck egg
Sham El Nessim
Smoked egg
Tea egg
Vegreville egg
Washi eggs
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The Legend of Paschal Eggs (Holy Cross Antiochian Orthodox Church)
^ Jump up to: a b David Leeming (2005). The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 10 March 2013. For many, Easter is synonymous with fertility symbols such as the Easter Rabbit, Easter Eggs, and the Easter lily.
^ Jump up to: a b c Anne Jordan (5 April 2000). Christianity. Nelson Thornes. Retrieved 7 April 2012. Easter eggs are used as a Christian symbol to represent the empty tomb. The outside of the egg looks dead but inside there is new life, which is going to break out. The Easter egg is a reminder that Jesus will rise from His tomb and bring new life. Orthodox Christians dye boiled eggs red to make red Easter eggs that represent the blood of Christ shed for the sins of the world.
^ Jump up to: a b The Guardian, Volume 29. H. Harbaugh. 1878. Retrieved 7 April 2012. Just so, on that first Easter morning, Jesus came to life and walked out of the tomb, and left it, as it were, an empty shell. Just so, too, when the Christian dies, the body is left in the grave, an empty shell, but the soul takes wings and flies away to be with God. Thus you see that though an egg seems to be as dead as a stone, yet it really has life in it; and also it is like Christ's dead body, which was raised to life again. This is the reason we use eggs on Easter. (In days past some used to color the eggs red, so as to show the kind of death by which Christ died,-a bloody death.)
Jump up ^ Gordon Geddes, Jane Griffiths (22 Jan 2002). Christian belief and practice. Heinemann. Retrieved 7 April 2012. Red eggs are given to Orthodox Christians after the Easter Liturgy. They crack their eggs against each other's. The cracking of the eggs symbolizes a wish to break away from the bonds of sin and misery and enter the new life issuing from Christ's resurrection.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Henry Ellis (1877). Popular antiquities of Great Britain. p. 90. Hyde, in his Oriental Sports (1694), tells us one with eggs among the Christians of Mesopotamia on Easter Day and forty days afterwards, during which time their children buy themselves as many eggs as they can, stain them with a red colour in memory of the blood of Christ, shed as at that time of his crucifixion. Some tinge them with green and yellow. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Thompson, Kenneth (21 August 2013). Culture & Progress: Early Sociology of Culture, Volume 8. Routledge. p. 138. ISBN 9781136479403. In Mesopotamia children secured during the 40-day period following Easter day as many eggs as possible and dyed them red, "in memory of the blood of Christ shed at that time of his Crucifixion"--a rationalization. Dyed eggs were sold in the market, green and yellow being favorite colors. The use of eggs at Easter seems to have come from Persia into the Greek Christian Churches of Mesopotamia, thence to Russia and Siberia through the medium of Orthodox Christianity. From the Greek Church the custom was adopted by either the Roman Catholics or the Protestants and then spread through Europe.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Donahoe's Magazine, Volume 5. T.B. Noonan. 1881. Retrieved 7 April 2012. The early Christians of Mesopotamia had the custom of dyeing and decorating eggs at Easter. They were stained red, in memory of the blood of Christ, shed at His crucifixion. The Church adopted the custom, and regarded the eggs as the emblem of the resurrection, as is evinced by the benediction of Pope Paul V., about 1610, which reads thus: "Bless, O Lord! we beseech thee, this thy creature of eggs, that it may become a wholesome sustenance to thy faithful servants, eating it in thankfulness to thee on account of the resurrection of the Lord." Thus the custom has come down from ages lost in antiquity.)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Vicki K. Black (1 Jul 2004). Welcome to the Church Year: An Introduction to the Seasons of the Episcopal Church. Church Publishing, Inc. The Christians of this region in Mesopotamia were probably the first to connect the decorating of eggs with the feast of the resurrection of Christ, and by the Middle Ages this practice was so widespread that in some places Easter Day was called Egg Sunday. In parts of Europe, the eggs were dyed red and were then cracked together when people exchanged Easter greetings. Many congregations today continue to have Easter egg hunts for the children after services on Easter Day.
^ Jump up to: a b Green, Nile (2006). "Ostrich Eggs and Peacock feathers: Sacred Objects as Cultural Exchange between Christianity and Islam". Al-Masaq: Journal of the Medieval Mediterranean. 18 (1). This article uses the wide dispersal of ostrich eggs and peacock feathers among the different cultural contexts of the Mediterranean – and beyond into the Indian Ocean world – to explore the nature and limits of cultural inheritance and exchange between Christianity and Islam. These avian materials previously possessed symbolic meaning and material value as early as the pre-dynastic period in Egypt, as well as amid the early cultures of Mesopotamia and Crete. The main early cultural associations of the eggs and feathers were with death/resurrection and kingship respectively, a symbolism that was passed on into early Christian and Muslim usage. Mercantile, religious and political links across the premodern Mediterranean meant that these items found parallel employment all around the Mediterranean littoral, and beyond it, in Arabia, South Asia and Africa.
Jump up ^ Neil R. Grobman (1981). Wycinanki and pysanky: forms of religious and ethnic folk art from the Delaware Valley. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved 18 April 2014. During the spring cycle of festivals, ancient pre-Christian peoples used decorated eggs to welcome the sun and to help ensure the fertility of the fields, river ...
Jump up ^ "Egg Cetera #6: Hunting for the world's oldest decorated eggs | University of Cambridge". Cam.ac.uk. 2012-04-10. Retrieved 2013-03-31.
Jump up ^ Treasures from Royal Tombs of Ur By Richard L. Zettler, Lee Horne, Donald P. Hansen, Holly Pittman 1998 pgs 70-72
Jump up ^ Williams, Victoria (21 November 2016). Celebrating Life Customs around the World. ABC-CLIO. p. 2. ISBN 9781440836596. The history of the Easter egg can be traced back to the time of the advent of Christianity in Mesopotamia (around the first to the third century), when people use to stain eggs red as a reminder of the blood spilled by Christ during the Crucifixion. In time, the Christian church in general adopted this custom with the eggs considered to be a symbol of both Christ's death and Resurrection. Moreover, in the earliest days of Christianity Easter eggs were considered symbolic of the thomb in which Jesus's corpse was laid after the Crucifixion for eggs, as a near universal symbol of fertility and life, were like Jesus's tomb, something from which new life came forth.
Jump up ^ The Roman Ritual. Part XI, Blessings and other sacramentals
Jump up ^ Grimm, Jacob (James Steven Stallybrass Trans.) (1883). Teutonic Mythology: Translated from the Fourth Edition with Notes and Appendix Vol. II. London: George Bell and Sons. pp780-781
Jump up ^ Allen, Emily (25 December 2016). "When is Easter 2016? What are the dates for Good Friday, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 26 February 2016. Eggs illustrate new life, just as Jesus began his new life on East Sunday after the miracle of his resurrection. When eggs are cracked open they are said to symbolise an empty tomb.
Jump up ^ Wagstaff, Natalie. "Kalo Paska - Happy Easter".
Jump up ^ "Today's Recipe from Our Files: Greek Easter bread, Tsoueki".
Jump up ^ Red and Butter, Martha Stewart magazine
Jump up ^ "How to Dye Easter eggs naturally without a box onion skins beets cabbage". seriouseats.com.
Jump up ^ "Natural Easter Eggs 3 Ways!/ with nylon stockings". natashaskitchen.com.
Jump up ^ Culture – Pysanky, Ukrainian International Directory
Jump up ^ Yakovenko, Svitlana 2017, “The Magical Dyed Egg – Krashanka” in Traditional Velykden: Ukrainian Easter Recipes, Sova Books, Sydney
^ Jump up to: a b A. Munsey Pu Frank a. Munsey Publishers (March 2005). The Puritan April to September 1900. Kessinger Publishing. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-4191-7421-6.
Jump up ^ Tillery, Carolyn (2008-03-15). "Annual Dallas Easter egg hunt for blind children scheduled for Thursday". The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved 2008-03-27.
^ Jump up to: a b "Easter Eggs - Egg Rolling". Inventors.about.com. 2012-04-09. Retrieved 2012-09-24.
Jump up ^ "Easter Eggs: their origins, tradition and symbolism". Wyrdology.com. Retrieved 2008-03-15.
Jump up ^ "Scottish Country Dance of the Day | Butterscotch & Thistles". Scottish Country Dance of the Day | Butterscotch & Thistles. Retrieved 2018-01-08.
Jump up ^ "Pocking eggs or la toquette". Creolecajun.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2008-03-20.
Jump up ^ "If Your Eggs Are Cracked, Please Step Down: Easter Egg Knocking in Marksville". Retrieved 2008-03-20.
Jump up ^ Venetia Newall (1971). An egg at Easter: a folklore study. Routledge & K. Paul. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-7100-6845-3.
Jump up ^ "The End of Egg-cessive Easter Waste??". Waste connect. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Anderson, F.L.M., 1864, Seven Months' Residence in Russian Poland in 1868, London:Macmillan and Co.
Jump up ^ "Traditions of Great Lent and Holy Week". Melkite Greek Catholic Eparchy of Newton. Retrieved 2012-09-24.
Jump up ^ Terry Tempest Williams (Sep 18, 2001). Leap. Random House Digital, Inc. Retrieved 7 April 2012. After the Ascension, she travelled to Rome and was granted entrance to the court of Tiberius Caesar. At dinner, she told Caesar that Jesus had risen from the dead. He did not understand. To explain, Mary Magdalene picked up an egg from the table. Caesar responded by saying that a human being could no more rise from the dead than the egg in her hand turn red. The egg turned red.
Jump up ^ Red eggs at Pascha Easter he Most Useful KNOWLEDGE for the Orthodox Russian-American Young People,” compiled by the Very Rev’d Peter G. Kohanik, 1932-1934.
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Jump up ^ Red eggs About.com
Jump up ^ "Photos: Painted eggs across Tehran". The other Iran. 2016-03-26. Retrieved 2018-04-02.
Jump up ^ "H2g2 - The Easter Bunny". BBC.com. Retrieved 2012-09-24.
External links[edit]
Media related to Easter eggs at Wikimedia Commons
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British Hong Kong
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Hong Kong
香港
Crown colony
(1843–1941, 1945–1981)
British Dependent Territory
(1981–1997)
1841–1941
1945–1997
Flag (1959–1997)
Coat of arms (1959–1997)
Motto
"Dieu et mon droit" (French)
"God and my right"
Anthem
"God Save the Queen" (1841–1901, 1952–1997)
"God Save the King" (1901–1952)
Map of Hong Kong
Capital Victoria (de facto)
Languages English, Chinese[Note 1]
Government Crown colony
(1843–1941, 1945–1981)
British Dependent Territory
(1981–1997)
Monarch
• 1841–1901 Victoria (first)
• 1952–1997 Elizabeth II (last)
Governor
• 1843–1844 Sir Henry Pottinger (first)
• 1992–1997 Chris Patten (last)
Chief Secretary1
• 1843 George Malcolm (first)
• 1993–1997 Anson Chan (last)
Legislature Legislative Council
Historical era New Imperialism
• Convention of Chuenpi 20 January 1841
• Treaty of Nanking 29 August 1842
• Convention of Peking 24 October 1860
• Second Convention of Peking 9 June 1898
• Battle of Hong Kong 8–25 December 1941
• End of British Sovereignty 30 June 1997
Area
• 1848 80.4 km2 (31.0 sq mi)
• 1901 1,042 km2 (402 sq mi)
Population
• 1848 est. 24,000
Density 299/km2 (773/sq mi)
• 1901 est. 283,978
Density 273/km2 (706/sq mi)
• 1945 est. 750,000
Density 720/km2 (1,864/sq mi)
• 1995 est. 6,300,000
Density 6,046/km2 (15,659/sq mi)
Currency Hong Kong dollar (since 1937)
Preceded by Succeeded by
Bao'an County
Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Today part of Hong Kong
1 The title changed from "Colonial Secretary" to "Chief Secretary" in 1976.
British Hong Kong
Traditional Chinese
英屬香港
[show]Transcriptions
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
Yīng suhk hēung góng
Jyutping
Jing1 suk6 hoeng1 gong2
This article is part of a series on the
History of Hong Kong
Timeline
Prehistoric
Imperial (221 BC – 1800s)
Bao'an County and Xin'an County
British Hong Kong
Colonial (1800s–1930s)
Convention of Chuenpi
Treaty of Nanking
Convention of Peking
Convention for the Extension of
Hong Kong Territory
Occupied (1940s)
Modern Hong Kong (1950s–1997)
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
Handover to Chinese rule
Hong Kong since 2000
By topic
Aviation
Bus
Culture
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Education
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History of China / of the United Kingdom
Hong Kong portal
v
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British Hong Kong was the period during which Hong Kong was under British Crown rule from 1841 to 1997 (excluding the Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945). It was established as a Crown colony and later designated a British Dependent Territory in 1981. Hong Kong Island was ceded to the United Kingdom by the Qing dynasty of China after the First Opium War (1839–42). The Kowloon Peninsula was added to the colony after the Second Opium War (1856–60). Finally, in 1898, the New Territories were added under a 99-year lease. Although Hong Kong Island and Kowloon were ceded to Britain in perpetuity, the New Territories – which comprised over 90 per cent of Hong Kong's land – had such a vital role in the economy that the British government agreed to transfer sovereignty of the entirety of Hong Kong to China upon the expiration of the lease in 1997. The transfer has been credited by some as marking the end of the British Empire.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Colonial establishment
1.2 Growth and expansion
1.3 Japanese occupation
1.4 Restoration of British rule
1.5 Handover to China
2 Government
2.1 Cadets
3 Economy
4 Opposition, internal dissent and the Cultural Revolution
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
History[edit]
Colonial establishment[edit]
Further information: History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s) and Bao'an County
Victoria City, c. 1900
In 1836, the Manchu Qing government undertook a major policy review of the opium trade. Lin Zexu volunteered to take on the task of suppressing opium. In March 1839, he became Special Imperial Commissioner in Canton, where he ordered the foreign traders to surrender their opium stock. He confined the British to the Canton Factories and cut off their supplies. Chief Superintendent of Trade, Charles Elliot, complied with Lin's demands to secure a safe exit for the British, with the costs involved to be resolved between the two governments. When Elliot promised that the British government would pay for their opium stock, the merchants surrendered their 20,283 chests of opium, which were destroyed in public.[1]
In September 1839, the British Cabinet decided that the Chinese should be made to pay for the destruction of British property, either by threat or use of force. An expeditionary force was placed under Elliot and his cousin, Rear Admiral George Elliot, as joint plenipotentiaries in 1840. Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston stressed to the Chinese government that the British government did not question China's right to prohibit opium, but it objected to the way this was handled.[1] He viewed the sudden strict enforcement as laying a trap for the foreign traders, and the confinement of the British with supplies cut off was tantamount to starving them into submission or death. He instructed the Elliot cousins to occupy one of the Chusan islands, to present a letter from himself to a Chinese official for the Emperor, then to proceed to the Gulf of Bohai for a treaty, and if the Chinese resisted, blockade the key ports of the Yangtze and Yellow rivers.[2] Palmerston demanded a territorial base in Chusan for trade so that British merchants "may not be subject to the arbitrary caprice either of the Government of Peking, or its local Authorities at the Sea-Ports of the Empire".[3]
Hong Kong in the 1930s
In 1841, Elliot negotiated with Lin's successor, Qishan, in the Convention of Chuenpi during the First Opium War. On 20 January, Elliot announced "the conclusion of preliminary arrangements", which included the cession of Hong Kong Island and its harbour to the British Crown.[4] On 26 January, the Union Jack was raised on Hong Kong and Commodore James Bremer, commander-in-chief of British forces in China, took formal possession of the island at Possession Point.[5] Elliot chose Hong Kong instead of Chusan because he believed a settlement further east would cause an "indefinite protraction of hostilities", whereas Hong Kong's harbour was a valuable base for the British trading community in Canton.[6] On 29 August 1842, the cession was formally ratified in the Treaty of Nanking, which ceded Hong Kong "in perpetuity" to Britain.
Growth and expansion[edit]
The treaty failed to satisfy British expectations of a major expansion of trade and profit, which led to increasing pressure for a revision of the terms.[7] In October 1856, Chinese authorities in Canton detained the Arrow, a Chinese-owned ship registered in Hong Kong to enjoy protection of the British flag. The Consul in Canton, Harry Parkes, claimed the hauling down of the flag and arrest of the crew were "an insult of very grave character". Parkes and Sir John Bowring, the 4th Governor of Hong Kong, seized the incident to pursue a forward policy. In March 1857, Palmerston appointed Lord Elgin as Plenipotentiary with the aim of securing a new and satisfactory treaty. A French expeditionary force joined the British to avenge the execution of a French missionary in 1856.[8] In 1860, the capture of the Taku Forts and occupation of Beijing led to the Treaty of Tientsin and Convention of Peking. In the Treaty of Tientsin, the Chinese accepted British demands to open more ports, navigate the Yangtze River, legalise the opium trade and have diplomatic representation in Beijing. During the conflict, the British occupied the Kowloon Peninsula, where the flat land was valuable training and resting ground. The area in what is now south of Boundary Street and Stonecutters Island was ceded in the Convention of Peking.[9]
In 1898, the British sought to extend Hong Kong for defence. After negotiations began in April 1898, with the British Minister in Beijing, Sir Claude MacDonald, representing Britain, and diplomat Li Hongzhang leading the Chinese, the Second Convention of Peking was signed on 9 June. Since the foreign powers had agreed by the late 19th century that it was no longer permissible to acquire outright sovereignty over any parcel of Chinese territory, and in keeping with the other territorial cessions China made to Russia, Germany and France that same year, the extension of Hong Kong took the form of a 99-year lease. The lease consisted of the rest of Kowloon south of the Shenzhen River and 230 islands, which became known as the New Territories. The British formally took possession on 16 April 1899.[10]
Japanese occupation[edit]
Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
In 1941, during the Second World War, the British reached an agreement with the Chinese government under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek that if Japan attacked Hong Kong, the Chinese National Army would attack the Japanese from the rear to relieve pressure on the British garrison. On 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong began when Japanese air bombers effectively destroyed British air power in one attack.[11] Two days later, the Japanese breached the Gin Drinkers Line in the New Territories. The British commander, Major-General Christopher Maltby, concluded that the island could not be defended for long unless he withdrew his brigade from the mainland. On 18 December, the Japanese crossed Victoria Harbour.[12] By 25 December, organised defence was reduced into pockets of resistance. Maltby recommended a surrender to Governor Sir Mark Young, who accepted his advice to reduce further losses. A day after the invasion, Generalissimo Chiang ordered three corps under General Yu Hanmou to march towards Hong Kong. The plan was to launch a New Year's Day attack on the Japanese in the Canton region, but before the Chinese infantry could attack, the Japanese had broken Hong Kong's defences. The British casualties were 2,232 killed or missing and 2,300 wounded. The Japanese reported 1,996 killed and 6,000 wounded.[13]
The Japanese soldiers committed atrocities, including rape, on many locals.[14] The population fell in half, from 1.6 million in 1941 to 750,000 at war's end because of fleeing refugees; they returned in 1945.[15]
The Japanese imprisoned the ruling British colonial élite and sought to win over the local merchant gentry by appointments to advisory councils and neighbourhood watch groups. The policy worked well for Japan and produced extensive collaboration from both the élite and the middle class, with far less terror than in other Chinese cities. Hong Kong was transformed into a Japanese colony, with Japanese businesses replacing the British. However, the Japanese Empire had severe logistical difficulties and by 1943 the food supply for Hong Kong was problematic. The overlords became more brutal and corrupt, and the Chinese gentry became disenchanted. With the surrender of Japan, the transition back to British rule was smooth, for on the mainland the Nationalist and Communist forces were preparing for a civil war and ignored Hong Kong. In the long run the occupation strengthened the pre-war social and economic order among the Chinese business community by eliminating some conflicts of interests and reducing the prestige and power of the British.[16]
Restoration of British rule[edit]
Hong Kong in 1965
Further information: 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong
On 14 August 1945, when Japan announced its unconditional surrender, the British formed a naval task group to sail towards Hong Kong.[17] On 1 September, Rear Admiral Cecil Harcourt proclaimed a military administration with himself as its head. He formally accepted the Japanese surrender on 16 September in Government House.[18] Sir Mark Young, upon his return as Governor in early May 1946, pursued political reform known as the "Young Plan", believing that, to counter the Chinese government's determination to recover Hong Kong, it was necessary to give local inhabitants a greater stake in the territory by widening the political franchise to include them.[19]
Handover to China[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong
The Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed by both the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and the Premier of the People's Republic of China on 19 December 1984 in Beijing. The Declaration entered into force with the exchange of instruments of ratification on 27 May 1985 and was registered by the People's Republic of China and United Kingdom governments at the United Nations on 12 June 1985. In the Joint Declaration, the People's Republic of China Government stated that it had decided to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hong Kong (including Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories) with effect from 1 July 1997 and the United Kingdom Government declared that it would relinquish Hong Kong to the PRC with effect from 1 July 1997. In the document, the People's Republic of China Government also declared its basic policies regarding Hong Kong.
In accordance with the One Country, Two Systems principle agreed between the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of China, the socialist system of People's Republic of China would not be practised in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR), and Hong Kong's previous capitalist system and its way of life would remain unchanged for a period of 50 years. The Joint Declaration provides that these basic policies shall be stipulated in the Hong Kong Basic Law. The ceremony of the signing of the Sino-British Joint Declaration took place at 18:00, 19 December 1984 at the Western Main Chamber of the Great Hall of the People. The Hong Kong and Macau Affairs Office at first proposed a list of 60–80 Hong Kong people to attend the ceremony. The number was finally extended to 101. The list included Hong Kong government officials, members of the Legislative and Executive Councils, chairmen of The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and Standard Chartered Bank, Hong Kong celebrities such as Li Ka-shing, Pao Yue-kong and Fok Ying-tung, and also Martin Lee Chu-ming and Szeto Wah.
The handover ceremony was held at the new wing of the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre in Wan Chai on the night of 30 June 1997. The principal British guest was Charles, Prince of Wales who read a farewell speech on behalf of the Queen. The newly appointed Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Tony Blair, the British Foreign Minister, Robin Cook, the departing Hong Kong governor, Chris Patten, Chief of the Defence Staff, Charles Guthrie, Chief of the Defence Staff of the United Kingdom also attended.
Representing China were the President of the People's Republic of China, Jiang Zemin, Premier of the People's Republic of China, Li Peng, and Tung Chee-hwa, the first Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. This event was broadcast on television and radio stations across the world.
Government[edit]
A BDTC passport issued to Hong Kong permanent residents with British Dependent Territories Citizenship before 1997. On 1 July 1997, all Hong Kong residents lost their BDTC status and most acquired Chinese nationality.
In January 1841, when Elliot declared Hong Kong's cession to Britain, he proclaimed that the government shall devolve upon the office of Chief Superintendent of British Trade in China. He issued a proclamation with Commodore Bremer to the inhabitants on 1 February, declaring that they "are hereby promised protection, in her majesty's gracious name, against all enemies whatever; and they are further secured in the free exercise of their religious rites, ceremonies, and social customs; and in the enjoyment of their lawful private property and interests."[4] Elliot declared that Chinese natives would be governed under Chinese laws (excluding torture), and that British subjects and foreigners would fall under British law.[4] However, London decided that English law should prevail.[20]
The Letters Patent of 5 April 1843 defined the constitutional structure of Hong Kong as a Crown colony and the Royal Instructions detailed how the territory should be governed and organised. The Letters Patent prescribed a Governor as head of government, and both the Executive Council and Legislative Council being advisors to the Governor.[21] The administrative civil service of the colony was led by a Colonial Secretary (later Chief Secretary), who was deputy to the Governor.
For almost all of its history under British rule, executive power in Hong Kong was concentrated in the hands of the colony governor, a position appointed by the British crown without any democratic input from Hong Kong citizens. The introduction of elected representatives determined by local elections, even limited to the role of "advisory councils", did not begin until after the 1984 agreements by the British to hand Hong Kong over to China.
Cadets[edit]
In 1861, Governor Sir Hercules Robinson introduced the Hong Kong Cadetship, which recruited young graduates from Britain to learn Cantonese and written Chinese for two years, before deploying them on a fast track to the Civil Service. Cadet officers gradually formed the backbone of the civil administration. After the Second World War, ethnic Chinese were allowed into the service, followed by women. Cadets were renamed Administrative Officers in the 1950s, and they remained the elite of the Civil Service during British rule.[22]
Economy[edit]
Victoria Harbour in 1988, showing the Bank of China Tower being built
The stability, security, and predictability of British law and government enabled Hong Kong to flourish as a centre for international trade.[23] In the colony's first decade, the revenue from the opium trade was a key source of government funds. The importance of opium reduced over time, but the colonial government was dependent on its revenues until the Japanese occupation in 1941.[23] Although the largest businesses in the early colony were operated by British, American, and other expatriates, Chinese workers provided the bulk of the manpower to build a new port city.[24]
By the late 1980s, many ethnic Chinese people had become major business figures in Hong Kong. Amongst these billionaires was Sir Ka-shing Li, who had become one of the colony's wealthiest people by this time.
Opposition, internal dissent and the Cultural Revolution[edit]
Police confrontation during 1967 Leftist Riots
There was considerable opposition from Chinese nationalists to the British rule due to its implications for Hong Kong self-determination, particularly in the political arena. Early dissent such as the Canton–Hong Kong strike were anti-British and anti-imperialist in nature. Later, shortly after the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution in the People's Republic in May 1966, local left-wing activists looked for opportunities to instigate an anti-British struggle.[25] The 1966 riots and the 1967 Leftist riots, essentially spillovers from the Cultural Revolution, were large scale demonstrations against British colonial rule that was fuelled by tensions surrounding labour disputes and dissatisfaction towards the government.[26] During this period, groups such as the Anti-British Struggle Committee were established for the purpose of targeting the British Colonial government. While primarily organised by pro-Communist members and sympathizers from the mainland, the anti-British movement also garnered local support.
See also[edit]
List of heads of Hong Kong by education
Notes[edit]
Footnotes
Jump up ^ No specific variation of Chinese was mentioned in the Official Languages Ordinance but Cantonese was de facto official since 1974.
Citations
^ Jump up to: a b Tsang 2004, pp. 9–10
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, p. 11
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, p. 21
^ Jump up to: a b c The Chinese Repository. Volume 10. pp. 63–64.
Jump up ^ Belcher, Edward (1843). Narrative of a Voyage Round the World. Volume 2. p. 148.
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 11, 21
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, p. 29
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 32–33
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 33, 35
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 38–41
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, p. 121
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, p. 122
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 123–124
Jump up ^ Philip Snow (2004). The Fall of Hong Kong: Britain, China and the Japanese Occupation. Yale U.P. p. 81.
Jump up ^ Jung-Fang Tsai, "Wartime Experience, Collective Memories and Hong Kong Identity, China Review International (2005) 12#1 pp 229+ online
Jump up ^ Wei-Bin Zhang (2006). Hong Kong: The Pearl Made of British Mastery And Chinese Docile-Diligence. Nova Publishers. p. 109.
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, p. 133
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, p. 138
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 143–144
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, p. 23
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, pp.18–19
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, pp. 25–26
^ Jump up to: a b Tsang 2004, p. 57
Jump up ^ Tsang 2004, p. 58
Jump up ^ http://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/1971502/when-cultural-revolution-spilled-over-riots-hong-kong
Jump up ^ Cheung, Gary Ka-wai (2009). Hong Kong's Watershed: The 1967 Riots. Hong Kong University Press.
References[edit]
Snow, Philip (2004). The Fall of Hong Kong: Britain, China and the Japanese Occupation. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300103735.
Tsang, Steve (2004). A Modern History of Hong Kong. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-419-0.
Further reading[edit]
Carroll, John M. A Concise History of Hong Kong (2007)
Clayton, Adam. Hong Kong since 1945: An Economic and Social History (2003)
Endacott, G. B. (1964). An Eastern Entrepot: A Collection of Documents Illustrating the History of Hong Kong. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 293. ASIN B0007J07G6. OCLC 632495979.
Lui, Adam Yuen-chung (1990). Forts and Pirates – A History of Hong Kong. Hong Kong History Society. p. 114. ISBN 962-7489-01-8.
Liu, Shuyong; Wang, Wenjiong; Chang, Mingyu (1997). An Outline History of Hong Kong. Foreign Languages Press. p. 291. ISBN 978-7-119-01946-8.
Ngo, Tak-Wing (1 August 1999). Hong Kong's History: State and Society Under Colonial Rule. Routledge. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-415-20868-0.
Tsang, Steve (1995). Government and Politics: A Documentary History of Hong Kong. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 962-209-392-2.
Welsh, Frank (1993). A Borrowed place: the history of Hong Kong. Kodansha International. p. 624. ISBN 978-1-56836-002-7.
External links[edit]
"Official website of the British Hong Kong Government". Archived from the original on 24 December 1996. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
British Hong Kong on Facebook
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