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Centipede
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For other uses, see Centipede (disambiguation).
Centipedes
Temporal range: 418–0 Ma
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Late Silurian to present
Lithobius forficatus
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Myriapoda
Class: Chilopoda
Latreille, 1817
Orders and Families
Scutigeromorpha
Pselliodidae
Scutigeridae
Scutigerinidae
Lithobiomorpha
Henicopidae
Lithobiidae
Craterostigmomorpha
Craterostigmidae
Scolopendromorpha
Cryptopidae
Scolopendridae
Scolopocryptopidae
Geophilomorpha
Himantariidae
Mecistocephalidae
Neogeophilidae
Geophilidae
Oryidae
Linotaeniidae
Centipedes (from Latin prefix centi-, "hundred", and pes, pedis, "foot") are arthropods belonging to the class Chilopoda of the subphylum Myriapoda, an arthropod group which also includes Millipedes and other multi-legged creatures. Centipedes are elongated metameric creatures with one pair of legs per body segment. Centipedes are known to be highly venomous, and often inject paralyzing venom. Despite the name, centipedes can have a varying number of legs, ranging from 30 to 354. Centipedes always have an odd number of pairs of legs.[1][2][3] Therefore, no centipede has exactly 100 legs. A key trait uniting this group is a pair of venom claws or forcipules formed from a modified first appendage. Centipedes are predominantly carnivorous.[4]:168
Their size can range from a few millimetres in the smaller lithobiomorphs and geophilomorphs to about 30 cm (12 in) in the largest scolopendromorphs. Centipedes can be found in a wide variety of environments. They normally have a drab coloration combining shades of brown and red. Cavernicolous (cave-dwelling) and subterranean species may lack pigmentation, and many tropical scolopendromorphs have bright aposematic colours.
Worldwide, an estimated 8,000 species of centipedes are thought to exist,[5] of which 3,000 have been described. Centipedes have a wide geographical range, where they even reach beyond the Arctic Circle.[4] They are found in an array of terrestrial habitats from tropical rainforests to deserts. Within these habitats, centipedes require a moist microhabitat because they lack the waxy cuticle of insects and arachnids, therefore causing them to rapidly lose water.[6] Accordingly, they are found in soil and leaf litter, under stones and dead wood, and inside logs. Centipedes are among the largest terrestrial invertebrate predators, and often contribute significantly to the invertebrate predatory biomass in terrestrial ecosystems. Only one species, Scolopendra cataracta, is known to be amphibious and is believed to hunt aquatic or amphibious invertebrates.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Lifecycle
2.1 Anamorphy vs. epimorphy
3 Ecology
3.1 Uses
3.2 Hazards to humans
4 Evolution
5 Orders and families
5.1 Scutigeromorpha
5.2 Lithobiomorpha
5.3 Craterostigmomorpha
5.4 Scolopendromorpha
5.5 Geophilomorpha
6 Selected species
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Description[edit]
Underside of Scolopendra cingulata, showing the forcipules
Close-up of the tail-like rear pair of legs of a centipede
Centipedes have a rounded or flattened head, bearing a pair of antennae at the forward margin. They have a pair of elongated mandibles, and two pairs of maxillae. The first pair of maxillae form the lower lip, and bear short palps. The first pair of limbs stretch forward from the body to cover the remainder of the mouth. These limbs, or maxillipeds, end in sharp claws and include venom glands that help the animal to kill or paralyze its prey.[6]
Many species of centipedes lack eyes, but some possess a variable number of ocelli, which are sometimes clustered together to form true compound eyes. However, these eyes are only capable of discerning light and dark, and have no true vision. In some species, the first pair of legs at the head end of the centipede acts as sense organs similar to antennae, but unlike the antennae of most other animals, theirs point backwards. Unusual sense organs found in some groups are the organs of Tömösváry. These are located at the base of the antennae, and consist of a disc-like structure with a central pore surrounded by sensory cells. They are probably used for sensing vibrations, and may even provide a sense of hearing.[6]
Forcipules are a unique feature found only in centipedes and in no other arthropods. The forcipules are modifications of the first pair of legs, forming a pincer-like appendage always found just behind the head.[8] Forcipules are not true mouthparts, although they are used in the capture of prey items, injecting venom and holding onto captured prey. Venom glands run through a tube almost to the tip of each forcipule.[8]
Behind the head, the body consists of 15 or more segments. Most of the segments bear a single pair of legs, with the maxillipeds projecting forward from the first body segment, and the final two segments being small and legless. Each pair of legs is slightly longer than the pair immediately in front of it, ensuring that they do not overlap, so reducing the chance that they will collide with each other while moving swiftly. In extreme cases, the last pair of legs may be twice the length of the first pair. The final segment bears a telson and includes the openings of the reproductive organs.[6]
As predators, centipedes mainly use their antennae to seek out their prey. The digestive tract forms a simple tube, with digestive glands attached to the mouthparts. Like insects, centipedes breathe through a tracheal system, typically with a single opening, or spiracle on each body segment. They excrete waste through a single pair of malpighian tubules.[6]
Scolopendra gigantea, also known as the Amazonian giant centipede, is the largest existing species of centipede in the world, reaching over 30 cm (12 in) in length. It is known to eat lizards, frogs, birds, mice, and even bats, catching them in midflight,[9] as well as rodents and spiders.
Lifecycle[edit]
A centipede protecting her eggmass
Centipede reproduction does not involve copulation. Males deposit a spermatophore for the female to take up. In one clade, this spermatophore is deposited in a web, and the male undertakes a courtship dance to encourage the female to engulf his sperm. In other cases, the males just leave them for the females to find. In temperate areas, egg laying occurs in spring and summer, but in subtropical and tropical areas, little seasonality to centipede breeding is apparent. A few species of parthenogenetic centipedes are known.[4]
The Lithobiomorpha and Scutigeromorpha lay their eggs singly in holes in the soil, and the female fills the holes with soil and leaves them. The number of eggs laid ranges from about 10 to 50. Time of development of the embryo to hatching is highly variable and may take from one to a few months. Time of development to reproductive period is highly variable within and among species. For example, it can take 3 years for S. coleoptrata to achieve adulthood, whereas under the right conditions, lithobiomorph species may reach a reproductive period in 1 year. In addition, centipedes are relatively long-lived when compared to insects. For example, the European Lithobius forficatus may live for 5 to 6 years,[10] and the wide-ranging Scolopendra subspinipes can live for over 10 years.[11] The combination of a small number of eggs laid, long gestation period, and long time of development to reproduction has led authors to label lithobiomorph centipedes as K-selected.[12]
Females of the Geophilomorpha and Scolopendromorpha show far more parental care. The eggs, 15 to 60 in number, are laid in a nest in the soil or in rotten wood. The female stays with the eggs, guarding and licking them to protect them from fungi. The female in some species stays with the young after they have hatched, guarding them until they are ready to leave. If disturbed, the female either abandons the eggs or eats them; abandoned eggs tend to fall prey to fungi rapidly. Some species of Scolopendromorpha are matriphagic, meaning the offspring eat their mother.
Little is known of the life history of the Craterostigmomorpha.
Anamorphy vs. epimorphy[edit]
Centipedes grow their legs at different points in their development. In the primitive condition, exhibited by the Lithobiomorpha, Scutigeromorpha, and Craterostigmomorpha, development is anamorphic: more pairs of legs are grown between moults. For example, Scutigera coleoptrata, the American house centipede, hatches with only four pairs of legs and in successive moults has 5, 7, 9, 11, 15, 15, 15 and 15 before becoming a sexually mature adult. Life stages with fewer than 15 pairs of legs are called larval stadia (about five stages). After the full complement of legs is achieved, the now postlarval stadia (about five stages) develop gonopods, sensory pores, more antennal segments, and more ocelli. All mature lithobiomorph centipedes have 15 leg-bearing segments.[4]:27
The Craterostigmomorpha only have one phase of anamorphosis, with embryos having 12 pairs, and moultees 15.
The clade Epimorpha, consisting of the orders Geophilomorpha and Scolopendromorpha, exhibits epimorphy: all pairs of legs are developed in the embryonic stages, and offspring do not develop more legs between moults. This clade contains the longest centipedes; the maximum number of thoracic segments may also vary intraspecifically, often on a geographical basis; in most cases, females bear more legs than males. The number of leg-bearing segments varies widely, from 15 to 191, but the developmental mode of their creation means they are always added in pairs—hence the total number of pairs is always odd.
Ecology[edit]
A centipede (Scolopendra cingulata) being eaten by a European roller
Centipede seen on vegetation at Agumbe, Karnataka, India
Centipedes are predominantly generalist predators, which means they have adapted to eat a variety of different available prey. Examination of centipede gut contents suggests that plant material is an unimportant part of their diets, although centipedes have been observed to eat vegetable matter when starved during laboratory experiments.[4]:168
Centipedes are mostly nocturnal. Studies on their activity rhythms confirm this, although a few observations of centipedes active during the day have been made, and one species, Strigamia chinophila, is diurnal. What centipedes actually eat is not well known because of their cryptic lifestyles and thorough mastication of food. Laboratory feeding trials support that they will feed as generalists, taking almost anything that is soft-bodied and in a reasonable size range. Earthworms may provide the bulk of diets for geophilomorphs, since they burrow through the soil and earthworm bodies would be easily pierced by their venom claws. Geophilomorphs probably cannot subdue earthworms larger than themselves, so smaller earthworms may be a substantial proportion of their diet.[13]
Scolopendromorphs, given their size, are able to feed on vertebrates, in addition to invertebrates. They have been observed eating reptiles, amphibians, small mammals, bats, and birds. Springtails may provide a large proportion of lithobiomorph diets. Little is known about scutigeromorph or craterostigmomorph diets. All centipedes are potential intraguild predators. Centipedes and spiders may frequently prey on one another.[4]
Many larger animals prey upon centipedes, such as mongooses, mice, salamanders, beetles and snakes.[4]:354–356 They form an important item of diet for many species and the staple diet of some such as the African ant Amblyopone pluto, which feeds solely on geophilomorph centipedes,[14] and the South African Cape black-headed snake Aparallactus capensis.[4]:354–356
Centipede defences include their speed and venomous forcipules, as well as the secretion of defensive chemicals. Geophilomorph centipedes can secrete sticky substances that generate toxic hydrogen cyanide and benzoic acid from microscopic glands on their undersides. Similarly, lithobiomorph centipedes secrete a sticky substance from glands in the rear-most two pairs of legs.[15]
Water regulation is an important aspect of centipede ecology, since they lose water rapidly in dry conditions and are found in moist microhabitats. Water loss is a result of centipedes lacking a waxy covering of their exoskeleton and excreting waste nitrogen as ammonia, which requires extra water. Centipedes deal with water loss through a variety of adaptations. Geophilomorphs lose water less rapidly than lithobiomorphs, though they have a greater surface area to volume ratio. This may be because geophilomorphs have a more heavily sclerotized pleural membrane. Spiracle shape, size, and ability to constrict also have an influence on rate of water loss. In addition, the number and size of coxal pores may be variables affecting centipede water balance.
Centipedes live in many different habitat types—forest, savannah, prairie, and desert, to name a few. Some geophilomorphs are adapted to littoral habitats, where they feed on barnacles.[16] Species of all orders excluding the Craterostigmomorpha have adapted to caves. Centipede densities have been recorded as high as 600/m2 and biomass as high as 500 mg/m2 wet weight. Small geophilomorphs attain highest densities, followed by small lithobiomorphs. Large lithobiomorphs attain densities of 20/m2. One study of scolopendromorphs records Scolopendra morsitans in a Nigerian savannah at a density of 0.16/m2 and a biomass of 140 mg/m2 wet weight.[17]
Uses[edit]
Centipedes at Wangfujing market
Although unusual in most cultures as a food item, certain large-sized centipedes are consumed in China, usually skewered and grilled or deep fried. They are often seen in street vendor's stalls in large cities, including Donghuamen and Wangfujing markets in Beijing.[18][19]
Also in China, as well as in Laos, Thailand, and Cambodia, large centipedes are kept in liquor for a period of time. This custom is allegedly part of the traditional Chinese medicine. Said to have medicinal properties and to be reinvigorating,[20] the liquor with the centipede submerged in it is consumed as a special drink.[21]
Hazards to humans[edit]
Main article: Centipede bite
Some species of centipedes can be hazardous to humans because of their bite. Although a bite to an adult human is usually very painful and may cause severe swelling, chills, fever, and weakness, it is unlikely to be fatal. Bites can be dangerous to small children and those with allergies to bee stings. The venomous bite of larger centipedes can induce anaphylactic shock in such people. Smaller centipedes are generally incapable of piercing human skin.[22]
Even nonvenomous centipedes are considered frightening by humans due to their dozens of legs moving at the same time and their tendency to dart swiftly out of the darkness towards one's feet.[23] A 19th-century Tibetan poet warned his fellow Buddhists, "if you enjoy frightening others, you will be reborn as a centipede."[24]
Evolution[edit]
Internal phylogeny of the Chilopoda

Scutigeromorpha

Pleurostigmophora

Lithobiomorpha

Phylactometria

Craterostigmomorpha

Epimorpha

Scolopendromorpha

Geophilomorpha

The upper three groups form the paraphyletic Anamorpha.
The fossil record of centipedes extends back to 430 million years ago, during the Late Silurian.[25] They belong to the subphylum Myriapoda which includes Diplopoda, Symphyla, and Pauropoda. The oldest known fossil land animal, Pneumodesmus newmani, is a myriapod. Being among the earliest terrestrial animals, centipedes were one of the first to fill a fundamental niche as ground level generalist predators in detrital food webs. Today, centipedes are abundant and exist in many harsh habitats.
Within the myriapods, centipedes are believed to be the first of the extant classes to branch from the last common ancestor. The five orders of centipedes are: Craterostigmomorpha, Geophilomorpha, Lithobiomorpha, Scolopendromorpha, and Scutigeromorpha. These orders are united into the clade Chilopoda by the following synapomorphies:[26]
The first postcephalic appendage is modified to venom claws.
The embryonic cuticle on second maxilliped has an egg tooth.
The trochanter–prefemur joint is fixed.
A spiral ridge occurs on the nucleus of the spermatozoon.
The Chilopoda are then split into two clades: the Notostigmophora including the Scutigeromorpha and the Pleurostigmophora including the other four orders. The main difference is that the Notostigmomorpha have their spiracles located mid-dorsally. It was previously believed that Chilopoda was split into Anamorpha (Lithobiomorpha and Scutigeromorpha) and Epimorpha (Geophilomorpha and Scolopendromorpha), based on developmental modes, with the relationship of the Craterostigmomorpha being uncertain. Recent phylogenetic analyses using combined molecular and morphological characters supports the previous phylogeny.[26] The Epimorpha still exist as a monophyletic group within the Pleurostigmophora, but the Anamorpha are paraphyletic.
Geophilomorph centipedes have been used to argue for the developmental constraint of evolution; that the evolvability of a trait, the number of segments in the case of geophilomorph centipedes, was constrained by the mode of development. The geophilomorph centipedes have variable segment numbers within species, yet as with all centipedes, they always have an odd number of pairs of legs. In this taxon, the number of segments ranges from 27 to 191, but is never an even number.[27]
Orders and families[edit]
Representatives of centipede orders
Scutigera coleoptrata
(Scutigeromorpha: Scutigeridae)
Lithobius forficatus
(Lithobiomorpha: Lithobiidae)
Geophilus flavus
(Geophilomorpha: Geophilidae)
Scolopendra cataracta
(Scolopendromorpha: Scolopendridae)
Scutigeromorpha[edit]
The Scutigeromorpha are anamorphic, reaching 15 leg-bearing segments in length. Also known as house centipedes, they are very fast creatures, and able to withstand falling at great speed: they reach up to 15 body lengths per second when dropped, surviving the fall. They are the only centipede group to retain their original compound eyes, within which a crystalline layer analogous to that seen in chelicerates and insects can be observed. They also bear long and multi-segmented antennae. Adaptation to a burrowing lifestyle has led to the degeneration of compound eyes in other orders; this feature is of great use in phylogenetic analysis.
The group is the sole extant representative of the Notostigmomorpha, defined by having a single spiracle opening at the posterior of each dorsal plate. The more derived groups bear a plurality of spiracular openings on their sides, and are termed the Pleurostigmomorpha. Some even have several unpaired spiracles that can be found along the mid-dorsal line and closer to their posterior section of tergites. There are three families: Psellioididae, Scutigeridae and Scutigerinidae. Pselliodidae includes just a few species in the genus Sphendononema (=Pselliodes), occurring in the Neotropics and tropical Africa. Scutigerinidae, composed of three species in the genus Scutigerina, is restricted to southern Africa and Madagascar. Most scutigeromorphs from other parts of the world belong to the Scutigeridae, which includes two subfamilies, the Scutigerinae and Thereuoneminae.
Lithobiomorpha[edit]
The Lithobiomorpha, also known as stone centipedes, represent the other main group of anamorphic centipedes; they also reach a mature segment count of 15 trunk segments. This group has lost the compound eyes, and sometimes has no eyes altogether. Instead, its eyes have a single ocellus or a group of ocelli. Its spiracles are paired and can be found laterally. Every leg-bearing segment of this organism has a separate tergite, these alternating in length apart from a pair of long tergites on each of segments 7 and 8. It also has relatively short antennae and legs compared to the Scutigeromorpha. Two families are included, the Henicopidae and Lithobiidae.
Craterostigmomorpha[edit]
The Craterostigmomorpha are the least diverse centipede clade, comprising only two extant species, both in the genus Craterostigmus.[28] Their geographic range is restricted to Tasmania and New Zealand. They have a distinct body plan; their anamorphosis comprises a single stage: in their first moult, they grow from having 12 segments to having 15. Their low diversity and intermediate position between the primitive anamorphic centipedes and the derived Epimorpha has led to them being likened to the platypus.[28] They represent the survivors of a once diverse clade.
Maternal brooding unites the Craterostigomomorpha with the Epimorpha into the clade Phylactometria. This trait is thought to be closely linked with the presence of sternal pores, which secrete sticky or noxious secretions, which mainly serve to repel predators and parasites. The presence of these pores on the Devonian Devonobius permits its inclusion in this clade, allowing its divergence to be dated to 375 (or more) million years ago.[29]
Scolopendromorpha[edit]
The Scolopendromorpha, also known as tropical centipedes, possess 21 or 23 body segments (apart from a single species, Scolopendropsis duplicata, which has 39 or 43 segments) with the same number of paired legs. Their antennae have 17 or more segments. The eyes have a fixed number of four ocelli on each side in the family Scolopendridae and one ocellus per side in the genus Mimops (family Mimopidae), but other families are blind. The order comprises the five families Cryptopidae, Scolopendridae, Mimopidae, Scolopocryptopidae, and Plutoniumidae. The only known amphibious centipede, Scolopendra cataracta, belongs to this order.[7][30][31]
Geophilomorpha[edit]
The Geophilomorpha, commonly known as soil centipedes, bear upwards of 27 leg-bearing segments. They are eyeless and blind, and bear spiracles on all leg-bearing segments—in contrast to other groups, which usually bear them only on their 3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 12th, and 14th segments—a "mid-body break", accompanied by a change in tagmatic shape, occurring roughly at the interchange from odd to even segments. This group, the most diverse at 1260 species, also contains the largest and leggiest specimens at 27 or more pairs of legs. They also have 14–segmented antennae. The group includes at least seven families: Mecistocephalidae, Geophilidae (including the former Linotaeniidae, Dignathodontidae and Macronicophilidae), Oryidae, Himantariidae, Schendylidae (including the former Ballophilidae), Zelanophilidae, and Gonibregmatidae (including the former Neogeophilidae and Eriphantidae).
Selected species[edit]
Man holding Scolopendra gigantea. Trinidad, 1961
Scientific name Common name
Alipes grandidieri feather-tail centipede
Ethmostigmus trigonopodus blue ring centipede
Lithobius forficatus stone centipede
Pachymerium ferrugineum earth centipede
Scolopendra galapagoensis Galápagos centipede
Scolopendra cataracta Aquatic centipede
Scutigera coleoptrata house centipede
Scolopendra gigantea Peruvian giant yellow-leg centipede
Scolopendra heros giant red-headed centipede
Scolopendra morsitans red-headed centipede
Scolopendra polymorpha giant Sonoran centipede
Scolopendra subspinipes Vietnamese centipede
See also[edit]
Arthropods portal
Centipedes of the Mazon Creek fossil beds
Millipede
Centipede mathematics
The Centipede's Dilemma
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chilopoda.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Centipede.
Chilobase, a web resource for Chilopoda taxonomy
Debunking of some centipede myths, American Tarantula Society
Centipedes of Australia
Chilopoda, Tree of Life Web Project
What do you call a centipede?
Centipedes of North America
Tasmanian Centipedes
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t
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Extant Arthropoda classes by subphylum
Kingdom Animalia
Subkingdom Eumetazoa
(unranked) Bilateria
(unranked) Protostomia
Superphylum Ecdysozoa
Chelicerata
Pycnogonida (sea spiders)
Euchelicerata
Merostomata (horseshoe crabs)¹
Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites)
Myriapoda
Chilopoda (centipedes)
Diplopoda (millipedes)
Pauropoda (pauropods)
Symphyla (symphylans or garden centipedes)
Pancrustacea
(Crustacea +
+ Hexapoda)
Oligostraca
Ostracoda (seed shrimps)
Mystacocarida²
Ichthyostraca²
Pentastomida (tongue worms)
Branchiura (fish lice)
Altocrustacea
Multicrustacea
Malacostraca (woodlice, shrimps, crayfish, lobsters, crabs)
Copepoda (copepods)²
Thecostraca (barnacles and relatives)² + Tantulocarida²
Allotriocarida
Cephalocarida (horseshoe shrimps)
Branchiopoda (fairy, tadpole, clam shrimps, water fleas)
Unnamed clade
Remipedia
Hexapoda
Protura (coneheads)³
Collembola (springtails)³
Diplura (two-pronged bristletails)³
Insecta (insects)
¹contains the only extant order Xiphosura
²Maxillopoda
³Entognatha
italic are paraphyletic groups
Sources: Edgecombe et al. (2014), Petrunina (2012) for pancrustaceans.
Authority control
GND: 4160805-7
NDL: 00567893
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text:
List of Olympic Games host cities
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This is a list of host cities of the Olympic Games, both summer and winter, since the modern Olympics began in 1896. Since then, summer games have usually – but not always – celebrated a four-year period known as an Olympiad. There have been 28 Summer Olympic Games held in 23 cities, and 23 Winter Olympic Games held in 20 cities. In addition, three summer and two winter editions of the Games were scheduled to take place but later cancelled due to war: Berlin (summer) in 1916; Tokyo/Helsinki (summer) and Sapporo/Garmisch-Partenkirchen (winter) in 1940; and London (summer) and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy (winter) in 1944. The 1906 Summer Olympics were officially sanctioned and held in Athens. However, in 1949, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games.[1] Four cities have been chosen by the IOC to host upcoming Olympic Games: Tokyo for the 2020 Summer Olympics, Beijing for the 2022 Winter Olympics, Paris for the 2024 Summer Olympics, and Los Angeles for the 2028 Summer Olympics.
In 2022, Beijing will become the only city that has held both the summer and the winter Olympic Games. Nine cities will have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens (1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics), Paris (1900, 1924 and 2024 Summer Olympics), London (1908, 1948 and 2012 Summer Olympics), St. Moritz (1928 and 1948 Winter Olympics), Lake Placid (1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics), Los Angeles (1932, 1984 and 2028 Summer Olympics), Innsbruck (1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics), Tokyo (1964 and 2020 Summer Olympics) and Beijing (2008 Summer Olympics and 2022 Winter Olympics). In addition, Stockholm hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics.[d] London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics. Paris will become the second city to do this with the 2024 Summer Olympics, followed by Los Angeles as the third in 2028. The United States has hosted a total of eight Olympic Games, more than any other country, followed by France with five editions. Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom have each hosted three Games.
The Games have primarily been hosted in the continents of Europe (36 editions) and North America (12 editions); eight Games have been hosted in Asia and two have been hosted in Oceania. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro became South America's first Olympic host city, while the African continent has yet to hold the Games. Other major geographic regions which have never hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia.
Host cities are selected by the IOC membership, usually seven years in advance.[2] The selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may submit an application to become a host city. After 10 months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant city will become official candidates as based on the recommendation of a working group that reviews the applications. In a second stage, the candidate cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission, which then submits a final short list of cities to be considered for selection. The host city is then chosen by vote of the IOC session, a general meeting of IOC members.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Olympic Games host cities
1.1 Host cities for multiple Summer and Winter Olympic Games
1.2 Number of Olympic Games by country
1.3 Number of Olympic Games by continent
1.4 Unsuccessful cities
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
Olympic Games host cities[edit]
For individual summer and winter lists, see List of modern Summer Olympic Games and List of Winter Olympic Games.
City
Country
Continent
Summer (Olympiad)
Winter
Year
Opening Ceremony
Closing Ceremony
Athens Greece Europe S005I — 1896 000000002018-04-06-0000April 6 000000002018-04-15-0000April 15
Paris France Europe S005II — 1900 000000002018-05-14-0000May 14 000000002018-10-28-0000October 28
St. Louis[a] United States North America S005III — 1904 000000002018-07-01-0000July 1 000000002018-11-23-0000November 23
London[c] United Kingdom Europe S005IV — 1908 000000002018-04-27-0000April 27 000000002018-10-31-0000October 31
Stockholm Sweden Europe S005V — 1912 000000002018-05-05-0000May 5 000000002018-07-22-0000July 22
Berlin Germany Europe S006VI — 1916 Cancelled due to WWI[4]
Antwerp[d] Belgium Europe S007VII — 1920 000000002018-04-20-0000April 20 000000002018-09-12-0000September 12[5]
Chamonix France Europe — W001I 1924 000000002018-01-25-0000January 25 000000002018-02-04-0000February 4[6]
Paris France Europe S008VIII — 000000002018-05-04-0000May 4 000000002018-07-27-0000July 27[7]
St. Moritz Switzerland Europe — W002II 1928 000000002018-02-11-0000February 11 000000002018-02-19-0000February 19[8]
Amsterdam Netherlands Europe S009IX — 000000002018-05-17-0000May 17 000000002018-08-12-0000August 12[9]
Lake Placid United States North America — W003III 1932 000000002018-02-04-0000February 4 000000002018-02-15-0000February 15[10]
Los Angeles United States North America S010X — 000000002018-07-30-0000July 30 000000002018-08-14-0000August 14[11]
Garmisch-Partenkirchen Nazi Germany Europe — W004IV 1936 000000002018-02-06-0000February 6 000000002018-02-16-0000February 16[12]
Berlin Nazi Germany Europe S011XI — 000000002018-08-01-0000August 1 000000002018-08-16-0000August 16[13]
Sapporo
Garmisch-Partenkirchen[e] Empire of Japan
Nazi Germany Asia
Europe — W005aV 1940 Cancelled due to WWII[4]
Tokyo
Helsinki[f] Empire of Japan
Finland Asia
Europe S012XII —
Cortina d'Ampezzo Italy Europe — W005bV 1944
London United Kingdom Europe S013XIII —
St. Moritz Switzerland Europe — W005cV 1948 000000002018-01-30-0000January 30 000000002018-02-08-0000February 8
London United Kingdom Europe S014XIV — 000000002018-07-29-0000July 29 000000002018-08-14-0000August 14
Oslo Norway Europe — W006VI 1952 000000002018-02-14-0000February 14 000000002018-02-25-0000February 25
Helsinki Finland Europe S015XV — 000000002018-07-19-0000July 19 000000002018-08-03-0000August 3
Cortina d'Ampezzo Italy Europe — W007VII 1956 000000002018-01-26-0000January 26 000000002018-02-05-0000February 5
Melbourne
Stockholm[g] Australia
Sweden Oceania
Europe S016XVI — 000000002018-11-22-0000November 22
000000002018-06-10-0000June 10 000000002018-12-08-0000December 8
000000002018-06-17-0000June 17
Squaw Valley United States North America — W008VIII 1960 000000002018-02-18-0000February 18 000000002018-02-28-0000February 28
Rome Italy Europe S017XVII — 000000002018-08-25-0000August 25 000000002018-09-11-0000September 11
Innsbruck Austria Europe — W009IX 1964 000000002018-01-29-0000January 29 000000002018-02-09-0000February 9
Tokyo Japan Asia S018XVIII — 000000002018-10-10-0000October 10 000000002018-10-24-0000October 24
Grenoble France Europe — W010X 1968 000000002018-02-06-0000February 6 000000002018-02-18-0000February 18
Mexico City Mexico North America S019XIX — 000000002018-10-12-0000October 12 000000002018-10-27-0000October 27
Sapporo Japan Asia — W011XI 1972 000000002018-02-03-0000February 3 000000002018-02-13-0000February 13
Munich West Germany Europe S020XX — 000000002018-08-26-0000August 26 000000002018-09-11-0000September 11
Innsbruck Austria Europe — W012XII 1976 000000002018-02-04-0000February 4 000000002018-02-15-0000February 15
Montreal Canada North America S021XXI — 000000002018-07-17-0000July 17 000000002018-08-01-0000August 1
Lake Placid United States North America — W013XIII 1980 000000002018-02-12-0000February 12 000000002018-02-24-0000February 24
Moscow Soviet Union Europe[h] S022XXII — 000000002018-07-19-0000July 19 000000002018-08-03-0000August 3
Sarajevo Yugoslavia Europe — W014XIV 1984 000000002018-02-07-0000February 7 000000002018-02-19-0000February 19
Los Angeles United States North America S023XXIII — 000000002018-07-28-0000July 28 000000002018-08-12-0000August 12
Calgary Canada North America — W015XV 1988 000000002018-02-13-0000February 13 000000002018-02-28-0000February 28
Seoul South Korea Asia S024XXIV — 000000002018-09-17-0000September 17 000000002018-10-02-0000October 2
Albertville France Europe — W016XVI 1992 000000002018-02-08-0000February 8 000000002018-02-23-0000February 23
Barcelona Spain Europe S025XXV — 000000002018-07-25-0000July 25 000000002018-08-09-0000August 9
Lillehammer Norway Europe — W017XVII 1994 000000002018-02-12-0000February 12 000000002018-02-27-0000February 27
Atlanta United States North America S026XXVI — 1996 000000002018-07-19-0000July 19 000000002018-08-04-0000August 4
Nagano Japan Asia — W018XVIII 1998 000000002018-02-07-0000February 7 000000002018-02-22-0000February 22
Sydney Australia Oceania S027XXVII — 2000 000000002018-09-15-0000September 15 000000002018-10-01-0000October 1
Salt Lake City United States North America — W019XIX 2002 000000002018-02-08-0000February 8 000000002018-02-24-0000February 24
Athens Greece Europe S028XXVIII — 2004 000000002018-08-13-0000August 13 000000002018-08-29-0000August 29
Torino Italy Europe — W020XX 2006 000000002018-02-10-0000February 10 000000002018-02-26-0000February 26
Beijing[i] China Asia S029XXIX — 2008 000000002018-08-08-0000August 8 000000002018-08-24-0000August 24
Vancouver Canada North America — W021XXI 2010 000000002018-02-12-0000February 12 000000002018-02-28-0000February 28
London United Kingdom Europe S030XXX — 2012 000000002018-07-27-0000July 27 000000002018-08-12-0000August 12
Sochi Russia Europe[h] — W022XXII 2014 000000002018-02-07-0000February 7 000000002018-02-23-0000February 23
Rio de Janeiro Brazil South America S031XXXI — 2016 000000002018-08-05-0000August 5 000000002018-08-21-0000August 21
Pyeongchang South Korea Asia — W023XXIII 2018 000000002018-02-09-0000February 9 000000002018-02-25-0000February 25
Tokyo Japan Asia S032XXXII — 2020 000000002018-07-24-0000July 24 000000002018-08-09-0000August 9
Beijing China Asia — W024XXIV 2022 000000002018-02-04-0000February 4 000000002018-02-20-0000February 20
Paris France Europe S033XXXIII — 2024 000000002018-07-26-0000July 26 000000002018-08-11-0000August 11
TBD TBD — W025XXV 2026 (TBD)
Los Angeles United States North America S034XXXIV — 2028 000000002018-07-21-0000July 21 000000002018-08-06-0000August 6
TBD TBD — W026XXVI 2030 (TBD)
Host cities for multiple Summer and Winter Olympic Games[edit]
List of cities that hosted multiple editions of the Olympic Games
City
Country
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Total
London United Kingdom Europe 3 (1908, 1948, 2012) 0 3
Paris France Europe 3 (1900, 1924, 2024) 0
Los Angeles United States North America 3 (1932, 1984, 2028) 0
Athens Greece Europe 2 (1896, 2004) 0 2
Tokyo Japan Asia 2 (1964, 2020) 0
Beijing China Asia 1 (2008) 1 (2022)
St. Moritz Switzerland Europe 0 2 (1928, 1948)
Innsbruck Austria Europe 0 2 (1964, 1976)
Lake Placid United States North America 0 2 (1932, 1980)
The 1906 Intercalated Games are not officially recognized by the IOC as an official Olympic Games.
Number of Olympic Games by country[edit]
Nations that have hosted or will host the Summer Olympics
5 times
4 times (no entry)
3 times
2 times
1 time
Never held games
Nations that have hosted or will host the Winter Olympics
4 times or more
3 times
2 times
1 time
Never held games
List of countries ranked by the number of times they hosted the Olympic Games
Rank
Country
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Total
1 United States North America 5 (1904, 1932, 1984, 1996, 2028) 4 (1932, 1960, 1980, 2002) 9
2 France Europe 3 (1900, 1924, 2024) 3 (1924, 1968, 1992) 6
3 Japan Asia 2 (1940, 1964, 2020) 2 (1940, 1972, 1998) 4
4 United Kingdom Europe 3 (1908, 1944, 1948, 2012) 0 3
Canada North America 1 (1976) 2 (1988, 2010)
Italy Europe 1 (1960) 2 (1944, 1956, 2006)
German Empire/ Nazi Germany/ West Germany/ Germany Europe 2 (1916, 1936, 1972) 1 (1936, 1940)
8 China Asia 1 (2008) 1 (2022) 2
South Korea Asia 1 (1988) 1 (2018)
Soviet Union/ Russia Europe 1 (1980) 1 (2014)
Greece Europe 2 (1896, 2004) 0
Australia Oceania 2 (1956, 2000) 0
Norway Europe 0 2 (1952, 1994)
Austria Europe 0 2 (1964, 1976)
Switzerland Europe 0 2 (1928, 1940, 1948)
Sweden Europe 2 (1912, 1956 (equestrian events only)) 0
17 Brazil South America 1 (2016) 0 1
Spain Europe 1 (1992) 0
SFR Yugoslavia/ Bosnia and Herzegovina Europe 0 1 (1984)
Mexico North America 1 (1968) 0
Finland Europe 1 (1940, 1952) 0
Netherlands Europe 1 (1928) 0
Belgium Europe 1 (1920) 0
Number of Olympic Games by continent[edit]
Rank
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Total
1 Europe 17 (1896, 1900, 1908, 1912, 1920, 1924, 1928, 1936, 1940, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1960, 1972, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2012, 2024) 14 (1924, 1928, 1936, 1940, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1956, 1964, 1968, 1976, 1984, 1992, 1994, 2006, 2014) 31
2 North America 7 (1904, 1932, 1968, 1976, 1984, 1996, 2028) 6 (1932, 1960, 1980, 1988, 2002, 2010) 13
3 Asia 4 (1940, 1964, 1988, 2008, 2020) 4 (1940, 1972, 1998, 2018, 2022) 8
4 Oceania 2 (1956, 2000) 0 2
5 South America 1 (2016) 0 1
6 Africa 0 0 0
Unsuccessful cities[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Country
City
Bids
United States Detroit 7
Hungary Budapest 6
Turkey Istanbul 5
Spain Madrid 4
Argentina Buenos Aires 4
Switzerland Lausanne 4
United States Philadelphia 5
United States Chicago 4
United States Minneapolis 3
Cuba Havana 3
Belgium Brussels 3
Azerbaijan Baku 2
Qatar Doha 2
Spain Seville 2
Yugoslavia Belgrade 2
Puerto Rico San Juan 1
Australia Brisbane 1
Slovakia Poprad 1
United States Boston 1
See also[edit]
Olympics portal
List of Commonwealth Games host cities
Notes[edit]
a Originally awarded to Chicago, but moved to St. Louis to coincide with the World's Fair.[14][15]
b The 1906 Games were sanctioned and treated as an Olympic Games when held, and they were recognized as an Olympic Games by the IOC until 1949[16]
c The 1908 Games were originally given to Rome, but were moved to London when Mount Vesuvius erupted.[17]
d The sailing events in 1920 were held in Ostend, Belgium and in Amsterdam, Netherlands.
e The 1940 winter games were originally awarded to Sapporo, but were moved to Garmisch-Partenkirchen before being cancelled.
f The 1940 summer games were originally awarded to Tokyo, but were moved to Helsinki before being cancelled.
g Equestrian events were held in Stockholm, Sweden. Stockholm had to bid for the equestrian competition separately; it received its own Olympic flame and had its own formal invitations and opening and closing ceremonies, just like the regular Summer Olympics.[18]
h Russia/Soviet Union spans the continents of Europe and Asia. However, the Russian National Olympic Committee is part of the European Olympic Committees. Also, Moscow is on the European side of the most commonly recognized boundary between Europe and Asia. (Sochi is in Asia per the usual geographic boundary, being just south of the Greater Caucasus' western end; but political approximations of the continental boundary place it in Europe.)
i Equestrian events were held in China's Hong Kong SAR.[19] Although Hong Kong's separate NOC conducted the equestrian competition, it was an integral part of the Beijing Games (unlike the 1956 Stockholm equestrian competition it was not conducted under a separate Hong Kong bid, separate flame, etc.).[20]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Findling, John E.; Pelle, Kimberly D. (2004). Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-313-32278-5.
Jump up ^ Group, Taylor Francis (2003). The Europa World Yearbook. Taylor and Francis Group. p. 247. ISBN 978-1-85743-227-5.
Jump up ^ "Choice of the Host City". olympic.org. International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-06-04.
^ Jump up to: a b Durántez, Conrado (April–May 1997). "The Olympic Movement, a twentieth-century phenomenon" (PDF). Olympic Review. XXVI (14): 56–57.
Jump up ^ "Antwerp 1920". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Chamonix 1924". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Paris 1924". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "St. Moritz 1928". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Amsterdam 1928". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Lake Placid 1932". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Los Angeles 1932". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Garmisch-Partenkirchen 1936". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Berlin 1936". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "St Louis 1904". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
Jump up ^ "St. Louis gets Olympic Games; International Committee Sanctions the Change for the World's Fair in 1904" (PDF). The New York Times. 1903-02-12. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
Jump up ^ The 2nd International Olympic Games In Athens 1906, Karl Lennartz, Journal of Olympic History, Dec. 2001/Jan. 2002
Jump up ^ "Rome Games moved to London". realclearsports.com. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Stockholm/Melbourne 1956". Swedish Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 2008-10-09. Retrieved 2008-08-01.
Jump up ^ Tim Pile (June 25, 2008). "Hong Kong saddles up for the Olympics". London: The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
Jump up ^ "2008 Beijing Olympic home page". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2008-05-04.
External links[edit]
"The Olympic Games". olympic.org. International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
[show]
v
t
e
Summer Olympic Games host cities
1896: Athens
1900: Paris
1904: St. Louis
1908: London
1912: Stockholm
1916: None[c1]
1920: Antwerp
1924: Paris
1928: Amsterdam
1932: Los Angeles
1936: Berlin
1940: None[c2]
1944: None[c2]
1948: London
1952: Helsinki
1956: Melbourne
1960: Rome
1964: Tokyo
1968: Mexico City
1972: Munich
1976: Montreal
1980: Moscow
1984: Los Angeles
1988: Seoul
1992: Barcelona
1996: Atlanta
2000: Sydney
2004: Athens
2008: Beijing
2012: London
2016: Rio de Janeiro
2020: Tokyo
2024: Paris
2028: Los Angeles
[c1] Cancelled due to World War I; [c2] Cancelled due to World War II
[show]
v
t
e
Winter Olympic Games host cities
1924: Chamonix
1928: St. Moritz
1932: Lake Placid
1936: Garmisch-Partenkirchen
1940: Cancelled due to World War II
1944: Cancelled due to World War II
1948: St. Moritz
1952: Oslo
1956: Cortina d'Ampezzo
1960: Squaw Valley
1964: Innsbruck
1968: Grenoble
1972: Sapporo
1976: Innsbruck
1980: Lake Placid
1984: Sarajevo
1988: Calgary
1992: Albertville
1994: Lillehammer
1998: Nagano
2002: Salt Lake City
2006: Turin
2010: Vancouver
2014: Sochi
2018: Pyeongchang
2022: Beijing
2026: TBD
2030: TBD
[show]
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Winter Olympics
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Pierre de Coubertin medal
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WWI
Olympic video games
Summer Games
1896 Athens
1900 Paris
1904 St. Louis
1908 London
1912 Stockholm
1916 Berlin
1920 Antwerp
1924 Paris
1928 Amsterdam
1932 Los Angeles
1936 Berlin
1940 Tokyo
1944 London
1948 London
1952 Helsinki
1956 Melbourne
1960 Rome
1964 Tokyo
1968 Mexico City
1972 Munich
1976 Montreal
1980 Moscow
1984 Los Angeles
1988 Seoul
1992 Barcelona
1996 Atlanta
2000 Sydney
2004 Athens
2008 Beijing
2012 London
2016 Rio de Janeiro
2020 Tokyo
2024 Paris
2028 Los Angeles
2032 TBD
Winter Games
1924 Chamonix
1928 St. Moritz
1932 Lake Placid
1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen
1940 Sapporo
1944 Cortina d'Ampezzo
1948 St. Moritz
1952 Oslo
1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
1960 Squaw Valley
1964 Innsbruck
1968 Grenoble
1972 Sapporo
1976 Innsbruck
1980 Lake Placid
1984 Sarajevo
1988 Calgary
1992 Albertville
1994 Lillehammer
1998 Nagano
2002 Salt Lake City
2006 Turin
2010 Vancouver
2014 Sochi
2018 Pyeongchang
2022 Beijing
2026 TBD
2030 TBD
Ancient Olympic Games
Intercalated Games
1906
Paralympic Games
Youth Olympic Games
Olympics portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Olympic_Games_host_cities&oldid=837813982"
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Substitute good
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If the price of Y increases then demand of X increases
A substitute good is one good that can be used instead of another. In consumer theory, substitute goods or substitutes are products that a consumer perceives as similar or comparable, so that having more of one product makes them desire less of the other product. Formally, X and Y are substitutes if, when the price of X rises, the demand for Y rises.
Potatoes from different farms are an example: if the price of one farm's potatoes goes up, then it can be presumed that fewer people will buy potatoes from that farm and source them from another farm instead.
There are different degrees of substitutability. For example, a car and a bicycle may substitute to some extent: if the price of motor fuel increases considerably, one may expect that some people will switch to bicycles.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Increase in price
3 Different types
3.1 Substitutability
3.2 Categorization
4 Substitutability of a good
5 Monopolistic competition
6 Perfect competition
7 Types of substitute goods
8 See also
9 References
Introduction[edit]
In economics, one way that two or more goods can be classified is by examining the relationship of the demand schedules when the price of one good changes. This relationship between demand schedules leads to classification of goods as either substitutes or complements. Substitute goods are goods which, as a result of changed conditions, may replace each other in use (or consumption).[1] A substitute good, in contrast to a complementary good, is a good with a positive cross elasticity of demand. This means a good's demand is increased when the price of another good is increased; both in the same direction.[2] Conversely, the demand for a good is decreased when the price of another good is decreased. If goods A and B are substitutes, an increase in the price of A will result in a leftward movement along the demand curve of A and cause the demand curve for B to shift out. A decrease in the price of A will result in a rightward movement along the demand curve of A and cause the demand curve for B to shift in.
Substitute good graphical example
Examples of substitute goods include margarine and butter, tea and coffee, beer and wine. Substitute goods not only occur on the consumer side of the market but also the producer side. Substitutable producer goods would include: petroleum and natural gas (used for heating or electricity). The degree to which a good has a perfect substitute depends on how specifically the good is defined. Take for example, the demand for Rice Krispies cereal, which is a very narrowly defined good as compared to the demand for cereal generally. The fact that one good is substitutable for another has immediate economic consequences: insofar as one good can be substituted for another, the demands for the two kinds of good will be interrelated by the fact that customers can trade off one good for the other if it becomes advantageous to do so.
Increase in price[edit]
An increase in price (ceteris paribus) will result in an increase in demand for its substitute goods. If two goods have a high substitutability, the change in demand will be much greater. Thus, economists can predict that a spike in the cost of a particular brand of detergent is likely to result in a large change in demand for other brands, whereas a change in the price of pencils will have a much smaller effect on the demand for other stationery, such as pens on legal documents or pencils on most high-school maths homework.
Different types[edit]
Substitutability[edit]
It is important to note that when speaking about substitute goods one is referring to two different kinds of goods; so the "substitutability" of one good for another is always a matter of degree. One good is a perfect substitute for another only if it can be used in exactly the same way. In that case the utility of a combination is an increasing function of the sum of the two amounts, and theoretically, in the case of a price difference, there would be no demand for the more expensive good.
In microeconomics, two types of substitutes are being distinguished, gross substitutes and net substitutes. Good X i {\displaystyle X_{i}} is said to be gross substitute of good Y {\displaystyle Y} if
∂ X i ∂ P Y > 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial X_{i}}{\partial P_{Y}}}>0}
Goods X and Y are said to be net substitutes if
∂ X i ∂ P Y | U = c o n s t > 0 {\displaystyle \left.{\frac {\partial X_{i}}{\partial P_{Y}}}\right|_{U=const}>0}
where U = U ( X , Y ) {\displaystyle U=U(X,Y)} is a utility function for the two goods.[1]
Categorization[edit]
Substitutes differ with respect to their category membership. Within-category substitutes are goods that are members of the same taxonomic category, goods sharing common attributes (e.g., chocolate, chairs, station wagons, etc.). Cross-category substitutes are goods that are members of different taxonomic categories but can satisfy the same goal. A person who cannot have the chocolate that she desires, for example, might instead buy ice cream to satisfy her goal to have a dessert.[3]
Substitutability of a good[edit]
Indifference curve for perfect substitutes
Goods that are completely substitutable with each other are called perfect substitutes. They may be characterized as goods having a linear utility function or a constant marginal rate of substitution.[4]
Writeable compact disks from different manufacturers are often considered to be perfect substitutes. As the price of one brand of CD rises, consumers will be expected to substitute other brands of CD in a one-to-one fashion. This means that the total quantity of CDs purchased would not change.
Imperfect substitutes have a lesser level of substitutability, and therefore exhibit variable marginal rates of substitution along the consumer indifference curve. The consumption points on the curve offer the same level of utility as before but the compensation now depends on the starting point of the substitution. An example of such a product is the soft drink. As the price of Coca-Cola rises, consumers could be expected to substitute Pepsi. However, many consumers prefer one brand of soft drink over the other. Consumers who prefer Coke to Pepsi, for example, will not trade between them in a one-to-one fashion. Rather, a consumer would be willing to give relatively large amounts of Pepsi in exchange for relatively small amounts of Coke.
People exhibit a strong preference for within-category substitutes to cross-category substitutes. Across a ten sets of different foods, a majority of research participants (79.7%) believed that a within-category substitute would better satisfy their craving for a food they could not have than a cross-category substitute. Unable to acquire a desired Godiva chocolate, for instance, a majority reported that they would prefer to eat a store-brand chocolate (a within-category substitute) than a chocolate-chip granola bar (a cross-category substitute). This preference for within-category substitutes appears, however, to be misguided. Because within-category substitutes are more similar to the missing good, their inferiority to it is more noticeable. This creates a negative contrast effect, and leads within-category substitutes to be less satisfying substitutes than cross-category substitutes.[3]
Monopolistic competition[edit]
Many markets for commonly used goods feature products which are perfectly substitutable yet are differently branded and marketed, a condition referred to as monopolistic competition. A good example may be the comparison between store brand and name brand versions of medications - the products may be identical but the packaging is differentiated by the vendors. Since the goods are essentially alike, the only genuine difference between them is the price - their vendors rely primarily on price and branding to effect sales. In those sectors consumer choice is usually driven by discriminate according to lowest price, with higher-priced variants relying on a sense of exclusivity created by slicker branding to maintain competitiveness.
Gasoline / Petrol
Milk
Internet connectivity (ISP services)
Electricity
Telephony
Airline tickets
Perfect substitutability is significant in the era of deregulation, since there are usually several competing providers in a field (e.g. electricity suppliers) each retailing exactly the same product. The result is often aggressive price competition between the retailers.
Perfect competition[edit]
One of the requirements for perfect competition is that the products of competing firms should be perfect substitutes. When this condition is not satisfied, the market is characterized by product differentiation.
Types of substitute goods[edit]
Unit-demand goods are goods from which the consumer wants only a single item. If the consumer has two items, then his utility is the maximum of the utilities he gains from each of these items. For example, consider a certain consumer that only wants a means of transportation, which may be either a car or a bicycle. His utility from a car is 100 and from a bicycle is 50. If he has both a car and a bicycle, then he uses only the car so his utility is 100. Unit-demand goods are always substitutes, since if the price of one good increases, the consumer will tend to want the other good (Laizer 2016).
See also[edit]
Competitive equilibrium
Ersatz, the original German word
List of economics topics
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Nicholson, Walter (1998). Microeconomic Theory. The Dryden Press.
Jump up ^ Kroon, George E. (2007). Macroeconomics the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. p. 39. ISBN 0764132377. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Huh, Young Eun; Vosgerau, Joachim; Morewedge, Carey K. (2016-06-01). "More Similar but Less Satisfying Comparing Preferences for and the Efficacy of Within- and Cross-Category Substitutes for Food". Psychological Science. 27 (6): 894–903. doi:10.1177/0956797616640705. ISSN 0956-7976. PMID 27142460.
Jump up ^ Browning, Edgar K (1999). Microeconomic Theory & Applications 6th Edition. New York: Addison Wesley Educational Publishers.
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