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Dust Bowl
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For other uses, see Dust Bowl (disambiguation).
Map of states and counties affected by the Dust Bowl between 1935 and 1938 originally prepared by the Soil Conservation Service. The most severely affected counties are colored .
A farmer and his two sons during a dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma, April 1936. Iconic photo taken by Arthur Rothstein.
The Dust Bowl, also known as the Dirty Thirties, was a period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s; severe drought and a failure to apply dryland farming methods to prevent wind erosion (the Aeolian processes) caused the phenomenon. The drought came in three waves, 1934, 1936, and 1939–1940, but some regions of the high plains experienced drought conditions for as many as eight years.[1] With insufficient understanding of the ecology of the plains, farmers had conducted extensive deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Great Plains during the previous decade; this had displaced the native, deep-rooted grasses that normally trapped soil and moisture even during periods of drought and high winds. The rapid mechanization of farm equipment, especially small gasoline tractors, and widespread use of the combine harvester contributed to farmers' decisions to convert arid grassland (much of which received no more than 10 inches (250 mm) of precipitation per year) to cultivated cropland.[2]
During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to dust, which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of dust – named "black blizzards" or "black rollers" – traveled cross country, reaching as far as the East Coast and striking such cities as New York City and Washington, D.C. On the Plains, they often reduced visibility to 3 feet (1 m) or less. Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma, to witness the "Black Sunday" black blizzards of April 14, 1935; Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press coined the term "Dust Bowl" while rewriting Geiger's news story.[3][4] While the term "the Dust Bowl" was originally a reference to the geographical area affected by the dust, today it is usually used to refer to the event, as in "It was during the Dust Bowl".
The drought and erosion of the Dust Bowl affected 100,000,000 acres (400,000 km2) that centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and touched adjacent sections of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas.[5]
The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of poverty-stricken families to abandon their farms, unable to pay mortgages or grow crops, and losses reached US$25 million per day by 1936 (equivalent to US$440,000,000 in 2017).[6][7] Many of these families, who were often known as "Okies" because so many of them came from Oklahoma, migrated to California and other states to find that the Great Depression had rendered economic conditions there little better than those they had left.
The Dust Bowl has been the subject of many cultural works, notably the novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) by John Steinbeck, the folk music of Woody Guthrie, and photographs depicting the conditions of migrants by Dorothea Lange.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geographic characteristics and early history
2 Drought and dust storms
3 Human displacement
3.1 United States
3.2 Characteristics of migrants
4 U.S. government response
5 Long-term economic impact
6 Influence on the arts and culture
7 Aggregate changes in agriculture and population on the Plains
8 See also
8.1 Notable documentaries
8.2 International
8.3 General
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Geographic characteristics and early history
A dust storm approaches Stratford, Texas, in 1935.
The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the 100th meridian on the High Plains, characterized by plains which vary from rolling in the north to flat in the Llano Estacado. Elevation ranges from 2,500 feet (760 m) in the east to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) at the base of the Rocky Mountains. The area is semiarid, receiving less than 20 inches (510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the shortgrass prairie biome originally present in the area. The region is also prone to extended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalent duration.[8] During wet years, the rich soil provides bountiful agricultural output, but crops fail during dry years. The region is also subject to high winds.[9] During early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, this region was thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; explorers called it the Great American Desert. The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture.
The federal government encouraged settlement and development of the Plains for agriculture via the Homestead Act of 1862, offering settlers 160-acre (65 ha) plots. With the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, waves of new migrants and immigrants reached the Great Plains, and they greatly increased the acreage under cultivation.[10][11] An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government to believe that "rain follows the plow" (a popular phrase among real estate promoters) and that the climate of the region had changed permanently.[12] While initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattle ranching, the adverse effect of harsh winters on the cattle, beginning in 1886, a short drought in 1890, and general overgrazing, led many landowners to increase the amount of land under cultivation.
Recognizing the challenge of cultivating marginal arid land, the United States government expanded on the 160 acres (65 ha) offered under the Homestead Act—granting 640 acres (260 ha) to homesteaders in western Nebraska under the Kinkaid Act (1904) and 320 acres (130 ha) elsewhere in the Great Plains under the Enlarged Homestead Act (1909). Waves of European settlers arrived in the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. A return of unusually wet weather seemingly confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semiarid area could support large-scale agriculture. At the same time, technological improvements such as mechanized plowing and mechanized harvesting made it possible to operate larger properties without increasing labor costs.
The combined effects of the disruption of the Russian Revolution, which decreased the supply of wheat and other commodity crops, and World War I increased agricultural prices; this demand encouraged farmers to dramatically increase cultivation. For example, in the Llano Estacado of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas, the area of farmland was doubled between 1900 and 1920, then tripled again between 1925 and 1930.[11] The agricultural methods favored by farmers during this period created the conditions for large-scale erosion under certain environmental conditions.[1] The widespread conversion of the land by deep plowing and other soil preparation methods to enable agriculture eliminated the native grasses which held the soil in place and helped retain moisture during dry periods. Furthermore, cotton farmers left fields bare during winter months, when winds in the High Plains are highest, and burned the stubble as a means to control weeds prior to planting, thereby depriving the soil of organic nutrients and surface vegetation.
Drought and dust storms
A dust storm; Spearman, Texas, April 14, 1935
"Heavy black clouds of dust rising over the Texas Panhandle, Texas", c. 1936.
After fairly favourable climatic conditions in the 1920s with good rainfall and relatively moderate winters,[13] which permitted increased settlement and cultivation in the Great Plains, the region entered an unusually dry era in the summer of 1930.[14] During the next decade, the northern plains suffered four of their seven driest calendar years since 1895, Kansas four of its twelve driest,[15] and the entire region south to West Texas[16] lacked any period of above-normal rainfall until record rains hit in 1941.[17] When severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s, it resulted in erosion and loss of topsoil because of farming practices at the time. The drought dried the topsoil and over time it became friable, reduced to a powdery consistency in some places. Without the indigenous grasses in place, the high winds that occur on the plains picked up the topsoil and created the massive dust storms that marked the Dust Bowl period.[18] The persistent dry weather caused crops to fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion. The fine soil of the Great Plains was easily eroded and carried east by strong continental winds.
On November 11, 1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil from desiccated South Dakota farmlands in just one of a series of severe dust storms that year. Beginning on May 9, 1934, a strong, two-day dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one of the worst such storms of the Dust Bowl.[19] The dust clouds blew all the way to Chicago, where they deposited 12 million pounds of dust (~ 5500 tonnes).[20] Two days later, the same storm reached cities to the east, such as Cleveland, Buffalo, Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C.[21] That winter (1934–1935), red snow fell on New England.
On April 14, 1935, known as "Black Sunday", 20 of the worst "black blizzards" occurred across the entire sweep of the Great Plains, from Canada south to Texas. The dust storms caused extensive damage and turned the day to night; witnesses reported that they could not see five feet in front of them at certain points. Denver-based Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma that day. His story about Black Sunday marked the first appearance of the term Dust Bowl; it was coined by Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press, while rewriting Geiger's news story.[3][4]
Spearman and Hansford County have been literaly [sic] in a cloud of dust for the past week. Ever since Friday of last week, there hasn't been a day pass but what the county was beseieged [sic] with a blast of wind and dirt. On rare occasions when the wind did subside for a period of hours, the air has been so filled with dust that the town appeared to be overhung by a fog cloud. Because of this long seige of dust and every building being filled with it, the air has become stifling to breathe and many people have developed sore throats and dust colds as a result."
—  Spearman Reporter, 21 March 1935
[22]
Much of the farmland was eroded in the aftermath of the Dust Bowl. In 1941, a Kansas agricultural experiment station released a bulletin that suggested reestablishing native grasses by the "hay method". Developed in 1937 to speed up the process and increase returns from pasture, the "hay method" was originally supposed to occur in Kansas naturally over 25–40 years.[23] After much data analysis, the causal mechanism for the droughts can be linked to ocean temperature anomalies. Specifically, Atlantic Ocean sea surface temperatures appear to have had an indirect effect on the general atmospheric circulation, while Pacific sea surface temperatures seem to have had the most direct influence.[24]
Human displacement
This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region.
United States
Buried machinery in a barn lot; Dallas, South Dakota, May 1936
In 1935, many families were forced to leave their farms and travel to other areas seeking work because of the drought (which at that time had already lasted four years).[25] The abandonment of homesteads and financial ruin resulting from catastrophic topsoil loss led to widespread hunger and poverty.[26] Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of the displaced from Texas, Oklahoma, and the surrounding Great Plains to adjacent regions. More than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. Over 350 houses had to be torn down after one storm alone.[27] The severe drought and dust storms had left many homeless; others had their mortgages foreclosed by banks, or felt they had no choice but to abandon their farms in search of work.[28] Many Americans migrated west looking for work. Parents packed up "jalopies" with their families and a few personal belongings, and headed west in search of work.[29] Some residents of the Plains, especially in Kansas and Oklahoma, fell ill and died of dust pneumonia or malnutrition.[20]
"Broke, baby sick, and car trouble!" - Dorothea Lange's 1937 photo of a Missouri migrant family's jalopy stuck near Tracy, California.
The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest migration in American history within a short period of time. Between 1930 and 1940, approximately 3.5 million people moved out of the Plains states; of those, it is unknown how many moved to California.[30] In just over a year, over 86,000 people migrated to California. This number is more than the number of migrants to that area during the 1849 Gold Rush.[31] Migrants abandoned farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and New Mexico, but were often generally referred to as "Okies", "Arkies", or "Texies".[27] Terms such as "Okies" and "Arkies" came to be known in the 1930s as the standard terms for those who had lost everything and were struggling the most during the Great Depression.[32]
Not all migrants traveled long distances; some simply went to the next town or county. So many families left their farms and were on the move that the proportion between migrants and residents was nearly equal in the Great Plains states.[30]
Characteristics of migrants
A migratory family from Texas living in a trailer in an Arizona cotton field
Historian James N. Gregory examined Census Bureau statistics and other records to learn more about the migrants. Based on a 1939 survey of occupation by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of about 116,000 families who arrived in California in the 1930s, he learned that only 43 percent of southwesterners were doing farm work immediately before they migrated. Nearly one-third of all migrants were professional or white-collar workers.[33] The poor economy displaced more than just farmers as refugees to California; many teachers, lawyers, and small business owners moved west with their families during this time. After the Great Depression ended, some moved back to their original states. Many others remained where they had resettled. About one-eighth of California's population is of Okie heritage.[34]
U.S. government response
The greatly expanded participation of government in land management and soil conservation was an important outcome from the disaster. Different groups took many different approaches to responding to the disaster. To identify areas that needed attention, groups such as the Soil Conservation Service generated detailed soil maps and took photos of the land from the sky. To create shelterbelts to reduce soil erosion, groups such as the United States Forestry Service’s Prairie States Forestry Project planted trees on private lands. Finally, groups like the Resettlement Administration, which later became the Farm Security Administration, encouraged small farm owners to resettle on other lands, if they lived in dryer parts of the Plains.[24]
During President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first 100 days in office in 1933, his administration quickly initiated programs to conserve soil and restore the ecological balance of the nation. Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in August 1933 under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935, it was transferred and reorganized under the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Soil Conservation Service. It is now known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).[35]
As part of New Deal programs, Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act in 1936, requiring landowners to share the allocated government subsidies with the laborers who worked on their farms. Under the law, "benefit payments were continued as measures for production control and income support, but they were now financed by direct Congressional appropriations and justified as soil conservation measures. The Act shifted the parity goal from price equality of agricultural commodities and the articles that farmers buy to income equality of farm and non-farm population."[36] Thus, the parity goal was to re-create the ratio between the purchasing power of the net income per person on farms from agriculture and that of the income of persons not on farms that prevailed during 1909–1914.
To stabilize prices, the government paid farmers and ordered more than six million pigs to be slaughtered. It paid to have the meat packed and distributed to the poor and hungry. The Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) was established to regulate crop and other surpluses. FDR in an address on the AAA commented,
Let me make one other point clear for the benefit of the millions in cities who have to buy meats. Last year the Nation suffered a drought of unparalleled intensity. If there had been no Government program, if the old order had obtained in 1933 and 1934, that drought on the cattle ranges of America and in the corn belt would have resulted in the marketing of thin cattle, immature hogs and the death of these animals on the range and on the farm, and if the old order had been in effect those years, we would have had a vastly greater shortage than we face today. Our program – we can prove it – saved the lives of millions of head of livestock. They are still on the range, and other millions of heads are today canned and ready for this country to eat."
The FSRC diverted agricultural commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and pork products were distributed through local relief channels. Cotton goods were later included, to clothe the needy.[37]
In 1935, the federal government formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRS bought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $14 to $20 a head. Animals determined unfit for human consumption were killed; at the beginning of the program, more than 50 percent were so designated in emergency areas. The DRS assigned the remaining cattle to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide. Although it was difficult for farmers to give up their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoid bankruptcy. "The government cattle buying program was a blessing to many farmers, as they could not afford to keep their cattle, and the government paid a better price than they could obtain in local markets."[38]
President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to plant a huge belt of more than 200 million trees from Canada to Abilene, Texas to break the wind, hold water in the soil, and hold the soil itself in place. The administration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and anti-erosion techniques, including crop rotation, strip farming, contour plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices.[39][40] In 1937, the federal government began an aggressive campaign to encourage farmers in the Dust Bowl to adopt planting and plowing methods that conserved the soil. The government paid reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to practice the new methods. By 1938, the massive conservation effort had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65%.[41] The land still failed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, after nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the drought ended when regular rainfall finally returned to the region. The government still encouraged continuing the use of conservation methods to protect the soil and ecology of the Plains.
At the end of the drought, the programs which were implemented during these tough times helped to sustain a positive relationship between America's farmers and the federal government.[42]
The President's Drought Committee issued a report in 1935 covering the government's assistance to agriculture during 1934 through mid-1935: it discussed conditions, measures of relief, organization, finances, operations, and results of the government's assistance.[43] Numerous exhibits are included in this report.
Long-term economic impact
In many regions, more than 75% of the topsoil was blown away by the end of the 1930s. Land degradation varied widely. Aside from the short-term economic consequences caused by erosion, there were severe long-term economic consequences caused by the Dust Bowl.
By 1940, counties that had experienced the most significant levels of erosion had a greater decline in agricultural land values. The per-acre value of farmland declined by 28% in high-erosion counties and 17% in medium-erosion counties, relative to land value changes in low-erosion counties.[23]:3 Even over the long-term, the agricultural value of the land often failed to recover to pre-Dust Bowl levels. In highly eroded areas, less than 25% of the original agricultural losses were recovered. The economy adjusted predominantly through large relative population declines in more-eroded counties, both during the 1930s and through the 1950s.[44]:1500
The economic effects persisted, in part, because of farmers' failure to switch to more appropriate crops for highly eroded areas. Because the amount of topsoil had been reduced, it would have been more productive to shift from crops and wheat to animals and hay. During the Depression and through at least the 1950s, there was limited relative adjustment of farmland away from activities that became less productive in more-eroded counties.
Some of the failure to shift to more productive agricultural products may be related to ignorance about the benefits of changing land use. A second explanation is a lack of availability of credit, caused by the high rate of failure of banks in the Plains states. Because banks failed in the Dust Bowl region at a higher rate than elsewhere, farmers could not get the credit they needed to buy capital to shift crop production.[45] In addition, profit margins in either animals or hay were still minimal, and farmers had little incentive in the beginning to change their crops.
Patrick Allitt recounts how fellow historian Donald Worster responded to his return visit to the Dust Bowl in the mid-1970s when he revisited some of the worst afflicted counties:
Capital-intensive agribusiness had transformed the scene; deep wells into the aquifer, intensive irrigation, the use of artificial pesticides and fertilizers, and giant harvesters were creating immense crops year after year whether it rained or not. According to the farmers he interviewed, technology had provided the perfect answer to old troubles, such of the bad days would not return. In Worster's view, by contrast, the scene demonstrated that America's capitalist high-tech farmers had learned nothing. They were continuing to work in an unsustainable way, devoting far cheaper subsidized energy to growing food than the energy could give back to its ultimate consumers.[46]
In contrast with Worster’s pessimism, historian Mathew Bonnifield argued that the long-term significance of the Dust Bowl was "the triumph of the human spirit in its capacity to endure and overcome hardships and reverses."[47]
Influence on the arts and culture
Florence Owens Thompson seen in the photo Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children. by Dorothea Lange
The crisis was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors, many hired during the Great Depression by the federal government. For instance, the Farm Security Administration hired numerous photographers to document the crisis. Artists such as Dorothea Lange were aided by having salaried work during the Depression.[48] She captured what have become classic images of the dust storms and migrant families. Among her most well-known photographs is Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children,[48] which depicted a gaunt-looking woman, Florence Owens Thompson, holding three of her children. This picture expressed the struggles of people caught by the Dust Bowl and raised awareness in other parts of the country of its reach and human cost. Decades later, Thompson disliked the boundless circulation of the photo and resented the fact she did not receive any money from its broadcast. Thompson felt it gave her the perception as a Dust Bowl "Okie."[49]
The work of independent artists was also influenced by the crises of the Dust Bowl and the Depression. Author John Steinbeck, borrowing closely from field notes taken by Farm Security Administration worker and author Sanora Babb,[citation needed] wrote The Grapes of Wrath (1939) about migrant workers and farm families displaced by the Dust Bowl. Babb's own novel about the lives of the migrant workers, Whose Names Are Unknown, was written in 1939 but was eclipsed and shelved in response to the success of the Steinbeck's work, and was finally published in 2004.[50][51][52] Many of the songs of folk singer Woody Guthrie, such as those on his 1940 album Dust Bowl Ballads, are about his experiences in the Dust Bowl era during the Great Depression when he traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California and learned their traditional folk and blues songs, earning him the nickname the "Dust Bowl Troubadour".[53]
Migrants also influenced musical culture wherever they went. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were rural Southwesterners who carried their traditional country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Sound" describes this blend, which developed after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired a proliferation of country dance halls as far south as Los Angeles.
The 2014 science fiction film Interstellar features a ravaged 21st-century America which is again scoured by dust storms (caused by a worldwide pathogen affecting all crops). Along with inspiration from the 1930s crisis, director Christopher Nolan features interviews from the 2012 documentary The Dust Bowl to draw further parallels.[54]
In 2017, Americana recording artist Grant Maloy Smith released the album Dust Bowl – American Stories, which was inspired by the history of the Dust Bowl.[55] In a review, the music magazine No Depression wrote that the album’s lyrics and music are “as potent as Woody Guthrie, as intense as John Trudell and dusted with the trials and tribulations of Tom Joad – Steinbeck and The Grapes of Wrath.”[56]
Aggregate changes in agriculture and population on the Plains
The change in the total value of agricultural land and revenue was quite similar over the twentieth century. Agricultural land and revenue boomed during World War I, but fell during the Great Depression and the 1930s. The land and revenue began increasing again in 1940, and has been increasing since then. From 1910 to the 1940s, total farmland increased and remained constant until 1970 when it slightly declined. During this time, total population increased steadily, but there was a slight dip in trend from 1930 to 1960.[44][clarify][verification needed]
See also
U.S. Route 66 – notable Dust Bowl migration route to California
1936 North American heat wave
Great Plains Shelterbelt
Ogallala Aquifer
Notable documentaries
The Dust Bowl – 2012 documentary by Ken Burns
The Plow That Broke the Plains – 1936 documentary
International
Palliser's Triangle – semiarid area of Canada
Goyder's Line – semiarid area of Australia
General
Desertification
Monoculture
Semi-arid climate
Global warming
References
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^ Jump up to: a b Hornbeck, Richard (June 2012). "The Enduring Impact of the American Dust Bowl: Short- and Long-Run Adjustments to Environmental Catastrophe" (PDF). American Economic Review. 102 (4). pp. 1477–1507. doi:10.1257/aer.102.4.1477. Retrieved March 31, 2016 – via Harvard University, Department of Economics.
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Jump up ^ See:
Lanzendorfer, Joy, "The forgotten Dust Bowl novel that rivaled "The Grapes of Wrath"," Smithsonian.com, 2016 May 23.
"Sanora Babb," The Dust Bowl: a film by Ken Burns, PBS.org (2012)
For the role of Tom Collins of the Farm Security Administration in Steinbeck's novel, see: John Steinbeck with Robert Demott, ed., Working Days: The Journals of The Grapes of Wrath, 1938–1941 (New York, New York: Penguin Books, 1990), pp. xxvii–xxviii, 33 (journal entry for 1938 June 24).
Jump up ^ Alarik, Scott. Robert Burns unplugged. The Boston Globe, August 7, 2005. Retrieved on December 5, 2007.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Alyssa (November 6, 2014). "How Ken Burns' surprise role in 'Interstellar' explains the movie". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ Smith, Hubble (June 1, 2017). "Kingman gets a mention on Dust Bowl album". Kingman Daily Miner. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Apice, John (May 22, 2017). "Expressive Original Songs Steeped In the Dirt & Reality of the Dust Bowl-Depression Era". No Depression. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
Bibliography
Bonnifield, Mathew Paul. (1979) Dust Bowl: Men, Dirt and Depression
Gregory, James Noble. American exodus: The dust bowl migration and Okie culture in California (Oxford University Press, 1989)
Lassieur, Allison. (2009) The Dust Bowl: An Interactive History Adventure Capstone Press, ISBN 1-4296-3455-3
Reis, Ronald A. (2008) The Dust Bowl Chelsea House ISBN 978-0-7910-9737-3
Sylvester, Kenneth M., and Eric S. A. Rupley, “Revising the Dust Bowl: High above the Kansas Grassland”, Environmental History, 17 (July 2012), 603–33.
Worster, Donald 2004 (1979)Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (25. anniversary ed) Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517489-5
Woody Guthrie, (1963) The (Nearly) Complete Collection of Woody Guthrie Folk Songs, Ludlow Music, New York.
Alan Lomax, Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, (1967) Hard-Hitting Songs for Hard-Hit People, Oak Publications, New York.
Timothy Egan (2006) The Worst Hard Time, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, hardcover. ISBN 0-618-34697-X.
Katelan Janke, (1935) Survival in the Storm: The Dust Bowl Diary of Grace Edwards, Dalhart, Texas, Scholastic (September 2002). ISBN 0-439-21599-4.
Karen Hesse (paperback January 1999) Out of the Dust, Scholastic Signature. New York First Edition, 1997, hardcover . ISBN 0-590-37125-8.
Sanora Babb (2004) Whose Names Are Unknown, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3579-3.
Sweeney, Kevin Z. (2016). Prelude to the Dust Bowl: Drought in the Nineteenth-Century Southern Plains Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dust Bowl.
NASA Explains "Dust Bowl" Drought
The Dust Bowl photo collection
"The Dust Bowl", a PBS television series by filmmaker Ken Burns
The Dust Bowl (EH.Net Encyclopedia)
Black Sunday, April 14, 1935, Dodge City, KS
The Bibliography of Aeolian Research
Surviving the Dust Bowl, Black Sunday (April 14, 1935)
Voices from the Dust Bowl: The Charles L. Todd and Robert Sonkin Migrant Worker Collection, 1940–1941 Library of Congress, American Folklife Center Online collection of archival sound recordings, photographs, and manuscripts
YouTube Video: "The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the Civilian Conservation Corps (C.C.C.)"
Farming in the 1930s (Wessels Living History Farm)
Out of the Dust (The Modesto Bee)
Africa Data Dissemination Service, part of the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, U.S. Geological Service
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Dust Bowl
Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory
Dust Bowl Migration Archive at Sonoma State University Library
Dust, Drought, and Dreams Gone Dry: Oklahoma Women in the Dust Bowl Oral History Project, Oklahoma Oral History Research Program
Voices of Oklahoma interview with Frosty Troy. First person interview conducted on November 30, 2011 with Frosty Troy talking about the Oklahoma Dust Bowl. Original audio and transcript archived with Voices of Oklahoma oral history project.
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Baby Got Back
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"My Anaconda Don't" redirects here. For the song by Nicki Minaj, see Anaconda (Nicki Minaj song).
Not to be confused with Baby Got Black.
"Baby Got Back"
Single by Sir Mix-a-Lot
from the album Mack Daddy
B-side
"Cake Boy"/"You Can't Slip"
Released
May 7, 1992
Format
7" vinyl
12" vinyl
cassette single
CD single
Recorded
August 22, 1991
Genre
Hip hop
dirty rap
bounce
Length
4:22
Label
Def American
Songwriter(s)
Anthony Ray
Producer(s)
Rick Rubin
Sir Mix-a-Lot
Sir Mix-a-Lot singles chronology
"One Time's Got No Case"
(1991) "Baby Got Back"
(1992) "Swap Meet Louie"
(1992)
"One Time's Got No Case"
(1991) "Baby Got Back"
(1992) "Swap Meet Louie"
(1992)
Baby Got Back
Sir Mix-a-Lot's "Baby Got Back" from Mack Daddy
Problems playing this file? See media help.
"Baby Got Back", also known as "I Like Big Butts", is a hit song written and recorded by American rapper Sir Mix-a-Lot, from his album Mack Daddy. The song samples the 1986 Detroit techno single "Technicolor" by Channel One.
At the time of its original release, the song caused controversy with its outspoken and blatantly sexual lyrics about women, as well as specific references to the female buttocks which some people found objectionable. The video was briefly banned by MTV.[1] "Baby Got Back" has remained popular and even anthemic[2] since it was originally featured on the album Mack Daddy in 1992.
It was the second best-selling song in the US in 1992, behind Whitney Houston's "I Will Always Love You", with sales of 2,392,000 physical copies that year.[3] In 2008, it was ranked number 17 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop.[4]
The song debuted at number 75 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart dated April 11, 1992 and hit number one twelve weeks later. The single spent five weeks at the top of the chart.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 Track listing
3 Chart performance and awards
3.1 Weekly charts
3.2 Year-end charts
4 Jonathan Coulton cover/Glee cover
5 Related songs and allusions
6 See also
7 References
7.1 Further reading
8 External links
Synopsis[edit]
The first verse begins with "I like big butts and I cannot lie" and most of the song is about the rapper's attraction to large buttocks. The second and third verse challenge mainstream norms of beauty: "I ain't talkin' 'bout Playboy/'Cause silicone parts are made for toys" and "So Cosmo says you're fat/Well I ain't down with that!"
The song came from a meeting between Sir Mix-A-Lot and Amylia Dorsey who saw little representation of full figured women in media. The idea came from the 1980s Budweiser commercial[5] featuring very thin, valley girl-esque models. They decided to dedicate a song to the very opposite, featuring curvy women of color. Mix and Dorsey sought to, "broaden...the definition of beauty."[6]
Sir Mix-a-Lot commented in a 1992 interview: "The song doesn't just say I like large butts, you know? The song is talking about women who damn near kill themselves to try to look like these beanpole models that you see in Vogue magazine." He explains that most women respond positively to the song's message, especially black women: "They all say, 'About time.'"[7]
In the song's prelude there is a conversation between two (presumably) thin, white valley girls. One girl named Linda (dubbed by Amylia Dorsey)[8] remarks to her friend, "Oh, my God, Becky, look at her butt! It is so big [...] She's just so ... black!", at which point Sir Mix-a-Lot begins rapping of his love for big-bottomed girls.
The dialogue of British actress Papillon Soo Soo saying "Me so horny" is sampled from the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket to complete Sir Mix-a-Lot's lyric, "that butt you got makes..." It is one of two popular rap songs of the era (with 2 Live Crew's "Me So Horny") in which her dialogue from the film is featured.
Track listing[edit]
No.
Title
Length
1. "Baby Got Back" (album version) 4:25
2. "Cake Boy" 4:12
3. "You Can't Slip" 5:05
4. "Baby Got Back" (Tekno-Metal Edit) 4:20
5. "Baby Got Back" (Hard B.W.B. Hip Hop Mix) 4:35
6. "Baby Got Back" (Hurricane Mix) 5:04
Chart performance and awards[edit]
Sir Mix-a-Lot's best known song, "Baby Got Back" reached number 1 on the United States Billboard Hot 100 chart for five weeks in the summer of 1992, and won a 1993 Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance. In the years following the song's release on the album Mack Daddy, it has continued to appear in many movies, television shows, and commercials, as detailed below. It was number 6 on VH1's Greatest Songs of the '90s, and number 1 on VH1's Greatest One Hit Wonders of the '90s.
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1992–93)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[9] 8
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[10] 89
Germany (Official German Charts)[11] 25
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[12] 31
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[13] 3
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[14] 39
UK Singles (The Official Charts Company) 56
US Billboard Hot 100[15] 1
US R&B/Hip-Hop Songs[16] 27
US Dance/Club Play Songs[17] 5
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1992)
Position
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[18] 47
US Billboard Hot 100[19] 2
Jonathan Coulton cover/Glee cover[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2018)
Jonathan Coulton released a cover of "Baby Got Back" during his Thing a Week project in October 2005, with the song being released as part of the first Thing A Week compilation album the next year.[20]
In late January 2013, a preview of the television show Glee included a cover of "Baby Got Back" that would be part of an upcoming episode. Many, including Coulton, noted that the backing music was extremely similar to his recorded version; Coulton reported that he had not been contacted by the Fox Broadcasting Network about this song, but at the time could only suppose that the Glee version was similar to his own.[21] Coulton had tried to contact Fox for additional details prior to the episode's airing. The episode with the song, "Sadie Hawkins", aired unchanged on January 24, 2013; further analysis of the aired version showed the Glee cover appeared to use Coulton's original musical arrangement as it included Coulton's original melody and a changed line in Coulton's version ("Johnny C's in trouble" instead of the original "Mix-a-Lot's in trouble").[22] Coulton's agents were later contacted by Fox, claiming, in his words, "they're within their legal rights to do this, and that [Coulton] should be happy for the exposure", even though Coulton is not credited within the episode.[22] Coulton has been exploring legal options; while musical covers do not have copyright legal protection in the United States, Coulton may have legal rights if the Glee version is found to have used his audio track or original composition directly.[23] Coulton has since released his cover of "Baby Got Back" to iTunes, what he calls "a cover of Glee's cover of my cover of Sir Mix-a-Lot's song", with proceeds going to charity.[24] Coulton's experience has led other artists who believe that Glee used their cover arrangements as backing within the show to step forward with similar claims.[25]
Related songs and allusions[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In a 2000 interview, Sir Mix-a-Lot reflected: "There's always butt songs. Hell, I got the idea sitting up here listening to old Parliament records: Motor Booty Affair. Black men like butts. That's the bottom line."[26] The song is part of a tradition of 1970s–90s African-American music celebrating the female posterior, including "Da Butt", "Rump Shaker", and "Shake Your Groove Thing".[27]
Spoken word duo Athens Boys Choir has a parody of the song on their album Rhapsody in T called "Tranny Got Pack". An alternative version was performed at a 2006 Washington Mutual retreat in Hawaii.[28]
A 2009 Burger King commercial promoting SpongeBob SquarePants Kids' Meal toys featured a parody called "I Like Square Butts".[29][30]
The song is played during the credit sequence of the video game Fat Princess while the player is attacking the staff with a scythe.[31]
The song in the main theme for the Are We There Yet? series episode "The Viral Video Episode".[32]
This song was used in a The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon' sketch aired on June 16, 2014. It consisted of clips of NBC Nightly News anchor Brian Williams, edited to create the illusion of him performing the song.[33]
The chorus of Nicki Minaj's 2014 single "Anaconda" heavily samples the song, including the beat, the lyric "My anaconda don't want none unless you got buns hun" as well as "Oh my god, look at her butt" in the beginning of the song. The song's closing line, "little in the middle but she got much back", is also sampled. Sir Mix-a-Lot stated his approval for Minaj's song, saying that he had gained "a whole new level of respect for her" and that he had become a "fan for life" of Minaj.[34]
In June 2014, the Seattle Symphony performed an orchestral rendition of the song, arranged by composer Gabriel Prokofiev, and performed by Sir-Mix-A-Lot.[35]
Country music artist Joe Nichols had been performing a honky-tonk style cover of "Baby Got Back" in concerts since 2012. In 2017, Nichols decided to record his rendition and include it on his album Never Gets Old. On July 31, 2017, Nichols released a music video for his cover, in which he performs the song for Sir Mix-A-Lot.[36]
The song featured in an episode of Apple Music's Carpool Karaoke starring Game of Thrones' Maisie Williams and Sophie Turner. Together they parody the beginning of the song using Sean Bean's distinctive Yorkshire accent.[37]
See also[edit]
1992 in music
Hot 100 number-one hits of 1992 (USA)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Baby Got Back Songfacts". Songfacts. Archived from the original on 19 April 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-05.
Jump up ^ King, M.C. (1 November 2007). 101 Reasons the '90s Ruled: Ten Years of Living La Vida Loca. Simon and Schuster. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-4165-9212-9.
Jump up ^ Paul Grein (May 8, 2013). "Week Ending May 5, 2013. Songs: Macklemore Pulls A Gaga". Yahoo Music (Chart Watch). Retrieved May 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ Andrew Winistorfer (2008-09-29). "VH1's 100 Greatest Hip-Hop Songs". Prefixmag. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Spuds McKenzie". youtube.com. August 20, 2016. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "OMG, meet the real 'Becky' from 'Baby Got Back'". usatoday.com. Retrieved November 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ Keizer, Brian (September 1992). "Big Buts". Spin. 8 (6): 87–88
Jump up ^ "'And I Cannot Lie': The Oral History of Sir Mix-a-Lot's 'Baby Got Back' Video".
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – Sir Mix-A-Lot – Baby Got Back". ARIA Top 50 Singles.
Jump up ^ Canadian peak
Jump up ^ "Musicline.de – Sir Mix-A-Lot Single-Chartverfolgung" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH.
Jump up ^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – Sir Mix-A-Lot" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Sir Mix-A-Lot – Baby Got Back". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Sir Mix-A-Lot – Baby Got Back". Swiss Singles Chart.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ [3]
Jump up ^ "End of Year Charts 1992". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved December 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Billboard Hot 100 - 1992". Archived from the original on 2010-01-17. Retrieved 2009-09-15.
Jump up ^ Doctorow, Cory (2005-10-15). "Nerd folksinger covers Baby Got Back". Boing Boing. Retrieved 2013-01-27.
Jump up ^ Eakin, Marah (2013-01-18). "Jonathan Coulton says Glee ripped off his cover of "Baby Got Back"". The A.V. Club. Retrieved 2013-01-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Landau, Elizabeth (2013-01-26). "Singer alleges 'Glee' ripped off his cover song". CNN. Retrieved 2013-01-27.
Jump up ^ Zakarin, Jordan (2013-01-26). "Musician Claims 'Glee' Stole His Version of 'Baby Got Back'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2013-01-27.
Jump up ^ Cantalano, Michele (2013-01-27). "Jonathan Coulton vs. Glee: It's About the Ethics". Forbes. Retrieved 2013-01-27.
Jump up ^ Hudson, Laura (2013-01-25). "Jonathan Coulton Explains How Glee Ripped Off His Cover Song — And Why He's Not Alone". Wired. Retrieved 2013-01-27.
Jump up ^ Sir Mix-a-Lot; Caramanica, Jon (October 2000). "Still Bumpin'". Vibe. 8 (8): 82
Jump up ^ Aubry, Erin J. (2003). "The butt: its politics, its profanity, its power". In Edut, Ophira. Body outlaws: rewriting the rules of beauty and body image (2nd ed.). Seal Press. p. 30. ISBN 1-58005-108-1
Jump up ^ EAMON JAVERS. "WaMu lenders sang 'I like big bucks' - Eamon Javers". Politico.com. Retrieved 2011-11-07.
Jump up ^ Feldman, Claudia (16 April 2009). "Burger King's whopper of an ad". Houston Chronicle
Jump up ^ Video on YouTube
Jump up ^ "Fat Princess Credits". Youtube.com. 2009-08-07. Retrieved 2012-06-11.
Jump up ^ YBF Chic (23 June 2010). "YBF EXCLUSIVE: UNSEEN TBS' "Are We There Yet?" Clip" – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ "Brian Williams Raps "Baby Got Back"". Youtube.com. 2014-06-16. Retrieved 2014-06-16.
Jump up ^ "Nicki Minaj's "Anaconda" Dubbed New & Improved "Baby Got Back" By Sir Mix-A-Lot". HipHopDX. 2014-08-12. Retrieved 2014-12-14.
Jump up ^ Miriam Coleman, Rolling Stone (June 8, 2014), Sir Mix-a-Lot Takes 'Baby Got Back' Classical With Seattle Symphony
Jump up ^ Rolling Stone (August 1, 2017), Watch Joe Nichols Sing for Sir Mix-a-Lot in New 'Baby Got Back' Video
Jump up ^ "Carpool Karaoke: The Series — Sophie Turner & Maisie Williams Preview — Apple Music". Youtube.com. 2017-08-22. Retrieved 2017-08-26.
Further reading[edit]
Kemp, Rob (2013-12-19). "'And I Cannot Lie': The Oral History of Sir Mix-a-Lot's 'Baby Got Back' Video". Vulture. New York Media.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"I'll Be There" by Mariah Carey Billboard Hot 100 number-one single
July 4, 1992 – August 1, 1992 Succeeded by
"This Used to Be My Playground" by Madonna
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The Impalas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the girl group initially known as The Impalas, see The Jewels.
The Impalas were an American doo-wop group in the late 1950s, best known for their hit, "Sorry (I Ran All the Way Home)".
The group formed in 1958 in Brooklyn, New York, and was composed of lead singer Joe "Speedo" Frazier (September 5, 1943 – April 1, 2014), Richard Wagner, Lenny Renda and Tony Carlucci. They were a racially integrated group--Frazier was the only black member.[1]
They recorded for Hamilton Records and were found by songwriters Artie Zwirn and Aristides "Gino" Giosasi, who wrote the song "Sorry (I Ran All The Way Home)". In 1959 disc jockey Alan Freed heard the group, added his name as a writer of the song and got them a deal with MGM Records subsidiary label Cub. In the US, the record reached #2 on the U.S. pop chart, #14 on the R&B chart.[2] Outside the US,"Sorry (I Ran All The Way Home)" peaked at #28 on the UK Singles Chart.[3] The song sold over one million copies, earning gold disc status.[4]
The group recorded follow-ups including "'Bye Everybody," "Oh What A Fool," an album for Cub, and one further single for the 20th Century label before disbanding in 1961. Frazier went on to sing with Love's Own in 1973, and in 1980 resurrected the Impalas as a touring act.
Joe "Speedo" Frazier died on April 1, 2014, at the age of 70.[5][6]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bryan Thomas. "The Impalas - Biography". AllMusic. Retrieved March 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 271.
Jump up ^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 268. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
Jump up ^ Murrells, Joseph (1978). The Book of Golden Discs (2nd ed.). London: Barrie and Jenkins Ltd. p. 115. ISBN 0-214-20512-6.
Jump up ^ "West Saint Paul Antiques". Weststpaulantiques.com. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "JOE "SPEEDO" FRAZIER". Rockabilly.nl. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
External links[edit]
Joe "Speedo" Frazier biography
Authority control
MusicBrainz: 9238d3e6-4d7c-4457-8075-aa49b2332974
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Betcha Can't Do It Like Me
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 2015 single by DLOW, see Bet You Can't Do It Like Me.
This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"Betcha Can't Do It Like Me"
Single by D4L
from the album Down for Life
Released
April 28, 2006
Format
CD single
Recorded
2005; Dee Money Studios
(Atlanta, Georgia)
Genre
Southern hip hop, snap
Length
3:41
Label
Atlantic, WEA
Songwriter(s)
Teriyakie Smith, Lafabian Williams p/k/a Fabo, Adrian Parks p/k/a "Stuntman", Dennis Butler p/k/a "Mook-B", Carlos Walker p/k/a "Shawty Lo", Mark Robinson p/k/a "Lil' Mark"
Producer(s)
Teriyakie Smith
D4L singles chronology
"Laffy Taffy"
(2005) "Betcha Can't Do It Like Me"
(2006)
"Laffy Taffy"
(2005) "Betcha Can't Do It Like Me"
(2006)
"Betcha Can't Do It Like Me" is a song by Atlanta-based hip-hop group D4L from their debut album Down for Life. It is their second and last single before disbanding in 2006. It was produced by Teriyakie Smith.
Chart positions[edit]
Chart (2006)
Peak
Position
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 72
U.S. Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs 23
U.S. Billboard Hot Rap Tracks 13
U.S. Billboard Hot Ringtones 3
U.S. Billboard Pop 100 99

This 2000s hip hop single-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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