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Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker
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Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker
Author
Alan Dean Foster (Credited to George Lucas)
Cover artist
Ralph McQuarrie
Country
United States
Language
English
Series
Film novelizations
Canon G
Genre
Science fiction
Publisher
Ballantine (USA), Sphere Books (UK)
Publication date
November 12, 1976
Media type
Print (hardcover & paperback)
Pages
272
ISBN
0-345-26061-9
Followed by
Splinter of the Mind's Eye (1978)
Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker is the original title of the novelization of the 1977 film Star Wars. Credited to George Lucas, but ghostwritten by Alan Dean Foster, it was first published on November 12, 1976 by Ballantine Books. In later years, it was republished under the title Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope to reflect the retroactive addition of episodic subtitles to the theatrical film titles.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 Publishing history
3 Differences from the film
4 Sequel
5 References
6 External links
Development[edit]
Credited author and Star Wars creator George Lucas
Ghostwriter Alan Dean Foster
The book was written by Foster and based upon Lucas's original screenplay for the first Star Wars film. On how he got the job, Foster said, "My agent got a call from Lucas's lawyer of the time, Tom Pollock (now one of the most powerful men in Hollywood). Someone had read a book of mine, Icerigger, knew that I had already done novelizations, and thought I might be the writer to do the novelization of Lucas’ new film. I already knew his work through THX 1138 and American Graffiti. I accepted the offer to meet with George, and did so at Industrial Light and Magic, then in a small warehouse in Van Nuys, California (part of greater Los Angeles, and conveniently near my family home). We hit it off well, I got the assignment (for two books), and that’s how it happened."[1]
Foster not only adapted the film's events, but also fleshed out the backstory of time, place, physics, planets, races, languages, history and technology. When asked if it was difficult for him to see Lucas get all the credit for the novelization, Foster said, "Not at all. It was George's story idea. I was merely expanding upon it. Not having my name on the cover didn't bother me in the least. It would be akin to a contractor demanding to have his name on a Frank Lloyd Wright house." Lucas, for his part, has always been open about the fact that Foster ghost-wrote the novel, noting this fact in his introduction to later editions of the book.
Publishing history[edit]
The book was first published in the US as Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker in December 1976 by Ballantine Books, six months before the theatrical release of the film. The cover art was by Star Wars conceptual artist Ralph McQuarrie, who was commissioned by Ballantine Books executive Judy Lynn Del Rey while he was working on visualisation work for Lucas's forthcoming film.[2] The cover depicted Luke Skywalker, Chewbacca, C-3PO, and R2-D2 standing in front of an enlarged head of Darth Vader. In the United Kingdom, the novelization was published by Sphere Books, and featured cover art by John Berkey.[3][4] Sphere reportedly paid $225,000 for the British publishing rights.[5]
By February 1977, still three months before the film was released, the novelization sold out its initial print run of 125,000 copies.[6] In the first three months, Ballantine had sold 3.5 million copies.[5] Some later editions contain sixteen pages of full-color photos from the motion picture.
Later editions of the novelization were published under altered titles to reflect the episodic retitling of the film, such as A New Hope: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker[7] and Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope,[8][9]
Differences from the film[edit]
The words that open each Star Wars film, "A long time ago in a galaxy far, far away ..." are absent from this novelization, substituted by the similar, "Another galaxy, another time ..."[10]
The novelization bears a major difference in the form of a prologue explaining the backstory behind the film's events. It is presented as an entry of the Journal of the Whills. This prologue contains the first-ever reference to the Emperor's true name, Palpatine. The section dealing with Palpatine says, "Aided and abetted by restless, power-hungry individuals within the government, and the massive organs of commerce, the ambitious Senator Palpatine caused himself to be elected President of the Republic. He promised to reunite the disaffected among the people and to restore the remembered glory of the Republic. Once secure in office he declared himself Emperor, shutting himself away from the populace. Soon he was controlled by the very assistants and boot-lickers he had appointed to high office, and the cries of the people for justice did not reach his ears." This implies that the Emperor is merely a victim of manipulation by Imperial bureaucrats rather than the true string-puller, which is at odds with Palpatine's depiction in later films in the series. This is because George Lucas had not fully developed the character at this point in time, allowing Alan Dean Foster to expand upon the Emperor as he saw fit. Lucas' conception of the character continued to evolve, until he eventually determined that Palpatine was Darth Vader's master and the true personification of evil in The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi.[11]
Several other portions of the novel deviate from the film, including scenes that were filmed but not inserted into the final cut of the movie. Most notable of these are scenes with Luke Skywalker and his friends at Tosche Station on Tatooine. Also included is the scene with Jabba that was re-inserted into the Special Edition of the film; however, in this novelization he is written as a fat biped with an ugly, "shaggy skull" and "jowels" that shake with his head, and he has scars that are a sign of his ferocious reputation in combat. This differs both from the script's version of Jabba (which is described as a creature with "eyes on stalks"), and the version that finally appeared in Return of the Jedi, a giant slug with no ability to partake in combat.
At one point, Han Solo mentions a Corellian friend named Toccnepil (Lippincot backwards). This is a reference to Charles Lippincott, the mastermind of the Star Wars marketing campaign.[11]
Various small details throughout, such as the call-signs used by the Rebels in the Death Star assault, are different (e.g. Luke is "Blue Five" instead of "Red Five", and his team is part of Blue Squadron as well). The official term for "Droids" in the novelization is "mechanicals", and it's implied that the word "Droids" is a slang term. "Droid" is also spelled with an apostrophe in the front, because the term was used as a contraction of the word "android". The word "Rebels" is never capitalized, instead listed as "rebels". The Imperial Stormtroopers board the Tantive IV through the ceiling rather than blasting apart a door. Luke's landspeeder has an enclosed cockpit, unlike the film version's open cockpit. In the novel, Obi-Wan Kenobi lives in a cave instead of a hut, and he smokes a pipe. The scene in the cantina where Obi-Wan defends Luke involves three aliens, as opposed to two in the film, and Obi-Wan cuts one of them in half before severing the arm of another, unlike in the film where he merely hacks one's arm off. Chewbacca is described as having bright, yellow eyes. Admiral Motti, the man Darth Vader chokes in the conference room in the movie, is not included in the novel, instead replaced by a character named Romodi, who has severe facial scarring. The call-sign of the Stormtroopers guarding the Millennium Falcon is THX-1138 (referencing Lucas' directorial debut), as opposed to TK-421 in the film. Grand Moff Tarkin is present during Princess Leia's torture. The destruction of Alderaan is not described in the book, nor does Obi-Wan sense the planet's destruction.[11]
The death of Obi-Wan Kenobi is also different in the book, in that Darth Vader succeeds in defeating him during their lightsaber duel, while in the film Obi-Wan allows Vader to strike him down, in order to provide Luke and the others a diversion to escape the Death Star. The novel also refers to Darth Vader as a Sith Lord. Although he was referenced as such in various merchandising tie-ins at the time of the original film, he is not referred to as a Sith Lord in the movie. In fact, the term Sith Lord is not mentioned in the films until 1999's Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.[11] However, in recently uncovered deleted scenes, General Tagge describes Darth Vader as a Sith Lord during the Death Star meeting.[12]
The order of events in the final dogfight over the Death Star is also somewhat different. In the novel, Blue Leader (whose film equivalent is Red Leader) makes two bombing runs down the trench toward the exhaust port. In the film, he only manages to make one before being shot down. In the film, Wedge's X-wing fighter is damaged by Darth Vader and his wing men, forcing him to leave the battle, and then Biggs is killed outright by the pursuing Vader and his fighters. In the novelization, Biggs is killed, and then Wedge must retreat, due to a malfunction caused in the battle with the enemy fighters.
At the end of the novel, in addition to Han and Luke receiving medals, Leia also gives Chewbacca a medal, though she must strain to do so.[11]
Sequel[edit]
After the massive success of the film, Alan Dean Foster released a novel called Splinter of the Mind's Eye, which was originally commissioned by George Lucas for the purpose of being filmed as a low-budget sequel, as a fallback plan in the event that Star Wars did not do well. It was published in 1978, a year after the movie's release. This made it the first full-length original novel to be published in the Star Wars expanded universe. The next official novelization of a Star Wars movie was The Empire Strikes Back by Donald F. Glut.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Interview with Alan Dean Foster". SFFWorld.
Jump up ^ Scoleri, John (14 January 2014). "An Annotated Guide to The Star Wars Portfolio by Ralph McQuarrie". StarWars.com. Lucasfilm. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ralph McQuarrie's Del Rey Star Wars Covers | StarWars.com". StarWars.com. 7 December 2015. Archived from the original on 16 June 2017. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "John Berkey Remembered". StarWars.com. 13 May 2008. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Sutherland, John; Sutherland, Northcliffe Professor of Modern English Literature John (2010). "8. Star Wars - a real gee-whizz book". Bestsellers (Routledge Revivals): Popular Fiction of the 1970s. Routledge. ISBN 9781136830631. Retrieved 16 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Burns, Kevin (director) (2004). Empire of Dreams (DVD). USA: Lucasfilm.
Jump up ^ "A New Hope: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker". googlebooks.
Jump up ^ "Star Wars: A New Hope". google books.
Jump up ^ "Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope". Lucasfilm.
Jump up ^ Lee, Peter W. (2016-01-15). A Galaxy Here and Now: Historical and Cultural Readings of Star Wars. McFarland. ISBN 9781476662206.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Britt, Ryan (January 24, 2013). "Weird Differences Between the First Star Wars Movie and Its Preceding Novelization". Tor.com. Retrieved February 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Extended Death Star Meeting Scene - Star Wars Celebration 2017: RARE Archival Footage". Youtube.com. Retrieved April 23, 2017.
External links[edit]
Star Wars.com listing
Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope (novel) on Wookieepedia, a Star Wars wiki
Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database (cover art by Ralph McQuarrie)
Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker title listing at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database (cover art by John Berkey)
[show]
v
t
e
Star Wars Legends novels (1976–2014)
Film novelizations
Original trilogy
Episode IV: A New Hope (1976)
Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back (1980)
Episode VI: Return of the Jedi (1983)
Prequel trilogy
Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999)
Episode II: Attack of the Clones (2002)
Episode III: Revenge of the Sith (2005)
Early trilogies
The Han Solo Adventures (1979–1980)
The Adventures of Lando Calrissian (1983)
Thrawn trilogy
Heir to the Empire (1991)
Dark Force Rising (1992)
The Last Command (1993)
Jedi Prince series
The Glove of Darth Vader (1992)
The Lost City of the Jedi (1992)
Zorba the Hutt's Revenge (1992)
Mission from Mount Yoda (1993)
Queen of the Empire (1993)
Prophets of the Dark Side (1993)
Jedi Academy trilogy
Jedi Search (1994)
Dark Apprentice (1994)
Champions of the Force (1994)
Callista trilogy
Children of the Jedi (1995)
Darksaber (1995)
Planet of Twilight (1997)
X-wing
Rogue Squadron (1996)
Wedge's Gamble (1996)
The Krytos Trap (1996)
The Bacta War (1997)
Wraith Squadron (1998)
Iron Fist (1998)
Solo Command (1999)
Isard's Revenge (1999)
Starfighters of Adumar (1999)
Mercy Kill (2012)
The Hand of Thrawn
Specter of the Past (1997)
Vision of the Future (1998)
Galaxy of Fear
Eaten Alive (1997)
City of the Dead (1997)
Planet Plague (1997)
The Nightmare Machine (1997)
Ghost of the Jedi (1997)
Army of Terror (1997)
The Brain Spiders (1997)
The Swarm (1998)
Spore (1998)
The Doomsday Ship (1998)
Clones (1998)
The Hunger (1998)
The Bounty Hunter Wars
The Mandalorian Armor (1998)
Slave Ship (1998)
Hard Merchandise (1999)
Jedi Apprentice
The Rising Force (1999)
The Dark Rival (1999)
The Hidden Past (1999)
The Mark of the Crown (1999)
The Defenders of the Dead (1999)
The Uncertain Path (2000)
The Captive Temple (2000)
The Day of Reckoning (2000)
The Fight for Truth (2000)
The Shattered Peace (2000)
The Deadly Hunter (2000)
The Evil Experiment (2001)
The Dangerous Rescue (2001)
The Ties That Bind (2001)
The Death of Hope (2001)
The Call to Vengeance (2001)
The Only Witness (2002)
The Threat Within (2002)
Special Edition #1: Deceptions (2001)
Special Edition #2: The Followers (2002)
The New Jedi Order
Vector Prime (1999)
Dark Tide I: Onslaught (2000)
Dark Tide II: Ruin (2000)
Agents of Chaos I: Hero's Trial (2000)
Agents of Chaos II: Jedi Eclipse (2000)
Balance Point (2000)
Recovery (2001)
Edge of Victory I: Conquest (2001)
Edge of Victory II: Rebirth (2001)
Star by Star (2001)
Dark Journey (2002)
Enemy Lines I: Rebel Dream (2002)
Enemy Lines II: Rebel Stand (2002)
Traitor (2002)
Destiny's Way (2002)
Ylesia (2002)
Force Heretic I: Remnant (2003)
Force Heretic II: Refugee (2003)
Force Heretic III: Reunion (2003)
The Final Prophecy (2003)
The Unifying Force (2003)
Jedi Quest
Path to Truth (2001)
The Way of the Apprentice (2002)
The Trail of the Jedi (2002)
The Dangerous Games (2002)
The Master of Disguise (2002)
The School of Fear (2003)
The Shadow Trap (2003)
The Moment of Truth (2003)
The Changing of the Guard (2004)
The False Peace (2004)
The Final Showdown (2004)
Clone Wars series
Shatterpoint (2003)
The Cestus Deception (2004)
The Hive (2004)
MedStar I: Battle Surgeons (2004)
MedStar II: Jedi Healer (2004)
Jedi Trial (2004)
Yoda: Dark Rendezvous (2004)
Republic Commando
Hard Contact (2004)
Triple Zero (2006)
True Colors (2007)
Order 66 (2008)
501st (2009)
The Last of the Jedi
The Desperate Mission (2005)
Dark Warning (2005)
Underworld (2005)
Death on Naboo (2006)
A Tangled Web (2006)
Return of the Dark Side (2006)
Secret Weapon (2007)
Against The Empire (2007)
Master of Deception (2008)
Reckoning (2008)
Darth Bane series
Path of Destruction (2006)
Rule of Two (2007)
Dynasty of Evil (2009)
The Force Unleashed
The Force Unleashed (2008)
The Force Unleashed II (2010)
Coruscant Nights
Jedi Twilight (2008)
Street of Shadows (2008)
Patterns of Force (2009)
The Old Republic series
The Old Republic: Fatal Alliance (2010)
The Old Republic: Deceived (2011)
The Old Republic: Revan (2011)
The Old Republic: Annihilation (2012)
The Dark Nest trilogy
The Joiner King (2005)
The Unseen Queen (2005)
The Swarm War (2005)
Legacy of the Force
Betrayal (2006)
Bloodlines (2006)
Tempest (2006)
Exile (2007)
Sacrifice (2007)
Inferno (2007)
Fury (2007)
Revelation (2008)
Invincible (2008)
Fate of the Jedi
Outcast (2009)
Omen (2009)
Abyss (2009)
Backlash (2010)
Allies (2010)
Vortex (2010)
Conviction (2011)
Ascension (2011)
Apocalypse (2012)
Other trilogies
and series
Young Jedi Knights (1995–1998)
The Black Fleet Crisis (1996–1998)
The Han Solo Trilogy (1997–1998)
Standalone
Splinter of the Mind's Eye (1978)
The Truce at Bakura (1993)
The Courtship of Princess Leia (1994)
The Crystal Star (1994)
The New Rebellion (1996)
Shadows of the Empire (1996)
I, Jedi (1998)
Rogue Planet (2000)
Cloak of Deception (2001)
Darth Maul: Shadow Hunter (2001)
"Darth Maul: Saboteur" (2001)
The Approaching Storm (2002)
Legacy of the Jedi (2003)
A Forest Apart (2003)
Tatooine Ghost (2003)
Fool's Bargain (2004)
Survivor's Quest (2004)
Secrets of the Jedi (2005)
Labyrinth of Evil (2005)
Dark Lord: The Rise of Darth Vader (2005)
Outbound Flight (2006)
Boba Fett: A Practical Man (2006)
Allegiance (2007)
Death Star (2007)
Luke Skywalker and the Shadows of Mindor (2008)
Millennium Falcon (2008)
The Clone Wars (2008)
Death Troopers (2009)
Gambit: Stealth (2010)
Crosscurrent (2010)
Knight Errant (2011)
Choices of One (2011)
Darth Plagueis (2012)
Scoundrels (2013)
Dawn of the Jedi: Into the Void (2013)
Crucible (2013)
Maul: Lockdown (2014)
Full list of Star Wars books by in-universe timeline
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text:
Religion in early Virginia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
St. Luke's Church in Smithfield, built in the early- to mid-17th century, is the oldest extant brick church in the Thirteen colonies, and the only existing Gothic brick structure in the United States.
The history of religion in early Virginia begins with the commencing of Anglican services in Jamestown 1607, which became the established church in 1619, and culminates with the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom in 1786.
Contents
[hide]
1 Established church
1.1 Anglican parishes
1.2 Missionaries
2 Alternatives to the established church
2.1 Presbyterians
2.2 Baptists
2.3 Methodists
3 Religious freedom and disestablishment
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
6.1 Primary sources
Established church[edit]
The Bruton Parish Church in Williamsburg. Government and college officials in the capital at Williamsburg were required to attend services at this Anglican church.
The Church of England was legally established in the colony in 1619, and authorities in England sent in 22 Anglican clergyman by 1624. In practice, establishment meant that local taxes were funneled through the local parish to handle the needs of local government, such as roads and poor relief, in addition to the salary of the minister. There never was a bishop in colonial Virginia, and in practice the local vestry consisting of laymen controlled the parish.[1]
Anglican parishes[edit]
After five very difficult years, during which the majority of the new arrivals quickly died, the colony began to grow more successfully. As in England, the parish became a unit of local importance, equal in power and practical aspects to other entities, such as the courts and even the House of Burgesses and the Governor's Council (the two houses of the Virginia General Assembly). (A parish was normally led spiritually by a rector and governed by a committee of members generally respected in the community which was known as the vestry). A typical parish contained three or four churches, as the parish churches needed to be close enough for people to travel to worship services, where attendance was expected of everyone. Parishes typically had a church farm (or "glebe") to help support it financially.[2]
Expansion and subdivision of the church parishes and, after 1634, the shires (or counties) followed population growth. The intention of the Virginia parish system was to place a church not more than six miles (10 km)-easy riding distance-from every home in the colony. The shires, soon after initial establishment in 1634 known as "counties", were planned to be not more than a day's ride from all residents, so that court and other business could be attended to in a practical manner.
In the 1740s, the established Anglican church had about 70 parish priests around the colony. There was no bishop, and indeed, there was fierce political opposition to having a bishop in the colony. The Anglican priests were supervised directly by the Bishop of London. Each county court gave tax money to the local vestry, composed of prominent laymen. The vestry provided the priest a glebe of 200 or 300 acres (1.2 km2), a house, and perhaps some livestock. The vestry paid him an annual salary of 16,000 pounds-of-tobacco, plus 20 shillings for every wedding and funeral. While not poor, the priests lived modestly and their opportunities for improvement were slim.
Missionaries[edit]
19th-century depiction of the baptism of Pocahontas by John Gadsby Chapman
Religious leaders in England felt they had a duty as missionaries to bring Christianity (or more specifically, the religious practices and beliefs of the Church of England in contrast to the Latin incursion of Central and South America), to the Native Americans. There was an assumption that their own "mistaken" spiritual beliefs were largely the result of a lack of education and literacy, since the Powhatan did not have need for a written language. Therefore, teaching them these skills would logically result in what the English saw as "enlightenment" in their religious practices, and bring them into the fold of the church, which was part of the government, and hence, a form of control. One of the earliest of these missionaries was Reverend Alexander Whitaker, who served from 1611 until his death in 1616.
The efforts to educate and convert the natives were minimal, though the Indian school remained open until the Revolution. Apart from the Nansemond tribe, which had converted in 1638, and a few isolated individuals over the years, the other Powhatan tribes as a whole did not fully convert to Christianity until 1791.[3]
Alternatives to the established church[edit]
The colonists were typically inattentive, uninterested, and bored during church services, according to the ministers, who complained that the people were sleeping, whispering, ogling the fashionably dressed women, walking about and coming and going, or at best looking out the windows or staring blankly into space.[4] The lack of towns means the church had to serve scattered settlements, while the acute shortage of trained ministers meant that piety was hard to practice outside the home. Some ministers solved this problem by encouraging parishioners to become devout at home, using the Book of Common Prayer for private prayer and devotion. This allowed devout Anglicans to lead an active and sincere religious life apart from the unpopular formal church services. However the stress on private devotion weakened the need for a bishop or a large institutional church of the sort Blair wanted. The stress on personal piety opened the way for the First Great Awakening, which pulled people away from the established church.[5]
Especially in the back country, most families had no religious affiliation whatsoever and their low moral standards were shocking to proper Englishmen.[6] The Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians and other evangelicals directly challenged these lax moral standards and refused to tolerate them in their ranks. The evangelicals identified as sinful the traditional standards of masculinity which revolved around gambling, drinking, and brawling, and arbitrary control over women, children, and slaves. The religious communities enforced new standards, creating a new male leadership role that followed Christian principles and became dominant in the 19th century.[7] Baptists, German Lutherans and Presbyterians, funded their own ministers, and favored disestablishment of the Anglican church.
Presbyterians[edit]
The Augusta Stone Church in Augusta County, built in 1749, is the oldest Presbyterian church building in continuous use in Virginia
The First Great Awakening impacted the area in the 1740s, leading Samuel Davies to be sent from Pennsylvania in 1747 to lead and minister to religious dissenters in Hanover County, Virginia. He eventually helped found the first presbytery in Virginia (the Presbytery of Hanover[8]), evangelized slaves (remarkable in its time,[9]), and influenced young Patrick Henry who traveled with his mother to listen to sermons.[10] The Presbyterians were evangelical dissenters, mostly Scotch-Irish Americans who expanded in Virginia between 1740 and 1758, immediately before the Baptists. Where Presbyterians dominated the parish and county, they could also exercise power through the established church's vestry, whose composition reflected their leadership and influence. For example, Presbyterians filled at least nine of the twelve positions on the first vestry of Augusta parish in Staunton, Virginia, founded in 1746.[11]
Spangler (2008) argues that Presbyterians were more energetic and held frequent services better attuned to the frontier conditions of the colony. Presbyterianism grew in frontier areas where the Anglicans had made little impress, especially the western areas of the Piedmont and the valley of Virginia. Uneducated whites and blacks were attracted to the emotional worship of the denomination, its emphasis on biblical simplicity, and its psalm singing. Presbyterians were a cross-section of society; they were involved in slaveholding and in patriarchal ways of household management, while the Presbyterian Church government featured few democratic elements.[12] Some local Presbyterian churches, such as Briery in Prince Edward County owned slaves. The Briery church purchased five slaves in 1766 and raised money for church expenses by hiring them out to local planters.[13]
Baptists[edit]
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Helped by the First Great Awakening and numerous itinerant self-proclaimed missionaries, by the 1760s Baptists were drawing Virginians, especially poor white farmers, into a new, much more democratic religion. Slaves were welcome at the services and many became Baptists at this time. Baptist services were highly emotional; the only ritual was baptism, which was applied by immersion (not sprinkling like the Anglicans) only to adults. Opposed to the low moral standards prevalent in the colony, the Baptists strictly enforced their own high standards of personal morality, with special concern for sexual misconduct, heavy drinking, frivolous spending, missing services, cursing, and revelry. Church trials were held frequently and members who did not submit to disciple were expelled.[14]
Historians have debated the implications of the religious rivalries for the American Revolution. The Baptist farmers did introduce a new egalitarian ethic that largely displaced the semi-aristocratic ethic of the Anglican planters. However, both groups supported the Revolution. There was a sharp contrast between the austerity of the plain-living Baptists and the opulence of the Anglican planters, who controlled local government. Baptist church discipline, mistaken by the gentry for radicalism, served to ameliorate disorder. As population became more dense, the county court and the Anglican Church were able to increase their authority. The Baptists protested vigorously; the resulting social disorder resulted chiefly from the ruling gentry's disregard of public need. The vitality of the religious opposition made the conflict between 'evangelical' and 'gentry' styles a bitter one.[15] The strength of the evangelical movement's organization determined its ability to mobilize power outside the conventional authority structure.[16] The struggle for religious toleration erupted and was played out during the American Revolution, as the Baptists, in alliance with Anglicans Thomas Jefferson and James Madison worked successfully to disestablish the Anglican church.[17]
Methodists[edit]
Methodist missionaries were also active in the late colonial period. From 1776 to 1815 Methodist Bishop Francis Asbury made 42 trips into the western parts to visit Methodist congregations. He preached at Benns Methodist Church, near Smithfield, Virginia in 1804. Methodists encouraged an end to slavery, and welcomed free blacks and slaves into active roles in the congregations. Like the Baptists, Methodists made conversions among slaves and free blacks, and provided more of a welcome to them than in the Anglican Church. Some blacks were selected as preachers. During the Revolutionary War, about 700 Methodist slaves sought freedom behind British lines. The British transported them and other Black Loyalists, as they were called, for resettlement to its colony of Nova Scotia. In 1791 Britain helped some of the Black Loyalists, who had encountered racism among other Loyalists, and problems with the climate and land given to them, to resettle in Sierra Leone in Africa.[18]
Following the Revolution, in the 1780s, itinerant Methodist preachers carried copies of an anti-slavery petition in their saddlebags throughout the state, calling for an end to slavery. In addition, they encouraged slaveholders to manumit their slaves. So many slaveholders did so that the proportion of free blacks in Virginia in the first two decades after the Revolutionary War increased to 7.3 percent of the population, from less than one percent.[19] At the same time, counter-petitions were circulated. The petitions were presented to the Assembly; they were debated, but no legislative action was taken, and after 1800 there was gradually reduced religious opposition to slavery as it had renewed economic importance after invention of the cotton gin.[20]
Religious freedom and disestablishment[edit]
Main article: Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
The Baptists and Presbyterians were subject to many legal constraints and faced growing persecution; between 1768 and 1774, about half of the Baptists ministers in Virginia were jailed for preaching. In 1689, the Act of Toleration had allowed freedom of worship. At the start of the Revolution, the Anglican Patriots realized that they needed dissenter support for effective wartime mobilization, so they met most of the dissenters' demands in return for their support of the war effort.[21]
After the American victory in the war, the Anglican establishment sought to reintroduce state support for religion. This effort failed when non-Anglicans gave their support to Thomas Jefferson's "Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom", which eventually became law in 1786. With freedom of religion the new watchword, the Church of England was dis-established in Virginia. During the war, 24 (20%) of the 124 Anglican ministers were active Loyalists. They generally went into exile, and Britain paid some of their financial losses.[22] When possible, worship continued in the usual fashion, but the local vestry no longer distributed tax money or had local government functions such as poor relief. The Right Reverend James Madison (1749–1812), a cousin of Patriot James Madison, was appointed in 1790 as the first Episcopal Bishop of Virginia and he slowly rebuilt the denomination within freedom of choice of belief and worship.[23]
See also[edit]
Virginia portal
History of religion in the United States
Robert Hunt (chaplain), first chaplain in the colony (1607 to 1608)
Richard Buck (chaplain), second chaplain (1610 to 1624)
Fredericksburg Baptist Church
Pohick Church, parish church of George Washington
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Edward L. Bond and Joan R. Gundersen, The Episcopal Church in Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007) ISBN 978-0-945015-28-4
Jump up ^ Philip Alexander, Bruce, Institutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century: An Inquiry into the Religious, Moral, Educational, Legal, Military, and Political Condition of the People, Based on Original and Contemporaneous Records (1910) pp. 55–177
Jump up ^ Rountree p. 161–162, 168–170, 175
Jump up ^ Jacob M. Blosser, "Irreverent Empire: Anglican Inattention in an Atlantic World," Church History, Sept 2008, Vol. 77 Issue 3, pp. 596–628
Jump up ^ Edward L. Bond, "Anglican theology and devotion in James Blair's Virginia, 1685–1743," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 1996, Vol. 104 Issue 3, pp. 313–40
Jump up ^ Charles Woodmason, The Carolina Backcountry on the Eve of the Revolution: The Journal and Other Writings of Charles Woodmason, Anglican Itinerant ed. by Richard J. Hooker (1969)
Jump up ^ Janet Moore Lindman, "Acting the Manly Christian: White Evangelical Masculinity in Revolutionary Virginia," William & Mary Quarterly, April 2000, Vol. 57 Issue 2, pp. 393–416
Jump up ^ James H. Smylie, http://pres-outlook.net/reports-a-resources3/presbyterian-heritage-articles3/846.html Retrieved September 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Presidents of Princeton from princeton.edu. Retrieved September 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Virginia http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Great_Awakening_in_Virginia_The
Jump up ^ History of Trinity Episcopal Church, Staunton, Virginia
Jump up ^ Jewel L. Spangler, Virginians Reborn: Anglican Monopoly, Evangelical Dissent, and the Rise of the Baptists in the Late Eighteenth Century (University Press of Virginia, 2008) ISBN 978-0-8139-2679-7
Jump up ^ Jennifer Oast, "'The Worst Kind of Slavery': Slave-Owning Presbyterian Churches in Prince Edward County, Virginia," Journal of Southern History, Nov 2010, Vol. 76 Issue 4, pp. 867–900
Jump up ^ Spangler, Virginians Reborn: Anglican Monopoly, Evangelical Dissent, and the Rise of the Baptists in the Late Eighteenth Century (2008)
Jump up ^ Richard R. Beeman, "Social Change and Cultural Conflict n Virginia: Lunenburg County, 1746 To 1774," William and Mary Quarterly 1978 35(3): 455–476
Jump up ^ J. Stephen Kroll-Smith, "Transmitting a Revival Culture: The Organizational Dynamic of the Baptist Movement in Colonial Virginia, 1760–1777," Journal of Southern History 1984 50(4): 551–568
Jump up ^ Rhys Isaac, "Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 To 1775," William and Mary Quarterly 1974 31(3): 345–368
Jump up ^ Cassandra Pybus, "'One Militant Saint': The Much Traveled Life of Mary Perth," Journal of Colonialism & Colonial History, Winter 2008, Vol. 9 Issue 3, p6+
Jump up ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, p. 73
Jump up ^ Richard K. MacMaster, "Liberty or Property? The Methodist Petition for Emancipation in Virginia, 1785," Methodist History, Oct 1971, Vol. 10 Issue 1, pp. 44–55
Jump up ^ John A. Ragosta, "Fighting for Freedom: Virginia Dissenters' Struggle for Religious Liberty during the American Revolution," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 2008, Vol. 116 Issue 3, pp. 226–261
Jump up ^ Otto Lohrenz, "Impassioned Virginia Loyalist and New Brunswick Pioneer: The Reverend John Agnew," Anglican and Episcopal History (2007) 76#1 pp 29+ at note 70
Jump up ^ Thomas E. Buckley, Church and State in Revolutionary Virginia, 1776–1787 (1977)
Further reading[edit]
Beeman, Richard R. "Social Change and Cultural Conflict in Virginia: Lunenburg County, 1746 To 1774," William and Mary Quarterly (1978) 35#3 pp 455–476 in JSTOR
Billings, Warren M., John E. Selby, and Thad W, Tate. Colonial Virginia: A History (1986)
Blosser, Jacob M. "Irreverent Empire: Anglican Inattention in an Atlantic World," Church History (2008) 77#3 pp. 596–628
Bond, Edward L. and Joan R. Gundersen. The Episcopal Church in Virginia, 1607–2007 (2007)
Bond, Edward L. "Anglican theology and devotion in James Blair's Virginia, 1685–1743," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (1996) 104#3 pp. 313–40
Bond, Edward L. Damned Souls in the Tobacco Colony: Religion in Seventeenth-Century Virginia (2000),
Bruce, Philip Alexander. Institutional History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century: An Inquiry into the Religious, Moral, Educational, Legal, Military, and Political Condition of the People, Based on Original and Contemporaneous Records (1910) online edition
Buckley, Thomas E. Church and State in Revolutionary Virginia, 1776–1787 (1977)
Gewehr, Wesley Marsh. The Great Awakening in Virginia, 1740-1790 (1965)
Gundersen, Joan R. The Anglican Ministry in Virginia, 1723-1766: A Study of a Social Class (Garland, 1989)
Gundersen, Joan Rezner. "The double bonds of race and sex: black and white women in a colonial Virginia parish." Journal of Southern History (1986): 351-372. in JSTOR
Irons, Charles F. Origins of Proslavery Christianity: White and Black Evangelicals in Colonial and Antebellum Virginia (2009)
Isaac, Rhys. "Evangelical Revolt: The Nature of the Baptists' Challenge to the Traditional Order in Virginia, 1765 To 1775," William and Mary Quarterly (1974) 31#3 pp 345–368 in JSTOR
Isaac, Rhys. The Transformation of Virginia, 1740–1790 (1982, 1999) Pulitzer Prize winner, dealing with religion and morality online review
Kroll-Smith, J. Stephen "Transmitting a Revival Culture: The Organizational Dynamic of the Baptist Movement in Colonial Virginia, 1760–1777," Journal of Southern History (1984) 50#4 pp 551–568 in JSTOR
Lindman, Janet Moore. "Acting the Manly Christian: White Evangelical Masculinity in Revolutionary Virginia," William & Mary Quarterly (2000) 57#2 pp. 393–416 in JSTOR
Lohrenz, Otto. "Impassioned Virginia Loyalist and New Brunswick Pioneer: The Reverend John Agnew," Anglican and Episcopal History (2007) 76#1 pp 29+
MacMaster, Richard K. "Liberty or Property? The Methodist Petition for Emancipation in Virginia, 1785," Methodist History (1971) 10#1 pp. 44–55
Nelson, John A Blessed Company: Parishes, Parsons, and Parishioners in Anglican Virginia, 1690–1776 (2001)
Payne, Rodger M. "New Light in Hanover County: Evangelical Dissent in Piedmont Virginia, 1740-1755." Journal of Southern History (1995): 665-694. in JSTOR
Ragosta, John A. Wellspring of Liberty: How Virginia's Religious Dissenters Helped to Win the American Revolution & Secured Religious Liberty (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010)
Ragosta, John Religious Freedom: Jefferson's Legacy, America's Creed (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013)
Rutman, Darrett B., and Anita H. Rutman. A Place in Time: Middlesex County, Virginia, 1650–1750 (1984), new social history
Spangler, Jewel L. Virginians Reborn: Anglican Monopoly, Evangelical Dissent, and the Rise of the Baptists in the Late Eighteenth Century (University Press of Virginia, 2008)
Wertenbaker, Thomas J. The Shaping of Colonial Virginia, comprising Patrician and Plebeian in Virginia (1910) full text online; Virginia under the Stuarts (1914) full text online; and The Planters of Colonial Virginia (1922) full text online; well written but outdated
Winner, Lauren F. A Cheerful and comfortable faith: Anglican religious practice in the elite households of eighteenth-century Virginia (Yale UP, 2010)
Primary sources[edit]
Woodmason, Charles. The Carolina Backcountry on the Eve of the Revolution: The Journal and Other Writings of Charles Woodmason, Anglican Itinerant ed. by Richard J. Hooker (1969), and important primary source
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