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Prostitution in Kolkata
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In Kolkata, prostitution is present in different forms. Prostitution may be brothel-based or non-brothel based as in the case of call girls. Prostitution is illegal in India, causing prostitutes to work underground.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prostitute population
2 History of Prostitution
3 Red-light districts
4 Street prostitution
5 Private brothels
6 Call girl
7 In popular culture
8 See also
9 References
Prostitute population[edit]
The total number of prostitutes in Kolkata is unknown. Some estimates state that there are more than 6,000 brothel-based women and girls in prostitution in Kolkata.[1][2]
The population of prostitutes in Sonagachi constitutes mainly of Nepalese, Indians and Bangladeshis.[2] Some sources estimate that are 30,000 Bangladeshi women in the brothels of Kolkata.[3]
According to some sources the most common form of trafficking consists in offering false promises or some offer of help out of a dead-end or crisis situation, force is used later after the prostitutes have already been sold. "Mashis (brothel owners/older sex workers) use friendship, sympathy, also veiled threats to convince the women that it is now in their best interest to conform and begin working." [1]
History of Prostitution[edit]
A farcical short-drama book named Beshyaleela ( বেশ্যালীলা )was printed in the middle of the year 1880 written by one nicknamed writer Agyatanama ( অজ্ঞাতনামা ). It is not very familiar or much discussed book till now. In this drama, a good description can be found about the negative attitudes shown by the then existing 19th century educated Bengali Babu class of people towards the prostitutes and the prostitution. From the first half of the 19th century, centering on Sonagachhi, a huge organised prostitution area surrounding Cornwallis Street on the east, and Chitpur on the west were formed. Although many areas in Calcutta were inhabited by those prostitutes outside those areas also. On the south it was Kalighat to Khidirpur dock areas, in the middle-Calcutta it was Kalinga-Fenwick Bazar, on the far south in Kareya area many girls from different social-classes of Hindu-Muslim-Christian communities were engaged with this profession. More than that, there was no clear 'mark' or 'boundary-line' between the 'gentleman areas' and the 'prostitutes areas'. Many areas had scattered or mixed up population of those two kinds. Rather, many areas could be termed as 'half-gentleman' areas, where normal gentleman's families and various types of prostitutes co-existed side by side. From the middle of the 19th century, the British colonial administration, Christian Missionaries, and native English-knowing educated 'Victorian' Indian gentlemen started campaign against prostitutes. This was their part of the project of social 'sanitation' process for creating the so-called 'gentle-society'. Under the leadership of Mr. Kaliprasanna Singha, the 'Vidyotsahini Sabha' ( বিদ্যোৎসাহিনী সভা ) submitted one mass-petition in the Indian Legislative Council.
Red-light districts[edit]
See also: Sonagachi
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The largest red-light district in Kolkata is Sonagachi. The area came to be known as Sona Gachi from a Sufi saint Sona Ghazi whose tomb (mazaar) is located in the locality.[4] It is an area with several hundred multi-storey brothels, and around 10,000 sex workers.[5] Sonagachi is located in North-Kolkata near the intersection of Chittaranjan Avenue Sova Bazar and Beadon Street, just north of the Marble Palace. In the year 2013, the rates of prostitution in Sonagachhi varies from ₹ 300 to ₹ 10,000 for one night enjoyment (present rate of Indian money is Rupees 65 for one American Dollar). No other red-light areas in Kolkata city has so much difference in their enjoyment rates. Previously there were many Bengali prostitutes in Sonagachi. But now-a-days Rajasthani and Khamia-Nepalese prostitutes have gained in number. There are 'Agrawalis' (prostitutes from a community near Agra city). According to class-division, the red-light areas of Kolkata are also divided into four different classes: poor-class, lower-class, middle-class, and rich-class. For example, The red-light area which once existed opposite to the diagonal angle of Khanna Cinema Hall was of 'poor-class'. When they contacted customers, they asked them "Khat-e na Chot-e" ? Which means, "Do you want to sleep in wooden cot or on jute-sheet spread over the floor?" As customers wished, the fee varied according to their choice. The lower-class and middle-class of prostitute areas were scattered around Haarkaata Gully and near Chetla/Kalighat bridge.
The areas near Elliot Road could not be exactly referred as a 'prostitute area'. Mainly Anglo-Indian citizens lived there. Prostitutes who also lived there in different houses, they used to do their business in Kothhas or Kuthhis (small empty rooms for prostitution purpose only) scattered over the area. The Bengali customers generally never visited those Kuthhis. In Sonagachhi, few houses can be seen marked with the lines, "ইহা ভদ্রলোকের বাড়ী" which means, "This is a gentleman's house". People who are not involved in any way with prostitution business and do other good jobs, and lived in their family-owned houses for many years, but who have not been able to move out of the area due to financial or other reasons, they have marked their houses as such so that they are not disturbed by customers or any other persons in any way.
There are some difference between the character of Sonagachhi and Soho of London or Pigul of France. The character of race courses and red light areas of different cities of the world are almost same. But the character of Sonagachhi is a little bit different. Prostitution in Kolkata is illegal like many other big cities of the world. Though it is flourishing right in front of the nose of the administration. And for some "legal-show business" the police sometimes conduct raids to show that they have been doing their so-called "government duties" or "law-protecting duties" in those areas. The police hide in the alley and corners of the streets of Sonagachhi in their vehicle in the nights and regularly pick up some customers and send them to the police lock-up. After paying the 'government tax' they are released. The prostitutes and pimps are never touched in those 'raids'.[citation needed]. Generally two trips of raids are conducted in the nights. The people there make joke naming those raids as 'Matinee' and 'Evening'. The 'Evening' raids are conducted at late night 1:30 or 2:00 hours.
Several non-government organizations and government organizations operate here for the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) including AIDS. Sonagachi project is a prostitute's cooperative that operates in the area and empowers sex workers to insist on condom use; a relatively low percentage of prostitutes in this district (5.17% of the 13,000 prostitutes in Sonagachi) are estimated to be HIV positive.[6] However, these efforts are hindered by human trafficking: refusal of clients to wear condom, and women controlled by third parties are forced to oblige. Kolkata has emerged as a hub for the trafficking of girls, who often arrive from Nepal, Bangladesh and Burma. From Kolkata they are often sold again to brothels in Mumbai (Bombay). Some will go on to the Middle East, Africa and Europe.[7] Many of the women in Sonnagachi were forcedly taken away from their homes; some were tricked and others sold into prostitution by their friends and families; most of them are illiterate.[8]
According to some sources, prostitutes from Sonagachi who test HIV positive are not told about the results, and live with the disease without knowing about it "because the DMSC is worried that HIV positive women will be ostracized."[9] Some prostitutes in Sonagachi have stated that "the clients, at least three quarters of them" refuse to use condoms and "If we force them to use the condom, they will just go next door. There are so many women working here, and in the end, everyone is prepared to work without protection for fear of losing trade."[9]
In south Kolkata, there is a red light district in the neighbourhood of Kalighat. Though the location of this red light district is much too far-off from the sacred site of the famous Kali Temple but according to civic maps of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation it falls under the area of Kalighat.
Kidderpore is an area in the south of Kolkata. There is a small red-light district on Mushigunj Road, near The Statesman's printing press.
In Bowbazar, opposite the Calcutta Medical College and Hospital, there is a small Shiva temple. The address is Premchand Boral Street. The small street left of this is another, small red-light district.
Baruipur is a small locality in the southern fringe of Kolkata. There is a small red-light district. The next station south of Baruipur, there is a railway station named Shashan on Namkhana line. There is a red-light area near the bazaar or local market. There is also a red light area near Rambagan. Near the bazaar in Behala Chowrasta, there was a red-light area, which was later stopped functioning, probably due to social pressure and lucrative residential/commercial complex promoting business. Also there was a red light area near the Khanna Cinema hall, north or Sealdah station, which was also stopped probably for the same reason. A few stations away from Sealdah station, there is a red light area in Naihati railway station near the river banks. South Kolkata Garia More used to be an area. Right now it shifted little bit inside.
Even in Durgapur which is nearby Asansol and 170 km away from Kolkata there is also a small red light area named Kadaroad near to main gate DSP.
Street prostitution[edit]
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Street prostitutes work in Esplanade Crossing, opposite of cinema ‘Metro’ and in the street between Elite Cinema Hall and Regal Cinema Hall, Jagat Cinema near Sealdah station and under Sealdah flyover, and another place is Ultadanga flyover and railway foot over bridge, kalighat, and Garia.[citation needed] Also a very small level high class escort service operates here, mostly college student or housewives or executives.Generally they use hotels booked by client or the flat of their pimp.
Private brothels[edit]
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There are numerous private brothels and they are everywhere, but impossible to find without a guide[citation needed]. In the Maidan area, in front of Victoria Memorial main gate, some hookers move during evening in search of clients.[citation needed]
One interesting point to highlight is that the police is aware of these prostitutes roaming in the streets of Kolkata, but it often happens that they intentionally harass the man with the prostitute for money, without any protocol on how to follow in these situation for the well-being of the exploited person.[citation needed]
Call girl[edit]
Call girls operate independently and through pimps or escort agencies. Prostitution is operated from many beauty parlours and massage parlors in the city.[10][11] Pimps (commonly called agents) in nightclubs, pubs, star hotels and floorboys acting as agents generally keep catalogue with pictures of the call girls.[11] The girls operate in places like flats, hotels. etc.[12] Generally the call girls go to the rooms in star hotels. However, when the client cannot provide a place of convenience, the agents provide one and the place is generally decided on before.[11]
Call girls in Kolkata come from middle class, upper middle class and upper-class family. They may be executives, housewives, college student or actress.[11][12]
The Kolkata Police have connections with many call girls working as their informers. Many criminals like to spend time with the girls. Hence some call girls are used by the police to get information about suspected criminals.[13]
Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee (DMSC), which runs the Sonagachi project and several similar projects in West Bengal, lobbies for the recognition of sex workers' rights and full legalization.[14] DMSC hosted India's first national convention of sex workers on November 14, 1997, in Kolkata, entitled 'Sex Work is Real Work: We Demand Workers Rights'.[15]
In popular culture[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2015)
Born into Brothels, a 2004 American documentary film about the children of prostitutes in Sonagachi, won the Academy Award for Documentary Feature in 2004.[16]
[17]
See also[edit]
Prostitution in India
All Bengal Women's Union
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b [1] Archived 19 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Plight of prostitutes in Kolkata. Merinews.com. Retrieved on 2011-10-23.
Jump up ^ Shahidullah, Shahid M. (2017). Crime, Criminal Justice, and the Evolving Science of Criminology in South Asia: India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Springer. p. 230. ISBN 9781137507501.
Jump up ^ "Prostitutes and AIDS in India". Alicia Patterson Foundation. Archived from the original on 15 October 2007.
Jump up ^ Girl-trafficking hampers Aids fight BBC news. 30 November 2004
Jump up ^ In Sonagachi, keeping HIV away a daily battle. Indian Express (2009-12-02). Retrieved on 2011-10-23.
Jump up ^ Grant, Matthew (2004-11-30). "Girl-trafficking hampers Aids fight". BBC News.
Jump up ^ Prostitutes Calcutta Sex Slaves. Across.co.nz (2005-11-07). Retrieved on 2011-10-23.
^ Jump up to: a b Welcome to Sonagachi – Calcutta's largest brothel area is thriving. Tom Vater (2004-05-12). Retrieved on 2011-10-23.
Jump up ^ Kolkata cop's wife in prostitution racket Rediff.com
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mitra, Nabamita; Chatterjee, Chandreyee; Chattopadhyaya, Sanjoy (2007-04-01). "New girls on the block". The Telegraph. Calcutta, India. The Telegraph – April 1, 2007
^ Jump up to: a b "Hidden sex trade -callgirls of kolkatta". United States National Library of Medicine Gateway. Archived from the original on 29 April 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
Jump up ^ Call girl aide to catch criminals- 230 escorts brought into the detective department fold The Telegraph – May 12, 2006
Jump up ^ durbar.org, homepage of the Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee
Jump up ^ Sex work is real work: We demand workers rights Archived 12 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine., announcement of the 1997 sex worker convention
Jump up ^ "NY Times: Born into Brothels". NY Times. Retrieved 2008-11-23.
Jump up ^ Arora, Anupa. "Independent Escorts service provider in Kolkata". Bengali Girls. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
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Anterior pituitary
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Anterior pituitary gland
Median sagittal through the hypophysis of an adult monkey. Semidiagrammatic.
Details
Precursor
oral mucosa (Rathke's pouch)
Artery
superior hypophyseal
Vein
hypophyseal
Identifiers
Latin
lobus anterior hypophysis
MeSH
D010903
NeuroNames
407
NeuroLex ID
birnlex_1581
TA
A11.1.00.002
FMA
74627
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
A major organ of the endocrine system, the anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior), is the glandular, anterior lobe that together with the posterior lobe (posterior pituitary, or the neurohypophysis) makes up the pituitary gland (hypophysis). The anterior pituitary regulates several physiological processes including stress, growth, reproduction and lactation. Proper functioning of the anterior pituitary and of the organs it regulates can often be ascertained via blood tests that measure hormone levels.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Development
2 Function
2.1 Role in the endocrine system
2.2 Effects of the anterior pituitary
2.3 Behavioral effects
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Increased activity
3.2 Decreased activity
4 History
4.1 Etymology
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Structure[edit]
The anterior pituitary complex
The pituitary gland is a pea-sized gland that sits in a protective bony enclosure called the sella turcica (Turkish chair/saddle). It is composed of three lobes: the anterior, intermediate, and posterior lobes. In many animals, these lobes are distinct. However, in humans, the intermediate lobe is but a few cell layers thick and indistinct; as a result, it is often considered as part of the anterior pituitary. In all animals, the fleshy, glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the neural composition of the posterior pituitary.
The anterior pituitary is composed of three regions:
Pars distalis
Microanatomy of the pars distalis showing chromophobes, basophils and acidophils
The pars distalis, (distal part), comprises the majority of the anterior pituitary and is where the bulk of pituitary hormone production occurs. The pars distalis contains two types of cells including chromophobe cells and chromophil cells.[1] The chromophils can be further divided into acidophils (alpha cells) and basophils (beta cells).[1] These cells all together produce hormones of the anterior pituitary, and release them into the blood stream.
Nota bene: The term "Basophil" and "Acidophil" is used by some books, whereas others prefer to not use these terms. This is due to the possible confusion with white blood cells, where one may also find Basophils and Acidophils.
Pars tuberalis
The pars tuberalis, (tubular part), forms a part of the sheath extending up from the pars distalis which joins with the pituitary stalk (also known as the infundibular stalk or infundibulum), arising from the posterior lobe. (The pituitary stalk connects the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary). The function of the pars tuberalis is poorly understood. However it has been seen to be important in receiving the endocrine signal in the form of TSHB (a β subunit of TSH) informing the pars tuberalis of the photoperiod (length of day). The expression of this subunit is regulated by the secretion of melatonin in response to light information transmitted to the pineal gland.[2][3] Earlier studies have shown a localisation of melatonin receptors in this region.[4]
Pars intermedia
The pars intermedia, (intermediate part), sits between the pars distalis and the posterior pituitary, forming the boundary between the anterior and posterior pituitaries. It is very small and indistinct in humans.
Development[edit]
The anterior pituitary is derived from the ectoderm, more specifically from that of Rathke’s pouch, part of the developing hard palate in the embryo.
The pouch eventually loses its connection with the pharynx, giving rise to the anterior pituitary. The anterior wall of Rathke's pouch proliferates, filling most of the pouch to form the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis. The posterior wall of the anterior pituitary forms the pars intermedia. Its formation from the soft tissues of the upper palate contrasts with the posterior pituitary, which originates from neuroectoderm.[5]
Function[edit]
The anterior pituitary contains five types of endocrine cell, and they are defined by the hormones they secrete: somatotropes (GH); Lactotropes (PRL); gonadotropes (LH and FSH); corticotropes (ACTH) and thyrotropes (TSH).[6] It also contains non-endocrine folliculostellate cells which are thought to stimulate and support the endocrine cell populations.
Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are trophic hormones (Greek: trophe, “nourishment”) and tropic hormones. Trophic hormones directly affect growth either as hyperplasia or hypertrophy on the tissue it is stimulating. Tropic hormones are named for their ability to act directly on target tissues or other endocrine glands to release hormones, causing numerous cascading physiological responses.[5]
Hormone
Other names
Symbol(s)
Structure
Secretory cells
Staining
Target
Effect
Adrenocorticotropic hormone Corticotropin ACTH Polypeptide Corticotrophs Basophil Adrenal gland Secretion of glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid and androgens
Thyroid-stimulating hormone Thyrotropin TSH Glycoprotein Thyrotrophs Basophil Thyroid gland Secretion of thyroid hormones
Follicle-stimulating hormone - FSH Glycoprotein Gonadotrophs Basophil Gonads Growth of reproductive system
Luteinizing hormone Lutropin LH, ICSH Glycoprotein Gonadotrophs Basophil Gonads Sex hormone production
Growth hormone Somatotropin GH, STH Polypeptide Somatotrophs Acidophil Liver, adipose tissue Promotes growth; lipid and carbohydrate metabolism
Prolactin Lactotropin PRL Polypeptide Lactotrophs Acidophil Ovaries, mammary glands Secretion of estrogens/progesterone; milk production TSH and ACTH secretion
[7][8]
Role in the endocrine system[edit]
Main article: Hypothalamus
Hypothalamic control
Hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary gland is regulated by hormones secreted by the hypothalamus. Neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus project axons to the median eminence, at the base of the brain. At this site, these cells can release substances into small blood vessels that travel directly to the anterior pituitary gland (the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal vessels).
Other Control Mechanisms
Aside from hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary, other systems in the body have been shown to regulate the anterior pituitary’s function. GABA can either stimulate or inhibit the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and growth hormone (GH) and can stimulate the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Prostaglandins are now known to inhibit adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and also to stimulate TSH, GH and LH release.[9] GABA, through action with the hypothalamus, has been shown experimentally to influence the level of GH secretion. Clinical evidence supports the experimental findings of the excitatory and inhibitory effects GABA has on GH secretion, dependent on GABA’s site of action within the hypothalamic-pituitary unit.[10]
Effects of the anterior pituitary[edit]
Thermal homeostasis
The homeostatic maintenance of the anterior pituitary is crucial to our physiological well being. Increased plasma levels of TSH induce hyperthermia through a mechanism involving increased metabolism and cutaneous vasodilation. Increased levels of LH also result in hypothermia but through a decreased metabolism action. ACTH increase metabolism and induce cutaneous vasoconstriction, increased plasma levels also result in hyperthermia and prolactin decreases with decreasing temperature values. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) also may cause hypothermia if increased beyond homeostatic levels through an increased metabolic mechanism only.[11]
Gonadal function
Gonadotropes, primarily luteinising hormone (LH) secreted from the anterior pituitary stimulates the ovulation cycle in female mammals, whilst in the males, LH stimulates the synthesis of androgen which drives the ongoing will to mate together with a constant production of sperm.[5]
HPA axis
Main article Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
The anterior pituitary plays a role in stress response. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates ACTH release in a cascading effect that ends with the production of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.[5]
Behavioral effects[edit]
Development
The release of GH, LH, and FSH are required for correct human development, including gonadal development.[12]
Breast-feeding
Release of the hormone prolactin is essential for lactation.[12]
Stress
Operating through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), the anterior pituitary gland has a large role in the neuroendocrine system’s stress response. Stress induces a release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin from the hypothalamus, which activates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary gland. Then, this acts on the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids such as cortisol. These glucocorticoids act back on the anterior pituitary gland and the hypothalamus with negative feedback to slow the production of CRH and ACTH.[13][14] Increased cortisol under stress conditions can cause the following: metabolic effects (mobilization of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids), bone re-absorption (calcium mobilization), activation of the sympathetic nervous system response (fight or flight), anti-inflammatory effects, and inhibition of reproduction/growth.[12] When the anterior pituitary gland is removed (hypophysectomy) in rats, their avoidance learning mechanisms were slowed down, but injections of ACTH restored their performance.[12] In addition, stress may delay the release of reproductive hormones such as luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).[15] This shows that the anterior pituitary gland is involved in behavioral functions as well as being part of a larger pathway for stress responses. It is also known that (HPA) hormones are related to certain skin diseases and skin homeostasis. There is evidence linking hyperactivity of HPA hormones to stress-related skin diseases and skin tumors.[16]
Aging
Operating through the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, the anterior pituitary gland also affects the reproductive system. The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone. Then the gonads produce estrogen and testosterone. The decrease in release of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) caused by normal aging may be responsible for impotence[12][15] and frailty[17] in elderly men because of the eventual decrease in production of testosterone. This lower level of testosterone can have other effects, such as reduced libido, well-being and mood, muscle and bone strength, and metabolism.[15]
Tactile responding
It has been shown that infant mice who were stroked with a paintbrush (simulating motherly care) had more release and binding of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary gland.[12]
Circadian rhythms
Light information received by the eyes is transmitted to the pineal gland via the circadian pacemaker (the suprachiasmatic nucleus). Diminishing light stimulates the release of melatonin from the pineal gland which can also affect the secretion levels in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.[12] Melatonin can lower levels of LH and FSH, which will decrease levels of estrogen and testosterone. In addition, melatonin may affect production of prolactin.[18]
Clinical significance[edit]
Increased activity[edit]
Main article: Hyperpituitarism
Hyperpituitarism is the condition where the pituitary secretes excessive amounts of hormones. This hypersecretion often results in the formation of a pituitary adenoma (tumour), which are benign apart from a tiny fraction. There are mainly three types of anterior pituitary tumors and their associated disorders. For example, acromegaly results from excessive secretion of growth hormone (GH) often being released by a pituitary adenoma. This disorder can cause disfigurement and possibly death[19] and can lead to gigantism, a hormone disorder shown in “giants” such as André the Giant, where it occurs before the epiphyseal plates in bones close in puberty.[12] The most common type of pituitary tumour is a prolactinoma which hypersecretes prolactin.[20] A third type of pituitary adenoma secretes excess ACTH, which in turn, causes an excess of cortisol to be secreted and is the cause of Cushing's disease.[12]
Decreased activity[edit]
Main article: Hypopituitarism
Hypopituitarism is characterized by a decreased secretion of hormones released by the anterior pituitary. For example, hypo-secretion of GH prior to puberty can be a cause of dwarfism. In addition, secondary adrenal insufficiency can be caused by hypo-secretion of ACTH which, in turn, does not signal the adrenal cortex to produce a sufficient amount of cortisol. This is a life-threatening condition. Hypopituitarism could be caused by the destruction or removal of the anterior pituitary tissue through traumatic brain injury, tumor, tuberculosis, or syphilis, among other causes. This disorder used to be referred to as Simmonds' disease but now according to the Diseases Database it is called Sheehan syndrome.[21] If the hypopituitarism is caused by the blood loss associated with childbirth, the disorder is referred to as Sheehan syndrome.
History[edit]
Etymology[edit]
The anterior pituitary is also known as the adenohypophysis, meaning "glandular undergrowth", from the Greek adeno- ("gland"), hypo ("under"), and physis ("growth").
Additional images[edit]
The anterior pituitary is the anterior, glandular lobe of the pituitary gland.
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Tropic hormones
Pituitary adenoma
Triple bolus test
Posterior pituitary
Hypopituitarism
Hypothalamic–pituitary–somatic axis
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Eroschenko, Victor P.; Fiore, Mariano S. H. di (2013-01-01). DiFiore's Atlas of Histology with Functional Correlations. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9781451113419.
Jump up ^ Ikegami K, Iigo M and Yoshimura T. Circadian clock gene Per2 is not necessary for the photoperiodic response in mice. PLoS One 2013;8(3).PMID 23505514
Jump up ^ Dardente H. Melatonin-dependent timing of seasonal reproduction by the pars tuberalis: pivotal roles for long daylengths and thyroid hormones.J.Neuroendocrinol.2012.Feb;24(2)
Jump up ^ Morgan PJ and Williams LM.The pars tuberalis of the pituitary: a gateway for neuroendocrine output. RevReprod 1996 Sep;1(3) PMID 9414453
^ Jump up to: a b c d Nelson, R. J. (2011) An Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology, 4th Edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.ISBN 978-0878936205
Jump up ^ Le Tissier, P.R; Hodson, D.J; Lafont C; Fontanaud P; Schaeffer, M; Mollard, P. (2012) Anterior pituitary cell networks. Front Neuroendocrinol. Aug; 33(3):252-66
Jump up ^ Malendowicz, L.K; Rucinski, M; Belloni, A.S; Ziolkowska, A; and Nussdorfer, G.C. (2007) Leptin and the regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Int Rev Cytol. 263: 63-102.
Jump up ^ Sone, M. and Osamura, R.Y. (2001) Leptin and the pituitary. Pituitary. Jan-Apr; 4(1-2): 15-23.
Jump up ^ Hedge, G.A. (1977) Roles for the prostaglandins in the regulation of anterior pituitary secretion. Life Sci. Jan 1;20(1):17-33.
Jump up ^ Racagni, G; Apud, J.A; Cocchi, D; Locatelli, V; Muller, E.E. (1982) GABAergic control of anterior pituitary hormone secretion. Life Sci. Aug 30;31(9):823-38.
Jump up ^ Lin, M.T; Ho, L.T; and Uang, W.N. (1983) Effects of anterior pituitary hormones and their releasing hormones physiological and behavioral functions in rats. J. steroid Biochem. Vol. 19(1) 433-38.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Nelson, Randy J. (2011). An introduction to behavioral endocrinology (4th ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0878936205.
Jump up ^ Aguilera, Greti (1998-10-01). "Corticotropin Releasing Hormone, Receptor Regulation and the Stress Response". Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism. 9 (8): 329–336. doi:10.1016/S1043-2760(98)00079-4. ISSN 1043-2760. Retrieved 2013-10-27.
Jump up ^ Aguilera, Greti (December 1994). "Regulation of Pituitary ACTH Secretion during Chronic Stress". Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 15 (4): 321–350. doi:10.1006/frne.1994.1013. ISSN 0091-3022. Retrieved 2013-10-27.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dobson, H; R F Smith (2000-07-02). "What is stress, and how does it affect reproduction?". Animal Reproduction Science. 60-61: 743–752. doi:10.1016/s0378-4320(00)00080-4. ISSN 0378-4320.
Jump up ^ Jung Eun Kim; Baik Kee Cho; Dae Ho Cho; Hyun Jeong Park (2013). "Expression of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis in Common Skin Diseases: Evidence of its Association with Stress-related Disease Activity". National Research Foundation of Korea. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Tajar, Abdelouahid; O'Connell, Matthew D L; Mitnitski, Arnold B; O'Neill, Terence W; Searle, Samuel D; Huhtaniemi, Ilpo T; Finn, Joseph D; Bartfai, György; Boonen, Steven; Casanueva, Felipe F; Forti, Gianni; Giwercman, Aleksander; Han, Thang S; Kula, Krzysztof; Labrie, Fernand; Lean, Michael E J; Pendleton, Neil; Punab, Margus; Silman, Alan J; Vanderschueren, Dirk; Rockwood, Kenneth; Wu, Frederick C W; European Male Aging Study Group (May 2011). "Frailty in relation to variations in hormone levels of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis in older men: results from the European male aging study". Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 59 (5): 814–821. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03398.x. ISSN 1532-5415.
Jump up ^ Juszczak, Marlena; Monika Michalska (2006). "[The effect of melatonin on prolactin, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) synthesis and secretion]". Postępy higieny i medycyny doświadczalnej. 60: 431–438. ISSN 1732-2693.
Jump up ^ Scacchi, Massimo; Francesco Cavagnini (2006). "Acromegaly". Pituitary. 9 (4): 297–303. doi:10.1007/s11102-006-0409-4. ISSN 1573-7403.
Jump up ^ Ciccarelli, E; F Camanni (June 1996). "Diagnosis and drug therapy of prolactinoma". Drugs. 51 (6): 954–965. doi:10.2165/00003495-199651060-00004. ISSN 0012-6667.
Jump up ^ Summers, V. K. (September 1947). "Diagnosis and Treatment of Simmonds' Disease". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 23 (263): 441–443. doi:10.1136/pgmj.23.263.441. ISSN 0032-5473. PMC 2529616  . PMID 20258051.
Further reading[edit]
Marieb, E. 2004. Human Anatomy and Physiology. Benjamin Cummings: New York.
Wheater, P., Burkitt, H., Daniels, V. 1987. Functional Histology. Churchill Livingstone: New York.
External links[edit]
Histology image: 14002loa – Histology Learning System at Boston University
Embryology at unc.edu
The Pituitary Network Association -- www.pituitary.org
Secretion of hormones from the Anterior Pituitary Gland
[hide]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the endocrine system
Pituitary gland
Anterior
Pars intermedia
Pars tuberalis
Pars distalis
Acidophil cell
Somatotropic cell
Prolactin cell
Somatomammotrophic cell
Basophil cell
Corticotropic cell
Gonadotropic cell
Thyrotropic cell
Chromophobe cell
Posterior
Pars nervosa
Median eminence
Stalk
Pituicyte
Herring bodies
Thyroid
Follicular cell
Parafollicular cell
Parathyroid gland
Chief cell
Oxyphil cell
Adrenal gland
Cortex
Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis
Medulla
Chromaffin cell
Gonads
Testicle
Leydig cell
Sertoli cell
Ovary
Theca interna
Granulosa cell
Corpus luteum
Islets of pancreas
Alpha cell
Beta cell
PP cell
Delta cell
Epsilon cell
Pineal gland
Pinealocyte
Corpora arenacea
Other
Enteroendocrine cell
Paraganglia
Organ of Zuckerkandl
Placenta
Development
List of human endocrine organs and actions
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Immunoassay
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Immunoassay
Illustration of the basic components of an immunoassay, which includes an analyte (green), an antibody (black), and a detectable label (yellow).
MeSH
D007118
[edit on Wikidata]
An immunoassay is a biochemical test that measures the presence or concentration of a macromolecule or a small molecule in a solution through the use of an antibody (usually) or an antigen (sometimes). The molecule detected by the immunoassay is often referred to as an "analyte" and is in many cases a protein, although it may be other kinds of molecules, of different size and types, as long as the proper antibodies that have the adequate properties for the assay are developed. Analytes in biological liquids such as serum or urine are frequently measured using immunoassays for medical and research purposes.[1]
Immunoassays come in many different formats and variations. Immunoassays may be run in multiple steps with reagents being added and washed away or separated at different points in the assay. Multi-step assays are often called separation immunoassays or heterogeneous immunoassays. Some immunoassays can be carried out simply by mixing the reagents and sample and making a physical measurement. Such assays are called homogenous immunoassays or less frequently non-separation immunoassays.
The use of a calibrator is often employed in immunoassays. Calibrators are solutions that are known to contain the analyte in question, and the concentration of that analyte is generally known. Comparison of an assay's response to a real sample against the assay's response produced by the calibrators makes it possible to interpret the signal strength in terms of the presence or concentration of analyte in the sample.
Contents
[hide]
1 Principle
2 History
3 Labels
3.1 Enzymes
3.2 Radioactive isotopes
3.3 DNA reporters
3.4 Fluorogenic reporters
3.5 Electrochemiluminescent tags
3.6 Label-free immunoassays
4 Classifications and formats
4.1 Competitive, homogeneous immunoassays
4.2 Competitive, heterogeneous immunoassays
4.3 One-site, noncompetitive immunoassays
4.4 Two-site, noncompetitive immunoassays
5 Examples
5.1 Clinical tests
5.2 Sports anti-doping analysis
6 Research
6.1 Photoacoustic Immunoassay
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Principle[edit]
Immunoassays rely on the ability of an antibody to recognize and bind a specific macromolecule in what might be a complex mixture of macromolecules. In immunology the particular macromolecule bound by an antibody is referred to as an antigen and the area on an antigen to which the antibody binds is called an epitope.
In some cases, an immunoassay may use an antigen to detect for the presence of antibodies, which recognize that antigen, in a solution. In other words, in some immunoassays, the analyte may be an antibody rather than an antigen.
In addition to the binding of an antibody to its antigen, the other key feature of all immunoassays is a means to produce a measurable signal in response to the binding. Most, though not all, immunoassays involve chemically linking antibodies or antigens with some kind of detectable label. A large number of labels exist in modern immunoassays, and they allow for detection through different means. Many labels are detectable because they either emit radiation, produce a color change in a solution, fluoresce under light, or can be induced to emit light.
History[edit]
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow and Solomon Berson are credited with the development of the first immunoassays in the 1950s. Yalow accepted the Nobel Prize for her work in immunoassays in 1977, becoming the second American woman to have won the award.[2]
Immunoassays became considerably simpler to perform and more popular when techniques for chemically linked enzymes to antibodies were demonstrated in the late 1960s.[3]
In 1983, Professor Anthony Campbell[4] at Cardiff University replaced radioactive iodine used in immunoassay with an acridinium ester that makes its own light: chemiluminescence. This type of immunoassay is now used in around 100 million clinical tests every year worldwide, enabling clinicians to measure a wide range of proteins, pathogens and other molecules in blood samples.[5]
By 2012, the commercial immunoassay industry earned US$17,000,000,000 and was thought to have prospects of slow annual growth in the 2 to 3 percent range.[6]
Labels[edit]
Immunoassays employ a variety of different labels to allow for detection of antibodies and antigens. Labels are typically chemically linked or conjugated to the desired antibody or antigen.
A sandwich ELISA run on a microtitre plate.
Enzymes[edit]
Possibly one of the most popular labels to use in immunoassays is enzymes. Immunoassays which employ enzymes are referred to as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), or sometimes enzyme immunoassays (EIAs).
Enzymes used in ELISAs include horseradish peroxidase (HRP), alkaline phosphatase (AP) or glucose oxidase. These enzymes allow for detection often because they produce an observable color change in the presence of certain reagents. In some cases these enzymes are exposed to reagents which cause them to produce light or Chemiluminescence.
Radioactive isotopes[edit]
Radioactive isotopes can be incorporated into immunoassay reagents to produce a radioimmunoassay (RIA). Radioactivity emitted by bound antibody-antigen complexes can be easily detected using conventional methods.
RIAs were some of the earliest immunoassays developed, but have fallen out of favor largely due to the difficulty and potential dangers presented by working with radioactivity.[7][8]
DNA reporters[edit]
A newer approach to immunoassays involves combining real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT qPCR) and traditional immunoassay techniques. Called real-time immunoquantitative PCR (iqPCR) the label used in these assays is a DNA probe.[9][10]
Fluorogenic reporters[edit]
Fluorogenic reporters like phycoerythrin are used in a number of modern immunoassays.[11] Protein microarrays are a type of immunoassay that often employ fluorogenic reporters.[12]
Electrochemiluminescent tags[edit]
Some labels work via electrochemiluminescence, in which the label emits detectable light in response to electric current.[13]
Label-free immunoassays[edit]
While some kind of label is generally employed in immunoassays, there are certain kinds of assays which do not rely on labels, but instead employ detection methods that don't require the modification or labeling the components of the assay. Surface plasmon resonance is an example of technique that can detect binding between an unlabeled antibody and antigens.[14] Another demonstrated labeless immunoassay involves measuring the change in resistance on an electrode as antigens bind to it.[15]
Classifications and formats[edit]
In a competitive, homogeneous immunoassay unlabeled analyte displaces bound labelled analyte, which is then detected or measured.
Immunoassays can be run in a number of different formats. Generally, an immunoassay will fall into one of several categories depending on how it is run.[16]
Competitive, homogeneous immunoassays[edit]
In a competitive, homogeneous immunoassay, unlabelled analyte in a sample competes with labelled analyte to bind an antibody. The amount of labelled, unbound analyte is then measured. In theory, the more analyte in the sample, the more labelled analyte gets displaced and then measured; hence, the amount of labelled, unbound analyte is proportional to the amount of analyte in the sample.
Two-site, noncompetitive immunoassays usually consist of an analyte "sandwiched" between two antibodies. ELISAs are often run in this format
Competitive, heterogeneous immunoassays[edit]
As in a competitive, homogenous immunoassay, unlabelled analyte in a sample competes with labelled analyte to bind an antibody. In the heterogeneous assays, the labelled, unbound analyte is separated or washed away, and the remaining labelled, bound analyte is measured.
One-site, noncompetitive immunoassays[edit]
The unknown analyte in the sample binds with labelled antibodies. The unbound, labelled antibodies are washed away, and the bound, labelled antibodies are measured. The intensity of the signal is directly proportional to the amount of unknown analyte.
Two-site, noncompetitive immunoassays[edit]
The analyte in the unknown sample is bound to the antibody site, then the labelled antibody is bound to the analyte. The amount of labelled antibody on the site is then measured. It will be directly proportional to the concentration of the analyte because the labelled antibody will not bind if the analyte is not present in the unknown sample. This type of immunoassay is also known as a sandwich assay as the analyte is "sandwiched" between two antibodies.
Examples[edit]
Clinical tests[edit]
A wide range of medical tests are immunoassays, called immunodiagnostics in this context. Many home pregnancy tests are immunoassays, which detect the pregnancy marker human chorionic gonadotropin.[17][18] Other clinical immunoassays include tests that measure levels of CK-MB to assess heart disease, insulin to assess hypoglycemia, prostate-specific antigen to detect prostate cancer, and some are also used for the detection and/or quantitative measurement of some pharmaceutical compounds (see Enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique for more details).[19]
Sports anti-doping analysis[edit]
Immunoassays are used in sports anti-doping laboratories to test athletes' blood samples for prohibited recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH, rGH, hGH, GH). [20]
Research[edit]
Photoacoustic Immunoassay[edit]
The photoacoustic immunoassay measures low-frequency acoustic signals generated by metal nanoparticle tags. Illuminated by a modulated light at a plasmon resonance wavelength, the nanoparticles generate strong acoustic signal, which can be measured using a microphone.[21] The photoacoustic immunoassay can be applied to lateral flow tests, which use colloidal nanoparticles.[22]
See also[edit]
ELISA
MELISA
CEDIA
Immunoscreening
Lateral flow test
Magnetic immunoassay
Radioimmunoassay
Surround Optical Fiber Immunoassay (SOFIA)
CD/DVD based immunoassay
Agglutination-PCR
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Yetisen A. K. (2013). "Paper-based microfluidic point-of-care diagnostic devices". Lab on a Chip. 13 (12): 2210–2251. doi:10.1039/C3LC50169H.
Jump up ^ Rall JE. Solomon A. Berson. In "Biographical Memoirs". National Academy of Sciences 1990;59:54-71. ISBN 0-309-04198-8. Fulltext.
Jump up ^ Lequin R (2005). "Enzyme immunoassay (EIA)/enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)". Clin. Chem. 51 (12): 2415–8. PMID 16179424. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2005.051532.
Jump up ^ Prof Anthony Campbell - MA PhD, Cardiff University, retrieved 29 December 2012
Jump up ^ "NPS Focus", Rainbow makers, Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC), 2003, retrieved 29 December 2012
Jump up ^ Carlson, Bruce (15 February 2014). "Seizing Immunoassay Opportunities". Gen. Eng. Biotechnol. News. 34 (4). pp. 12–13.
Jump up ^ Susan J. Landers (3 April 2006). "ELISA test marks 35 years of answering medical questions". American Medical News. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Rosalyn Sussman Yalow". America.gov. April 27, 2008. Retrieved June 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ Rajkovic; El-Moualij (2006). "Immunoquantitative real-time PCR for detection and quantification of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B in foods.". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 72 (10): 6593–9. PMC 1610299  . PMID 17021210. doi:10.1128/AEM.03068-05.
Jump up ^ Gofflot; El (2004). "Immuno-quantitative polymerase chain reaction for detection and quantitation of prion protein.". Journal of Immunoassay and Immunochemistry. 25 (3): 241–58. PMID 15461386. doi:10.1081/ias-200028044.
Jump up ^ "Luminex xMAP Technology". Millipore Corporation. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Chatterjee; Sitaraman (2008). "Protein microarray on-demand: a novel protein microarray system.". PLOS ONE. 3: e3265. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.3265C. PMC 2533396  . PMID 18813342. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003265.
Jump up ^ Forster RJ, Bertoncello P, Keyes TE (2009). "Electrogenerated Chemiluminescence". Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry. 2: 359–85. Bibcode:2009ARAC....2..359F. PMID 20636067. doi:10.1146/annurev-anchem-060908-155305.
Jump up ^ J. B. González-Díaz; et al. (2008). "Plasmonic Au/Co/Au nanosandwiches with Enhanced Magneto-Optical Activity". Small. 4 (2): 202–5. PMID 18196506. doi:10.1002/smll.200700594.
Jump up ^ Georgios Tsekenis (2008). "Label-free immunosensor assay for myelin basic protein based upon an ac impedance protocol.". Analytical Chemistry. 80 (6): 2058–62. doi:10.1021/ac702070e.
Jump up ^ Goldys, Ewa. Fluorescence Applications in Biotechnology and Life Sciences. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 311. ISBN 0470083700. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "ELISA for Home Pregnancy Test". Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Butler, SA (2001). "Detection of early pregnancy forms of human chorionic gonadotropin by home pregnancy test devices.". Clinical Chemistry. 47 (12): 2131–6. PMID 11719477.
Jump up ^ Twyman, SA (2001). "Immunoassays, applications: Clinica" (PDF). Encyclopedia of Analytical Science. 4: 317–324. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Tsivou M; Kioukia-Fougia N; Lyris E; Aggelis Y; Fragkaki A; Kiousi X; Simitsek Ph; Dimopoulou H; Leontiou I-P; Stamou M; Spyridaki M-H; Georgakopoulos C (2006). "An overview of the doping control analysis during the Olympic Games of 2004 in Athens, Greece.". Analytica Chimica Acta. 555: 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2005.08.068.
Jump up ^ Zhao Y, Cao M, McClelland JF, Lu M (2016). "A photoacoustic immunoassay for biomarker detection". Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 85: 261–66. PMID 27183276. doi:10.1016/j.bios.2016.05.028.
Jump up ^ Zhao Y, Huang Y, Zhao X, McClelland JF, Lu M (2016). "Nanoparticle-based photoacoustic analysis for highly sensitive lateral flow assays". Nanoscale. 8: 19204–19210. PMID 27834971. doi:10.1039/C6NR05312B.
External links[edit]
"The Immunoassay Handbook", 3rd Edition, David Wild, Ed., Elsevier,2008
Learning Guides from Abbott Laboratories on Immunoassay (English): Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 Appendix
Immunoassay at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Automation of Immunoassays
Chapter 5 and 6 in the book "Bioanalytical Chemistry" by Susan R. Mikkelsen
[hide]
v
t
e
Medical tests: Immunologic techniques and tests (CPT 86000–86849)
Immunologic techniques
and tests

serology/
diagnostic immunology
Immunoprecipitation
Chromatin immunoprecipitation
Immunodiffusion
Ouchterlony double immunodiffusion
Radial immunodiffusion
Immunoelectrophoresis
Counterimmunoelectrophoresis
Immunoassay
ELISA
ELISPOT
Enzyme Multiplied Immunoassay Technique
RAST test
Radioimmunoassay
Radiobinding assay
Immunofluorescence
Agglutination
Hemagglutination/Hemagglutinin
Coombs test
Latex fixation test
Other
Nephelometry
Complement fixation test
Immunocytochemistry
Immunohistochemistry
Direct fluorescent antibody
Epitope mapping
Skin allergy test
Patch test
Inflammation
C-reactive protein
Procalcitonin
Total complement activity
MELISA
CBC
lymphocyte count
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values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: مقايسة مناعية – Arabic

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunoasai
Imunoasai – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values: אימונואסיי – Hebrew

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Immunoassay rootpage-Immunoassay vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view