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History of chocolate in Spain
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A woman (Aline Masson) drinking a cup of chocolate, in a canvas by Raimundo Madrazo
Typical 17th-century scene showing the preparation of chocolate
The history of chocolate in Spain is part of the culinary history of Spain as understood since the 16th century, when the colonization of the Americas began and the cocoa plant was discovered in regions of Mesoamerica, until the present. After the conquest of Mexico, cocoa as a commodity travelled by boat from the port of Nueva España to the Spanish coast. The first such voyage to Europe occurred at an unknown date in the 1520s. However it was only in the 17th century that regular trade began from the port of Veracruz, opening a maritime trade route that would supply the new demand from Spain, and later from other European countries.[1]
Although chocolate wasn't immediately adopted by European societies, it eventually made its way to becoming a high commodity. Once the Europeans realized the societal value of chocolate, they started to incorporate it more into their diet. [2]
From the early stages, the cocoa was sweetened with sugar cane, which the Spanish were the first to popularise in Europe. In pre-Columbus America chocolate was flavored with peppers and was a mixture of both bitter and spicy flavours. This made it an acquired taste and limited its appeal to the Spanish conquistadors, who were soon encouraged to sweeten it with sugar brought from the Iberian Peninsula in addition to heating it.
Over a 100-year period since its first appearance in the ports of Andalusia, chocolate became popular as a drink in Spain, where it was served to the Spanish monarchy. However, for a time the formula was unknown in the rest of Europe. Later chocolate spread from Spain to the rest of Europe, with the first countries to adopt it being Italy and France.
The great popularity of the drink in Spanish society from that time until the 19th century is attested to in various reports written by travellers who visited the Iberian peninsula. It was said that "chocolate is to the Spanish what tea is to the English".[3] In this way chocolate was converted into a national symbol.[4] The unusual fondness for this drink meant that coffee remained relatively unpopular in Spain compared to other European countries.[5]
In Spain, chocolate was exclusively considered a refreshing drink, and it was rarely used in other ways—though there are older Spanish dishes that use cocoa. After the Spanish Civil War the custom declined in favour of coffee consumption.[6] In modern Spain, traces of the history of the drink can be seen in the chocolate companies, the chocolate shops and museums.
Contents
[hide]
1 Pre-Columbian era
1.1 As currency
2 The age of discovery
2.1 Columbus' first encounter
2.2 Encounters in New Spain
2.3 Naming the new product
2.4 First deliveries to Spain
3 The golden age of chocolate
4 Sources
5 References
Pre-Columbian era[edit]
See also: History of chocolate
Mayan writing referring to cocoa
The [Mesoamerican] origin of the cacao tree (to which Linnaeus gave the scientific name Theobroma cacao in 1753) is disputed by modern botanical historians[7] since there are different hypotheses about the region from which it comes. Thus, some theories point to the Amazon region;[8] however, it is estimated that the plant also grew in the wild in other parts of Americas, including the plains of the Orinoco Basin. It is very likely that the Olmecs knew the cacao plant, in 1000 BC and transmit its use and cultivation to the Mayans,[9] who were the first to describe cocoa in their hieroglyphics. There is some link between the blood of human sacrifice and the intake of cocoa, and samples found in Mayan tombs strongly imply that the drink was common in the noble classes. The role played in religious ceremonies was explained by Diego de Landa, in his book List of Yucatan things.
As currency[edit]
The chronicles of the Spanish conquistadors contain numerous mentions of its use by the Aztecs as a form of currency, which used the Aztec vigesimal system the use of which was widespread. There were specific names, such as the countles consisting of four cocoa beans, the xiquipil consisting of twenty countles and the "burden," which included three xiquipiles. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo noted:
"So in the province of Nicaragua, a Rabbit is worth ten kernels and for four kernels they give eight apples or loquat of that excellent fruit they call munonzapot; and a slave is worth more or less 100 of these kernels, depending on the negotiations between the parties involved."
Cocoa was also valued in other contexts such as religious rituals, marital rituals or as medicine (alone or mixed with other plants) as well as being a nutritious food. The widely held belief that it was "a gift from the gods" gave it appeal in pre-Columbian societies as a symbol of economic well-being. Its use as a currency was mostly in the payment of taxes to the powerful.
The age of discovery[edit]
Cacao beans, which the Spanish thought similar in appearance to almonds.[10]
The discovery of new foods or preparation methods went through several stages of understanding.[11] Firstly cocoa was understood as a food and later as a pleasant taste. The latter was only possible through adapting the food to flavours previously known. It is in these first encounters of the Spanish conquistadors with cocoa that we can see that the preparation stage was adapted, it was sweetened and flavoured with other spices such as cinnamon and served warm. After that they had a better understanding of the value of chocolate.[12] Those three simple changes distinguished the chocolate consumed by the Spanish colonisers from the chocolate consumed by the natives. The same pattern occurs in other foods enjoyed at the time by the natives and Spanish.[13] although none of those had an acceptance and a global demand in proportion similar to that of chocolate.
Columbus' first encounter[edit]
Main article: Voyages of Christopher Columbus
The navigator Christopher Columbus, with the economic backing of the Catholic Monarchs, first reached the shores of the New World on 12 October 1492, initially believing that he had reached India. This voyage was carried out to expand markets by establishing new trade routes and therefore rival the Portuguese Empire, which was already well established in Asia. Following the success of that first voyage to the New World, others were organised with the intention of exploring and creating new trade routes.[14] On his fourth voyage, Columbus, in 1502, met an unexpected storm and was forced to temporarily land on 15 August on the Bay Islands. In their first explorations of the area, Columbus' group came upon a boat of Mayan origin travelling from the Yucatán Peninsula. The Spaniards were surprised by the large size of the vessel. Columbus detained the vessel and examined the cargo, which contained cocoa beans that he called almonds in his diary. However, he did not attach importance to these, and after this original inspection he let the boat proceed with its cargo.[15]
In the later period from 1517 to 1519, the Spanish conquistadors Bernal Díaz del Castillo (who referred to the use of cocoa by Aztecs in his book Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España) and Hernán Cortés both tried the drink and found it to have both bitter and spicy tastes due to the use of achiote. On occasions cornmeal and hallucinogenic mushrooms were also added to the drink.[16] Thereafter the Spaniards knew that cocoa beans were considered legal tender by the locals. Fray Toribio de Benavente (nicknamed Motolinía) mentioned the existence of cocoa in his works such as Memorias or Libro de Cosas de la Nueva España o de los naturales de ella.
Encounters in New Spain[edit]
After the conquest of Mexico, the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, offered Hernán Cortés and his companions fifty jars of foaming chocolate. According to the account of Francisco Cervantes de Salazar, the great emperor had a stockpile of several thousand 'charges' (tens of thousands of cocoa "kernels").[17]
The Italian Girolamo Benzoni in his book La Historia del Mondo Nuovo (1565) wrote that "...chocolate seemed more like a drink for pigs than a drink to be consumed by humans," noting that he had never tasted it despite residing there for over a year.[18] José de Acosta also disparaged the drink, comparing the frothy foam capping chocolate to feces. Despite these caveats, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo characterised it as an interesting ingredient, while showing some reluctance to describe how some Indians, after drinking it, had stained their lips as if they had ingested human blood.
The perceptions of the Spaniards were changing, in part, due to their increasing reliance on native ingredients. The tortillas made with cornmeal or (tamales), heated without the use of fat did not appear to satisfy the tastes of the conquerors used to pork and culinary techniques based on frying in fat, or sauteed with liberal use of olive oil or bacon.[14] Foods popular in Spain at the time such as cheese were unknown to the inhabitants of the New World.
As the Spanish settlers began to run out the stocks they brought with them, they had to find substitute foods. They therefore began to plant vegetables, such as chickpeas, cereals such as wheat and fruits like oranges or pears. Additionally they introduced the cultivation of olives, grapes and sugar cane. The latter ingredient became important. From the end of the 16th century onwards, sugar cane began to be added to the cocoa paste, which led to greater acceptance of cocoa among the Spanish settlers.
During this settling in period, around the 1520s, the Spaniards had to get used to new foods and flavours while they attempted to adapt old world cultivation methods to the new climate. Equally, however, the new ingredients brought by the Spanish settlers such as wheat and chickpeas struggled to find acceptance among the native populations who preferred their own homegrown dishes.[19]
Those Spaniards from humble economic backgrounds often married richer Aztecs, often as concubines. Thus, they tended to eat food influenced by Aztec gastronomy.[14] This hastened the spread of cocoa among both cultures. Bernal Díaz del Castillo mentioned that in a banquet held at the Plaza Grande in Mexico (built on the ruins of the Aztec capital) to celebrate peace between Carlos I of Spain and Francis I of France chocolate was served in golden tablets. The wide acceptance of cocoa by the Spanish conquistadors, especially the women, was also described by the Jesuit José de Acosta in his book Historia natural y moral de las Indias (published in 1590).[20]
Spanish acceptance of chocolate came about due to modifications made to the drink. For example, sugar was added, mirroring the native Mexican and Mayan practice of adding honey to cacao beverages. New World spices were replaced with similar Old World spices, in part for the sake of familiarity, but also out of practicality. The Madrid physician Colmenero de Ledesma recommended substituting the rose of Alexandria for mecaxochitl flower blossoms and black pepper for Mexican chilies, when necessary.[21] Cacao beverages containing maize, such as atole, gradually phased out due to the fact that maize-less chocolate lasted longer, making it more suitable for cross-Atlantic trips. While these changes sought only to approximate the existing flavors of chocolate, in turn internalizing Mesoamerican tastes in the Spanish, they were significant enough to break down their initial aversion to cocoa.
As a result, after the initial aversion to cocoa had disappeared, supplies were sent to Spain. The second major transformation of chocolate at the hands of the Spanish was in the serving method: the cocoa was heated until it became a liquid. This was in contrast to the natives of the New World, who generally drank it cold or at room temperature.[22] The third change was the addition of spices from the Old World like cinnamon, ground black pepper or aniseed.
Naming the new product[edit]
The grinding stone, or cocoa grinding stone, widely used in Spain until the 19th century.
The Aztec language, Nahuatl, was difficult for the Spanish troops stationed in Mexico to pronounce. The common ending tl sounded like te. Hernán Cortés' difficulties with the language was evident in the letters he sent, where he writes "Temistitan" instead of Tenochtitlan and the tribal god Huitzilopochtli as "Huichilobos." Coexistence between the two cultures led to the Spanish language borrowing certain Mesoamerican phrases or words such as coyote or maiz.
Many dictionaries suggest that the word chocolate comes from the Nahuatl chocolatl, based on an evolution from -tl to -te, however, there are problems with this hypothesis. Firstly Coe argued that the word chocolatl does not appear in the Aztec cultural writings of the time.[14] Similarly the word is not found in the work of Alonso de Molina, a lexicographer of the time, who wrote a book about the grammar of the Aztec language in 1555. It is also absent from Bernardino de Sahagún's encyclopedia and from the Huehuetlatolli ("The words of the ancients") a guide to moral conduct.[23] In all these works the word cacahuatl (cocoa water) is used. In his periodic letters, Hernán Cortés refers to 'cocoa.' At an indeterminate time in the 16th century, the Spanish of New Spain began to use the word chocolatl.
The Royal Family's physician Francisco Hernández de Córdoba already knew this name in the 1570s, describing chocolatl as a drink consisting of cocoa beans and pochotl, a type of tree seed, both ground to powder.[24] José de Acosta and his contemporaries also used the name chocolatl in Nueva España and the Yucatán making the word a neologism. However others have suggested that the word chocolatl came from xocoatl, where xoco means bitter and atl means water.[25] Another possible explanation comes from the colonial habit of making hot cocoa,[10] with many Mayan dictionaries of the time explaining that "the drink called chocolate" comes from chacau haa (literally 'hot water') which is phonetically close to chocolatl.[10][26]
First deliveries to Spain[edit]
In 1520 the caravels began delivering Spanish cacao to Spain and the pirates with a letter of marque from England, perhaps due to ignorance of the new ingredient, burned and discarded the contents of the Spanish ships which they seized.[7] No one knows for certain when cocoa first arrived in Spain, however it was considered a valuable material in the mid-16th century. The value which the product had can be seen in the strength of the Spanish galleons which carried the first cacao seeds to Spanish ports to prevent their theft.[27]
There is no evidence that Hernán Cortés himself brought any cacao back to Spain on his return trip, as when he met Carlos I, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor in 1528, cacao was not listed among the gifts brought back from the New World. The first deliveries to Spain were made by small galleys, which took advantage of the "Chocolate wind", as the favourable North wind in the Gulf of Mexico was known.
The first documentary evidence of chocolate in Spain comes from a delegation of Dominican monks led by Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, who travelled to the Iberian Peninsula in 1544 to visit Prince Philip, future Emperor Philip II.[28] During the meeting, gifts of sweetgum, corn, and cocoa are documented. It also refers to a chocolate milkshake that was served, this being the first documented case of the presence of chocolate in Spain.[28] The Dominican monks' familiarity with this type of food may have facilitated the transmission of cocoa from the monasteries of Mesoamerica to Spain. Studies show that, prior to the reception, Father Aguilar would be the first in Spain to prepare jars of chocolate for the Abbot of the Piedra Monastery, Don Antonio de Alvaro.[29]
Other authors refer to the Benedictine monks as the first importers of chocolate in 1532. The first deliveries were brought by the Maria del Mar galley through the port of Cadiz and were delivered to the Convent of the Third Franciscans of Seville. A quote from the Benedictines of the time was: "Do not drink the cocoa, anyone but friar, sir or brave soldier." In 1585, an embassy of Japan, visiting the Emperor Philip II in Alicante, was impressed by the offer of chocolate made by the nearby convent of the Poor Clares of Veronica. From the beginning, Spanish priests were the chocolate experts who spread their recipe among congregations. In 1601, the confessor of the court in the city of Cordoba, Serven Serrietz, inserted small amounts of chocolate in vegetables.[12]
He attempted to plant cocoa in the Iberian Peninsula but the result was a complete failure, leading to the realisation that cultivation was best in latitudes between 20 degrees north and 20 degrees south.[22] The expansion and the need to seek a favorable climate for growing new food meant that cocoa trees flourished in Fernando Poo (in Spanish Guinea) and from there spread across the African continent. At that time preparation of sweets and confectionery was largely in the hands of pharmacists who used chocolate in various secret recipes and pharmaceutical applications. The nutritional use of chocolate was debated in those early times, and possible medicinal uses of cocoa were investigated from the beginning: an example can be found in the Badianus Codex, written in 1552.[30]
Chocolate and confectionery was served in Madrid in the 17th century, and locals in those establishments asked for the "drink that came from the Indies.'[31] Reference to the public availability of chocolate is made by several visitors in the 18th century.[32] In 1680 cocoa was served in combination with melted ice to the nobles present at the auto-da-fés.[24] The writer Marcos Antonio Orellana makes reference to its popularity at the time in a brief rhyme:[33]
"Pocillo» chocolate with its "grinder" (a wooden stick). A common way to make chocolate in Spain during the eighteenth century.
¡Oh, divino chocolate!
que arrodillado te muelen,
manos plegadas te baten
y ojos al cielo te beben.
The popularity of the drink among noble women was such that, not content with drinking it several times a day, they requested drinking it in church as well. This whim upset the bishops, who published a circular in 1861 banning chocolate consumption in churches during long sermons.[34] Chocolatadas, held at the end of religious services, became popular .
The golden age of chocolate[edit]
By the early seventeenth century drinking chocolate began to be popular in Spain, and was first accepted by the upper classes. It gradually expanded in two directions: geographic and social. Other foods from The Americas were not so accepted in Spanish society of the time as cocoa. The remaining foodstuffs were relegated to botanical study situations, or incorporated in some new culinary preparations on exceptional occasions and with general reluctance.[31] However, chocolate was part of a number of seventeenth century palace rituals offered to visitors, as part of the "entertainment". This ritual was that the ladies of the Court offered their female visitors a dose of cocoa along with various sweets (cakes, sweetened bread, muffins and brioches) and a vase of snow. The chocolate was served to visitors who rested on cushions, surrounded by tapestries and the heat of braziers heat.[31] Chocolatadas, the social custom of drinking chocolate in the community, had made their first appearance in Spain.
Sources[edit]
Spain portal
Food portal
This article draws heavily on the corresponding article in the Spanish-language Wikipedia, which was accessed in the version of 1 July 2013.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ William H. Prescott (1860), History of the Conquest of Mexico, Boughton Press.
Jump up ^ Norton, Marcy (2004). "Conquests of Chocolate" (PDF). OAH Magazine of History. 18 (3): 14–17. doi:10.1093/maghis/18.3.14. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Graciela Ascarrunz De Gilman; Marian Zwerling Sugano (1984), Horizontes culturales y literarios, p. 63.
Jump up ^ Ángel Muro (1890), El Practicón, Madrid
Jump up ^ Carrie Evangeline Farnham (1921), American travellers in Spain: The Spanish inns, 1776–1867, Columbia University Press.
Jump up ^ Rosario García Cruz (2000),Spanish companies in international markets, ESIC Editorial, p. 186.
^ Jump up to: a b Kenneth F. Kiple (2000), «Cacao», The Cambridge World History of food, Cambridge University Press, Volume I, section III.e.
Jump up ^ Louis Grivetti, Howard-Yana Shapiro (2009),Chocolate: History, Culture, and Heritage, Willey. ISBN 0-470-12165-3
Jump up ^ Bogin, B. (1997),The evolution of human nutrition. The Anthropology of Medicine: From Culture to Method,Romanucci-Ross, L., Moerman, D. E. & Tancredi, L. R eds., Bergin and Garvey, Westport, CT, pp. 98-142.
^ Jump up to: a b c René F. Millon (1955), When Money Grew on Trees. A Study of Cacao in Ancient Mesoamerica, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Columbia University.
Jump up ^ Claude Lévi-Strauss (1964), Le Cru et le cuit, París.
^ Jump up to: a b Rafael Montal Montesa (1999), El chocolate «Las semillas de oro», Government of Aragón
Jump up ^ John Germov, Lauren Williams (1999), A sociology of Food and Nutrition, Oxford University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sophie D. Coe, Michael D. Coe (1996), The true History of Chocolate, Thames & Hudson.
Jump up ^ Alfred M. Tozzer (1941), «Landa's Relación de las Cosas de Yucatán», Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 18, Harvard University, Cambridge Mass.
Jump up ^ Xavier Castro (2001), «Chocolate y Ayuno», in Ayunos y Yantares, Madrid, chapter 3.
Jump up ^ Francisco Cervantes de Salazar (1936), Crónicas de Nueva España, México, 2 Vols., Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnografía, Vol 2:107
Jump up ^ Girolamo Benzoni (1565), La Historia del Mondo Nuovo, Venice.
Jump up ^ Benjamín Hernández Blázquez (2007), El viaje de los garbanzos, Madrid. ISBN 978-84-7392-672-0
Jump up ^ José de Acosta (1590), Historia natural y moral, Madrid.
Jump up ^ Colmenero de Ledesma. "on the preference for chilies". Curiosos tratado.
^ Jump up to: a b Stephen T. Beckett (2008), The Science of Chocolate, RSC Publishing, 2nd ed., p.6.
Jump up ^ Lyle Campbell, Terrence Kaufman (1976), «A linguistic look at the Olmec», American Antiquity, vol. 41, nº 1, pp. 80-86.
^ Jump up to: a b Joseph del Olmo (1680), Relación histórica del Auto General de Fe que se celebró en Madrid este año de 1680, Madrid
Jump up ^ Karen Dakin and Søren Wichmann (2000), «Cacao and Chocolat», Ancient Mesoamerica, 11:1:55-75, doi:10.1017/S0956536100111058
Jump up ^ Santamaría (1959), Diccionario de mejicanismos
Jump up ^ María del Carmen Simón Palmer (1997), La Cocina del Palacio, Madrid, Castalia, p. 61.
^ Jump up to: a b Augustine Estrada Monroy (1979),El mundo kekchí de Vera-Paz,, Guatemala, Ed Army, p. 195.
Jump up ^ Luis Montreal Tejada (1990), Apología del chocolate, Ed. Nestlé.
Jump up ^ Teresa L. Dillinger et al. (2000), Food of the Gods: Cure for Humanity? A Cultural History of the Medicinal and Ritual Use of Chocolate, American Society for Nutritional Sciences.
^ Jump up to: a b c Manuel M. Martínez Llopis (1989), Historia de la Gastronomía de España, Alianza Editorial, p. 256.
Jump up ^ George Borrow (1983), La Biblia en España, Alianza Editorial, 2nd ed.
Jump up ^ Gregorio Mayans (1733), Manual de fabricacion industrial de chocolate, Valencia, 11 page booklet with verses dedicated to chocolate.
Jump up ^ Pegerto Saavedra (1992), A vida coitá en Galicia de 1550–1650, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, p. 111.
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Jai Ho (song)
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"Jai Ho"
Single by A. R. Rahman featuring Sukhvinder Singh, Tanvi Shah, Mahalaxmi Iyer and Vijay Prakash
from the album Slumdog Millionaire: Music from the Motion Picture
Recorded
2008; Chennai, India (Panchathan Record Inn and AM Studios)
Length
5:19
Label
Interscope
Songwriter(s)
A. R. Rahman (music)
Gulzar
Tanvi Shah (lyrics)
Producer(s)
A. R. Rahman
"Jai Ho" is a song composed by A. R. Rahman for the 2008 film, Slumdog Millionaire. When Danny Boyle, the director of Slumdog Millionaire, approached Rahman to compose its soundtrack, he included the song. "Jai Ho" accompanies a choreographed dance sequence at the end credits of Slumdog Millionaire. The song features vocals from Sukhvinder Singh, Mahalaxmi Iyer and Vijay Prakash in Hindi, Urdu and Punjabi. Indian singer Tanvi Shah wrote and provided vocals for a Spanish section of the song. "Jai Ho" is a Hindi phrase which can be roughly translated as "Let [the] victory prevail", "Let there be victory", or "May there always be victory".
"Jai Ho" was, at the time of its release "the toast of the town in almost every part of the world".[1] Covers and remixes of the song and performances of the "Jai Ho" dance were posted on YouTube. "Jai Ho" received universally favorable reviews from music critics, who cited it as the best song on the Slumdog Millionaire soundtrack. The song won an Academy Award for Best Original Song and a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media. It was also the official campaign song of the Indian National Congress during the 2009 election.
American girl group The Pussycat Dolls recorded an English interpretation of "Jai Ho". Entitled "Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)", and credited to "A. R. Rahman and the Pussycat Dolls featuring Nicole Scherzinger", the song appeared on the re-release of the group's second studio album Doll Domination (2008).
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Writing and composition
3 Critical response
4 Recognition
5 Live performances
6 Usage in media
7 English adaption
8 Awards
9 References
Background[edit]
In 2008, while working on several films, A. R. Rahman received an email from Danny Boyle, the director of the film Slumdog Millionaire, stating: "Hey I'm Danny Boyle, I like your work, and it would be great for us to have you on our film". Rahman was unsure how to answer, but after exchanging several more emails, they met in Mumbai. Rahman summarized their first meeting by saying "when I talked to him, I had some interest and I wanted to see the film. He had a first cut of the film already, and when I saw that I was really interested and wanted to do it. So I left another film to do this one. I made time for it".[2]
While composing the soundtrack to the Slumdog Millionaire, Rahman aimed to mix modern India with eighties Hindi film soundtracks. Boyle, who "hated sentiment and cello", told Rahman to "never put a cello in my film". Boyle also insisted on a "pulsey" score. Rahman stated that Boyle wanted "edgy, upfront" music that did not suppress sound. He noted that "There's not many cues in the film. Usually a big film has 130 cues. This had just seventeen or eighteen: the end credits, beginning credits".[3]
The soundtrack for Slumdog Millionaire took Rahman two months to plan and two weeks to complete. He recalled that: "Usually it takes six months with the musical films I'm doing in India". Rahman said the soundtrack "isn't about India or Indian culture. The story could happen anywhere: China, Brazil, anywhere. Who Wants to Be a Millionaire is on in every damn country".[3]
Writing and composition[edit]
"Jai Ho" was originally composed for Subhash Ghai's 2008 film Yuvvraaj, but the director felt the song to be "too subtle and soft" for inclusion in the film.
Rahman composed "Jai Ho" using Logic Pro, a digital audio workstation and MIDI sequencer software application created by Apple Inc. At the time of the song's production, Rahman had been using the software for almost 12 years. For "Jai Ho", Rahman made extensive use of Logic instruments, including the EXS24, which comprises the EVP88 electric piano and ES2 synth mixed with a few plugins, such as the Channel EQ, Bitcrusher and Guitar Amp Pro. The bassline and the "trancey, arpeggiated" musical line used ES2 presets. For the "long chorus vocals" in the song, Rahman created a "robotic, stair-stepping pitch-bend effect" with Logic's Pitch Correction plugin to achieve the "exaggerated tuning effect".[4]
The lyrics to "Jai Ho" were written by Gulzar and are a combination of Hindi, Urdu and Punjabi. Lyrics in Spanish are also included in the song "to go along with his [Rahman] Latin American touch of music". According to the India-EU Film Initiative, this inclusion "really makes the song quite unique and international".[1] Of the three singers credited, Sukhwinder Singh is the principal vocalist.[5] Vijay Prakash sang the portion with the words "Jai Ho", which takes a high pitch at numerous junctures of the song.[6] Mahalakshmi Iyer sang the Hindi words between the "Jai Ho" chants and the portions of the verses not sung by Singh.[7] Tanvi Shah sang and wrote the song's Spanish words.[8]
According to Rahman, "Jai Ho" was meant to create "a vision of the whole world celebrating this victory".[9] The song contains a mix of "multiple motifs from the traditional pieces on the soundtrack" with "the big drums and blasting horns of the present".[10] It was originally composed and shortlisted for Subhash Ghai's 2008 film Yuvvraaj. Although Rahman was excited about the song, Ghai "wasn't too kicked about it". Ghai felt it was "too subtle and soft to be picturized on the character played by Zayed Khan". Rahman and Gulzar believed the song had "immense potential" and used it in Slumdog Millionaire.[11] Following the song's win at the Oscar's, Rahman stated that: "He [Ghai] said the words had a positive feel. It was like a prayer. I honestly didn't think the song would win me an Oscar though. But like the film Slumdog suggests, everything has its own destiny".[12]
When asked if he considers "Jai Ho" as his best creation, Rahman stated: "Sometimes it's not about a best creation, but the best for a particular moment of the film. 'Jai Ho' was right for that particular moment, that particular mindset in Slumdog Millionaire. I know there's lot of debate over this song winning the Oscars. But then, I didn't send the song to the Oscars, the makers did. I just composed the tune in three weeks and was done with it. However, I too feel 'Jai Ho' was apt for that particular moment in the film—the protagonist comes out of darkness and pain to light amid 'Jai Ho' hammering in the background."[13]
Critical response[edit]
"Jai Ho" (2008)
A thirty second sample of "Jai Ho".
Problems playing this file? See media help.
"Jai Ho" received universally favorable reviews from music critics. Bhasker Gupta of AllMusic labelled the song a highlight of the soundtrack.[14] Tajpal Rathore of BBC Music gave the song a positive review, calling it a "quintessential Rahman track". He praised Sukhwinder Singh, saying that he "does an amazing job".[15] Sean Daly of the St. Petersburg Times called the song and its choreography "brilliant". He described it as "two lovers consummating their long, winding courtship not with sex but a hand-waving, side-stepping, totally cathartic shimmy".[16]
Emily Heward of Music OMH called "Jai Ho" an "exuberant Bollywood dance number" that "encapsulates the film's feel-good-factor, and reminds us just how much this score deserves the accolades it has already won and the many it is sure still to receive – just as India's most treasured composer deserves the new-found global recognition it has earned him".[17] In a review of the Slumdog Millionaire soundtrack, Joginder Tutej of Bollywood Hungama deemed "Jai Ho" the "flagship number" of the film. Tutej complimented Sukhwinder Singh's vocals as being "energetic" and concluded that the singer "can comfortably add on another big chartbuster to his name". He also stated that the song, while "boasting of an amazing mix of melody and rhythm" remains "Indian at heart" and is "instantly catchy". He concluded that: "No wonder, it is the lone promotional song of the film and also sees a music video being dedicated to it. Gulzar saab celebrates the spirit of love and life with 'Jai Ho' and infuses enough power in it that justifies all the nominations it is receiving today".[18]
Recognition[edit]
According to the India-EU Film Initiative "Jai Ho" became "the toast of the town in almost every part of the world".[1] They noted that: "Music experts are listening to the song again and again to appreciate the global texture of the song and at the same time they are admiring the beauty of the lyrics by India’s foremost lyricist Gulzar who, like AR Rahman, has always experimented with his narrative".[1] According to Sean Daly of the St. Petersburg Times: "YouTube now has vids of babies and girlfriends doing this Jai Ho dance. There are remixes and tributes, too".[16]
"Jai Ho" received an Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 81st Academy Awards on 22 February 2009.[19] [20] The song beat out WALL-E's "Down to Earth" by Peter Gabriel and "O... Saya", also of Slumdog Millionaire, by A. R. Rahman and M.I.A.[21] "Jai Ho" also received a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture during the 52nd Grammy Awards on 31 February 2010.[22] The song received a nomination from the Broadcast Film Critics Association for Best Song during its 2008 award ceremony on 8 January 2009.[23][24] The Houston Film Critics Society nominated it for Best Original Song during its 2008 awards ceremony on 17 December 2008.[25][26] It was also nominated by the MTV Movie Awards for Best Song From a Movie during its 2009 award ceremony on 31 May 2009.[27]
Live performances[edit]
Rahman and Singh performed "Jai Ho" live during the 81st Academy Awards on 22 February 2009, the night it won for the award for Best Original Song. The song served as the opening of the ceremony. The song's lyricist, Gulzar, made a guest appearance during the performance. Rahman modified the song to "set it in sync with the live orchestra and make it suitable for a stage presentation".[28]
"Jai Ho" was performed as part of a medley with "Jiyo Utho Badho Jeeto" during the 2010 Delhi Commonwealth Games opening ceremony on 28 August 2010.[29][30] Rahman, who wore a white bandhgala jacket, black pants and white shoes, was accompanied by hundreds of dancers wearing traditional Indian costumes. Following the performance of "Jiyo Utho Badho Jeeto", fireworks went off and "Jai Ho" began. An editor from Sify wrote that, during the performance of "Jai Ho", "the chant at Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium, many would swear, was magical".[30]
Usage in media[edit]
In March 2009 Super Cassettes Industries (T-Series), the music company which holds the song's copyright for India, received nearly $200,000 from the governing Indian National Congress party for its use in its national campaign in 2009 Indian General Elections.[31][32] Harindra Singh, vice-chairman and managing director of the advertising firm Percept, told BBC that: "The tune of the song and the Jai Ho phrase have been used in the campaign. The lyrics have been written by a combination of people, they will be projecting what the Congress wishes to communicate". "Popular Bollywood numbers" are often "re-jigged" by political parties in India to "convey their message to voters", but this is the first time that a party has ever bought exclusive rights to use a song for political promotion.[31] The version used in the campaign features altered lyrics sung by Sukhwinder Singh, who performed on the original song. A video was also shot for this version.[33] Rahman refused to comment on "Jai Ho" being used for the campaigns, but stated that the song "belongs to everyone".[34] "Jai Ho" was performed by Ravi K Tripathi, a Lucknow-based singer, at the closing ceremony of 16th Asian Games on 27 November 2010.[35]
English adaption[edit]
Main article: Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)
The Pussycat Dolls performing "Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)" as the opening act of Britney Spears' 2009 tour, The Circus Starring Britney Spears
American girl group the Pussycat Dolls recorded an English interpretation of "Jai Ho". Entitled "Jai Ho! (You Are My Destiny)", and credited to "A. R. Rahman and the Pussycat Dolls featuring Nicole Scherzinger", the song appeared on the re-release of the group's second studio album Doll Domination (2008). After watching Slumdog Millionaire record executives Ron Fair and Jimmy Iovine wanted to turn "Jai Ho" into a "pop record without deviating from the original melody".[36]
After getting a green-light from Rahman, they asked Scherzinger, the leader singer of the Pussycat Dolls, to write an interpretation of the song. Scherzinger was hesitant at first, stating in an interview that: "[...] I was scared to death to touch it [and] afraid for people to hear it before I even wrote it".[37] Scherzinger put her "heart into writing the lyrics and put in themes from the film Slumdog Millionaire. Love and destiny were elements from the movie that she put into the track". She stated that she "prayed every night to do this right".[38] Fair and Iovine additionally hired Brick & Lace, The Writing Camp and Ester Dean to write their own interpretation of the song.[39]
E. Kidd Bogart, a member of The Writing Camp, stated that: "They [Fair and Iovine] wanted to get a bunch of different versions to see who could nail a version for the Pussycat Dolls". Once all interpretations were complete, "they [Fair and Iovine] took parts of The Writing Camp version, parts of Ester Dean's version, and parts of another version, and they put them together, and then Nicole [Scherzinger] and Ron [Fair] filled in the blanks that they thought were missing". Bogart additionally stated that it was "a very unique and awkward way of writing a song".[39] Bogart, Dean, Fair, Erika Nuri, David Quiñones, Scherzinger, Candace Thorbourne, Nailah Thorbourne and Nyanda Thorbourne are credited for writing the track, while its production was handled by Fair Scherzinger.[40] The song was recorded in London, while Scherzinger and Rahman corresponded via webcam.[36]
Music critics responded generally favorably to "Jai Ho (You Are My Destiny)". Newsround praised the song by saying "[Nicole Scherzinger] sounds right at home – making the most of her soulful R&B voice and hitting all the (incredibly) high notes on this Eastern-themed piece of pop!"[41] Nick Levine from Digital Spy wrote that, "The Hindi original, which soundtracks the Bollywood dance routine at the end of the movie, is far more urgent and atmospheric, but this remake works nicely enough as a slick, shamelessly opportunistic PCD single. Well, that hollered "JAI HO!" makes for a pretty sweet pop hook, you have to admit".[42]
Awards[edit]
Awards
Preceded by
"Falling Slowly" Academy Award for Best Original Song
2008 Succeeded by
"The Weary Kind"
Preceded by
"Down to Earth" Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media
2010
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Oscar winning song 'Jai Ho' and its lyrics". India-EU Film Initiative. 23 February 2009. Archived from the original on 14 April 2009. Retrieved 25 March 2009.
Jump up ^ Cellini, Joe. "Logic Pro 9 – In Action – A.R. Rahman". Apple Inc. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Hill, Logan (12 November 2008). "Composer A.R. Rahman on the Sounds of 'Slumdog Millionaire' and Being M.I.A.'s Idol". New York. New York Media, LLC. Retrieved 14 November 2008.
Jump up ^ "Apple — Logic Pro 9 — In Action – A.R. Rahman". Apple Inc. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Meet the singers of Jai Ho". Rediff.com. 26 February 2009. Retrieved 5 March 2009.
Jump up ^ Tuteja, Joginder (25 February 2009). "Vijay – The man who too deserves credit for 'Jai Ho'". Bollywood Hungama. Retrieved 4 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Vij, Manish (24 January 2009). "Jai ho Rahman". Ultrabrown. Archived from the original on 6 February 2010. Retrieved 11 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Tejonmayam, U (3 February 2009). "The Jai Ho girl". Express Buzz. The New Indian Express. Retrieved 11 June 2009.
Jump up ^ Joel Ryan (17 February 2009). "Indian composer identifies with 'Slumdog' hero: A.R. Rahman is happy to have an international audience for his music". MSNBC. Retrieved 18 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Album Review: A.R. Rahman — Slumdog Millionaire (Music From The Mo | Prefix". Prefix Magazine. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Super Admin (28 January 2009). "Slumdog's 'Jai Ho' was composed for Yuvvraaj". Entertainment.oneindia.in. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Iyer, Meena (24 February 2009). "Subhash Ghai is the one who asked me". The Times of India. The Times Group. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "Interview With AR Rahman". Glasham. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Gupta, Bhasker (23 December 2008). "Slumdog Millionaire – A.R. Rahman : Songs, Reviews, Credits, Awards". Allmusic. Rovi Corporation. Retrieved 17 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Music – Review of A. R. Rahman – Slumdog Millionaire". BBC Music. BBC. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Internet Archive Wayback Machine". Tampa Bay Times. 25 February 2009. Archived from the original on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 17 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Various – Slumdog Millionaire OST | album reviews". musicOMH. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Super Admin (13 January 2009). "Slumdog Millionaire Music Review". Entertainment India. Retrieved 17 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "The 81st Academy Awards (2009) Nominees and Winners". Academy Awards. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Complete list of Academy Award winners and nominees". CNN. Time Warner. 23 February 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "2009 Oscar scorecard". Los Angeles Times. 22 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "India's A.R. Rahman strikes Grammys gold". Agence France-Presse. 31 January 2010. Retrieved 1 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "BFCA names 'Slumdog' best picture". United Press International, Inc. 8 January 2009. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Kilday, Gregg (9 December 2008). "'Button,' Milk' top Critics Choice list". The Arizona Republic. Phoenix, AZ. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "HFCS 2008 Winners Press Release" (PDF). The Houston Film Critics Society. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "HFCS 2008 Awards Ballot" (PDF). The Houston Film Critics Society. Retrieved 21 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "2009 MTV Movie Awards". MTV. MTV Networks. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
Jump up ^ PARAG MANIAR (25 January 2009). "Live ho !". The Times of India. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "A R Rahman's grand finale with 'Jeeyo, Utho'". Times of India. 3 October 2010. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Rahman brings CWG ceremony to electrifying climax". Sify. Archived from the original on 6 October 2010. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Jai Ho 'cost Congress $200,000'". BBC News. BBC. 5 March 2009. Retrieved 10 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "Jai Ho turns into political parody". The Economic Times. Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. 5 March 2009. Retrieved 10 March 2009.
Jump up ^ Shah, Kunal M (6 March 2009). "The politics of lyrics". The Times of India. The Times Group. Retrieved 10 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "'Jai Ho' belongs to everyone, says Rahman". The Indian Express. Indian Express Group. 28 March 2009. Retrieved 17 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Jai Ho to enthral at Asian Games closing ceremony". Daily News & Analysis. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Kumaraswami, Lakshmi (23 January 2009). "Now, Pussycats do a Jai Ho". The Times of India. The Times Group. Retrieved 28 February 2009.
Jump up ^ Montgomery, James (24 March 2009). "Nicole Scherzinger Says She Originally Didn't Want To Cover 'Jai Ho'". MTV News. MTV Networks. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Chatterjee, Anita (19 March 2009). "Pussycat Dolls Nicole Scherzinger Didn't Want To Remix 'Jai Ho' – DH! Exclusive". DesiHits. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Bouwman, Kimbel (8 February 2010). "Interview With Evan 'Kidd' Bogart". HitQuarters. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Doll Domination (Liner Notes). Pussycat Dolls. Interscope Records. 2009.
Jump up ^ "AR Rahman feat. Pussycat Dolls – Jai Ho (Review)". Newsround. BBC. 4 June 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Levine, Nick (13 April 2009). "Music – Singles Review – A.R. Rahman & Pussycat Dolls: 'Jai Ho!'". Digital Spy. Hachette Filipacchi Médias UK Ltd. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
[show]
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Academy Award for Best Original Song
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1971–1980
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Music and lyrics: Melissa Etheridge (2006)
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Music and lyrics: Glen Hansard and Markéta Irglová (2007)
"Jai Ho"
Music: A. R. Rahman
Lyrics: Gulzar (2008)
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Music and lyrics: Ryan Bingham and T Bone Burnett (2009)
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"City of Stars"
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"Remember Me"
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Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media
"Somewhere Out There" (1988)
"Two Hearts" (1989)
"Let the River Run" (1990)
"Under the Sea" (1991)
"(Everything I Do) I Do It For You" (1992)
"Beauty and the Beast" (1993)
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"Streets of Philadelphia" (1995)
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text:
Ring Out, Wild Bells
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Ring Out, Wild Bells
by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
Country
UK
Language
English
Subject(s)
New Year
Publication date
1850 (1850)
"Ring Out, Wild Bells" is a poem by Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Published in 1850, the year he was appointed Poet Laureate, it forms part of In Memoriam, Tennyson's elegy to Arthur Henry Hallam, his sister's fiancé who died at the age of twenty-two.
According to a story widely held in Waltham Abbey, and repeated on many websites (see two examples below), the 'wild bells' in question were the bells of the Abbey Church. According to the local story, Tennyson was staying at High Beach in the vicinity and heard the bells being rung on New Year's Eve.
It is an accepted English custom to ring English Full circle bells to ring out the old year and ring in the new year over midnight on New Year's Eve. Sometimes the bells are rung half-muffled for the death of the old year, then the muffles are removed to ring without muffling to mark the birth of the new year. In some versions of the story it was a particularly stormy night and the bells were being swung by the wind rather than by ringers, but this is highly unlikely given the method of ringing English full circle bells, which requires a considerable swinging arc before the clappers will strike the bell.

Contents
[hide]
1 The poem
2 Allusions
3 Translations
4 Musical Settings
5 Notes
6 External links
7 Video
The poem[edit]
Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky,
The flying cloud, the frosty light:
The year is dying in the night;
Ring out, wild bells, and let him die.
Ring out the old, ring in the new,
Ring, happy bells, across the snow:
The year is going, let him go;
Ring out the false, ring in the true.
Ring out the grief that saps the mind
For those that here we see no more;
Ring out the feud of rich and poor,
Ring in redress to all mankind.
Ring out a slowly dying cause,
And ancient forms of party strife;
Ring in the nobler modes of life,
With sweeter manners, purer laws.
Ring out the want, the care, the sin,
The faithless coldness of the times;
Ring out, ring out my mournful rhymes
But ring the fuller minstrel in.
Ring out false pride in place and blood,
The civic slander and the spite;
Ring in the love of truth and right,
Ring in the common love of good.
Ring out old shapes of foul disease;
Ring out the narrowing lust of gold;
Ring out the thousand wars of old,
Ring in the thousand years of peace.
Ring in the valiant man and free,
The larger heart, the kindlier hand;
Ring out the darkness of the land,
Ring in the Christ that is to be.
Allusions[edit]
The Gresham's School chapel bell is inscribed with the last line of the poem, plus an attribution to the donor: "Ring in the Christ that is to be, Donum Dedit J. R. E."[1]
Manchester Town Hall's hour bell, called 'Great Abel' after the Town Clerk, Abel Heywood, who oversaw the construction of the building - completed 1850, has the lines, 'Ring out the false, ring in the true' cast upon its surface.[2]
Translations[edit]
A translation to Swedish by Edvard Fredin called 'Nyårsklockan' - 'the new year's bell' - is recited just before the stroke of midnight at the annual New Year's Eve festivities at Skansen in Stockholm, capital of Sweden. This tradition began in 1897 when the young Swedish actor Anders de Wahl was asked to recite the poem. de Wahl then performed the poem annually until his death in 1956. Since 1977 the Swedish national public TV broadcaster, SVT, airs the event live, and the first to read the poem on television was the actor Georg Rydeberg. The show turned out to be a major success, and watching it on New Year's Eve quickly became a nationwide tradition. Rydeberg recited the poem until his death in 1983. After that many famous Swedish actors and/or singers have recited the poem, for example Jarl Kulle, Jan Malmsjö and Margaretha Krook. It should be noted that the Swedish translation differs significantly from the English original. Inspired by the Swedish tradition, auto manufacturer Volvo used the poem in a 2016 New Year's Eve advertisement.[3]
Musical Settings[edit]
Charles Gounod's setting for voice and piano, published in 1880, uses verses one, two, three, five, seven, and eight.[4]
Percy Fletcher's 1914 SATB setting uses all but the fifth stanza of the poem, using the second stanza as a recurring refrain[5]
The second, seventh and eighth stanza were set to music by Karl Jenkins in the finale ("Better is Peace") of The Armed Man.[6]
The first, second and last stanza were set to music by Crawford Gates, and it is included in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 1985 hymnal (hymn number 215).[7]
The first, second, third, fifth and seventh stanzas are set to music by Jonathon Dove for the final movement of his "Passing of the Year" song cycle written for Double Choir (SSAATTBB).
James Q Mullholland – set the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th and 7th stanzas to music in honour of Gary Schwartzhoff in a commissioned piece by members and friends at First Congregational Church, Eau Claire, WI. 2011. First sung by the UW Eau Claire Concert Choir on Sunday, 10 April 2011. Sung again by the Chancel Choir of First Congregational Church on Sunday, 22 May 2011.
Excerpts of the poem were also utilised by George Harrison in his song Ding Dong, Ding Dong ("Ring out the old – Ring in the new. Ring out the false – Ring in the true"). Harrison misattributed these passages to Sir Frank Crisp once they were all written and engraved on walls and other parts of Friar Park, the mansion bought by Harrison which once belonged to Sir Frank.
The final song of "Ballads for Christmas" by Andrew Downes for high voices and harp.
More recently, Jonathan Ward of Magdalen College School composed a setting, while Wiltshire-based composer Stuart Brown has used it as the opening of his song cycle "Idylls", written in 2014 for the London-based soprano Chen Wang.[8]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Benson, S. G. G., and Martin Crossley Evans, I Will Plant Me a Tree: an Illustrated History of Gresham's School (James & James, London, 2002, ISBN 0-907383-92-0), p. 58
Jump up ^ Manchester Town Hall Clock Tower, www.ManchesterConfidential.co.uk http://www.manchesterconfidential.co.uk/Culture/Architecture/Manchester-Town-Hall-Tower-does-it-look-wrong
Jump up ^ Oster, Erik. "Grey New York Rings in a Somber New Year for Volvo". AgencySpy. Adweek Blog Network. Retrieved 18 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Songs from the Published Writings of Alfred Tennyson. Set to Music by Various Composers. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1880
Jump up ^ Fletcher, Percy. Ring out, wild bells (Novello, 1914, 5020679505113)
Jump up ^ Jenkins, Karl. The Armed Man: A Mass For Peace (complete vocal score). 1999. London: Boosey & Hawkes, 2003.
Jump up ^ https://www.lds.org/music/library/hymns/ring-out-wild-bells?lang=eng
Jump up ^ http://stuartbrownmusic.com/discover-11.html
External links[edit]
Godfrey Birtill's CD – Ring Out Wild Bells : Ring out Wild Bells by Godfrey Birtill was inspired by this poem
[1] : three stanzas set to music
Free MP3 download
[2] : beautifully rendered by The Plain Healers.
[3] : Waltham Abbey Town Council with reference to 'wild bells'
[4] : Essex County Council (PDF) with reference to 'wild bells'
[5] Guide to Waltham Abbey church.
Ring Out, Wild Bells public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Video[edit]
Video of half-muffled English full circle-ringing, first eight bells, then one bell tolling
[hide]
v
t
e
Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson
Early poetry
"The Deserted House"
"The Lady of Shalott"
"The Lotos-Eaters"
"Mariana"
"Oenone"
Poetry
"Break, Break, Break"
"The Charge of the Light Brigade"
"The Day-Dream"
"Godiva"
Idylls of the King
"In Memoriam A.H.H."
"Lady Clara Vere de Vere"
"Locksley Hall"
"Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal"
Poems (1842)
"The Palace of Art"
The Princess
"Sir Galahad"
"St. Simeon Stylites"
"Tears, Idle Tears"
"The Two Voices"
"Ulysses"
Late poetry
"Crossing the Bar"
"The Eagle"
Enoch Arden
"Flower in the Crannied Wall"
Maud
"Ring Out, Wild Bells"
"Tithonus"
Other works
The Foresters (play)
The Window (song cycle)
Related
Chapel House, Twickenham
Farringford House
Blackdown, West Sussex
People
Arthur Hallam (friend)
Emily Tennyson (wife)
Hallam Tennyson (son)
Lionel Tennyson (grandson)
Charles Tennyson (grandson)
Emilia Tennyson (sister)
Charles Tennyson Turner (brother)
Frederick Tennyson (brother)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ring_Out,_Wild_Bells&oldid=818218770"
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1850 poems
Bells (instrument)
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text:
First-class citizen
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the usage in society, see Second-class citizen.
In programming language design, a first-class citizen (also type, object, entity, or value) in a given programming language is an entity which supports all the operations generally available to other entities. These operations typically include being passed as an argument, returned from a function, modified, and assigned to a variable.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Examples
3 Functions
4 Reflection
5 See also
6 References
History[edit]
The concept of first- and second- class objects was introduced by Christopher Strachey in the 1960s.[2][3] He did not actually define the term strictly, but contrasted real numbers and procedures in ALGOL:
First and second class objects. In Algol, a real number may appear in an expression or be assigned to a variable, and either of them may appear as an actual parameter in a procedure call. A procedure, on the other hand, may only appear in another procedure call either as the operator (the most common case) or as one of the actual parameters. There are no other expressions involving procedures or whose results are procedures. Thus in a sense procedures in Algol are second class citizens—they always have to appear in person and can never be represented by a variable or expression (except in the case of a formal parameter)... [4]
During the 1990s, Raphael Finkel[5] proposed definitions of second and third class values, but these definitions have not been widely adopted.[6]
Examples[edit]
The simplest scalar data types, such as integer and floating-point numbers, are nearly always first-class.
In many older languages, arrays and strings are not first-class: they cannot be assigned as objects or passed as parameters to a subroutine. For example, neither Fortran IV nor C supports array assignment, and when they are passed as parameters, only the position of their first element is actually passed—their size is lost. C appears to support assignment of array pointers, but in fact these are simply pointers to the array's first element, and again do not carry the array's size.
In most languages, data types are not first-class objects, though in some object-oriented languages, classes are first-class objects and used for metaclasses.
Few languages support continuations and GOTO-labels as objects at all, let alone as first-class objects.
Concept
Description
Languages
first-class function closures and anonymous functions Scheme, ML, Haskell, F#, Scala, Swift, PHP, Perl 6, JavaScript
first-class control continuations Scheme, ML, F#
first-class type Coq, Idris
first-class data type Generic Haskell. C++11
first-class polymorphism impredicative polymorphism
first-class message dynamic messages (method calls) Smalltalk,[7] Objective-C[7]
first-class class metaclass Smalltalk, Objective-C, Ruby, Python
proof object[8] Coq, Agda
Functions[edit]
Main article: First-class functions
Many programming languages support passing and returning function values, which can be applied to arguments. Whether this suffices to call function values first-class is disputed.
Some authors require it be possible to create new functions at runtime to call them 'first-class'. As a result, functions in C are not first-class objects; instead, they are sometimes called second-class objects, because they can still be manipulated in most of the above fashions (via function pointers).
In Smalltalk, functions (methods) are first-class objects, just like Smalltalk classes. Since Smalltalk operators (+, -, etc.) are methods, they are also first-class objects.
Reflection[edit]
Main article: Reflection (computer programming)
Some languages, such as Java and PHP, have an explicit reflection subsystem which allow access to internal implementation structures even though they are not accessible or manipulable in the same way as ordinary objects.
See also[edit]
First-class function
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Scott, Michael (2006). Programming Language Pragmatics. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. p. 140.
Jump up ^ Rod Burstall, "Christopher Strachey—Understanding Programming Languages", Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation 13:52 (2000)
Jump up ^ Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman, Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, 2nd edition, section 1.3.4 footnote 64
Jump up ^ Christopher Strachey, "Fundamental Concepts in Programming Languages" in Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation 13:11 (2000); though published in 2000, these are notes from lectures Strachey delivered in August, 1967
Jump up ^ Finkel, R. Advanced Programming language Design, p 73
Jump up ^ Norman Ramsey. "About first-,second- and third-class value". stackoverflow.com. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Paritosh Shroff, Scott F. Smith. Type Inference for First-Class Messages with Match-Functions
Jump up ^ Bove, Ana; Dybjer, Peter (2009). "Dependent Types at Work" (PDF). Language Engineering and Rigorous Software Development. 5520: 57–99. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03153-3_2. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 2, 2014. Retrieved 8 June 2015. (also archived)
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