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British Indian Association
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Bengal in 1857 was not prepared for systematic political efforts for the achievement of a well-defined political programme. There were, however, bold adventurers who could perceive dimly the inevitable trend in India’s political evolution. Harish Chandra Mukherjee wrote in the Hindu Patriot on 14 January 1858, in connection with the proposal for transferring the government of India to the Crown: “Can a revolution in the Indian government be authorised by Parliament without consulting the wishes of vast millions of men for whose benefit it is proposed to be made? The reply must be in the negative. The time has nearly come when all Indian questions must be solved by Indians.” [1]
Sengupta, Nitish
The British Indian Association was established on 31 October 1851. Its formation was a major event of 19th-century India. Its establishment meant Indians had come together and could no longer be ignored. It developed enormous hopes amongst the Indians about their future.[2]
The first committee of the association was composed of : Raja Radhakanta Deb – President, Raja Kalikrishna Deb – Vice-President, Debendranath Tagore – secretary, Digambar Mitra – Asst Secretary, members – Raja Staya Saran Ghosal, Harakumar Tagore, Prasanna Coomar Tagore, Ramanath Tagore, Jay Krishna Mukerjee, Asutosh Deb, Harimohan Sen, Ramgopal Ghosh, Umesh Chandra Dutta (Rambagan), Krishna Kishore Ghosh, Jagadananda Mukhopadhyay, Peary Chand Mitra, and Sambhunath Pandit.[3]
Most of the early leaders of the British Indian Association were conservatives by tradition and temperament, although there were some progressive like Ramgopal Ghosh and Peary Chand Mitra.[1]
It was formed by the amalgamation of the Landholders’ Society and the Bengal British India Society.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Landholders’ Society
2 British India Society
3 Objectives and extent of British Indian Association
4 Criticism
5 References
Landholders’ Society[edit]
It gave to the people the first lesson in the art of fighting constitutionally for their rights, and taught them manfully to assert their claims and give expression to their opinions. Ostensibly, it advocated the rights of zamindars, but as their rights were intimately bound up with those of the ryots, the one cannot be separated from the other.[1]
Mitra, Rajendra Lal
The Zamindari Association, which was later renamed Landholders’ Society, was established in 1838 by Dwarkanath Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Radhakanta Deb, Ramkamal Sen and Bhabani Charan Mitra.[4][5]
It has been described as “the first organisation of Bengal with distinct political object.” [1] The society virtually became defunct after the death of Dwarkanath Tagore.[4]
British India Society[edit]
The British India Society was set up in 1839 in England primarily as a result of the efforts of William Adam, who had come to India and befriended Ram Mohan Roy. On his return to England he took up India’s cause. Others involved were George Thompson, William Ednis, and Major General Briggs. They organised meetings and enlightened people about conditions in India. In 1841, it started publishing a newspaper named British Indian Advocate, edited by Professor William Adam[1][6]
In 1842, Dwarkanath Tagore went to England, accompanied by Chandramohan Chatterjee and Paramananda Maitra,. It was the second visit abroad by educated Indians and the first since that of Ram Mohan Roy.[6] Dwarkanath Tagore returned from England with George Thompson. His oratory charmed everybody and drew in Young Bengal members such as Ramgopal Ghosh, Tarachand Chakrabarti and Peary Chand Mitra.[7]
As a result of the efforts of George Thompson the Bengal British India Society was founded on 20 April 1843.[8] The object of the society was to secure the welfare, and advance the interests of all classes, but it would “adopt and recommend such measures only as are consistent with pure loyalty to the person and government of the reigning sovereign of the British dominions.” [1]
Its first executive committee consisted of four Europeans and eleven Indians with George Thompson as President, GF Remfry and Ramgopal Ghosh as Vice-Presidents, Peary Chand Mitra as Secretary. The members on the committee were Tarachand Chakrabarti, Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee, Brojonath Dhar, Krishna Mohan Banerjee, Hari Mohan, Govind Chandra Sen, Chandra Sekhar Deb, Shyama Charan Sen and Satkari Datta.[9] There were people like Ramtanu Lahiri, also associated in some way.[10]
In 1849, John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune prepared drafts of certain legislative efforts aimed at bringing the British-born subjects of the crown under the jurisdiction of the British East India Company, but the Europeans named these bills the Black Acts and opposed them tooth and nail.[1][11] This opposition led Indians to think that their fortunes were not linked to those of the Europeans and that they needed associations of Indians to take care of their interests. Moreover, some changes were anticipated with the possible termination of the Company’s charter.[1] Ramgopal Ghosh and Digamber Mitra played a particularly significant role in the formation of the British Indian Society.[4]
Objectives and extent of British Indian Association[edit]
During the early years the activities of the association consisted mainly of submissions of petitions to the Government and to the British Parliament on grievances. There was an inherent trust in the good intentions of the rulers. The association sought to take up issues on behalf of all sections of society but occasionally it made conscious efforts to protect the right of the landed aristocracy.[1] Despite its shortcomings, it was the only association of Indians which took up their causes and represented to the government.[4][12]
From the very beginning, the British Indian Association had an all-India outlook. Associations were formed in different parts of the country and they maintained correspondence with each other. Its first annual report noted with satisfaction the formation at Poona, Madras and Bombay successively of associations of similar nature, “though they elected to carry on operations independently.”[1] In Lucknow, Dakshinaranjan Mukherjee established the Awadh British Indian Association in 1871 and campaigned for the formation of a provincial government with equal number of nominated and elected legislators.[13]
Criticism[edit]
The British Indian Association has been roundly criticised by subsequent political stalwarts. Ambika Charan Mazumdar, a Congress President, wrote: “Constructive policy they had none and seldom, if ever, they laid down any programme of systematic action for the political advancement of the country.”[1]
Bipin Chandra Pal complained that it had failed to cover the country with a network of branches.[1]
However, the British Indian Association played a catalytic role in building up political consciousness in India and more effective organisations followed. The Indian Association was formed in 1876,[1] and the Indian National Congress in 1885.[14]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Sengupta, Nitish K. (2001). History of the Bengali-speaking People. Ubs Pub Distributors Limited. p. 284. ISBN 978-81-7476-355-6.
Jump up ^ Sastri, Sivanath, Ramtanu Lahiri O Tatkalin Banga Samaj, (in Bengali) 1903/2001, New Age Publishers Pvt. Ltd., p. 116.
Jump up ^ Sastri, Sivanath, pp. 115–6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sastri, Sivanath, p. 115.
Jump up ^ Khan, BR (2012). "Zamindari Association, The". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
^ Jump up to: a b Sastri, Sivanath, p. 99.
Jump up ^ Sastri, Sivanath, p. 101.
Jump up ^ Sastri, Sivanath, pp. 101–2.
Jump up ^ Khan, BR (2012). "Bengal British India Society". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
Jump up ^ Sastri, Sivanath, p. 102.
Jump up ^ Sastri, Sivanath, p. 114.
Jump up ^ Mahmood, ABM (2012). "British Indian Association, The". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
Jump up ^ Sengupta, Subodhchandra (1998). Sansad Bangali charitabhidhan. p. 202. ISBN 978-81-85626-65-9.
Jump up ^ Sengupta, Nitish, p. 290.
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Chromosomal crossover
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Crossing over occurs between prophase 1 and metaphase 1 and is the process where homologous chromosomes pair up with each other and exchange different segments of their genetic material to form recombinant chromosomes. It can also happen during mitotic division,[1] which may result in loss of heterozygosity. Crossing over is essential for the normal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis.[citation needed] Crossing over also accounts for genetic variation, because due to the swapping of genetic material during crossing over, the chromatids held together by the centromere are no longer identical. So, when the chromosomes go on to meiosis II and separate, some of the daughter cells receive daughter chromosomes with recombined alleles. Due to this genetic recombination, the offspring have a different set of alleles and genes than their parents do. In the diagram, genes B and b are crossed over with each other, making the resulting recombinants after meiosis Ab, AB, ab, and aB.
Thomas Hunt Morgan's illustration of crossing over (1916)
A double crossing over
Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction. It is one of the final phases of genetic recombination, which occurs in the pachytene stage of prophase I of meiosis during a process called synapsis. Synapsis begins before the synaptonemal complex develops and is not completed until near the end of prophase I. Crossover usually occurs when matching regions on matching chromosomes break and then reconnect to the other chromosome.
Crossing over was described, in theory, by Thomas Hunt Morgan. He relied on the discovery of Frans Alfons Janssens who described the phenomenon in 1909 and had called it "chiasmatypie". The term chiasma is linked, if not identical, to chromosomal crossover. Morgan immediately saw the great importance of Janssens' cytological interpretation of chiasmata to the experimental results of his research on the heredity of Drosophila. The physical basis of crossing over was first demonstrated by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931.[2]
The linked frequency of crossing over between two gene loci (markers) is the crossing-over value . For fixed set of genetic and environmental conditions, recombination in a particular region of a linkage structure (chromosome) tends to be constant and the same is then true for the crossing-over value which is used in the production of genetic maps.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
1.1 DNA repair theory
1.2 Links to bacterial transformation
2 Chemistry
2.1 MSH4 and MSH5
2.2 Chiasma
3 Consequences
4 Non-homologous crossover
5 See also
6 References
Origins[edit]
There are two popular and overlapping theories that explain the origins of crossing-over, coming from the different theories on the origin of meiosis. The first theory rests upon the idea that meiosis evolved as another method of DNA repair, and thus crossing-over is a novel way to replace possibly damaged sections of DNA.[5] The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating diversity.[6]
DNA repair theory[edit]
Crossing over and DNA repair are very similar processes, which utilize many of the same protein complexes.[5][7][8] Recombinases and primases lay a foundation of nucleotides along the DNA sequence. One such particular protein complex that is conserved between processes is RAD51, a well conserved recombinase protein that has been shown to be crucial in DNA repair as well as cross over.[9] Several other genes in D. melanogaster have been linked as well to both processes, by showing that mutants at these specific loci cannot undergo DNA repair or crossing over. Such genes include mei-41, mei-9, hdm, spnA, and brca2.[5] This large group of conserved genes between processes supports the theory of a close evolutionary relationship. Furthermore, DNA repair and crossover have been found to favor similar regions on chromosomes. In an experiment using radiation hybrid mapping on wheat’s (Triticum aestivum L.) 3B chromosome, crossing over and DNA repair were found to occur predominantly in the same regions.[10] Furthermore, crossing over has been correlated to occur in response to stressful, and likely DNA damaging, conditions [11][12]
Links to bacterial transformation[edit]
The process of bacterial transformation also shares many similarities with chromosomal cross over, particularly in the formation of overhangs on the sides of the broken DNA strand, allowing for the annealing of a new strand. Bacterial transformation itself has been linked to DNA repair many times.[5] The second theory comes from the idea that meiosis evolved from bacterial transformation, with the function of propagating genetic diversity.[6] .[13] Thus, this evidence suggests that it is a question of whether cross over is linked to DNA repair or bacterial transformation, as the two do not appear to be mutually exclusive. It is likely that crossing over may have evolved from bacterial transformation, which in turn developed from DNA repair, thus explaining the links between all three processes.
Chemistry[edit]
A current model of meiotic recombination, initiated by a double-strand break or gap, followed by pairing with an homologous chromosome and strand invasion to initiate the recombinational repair process. Repair of the gap can lead to crossover (CO) or non-crossover (NCO) of the flanking regions. CO recombination is thought to occur by the Double Holliday Junction (DHJ) model, illustrated on the right, above. NCO recombinants are thought to occur primarily by the Synthesis Dependent Strand Annealing (SDSA) model, illustrated on the left, above. Most recombination events appear to be the SDSA type.
Meiotic recombination may be initiated by double-stranded breaks that are introduced into the DNA by exposure to DNA damaging agents[5] or the Spo11 protein.[14] One or more exonucleases then digest the 5’ ends generated by the double-stranded breaks to produce 3’ single-stranded DNA tails (see diagram). The meiosis-specific recombinase Dmc1 and the general recombinase Rad51 coat the single-stranded DNA to form nucleoprotein filaments.[15] The recombinases catalyze invasion of the opposite chromatid by the single-stranded DNA from one end of the break. Next, the 3’ end of the invading DNA primes DNA synthesis, causing displacement of the complementary strand, which subsequently anneals to the single-stranded DNA generated from the other end of the initial double-stranded break. The structure that results is a cross-strand exchange, also known as a Holliday junction. The contact between two chromatids that will soon undergo crossing-over is known as a chiasma. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral structure which can be 'pulled' by other recombinases, moving it along the four-stranded structure.
Holliday Junction
Molecular structure of a Holliday junction.
Molecular structure of a Holliday junction. From PDB: 3CRX.
MSH4 and MSH5[edit]
The MSH4 and MSH5 proteins form a hetero-oligomeric structure (heterodimer) in yeast and humans.[16][17][18] In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH4 and MSH5 act specifically to facilitate crossovers between homologous chromosomes during meiosis.[16] The MSH4/MSH5 complex binds and stabilizes double Holliday junctions and promotes their resolution into crossover products. An MSH4 hypomorphic (partially functional) mutant of S. cerevisiae showed a 30% genome wide reduction in crossover numbers, and a large number of meioses with non exchange chromosomes.[19] Nevertheless, this mutant gave rise to spore viability patterns suggesting that segregation of non-exchange chromosomes occurred efficiently. Thus in S. cerevisiae proper segregation apparently does not entirely depend on crossovers between homologous pairs.
Chiasma[edit]
The grasshopper Melanoplus femur-rubrum was exposed to an acute dose of X-rays during each individual stage of meiosis, and chiasma frequency was measured.[20] Irradiation during the leptotene-zygotene stages of meiosis (that is, prior to the pachytene period in which crossover recombination occurs) was found to increase subsequent chiasma frequency. Similarly, in the grasshopper Chorthippus brunneus, exposure to X-irradiation during the zygotene-early pachytene stages caused a significant increase in mean cell chiasma frequency.[21] Chiasma frequency was scored at the later diplotene-diakinesis stages of meiosis. These results suggest that X-rays induce DNA damages that are repaired by a crossover pathway leading to chiasma formation.
Consequences[edit]
The difference between gene conversion and chromosomal crossover.
In most eukaryotes, a cell carries two versions of each gene, each referred to as an allele. Each parent passes on one allele to each offspring. An individual gamete inherits a complete haploid complement of alleles on chromosomes that are independently selected from each pair of chromatids lined up on the metaphase plate. Without recombination, all alleles for those genes linked together on the same chromosome would be inherited together. Meiotic recombination allows a more independent segregation between the two alleles that occupy the positions of single genes, as recombination shuffles the allele content between homologous chromosomes.
Recombination results in a new arrangement of maternal and paternal alleles on the same chromosome. Although the same genes appear in the same order, some alleles are different. In this way, it is theoretically possible to have any combination of parental alleles in an offspring, and the fact that two alleles appear together in one offspring does not have any influence on the statistical probability that another offspring will have the same combination. This principle of "independent assortment" of genes is fundamental to genetic inheritance.[22] However, the frequency of recombination is actually not the same for all gene combinations. This leads to the notion of "genetic distance", which is a measure of recombination frequency averaged over a (suitably large) sample of pedigrees. Loosely speaking, one may say that this is because recombination is greatly influenced by the proximity of one gene to another. If two genes are located close together on a chromosome, the likelihood that a recombination event will separate these two genes is less than if they were farther apart. Genetic linkage describes the tendency of genes to be inherited together as a result of their location on the same chromosome. Linkage disequilibrium describes a situation in which some combinations of genes or genetic markers occur more or less frequently in a population than would be expected from their distances apart. This concept is applied when searching for a gene that may cause a particular disease. This is done by comparing the occurrence of a specific DNA sequence with the appearance of a disease. When a high correlation between the two is found, it is likely that the appropriate gene sequence is really closer.[23]
Non-homologous crossover[edit]
Crossovers typically occur between homologous regions of matching chromosomes, but similarities in sequence and other factors can result in mismatched alignments. Most DNA is composed of base pair sequences repeated very large numbers of times.[24] These repetitious segments, often referred to as satellites, are fairly homogenous among a species.[24] During DNA replication, each strand of DNA is used as a template for the creation of new strands using a partially-conserved mechanism; proper functioning of this process results in two identical, paired chromosomes, often called sisters. Sister chromatid crossover events are known to occur at a rate of several crossover events per cell per division in eukaryotes. [24] Most of these events involve an exchange of equal amounts of genetic information, but unequal exchanges may occur due to sequence mismatch. These are referred to by a variety of names, including non-homologous crossover, unequal crossover, and unbalanced recombination, and result in an insertion or deletion of genetic information into the chromosome. While rare compared to homologous crossover events, these mutations are drastic, affecting many loci at the same time. They are considered the main driver behind the generation of gene duplications and are a general source of mutation within the genome.[25]
Many proteins are implicated in DSB repair; this figure shows a probable, simplified mechanism.
The specific causes of non-homologous crossover events are unknown, but several influential factors are known to increase the likelihood of an unequal crossover. One common vector leading to unbalanced recombination is the repair of double-strand breaks (DSBs).[26] DSBs are often repaired using non-homologous end joining, a process which involves invasion of a template strand by the DSB strand (see figure below). Nearby homologous regions of the template strand are often used for repair, which can give rise to either insertions or deletions in the genome if a non-homologous but complementary part of the template strand is used.[26] Sequence similarity is a major player in crossover – crossover events are more likely to occur in long regions of close identity on a gene.[27] This means that any section of the genome with long sections of repetitive DNA is prone to crossover events.
The presence of transposable elements is another influential element of non-homologous crossover. Repetitive regions of code characterize transposable elements; complementary but non-homologous regions are ubiquitous within transposons. Because chromosomal regions composed of transposons have large quantities of identical, repetitious code in a condensed space, it is thought that transposon regions undergoing a crossover event are more prone to erroneous complementary match-up;[28] that is to say, a section of a chromosome containing a lot of identical sequences, should it undergo a crossover event, is less certain to match up with a perfectly homologous section of complementary code and more prone to binding with a section of code on a slightly different part of the chromosome. This results in unbalanced recombination, as genetic information may be either inserted or deleted into the new chromosome, depending on where the recombination occurred.
While the motivating factors behind unequal recombination remain obscure, elements of the physical mechanism have been elucidated. Mismatch repair (MMR) proteins, for instance, are a well-known regulatory family of proteins, responsible for regulating mismatched sequences of DNA during replication and escape regulation.[29] The operative goal of MMRs is the restoration of the parental genotype. One class of MMR in particular, MutSβ, is known to initiate the correction of insertion-deletion mismatches of up to 16 nucleotides.[29] Little is known about the excision process in eukaryotes, but E. coli excisions involve the cleaving of a nick on either the 5’ or 3’ strand, after which DNA helicase and DNA polymerase III bind and generate single-stranded proteins, which are digested by exonucleases and attached to the strand by ligase.[29] Multiple MMR pathways have been implicated in the maintenance of complex organism genome stability, and any of many possible malfunctions in the MMR pathway result in DNA editing and correction errors.[30] Therefore, while it is not certain precisely what mechanisms lead to errors of non-homologous crossover, it is extremely likely that the MMR pathway is involved.
See also[edit]
Unequal crossing over
Coefficient of coincidence
Genetic distance
Independent assortment
Mitotic crossover
Recombinant frequency
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Griffiths, AJF; Gelbart, WM; Miller, JH; et al. (1999). "Modern Genetic Analysis: Mitotic Crossing-Over". New York: W. H. Freeman.
Jump up ^ Creighton H, McClintock B (1931). "A Correlation of Cytological and Genetical Crossing-Over in Zea Mays". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 17 (8): 492–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.17.8.492. PMC 1076098  . PMID 16587654. (Original paper)
Jump up ^ Rieger R. Michaelis A., Green M. M. (1976). Glossary of genetics and cytogenetics: Classical and molecular. Heidelberg - New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-07668-9. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ King R. C., Stransfield W. D. (1998): Dictionary of genetics. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford, ISBN 0-19-50944-1-7; ISBN 0-19-509442-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Harris Bernstein, Carol Bernstein and Richard E. Michod (2011). Meiosis as an Evolutionary Adaptation for DNA Repair. Chapter 19 in DNA Repair. Inna Kruman, editor. InTech Open Publisher. doi:10.5772/25117 http://www.intechopen.com/books/dna-repair/meiosis-as-an-evolutionary-adaptation-for-dna-repair
^ Jump up to: a b Bernstein, H; Bernstein, C (2010). "Evolutionary origin of recombination during meiosis". BioScience. 60 (7): 498–505. doi:10.1525/bio.2010.60.7.5.
Jump up ^ Dangel, NJ; Knoll, A; Puchta, H (2014). "MHF1 plays Fanconi anaemia complementation group M protein (FANCM)-dependent and FANCM-independent roles in DNA repair and homologous recombination in plants". Plant J. 78 (5): 822–33. doi:10.1111/tpj.12507. PMID 24635147.
Jump up ^ Saponaro, M; Callahan, D; Zheng, X; Liberi, G (2010). "Cdk1 Targets Srs2 to Complete Synthesis-Dependent Strand Annealing and to Promote Recombinational Repair". PLoS Genet. 6 (2): e1000858. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000858. Retrieved 20 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Esposito, M (September 1978). "Evidence that Spontaneous Mitotic Recombination Occurs at the Two-Strand Stage". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 75 (9): 4436–4440. doi:10.1073/pnas.75.9.4436.
Jump up ^ Kumar, A; Bassi, F; Paux, E (2012). "DNA repair and crossing over favor similar chromosome regions as discovered in radiation hybrid of Triticum". BMC Genomics. 13 (339). doi:10.1186/1471-2164-13-339. PMC 3443642  . PMID 22827734. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Steinboeck, F (2010). "The relevance of oxidative stress and cytotoxic DNA lesions for spontaneous mutagenesis in non-replicating yeast cells". Mutat Res. 688 (1–2): 47–52. doi:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2010.03.006. PMID 20223252.
Jump up ^ Nedelcu, M; Marcu, O; Michod, RE (2004). "Sex as a response to oxidative stress: a twofold increase in cellular reactive oxygen species activates sex genes". Proc. R. Soc. B. 271: 1591–1596. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.2747. PMC 1691771  . PMID 15306305. Retrieved 10 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Charpentier, X (2010). "Antibiotics and UV Radiation Induce Competence for Natural Transformation in Legionella pneumophila". Journal of Bacteriology. 193 (5): 1114–1121. doi:10.1128/JB.01146-10. PMC 3067580  . PMID 21169481. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Keeney, S; Giroux, CN; Kleckner, N (1997). "Meiosis-Specific DNA Double-Strand Breaks Are Catalyzed by Spo11, a Member of a Widely Conserved Protein Family". Cell. 88 (3): 375–84. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81876-0. PMID 9039264.
Jump up ^ Sauvageau, S; Stasiak, Az; Banville, I; Ploquin, M; Stasiak, A; Masson, Jy (June 2005). "Fission Yeast Rad51 and Dmc1, Two Efficient DNA Recombinases Forming Helical Nucleoprotein Filaments" (Free full text). Molecular and Cellular Biology. 25 (11): 4377–87. doi:10.1128/MCB.25.11.4377-4387.2005. ISSN 0270-7306. PMC 1140613  . PMID 15899844.
^ Jump up to: a b Pochart P, Woltering D, Hollingsworth NM (1997). "Conserved properties between functionally distinct MutS homologs in yeast". J. Biol. Chem. 272 (48): 30345–9. doi:10.1074/jbc.272.48.30345. PMID 9374523.
Jump up ^ Winand NJ, Panzer JA, Kolodner RD (1998). "Cloning and characterization of the human and Caenorhabditis elegans homologs of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae MSH5 gene". Genomics. 53 (1): 69–80. doi:10.1006/geno.1998.5447. PMID 9787078.
Jump up ^ Bocker T, Barusevicius A, Snowden T, Rasio D, Guerrette S, Robbins D, Schmidt C, Burczak J, Croce CM, Copeland T, Kovatich AJ, Fishel R (1999). "hMSH5: a human MutS homologue that forms a novel heterodimer with hMSH4 and is expressed during spermatogenesis". Cancer Res. 59 (4): 816–22. PMID 10029069.
Jump up ^ Krishnaprasad GN, Anand MT, Lin G, Tekkedil MM, Steinmetz LM, Nishant KT (2015). "Variation in crossover frequencies perturb crossover assurance without affecting meiotic chromosome segregation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae". Genetics. 199 (2): 399–412. doi:10.1534/genetics.114.172320. PMC 4317650  . PMID 25467183.
Jump up ^ Church K, Wimber DE (1969). "Meiosis in the grasshopper: chiasma frequency after elevated temperature and x-rays". Can. J. Genet. Cytol. 11 (1): 209–16. doi:10.1139/g69-025. PMID 5797806.
Jump up ^ Westerman M (1971). "The effect of x-irradiation on chiasma frequency in Chorthippus brunneus". Heredity. 27 (1): 83–91. doi:10.1038/hdy.1971.73. PMID 5289295.
Jump up ^ "genetic recombination".
Jump up ^ Genetic Recombination
^ Jump up to: a b c Smith, George P. (1976-01-01). "Evolution of Repeated DNA Sequences by Unequal Crossover". Science. 191 (4227): 528–535. doi:10.1126/science.1251186. JSTOR 1741301.
Jump up ^ Graur, Dan; Li, Wen-Hsiung (2000-01-01). Fundamentals of Molecular Evolution. Sinauer. ISBN 9780878932665.
^ Jump up to: a b Puchta, Holger (2005-01-01). "The repair of double-strand breaks in plants: mechanisms and consequences for genome evolution". Journal of Experimental Botany. 56 (409): 1–14. doi:10.1093/jxb/eri025. ISSN 0022-0957. PMID 15557293.
Jump up ^ Metzenberg, Ab; et al. (May 1991). "Homology Requirements for Unequal Crossing Over in Humans". Genetics.
Jump up ^ Robberecht, Caroline; Voet, Thierry; Esteki, Masoud Zamani; Nowakowska, Beata A.; Vermeesch, Joris R. (2012-12-03). "Non-allelic homologous recombination between retrotransposable elements is a driver of de novo unbalanced translocations". Genome Research. 23: gr.145631.112. doi:10.1101/gr.145631.112. ISSN 1088-9051. PMC 3589530  . PMID 23212949.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kunkel, Thomas A.; Erie, Dorothy A. (2005-01-01). "Dna Mismatch Repair". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 74 (1): 681–710. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.74.082803.133243. PMID 15952900.
Jump up ^ Surtees, J. A., J.A.; Argueso, J.L.; Alani, E. (2004). "Mismatch Repair Proteins: Key Regulators of Genetic Recombination". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 107: 146–59. doi:10.1159/000080593.
[hide]
v
t
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Genetics: homologous recombination / mobile genetic elements
Primarily prokaryotic
Conjugation
Transduction
Transformation
Occurs in eukaryotes
Transfection
Chromosomal crossover
Gene conversion
Fusion gene
Horizontal gene transfer
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Transposon
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text:
Immanuel Wallerstein
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Immanuel Wallerstein
Wallerstein giving a talk at a seminar at the European University at St. Petersburg in May 2008.
Born
(1930-09-28) September 28, 1930 (age 87)
New York City, New York, U.S.
Occupation
sociologist, scholar
Known for
World-systems theory
Website
www.iwallerstein.com
Academic background
Education
Ph.D.
Alma mater
Columbia University
Thesis
The Emergence of Two West African Nations: Ghana and the Ivory Coast[1] (1959)
Doctoral advisor
Robert Staughton Lynd[1]
Influences
Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg, Fernand Braudel, Raúl Prebisch,[2] Sigmund Freud, Karl Polanyi, Joseph Schumpeter Frantz Fanon, Ilya Prigogine[3]
Academic work
Discipline
Sociologist, Historian
Sub-discipline
Historical sociology, Comparative sociology, World-systems theory
Institutions
McGill University, Binghamton University, École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales, Yale University
Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein (/ˈwɔːlərstiːn/;[4] born September 28, 1930) is an American sociologist, historical social scientist, and world-systems analyst, arguably best known for his development of the general approach in sociology which led to the emergence of his world-systems approach.[5] He publishes bimonthly syndicated commentaries on world affairs.[6] He has been a Senior Research Scholar at Yale University since 2000.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and education
2 Academic career
3 Theory
3.1 The Modern World-System
3.2 Criticism
4 Terms and definitions
5 Works
6 Honors and fellowships
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Early life and education[edit]
Having grown up in a politically conscious family, Wallerstein first became interested in world affairs as a teenager while living in New York City.[3] He received all three of his degrees from Columbia University: a BA in 1951, a MA in 1954, and a PhD in 1959. However, throughout his life, Wallerstein has also studied at other universities around the world, including Oxford University from 1955–56,[7] Université libre de Bruxelles, Universite Paris 7 Denis Diderot, and Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
From 1951 to 1953, Wallerstein served in the U.S. Army.[3] After returning from his service, he wrote his master's thesis on McCarthyism as a phenomenon of American political culture, which was widely cited and which, Wallerstein states, "confirmed my sense that I should consider myself, in the language of the 1950s, a 'political sociologist'".[3] Eleven years later, on May 25, 1964, he married Beatrice Friedman; the couple has one daughter.[7]
Academic career[edit]
Wallerstein's academic and professional career began at Columbia University, where he started as an instructor and later became an associate professor of sociology from 1958 to 1971.[7] During his time there, he served as a prominent supporter of the students during the Columbia University protests of 1968.[8] In 1971, he moved from New York to Montreal, where he taught at McGill University for five years.[7]
Originally, Wallerstein's prime area of intellectual concern was not American politics, but politics of the non-European world, most especially those of India and Africa.[3] For two decades, Wallerstein served as an Africa scholar, publishing numerous books and articles,[3] and in 1973, became president of the African Studies Association.[9]
In 1976, Wallerstein was offered the unique opportunity to pursue a new avenue of research, and so became head of the Fernand Braudel Center for the Study of Economies, Historical Systems and Civilization at Binghamton University in New York,[10] whose mission is "to engage in the analysis of large-scale social change over long periods of historical time."[11] The Center was opened with the publishing support of a new journal Review[7] (of which Wallerstein was the founding editor), and would go on to produce a body of work that "went a long way toward invigorating sociology and its sister disciplines, especially history and political-economy."[7] Wallerstein would serve as a distinguished professor of sociology at Binghamton until his retirement in 1999.[12]
Throughout his career, Wallerstein has held visiting professor posts at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, British Columbia, and Amsterdam, among numerous others.[13] He has been awarded multiple honorary titles, intermittently served as Directeur d'études associé at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, and was president of the International Sociological Association between 1994 and 1998.[14] Similarly, during the 1990s, he chaired the Gulbenkian Commission on the Restructuring of the Social Sciences, whose object was to indicate a direction for social scientific inquiry for the next 50 years.[15]
Since 2000, Wallerstein has served as a Senior Research Scholar at Yale University.[16] He is also a member of the Advisory Editors Council of the Social Evolution & History journal. In 2003, he received the Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award from the American Sociological Association,[9] and in 2004 was awarded with the Gold Kondratieff Medal by the International N. D. Kondratieff Foundation and the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (RAEN).[17]
Theory[edit]
Wallerstein began as an expert of post-colonial African affairs, which he selected as the focus of his studies after attending international youth conferences in 1951 and 1952.[18] His publications were almost exclusively devoted to this until the early 1970s, when he began to distinguish himself as a historian and theorist of the global capitalist economy on a macroscopic level. His early criticism of global capitalism and championship of "anti-systemic movements" have recently made him an éminence grise with the anti-globalization movement within and outside of the academic community, along with Noam Chomsky and Pierre Bourdieu.
His most important work, The Modern World-System, has appeared in four volumes since 1974, with additional planned volumes still forthcoming.[19] In it, Wallerstein draws on several intellectual influences:
Karl Marx, whom he follows in emphasizing underlying economic factors and their dominance over ideological factors in global politics, and whose economic thinking he has adopted with such ideas as the dichotomy between capital and labor, and criticizes the traditional Marxian view of world economic development through stages such as feudalism and capitalism, belief in the accumulation of capital, dialectics, and more;
Dependency theory, most obviously its concepts of "core" and "periphery".
However, Wallerstein categorizes Frantz Fanon, Fernand Braudel, and Ilya Prigogine as the three individuals that have had the greatest impact "in modifying my line of argument (as opposed to deepening a parallel line of argument)."[3] In The Essential Wallerstein, he chronologically lists the three individuals and describes their influence on his views:
Frantz Fanon: "Fanon represented for me the expression of the insistence by those disenfranchised by the modern world‑system that they have a voice, a vision, and a claim not merely to justice but to intellectual valuation."[3]
Fernand Braudel: who had described the development and political implications of extensive networks of economic exchange in the European world between 1400 and 1800, "more than anyone else made me conscious of the central importance of the social construction of time and space and its impact on our analyses."[3]
Ilya Prigogine: "Prigogine forced me to face the implications of a world in which certainties did not exist - but knowledge still did."[3]
Wallerstein has also stated that another major influence on his work was the "world revolution" of 1968. He was on the faculty of Columbia University at the time of the student uprising there, and participated in a faculty committee that attempted to resolve the dispute. He has argued in several works that this revolution marked the end of "liberalism" as a viable ideology in the modern world system. He also argued that the end of the Cold War, rather than marking a triumph for liberalism, indicates that the current system has entered its 'end' phase; a period of crisis that will end only when it is replaced by another system.[20] Wallerstein anticipated the growing importance of the North–South divide at a time when the main world conflict was the Cold War..[citation needed]
He has argued since 1980 that the United States is a "hegemon in decline". He was often mocked for making this claim during the 1990s,[citation needed] but since the Iraq War this argument has become more widespread. Overall, Wallerstein sees the development of the capitalist world economy as detrimental to a large proportion of the world's population.[21] Similar to Marx, Wallerstein predicts that capitalism will be replaced by a socialist economy.[22]
Wallerstein has both participated in and written about the World Social Forum.
The Modern World-System[edit]
Wallerstein's first volume on world-systems theory (The Modern World System, 1974) was predominantly written during a year at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (now affiliated with Stanford University).[5] In it, he argues that the modern world system is distinguished from empires by its reliance on economic control of the world order by a dominating capitalist center (core) in systemic economic and political relation to peripheral and semi-peripheral world areas.[23]
Wallerstein rejects the notion of a "Third World", claiming that there is only one world connected by a complex network of economic exchange relationships — i.e., a "world-economy" or "world-system" in which the "dichotomy of capital and labor" and the endless "accumulation of capital" by competing agents (historically including, but not limited, to nation-states) account for frictions.[24] This approach is known as the world-system theory.
Wallerstein locates the origin of the modern world-system in 16th-century Western Europe and the Americas. An initially slight advance in capital accumulation in Britain, the Dutch Republic, and France, due to specific political circumstances at the end of the period of feudalism, set in motion a process of gradual expansion. As a result, only one global network or system of economic exchange exists in modern society. By the 19th century, virtually every area on earth was incorporated into the capitalist world-economy.
The capitalist world-system is far from homogeneous in cultural, political, and economic terms; instead, it is characterized by fundamental differences in social development, accumulation of political power, and capital. Contrary to affirmative theories of modernization and capitalism, Wallerstein does not conceive of these differences as mere residues or irregularities that can and will be overcome as the system evolves.
A lasting division of the world into core, semi-periphery, and periphery is an inherent feature of world-system theory. Other theories, partially drawn on by Wallerstein, leave out the semi-periphery and do not allow for a grayscale of development.[24] Areas which have so far remained outside the reach of the world-system enter it at the stage of "periphery". There is a fundamental and institutionally stabilized "division of labor" between core and periphery: while the core has a high level of technological development and manufactures complex products, the role of the periphery is to supply raw materials, agricultural products, and cheap labor for the expanding agents of the core. Economic exchange between core and periphery takes place on unequal terms: the periphery is forced to sell its products at low prices, but has to buy the core's products at comparatively high prices. Once established, this unequal state tends to stabilize itself due to inherent, quasi-deterministic constraints. The statuses of core and periphery are not exclusive and fixed geographically, but are relative to each other. A zone defined as "semi-periphery" acts as a periphery to the core and as a core to the periphery. At the end of the 20th century, this zone would comprise Eastern Europe, China, Brazil, and Mexico. It is important to note that core and peripheral zones can co-exist in the same location.
One effect of the expansion of the world-system is the commodification of things, including human labor. Natural resources, land, labor, and human relationships are gradually being stripped of their "intrinsic" value and turned into commodities in a market which dictates their exchange value.
In the last two decades, Wallerstein has increasingly focused on the intellectual foundations of the modern world-system and the pursuit of universal theories of human behavior. In addition, he has shown interest in the "structures of knowledge" defined by the disciplinary division between sociology, anthropology, political science, economics, and the humanities, which he himself regards as Eurocentric. In analyzing them, he has been highly influenced by the "new sciences" of theorists like Ilya Prigogine.
Criticism[edit]
Wallerstein's theory has provoked harsh criticism, not only from neo-liberal or conservative circles, but even from some historians who say that some of his assertions may be historically incorrect. Some critics, including R. Robertson and F. Lechner, suggest that Wallerstein tends to neglect the cultural dimension of the modern world-system, arguing that there is a world system of global culture which is independent from the economic processes of capitalism;[25] this reduces it to what some call "official" ideologies of states which can then easily be revealed as mere agencies of economic interest. Nevertheless, his analytical approach, along with that of associated theorists such as Andre Gunder Frank, Terence Hopkins, Samir Amin, Christopher Chase-Dunn, Thomas D. Hall and Giovanni Arrighi, has made a significant impact on the field and has established an institutional base devoted to the general approach of intellectual inquiry. Their ideology has also attracted strong interest from the anti-globalization movement.
Terms and definitions[edit]
Capitalist world-system
Wallerstein's definition follows dependency theory, which intended to combine the developments of the different societies since the 16th century in different regions into one collective development. The main characteristic of his definition is the development of a global division of labour, including the existence of independent political units (in this case, states) at the same time. There is no political center, compared to global empires like the Roman Empire; instead, the capitalist world-system is identified by the global market economy. It is divided into core, semi-periphery, and periphery regions, and is ruled by the capitalist method of production.
Core/periphery
Defines the difference between developed and developing countries, characterized e.g. by power or wealth. The core refers to developed countries, the periphery to the dependent developing countries. The main reason for the position of the developed countries is economic power.
Semi-periphery
Defines states that are located between core and periphery, and who benefit from the periphery through unequal exchange relations. At the same time, the core benefits from the semi-periphery through unequal exchange relations.
Quasi-monopolies
Defines a kind of monopoly where there is more than one service provider for a particular good/service. Wallerstein claims that quasi-monopolies are self-liquidating because new sellers go into the market by exerting political pressure to open markets to competition.[26]
Kondratiev waves
A Kondratiev wave is defined as a cyclical tendency in the world's economy. It is also known as a supercycle. Wallerstein argues that global wars are tied to Kondratiev waves. According to him, global conflicts occur as the summer phase of a wave begins, which is when production of goods and services around the world are on an upswing.[27]
Works[edit]
Year
Title
Author(s)
Publisher
1961 Africa, The Politics of Independence Immanuel Wallerstein New York: Vintage Books
1964 The Road to Independence: Ghana and the Ivory Coast Immanuel Wallerstein Paris & The Hague: Mouton
1967 Africa: The Politics of Unity Immanuel Wallerstein New York: Random House
1969 University in Turmoil: The Politics of Change Immanuel Wallerstein New York: Atheneum
1972 Africa: Tradition & Change Immanuel Wallerstein with Evelyn Jones Rich New York: Random House
1974 The Modern World-System, vol. I: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World-Economy in the Sixteenth Century Immanuel Wallerstein New York/London: Academic Press
1979 The Capitalist World-Economy Immanuel Wallerstein Cambridge University Press
1980 The Modern World-System, vol. II: Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, 1600-1750 Immanuel Wallerstein New York: Academic Press
1982 World-Systems Analysis: Theory and Methodology Immanuel Wallerstein with Terence K. Hopkins et al. Beverly Hills: Sage
1982 Dynamics of Global Crisis Immanuel Wallerstein with Samir Amin, Giovanni Arrighi and Andre Gunder Frank London: Macmillan
1983 Historical Capitalism Immanuel Wallerstein London: Verso
1984 The Politics of the World-Economy. The States, the Movements and the Civilizations Immanuel Wallerstein Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
1986 Africa and the Modern World Immanuel Wallerstein Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press
1989 The Modern World-System, vol. III: The Second Great Expansion of the Capitalist World-Economy, 1730-1840's Immanuel Wallerstein San Diego: Academic Press
1989 Antisystemic Movements Immanuel Wallerstein with Giovanni Arrighi and Terence K. Hopkins London: Verso
1990 Transforming the Revolution: Social Movements and the World-System Immanuel Wallerstein with Samir Amin, Giovanni Arrighi and Andre Gunder Frank New York: Monthly Review Press
1991 Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities Immanuel Wallerstein with Étienne Balibar London: Verso.
1991 Geopolitics and Geoculture: Essays on the Changing World-System Immanuel Wallerstein Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
1991 Unthinking Social Science: The Limits of Nineteenth Century Paradigms Immanuel Wallerstein Cambridge: Polity
1995 After Liberalism Immanuel Wallerstein New York: New Press
1995 Historical Capitalism, with Capitalist Civilization Immanuel Wallerstein London: Verso
1998 Utopistics: Or, Historical Choices of the Twenty-first Century Immanuel Wallerstein New York: New Press
1999 The End of the World As We Know It: Social Science for the Twenty-first Century Immanuel Wallerstein Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
2001 Democracy, Capitalism, and Transformation Immanuel Wallerstein Documenta 11, Vienna, March 16, 2001
2003 Decline of American Power: The U.S. in a Chaotic World Immanuel Wallerstein New York: New Press
2004 The Uncertainties of Knowledge Immanuel Wallerstein Philadelphia: Temple University Press
2004 World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction Immanuel Wallerstein Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press
2004 Alternatives: The U.S. Confronts the World Immanuel Wallerstein Boulder, Colorado: Paradigm Press
2006 European Universalism: The Rhetoric of Power Immanuel Wallerstein New York: New Press
2011 The Modern World-System, vol. IV: Centrist Liberalism Triumphant, 1789–1914 Immanuel Wallerstein Berkeley: University of California Press
2013 Uncertain Worlds: World-Systems Analysis in Changing Times Immanuel Wallerstein with Charles Lemert and Carlos Antonio Aguirre Rojas Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers
2013 Does Capitalism Have a Future? Immanuel Wallerstein with Randall Collins, Michael Mann, Georgi Derluguian and Craig Calhoun New York: Oxford University Press
2015 The World is Out of Joint: World-Historical Interpretations of Continuing Polarizations Immanuel Wallerstein (editor) Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers
Honors and fellowships[edit]
International Sociological Association Award for Excellence in Research and Practice, 2014
N.D. Kondratieff Gold Medal, Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, 2005
Distinguished Fellow, St. John’s College, University of British Columbia, 2004–present
Centro de Estudios, Información y Documentación Immanuel Wallerstein, Univ. de la Tierra-Chiapas y el CIDECI Las Casas, 2004–present
Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award, American Sociological Association, 2003
Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award, Political Economy of the World-System Section of American Sociological Association, 2003
Premio Carlos Marx 2003, Fondo Cultural Tercer Mundo, Mexico
Leerstoel (Chair) Immanuel Wallerstein, University of Ghent, 2002- [Inaugural Lecture by IW on Mar. 11, 2002]
Fellow, The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1998
IPE Distinguished Scholar, International Studies Association, 1998
Gulbenkian Professor of Science and Technology, 1994
Medal of the University, University of Helsinki, 1992
Wei Lun Visiting Professor, Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1991
University Award for Excellence in Scholarship, Binghamton University, 1991
George A. Miller Visiting Professor, University of Illinois-Urbana, 1989
Officier, Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, France, 1984
Sorokin Prize (for Distinguished Scholarship), American Sociological Association, 1975
Fellow, Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, 1970–71
Ford Fellow in Economics, Political Science and Sociology, 1970–71
Foreign Area Fellowship, Africa, 1955–57
Phi Beta Kappa, 1951
See also[edit]
Johan Galtung
Historical sociology
Late capitalism
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Wallerstein, Immanuel Maurice (1959). The Emergence of Two West African Nations: Ghana and the Ivory Coast (Dissertation). ProQuest LLC. Retrieved October 11, 2016.
Jump up ^ Robinson, William I. (November 1, 2011). "Globalization and the sociology of Immanuel Wallerstein: A critical appraisal" (PDF). International Sociology. SAGE Publications. 26 (6): 1–23. doi:10.1177/0268580910393372. Retrieved October 11, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Wallerstein, I. 2000. The Essential Wallerstein. New York, NY: The New Press. For a slightly adapted version of the Introductory essay to The Essential Wallerstein, see: http://iwallerstein.com/intellectual-itinerary/
Jump up ^ "China and the World System since 1945" by Immanuel Wallerstein
^ Jump up to: a b "Wallerstein, Immanuel (1930- )." The AZ Guide to Modern Social and Political Theorists. Ed. Noel Parker and Stuart Sim. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1997. 372-76. Print.
Jump up ^ Agence Global
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Sica, Alan. 2005. "Immanuel Wallerstein". Pp. 734-739 in Social Thought: from the Enlightenment to the present. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Jump up ^ Ed. Lemert, Charles. 2010. “Immanuel Wallerstein.” Pp. 398-405 in Social Theory: The Multicultural and Classical Readings. Westview Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Wallerstein, I. (April 2009). Curriculum Vitae. Retrieved from http://iwallerstein.com/wp-content/uploads/docs/iwallerstein-cv-eng-09.pdf
Jump up ^ Sica, Alan. 2005. “Immanuel Wallerstein.” Pp. 734-739 in Social Thought: from the Enlightenment to the present. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Jump up ^ http://binghamton.edu/fbc/about-fbc/intellectual-report.html
Jump up ^ Wallerstein, I. (April 2009). Curriculum Vitae. Retrieved from http://iwallerstein.com/wp- content/uploads/docs/iwallerstein-cv-eng-09.pdf
Jump up ^ Allan, Kenneth (2006). Contemporary social and sociological theory: visualizing social worlds. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
Jump up ^ Lemert, edited with commentaries by Charles (2010). Social theory : the multicultural and classic readings (4th ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 9780813343921. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Wallerstein, Wallerstein. "Immanuel Wallerstein". Retrieved 27 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Ed. Parker, Noel and Stuart Sim. 1997. “Wallerstein, Immanuel (1930- ).” Pp. 372-76 in The AZ Guide to Modern Social and Political Theorists. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall/Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Jump up ^ The International N. D. Kondratieff Foundation
Jump up ^ Wallerstein, I. 2000. The Essential Wallerstein. New York, NY: The New Press.
Jump up ^ Williams, Gregory. P. 2013. Special Contribution: Interview with Immanuel Wallerstein Retrospective on the Origins of World-Systems Analysis. Journal of World-Systems Research 19(2): 202-210.
Jump up ^ Baylis, John (2011). The Globalization of World Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956909-0.
Jump up ^ Paul Halsall Modern History Sourcebook: Summary of Wallerstein on World System Theory, August 1997
Jump up ^ Carlos A. Martínez-Vela, World Systems Theory, paper prepared for the Research Seminar in Engineering Systems, November 2003
Jump up ^ Ed. Lemert, Charles. 2010. “Immanuel Wallerstein.” Pp. 398-405 in Social Theory: The Multicultural and Classical Readings. Westview Press.
^ Jump up to: a b So, Alvin Y. (1990). Social Change and Development: Modernization, Dependency, and World-Systems Theory. Newbury Park, London: Sage Publications. pp. 169–199. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Abercrombie, Nicholas, Hill, Stephen, and Bryan Turner. 2006. Dictionary of Sociology. 6th ed. London, England: Penguin Books Ltd.
Jump up ^ Wallerstein, Immanuel (2004). World-systems analysis : an introduction (5. print. ed.). Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822334422.
Jump up ^ "What Is the Kondratiev Wave?". Retrieved 30 September 2012.
Further reading[edit]
Kenneth, A. "Contemporary social and sociological theory: visualizing social worlds". Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2006.
Brewer, A., Marxist Theories of Imperialism: A Critical survey, London: Macmillan, 1990.
Frank, A.G. and B. Gills (eds), The World System: 500 years or 5000?, London: Routledge, 1993.
Hout, W., Capitalism and the Third World: Development, dependence and the world system, Hants: Edward Elgar, 1993.
Sanderson, S., Civilizations and World Systems, London: Sage, 1955.
Shannon, T., An Introduction to the World-System Perspective, Oxford: Westview Press, 1989.
Wallerstein, I., The Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century, New York: Academic Press, 1974.
External links[edit]
Library resources about
Immanuel Wallerstein
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
By Immanuel Wallerstein
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Media related to Immanuel Wallerstein at Wikimedia Commons
Immanuel Wallerstein's Official Website
Immanuel Wallerstein's profile at Yale.edu
Immanuel Wallerstein's Full CV
Wallerstein's Own Fortnightly Commentaries on Current Events
Wallerstein's Bimonthly Syndicated Commentaries
Wallerstein's World-Systems Theory
Presentation of Immanuel Wallerstein's "World-System Model"
"Modern History Sourcebook: Summary of Wallerstein on World System Theory" - Fordham University
Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromodels of the World System Growth by Andrey Korotayev, Artemy Malkov, and Daria Khaltourina
Binghmaton University Fernand Braudel Center for the Study of Economies, Historical Systems, and Civilizations
Journal of World-Systems Research
Entering Global Anarchy by Immanuel Wallerstein
Interview with Wallerstein (2008) on the End of Capitalism and World-Systems
Structural Crisis - 2010, New Left Review essay
Video
"The U.S. As a World Power" C-SPAN (2002)
"The United States Facing Its Decline" - Fall 2006, Conference given by Immanuel Wallerstein at the Université de Montréal (in French)
"Major crisis still ahead, past one was minor" (2009) on YouTube - Immanuel Wallerstein comments on America's recent financial crisis in TV interview
"Immanuel Wallerstein - Unit of Analysis" (2010) on YouTube
"Immanuel Wallerstein - Capitalism is reaching its end" (2011) on YouTube
Audio
Grace Lee Boggs and Immanuel Wallerstein Dialogue - U.S. Social Forum, 2010
"Global Africa: Liberation Movements Since 1945" - Sept. 24, 2008, dialogue between Immanuel Wallerstein, Walter Turner, and Will Grant at CounterPULSE, part of the ongoing Shaping San Francisco Talks series
KPFA Radio Interview - Nov. 12, 2008, Immanuel Wallerstein comments on the structural constraints faced by Obama and the current economic crisis
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