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Tierra del Fuego
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This article is about the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego. For the island, see Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego. For other uses, see Tierra del Fuego (disambiguation).
Tierra del Fuego archipelago
Tierra del Fuego archipelago in the bottom half of the image
Tierra del Fuego archipelago
Political map of Tierra del Fuego and mainland South America
Geography
Location
Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean
Major islands
Tierra del Fuego, Hoste, Navarino, Gordon, Wollastone, Noir, Staten, Hermite, Santa Inés, Clarence, Dawson, Capitán Aracena, Londonderry, Picton, Lennox, Nueva, Diego Ramírez, O'Brien, and Desolación Islands among many others
Highest point
Mount Darwin
Administration
Chile
Region
Magallanes y Antártica Chilena
Provinces
Tierra del Fuego Province and Antártica Chilena
Communes
Cabo de Hornos, Antártica, Porvenir, Primavera, Timaukel
Argentina
Province
Tierra del Fuego
Demographics
Population
>135,000 (2010)
Ethnic groups
Argentines, Chileans, Croats, Selknams, Yaghans
Tierra del Fuego (/tiˈɛərə dɛl ˈfweɪɡoʊ/, Spanish: [ˈtjera ðel ˈfweɣo]; Spanish for "Land of Fire") is an archipelago off the southernmost tip of the South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of the main island, Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, with an area of 48,100 km2 (18,572 sq mi), and a group of many islands, including Cape Horn and Diego Ramírez Islands. Tierra del Fuego is divided between Chile and Argentina, with the latter controlling the eastern half of the main island and the former the western half plus the islands south of Beagle Channel. The southernmost extent of the archipelago is at about latitude 55 S.
The earliest known human settlement in Tierra del Fuego dates to around 8,000 B.C. Europeans first explored the islands during Ferdinand Magellan's expedition of 1520; Tierra del Fuego and similar namings stem from sightings of the many bonfires that the natives built. Settlement by those of European descent and the great displacement of the native populations did not begin until the second half of the 19th century, at the height of the Patagonian sheep farming boom and of the local gold rush.[1] Today, petroleum extraction dominates economic activity in the north of Tierra del Fuego, while tourism, manufacturing, and Antarctic logistics are important in the south.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Prehistory and European exploration
1.2 European colonization and extinction of Native Americans (1860–1910)
1.3 Recent history (1940–present)
2 Geography
2.1 Geology
2.2 Climate
2.3 Flora
2.4 Fauna
3 Economy
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Prehistory and European exploration[edit]
Selknam men hunting
The earliest human settlement occurred around 8,000 BC. The Yaghan were some of the earliest known humans to settle in Tierra del Fuego. Archeological sites with characteristics of their culture have been found at locations such as Navarino Island.[2]
The name Tierra del Fuego derives from the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan[clarification needed]; sailing for the Spanish Crown, in 1520 he was the first European to visit these lands. He believed he was seeing the many fires (fuego in Spanish) of the Yaghan, which were visible from the sea, and that the "Indians" were waiting in the forests to ambush his armada.[3]
In 1525 Francisco de Hoces was the first to speculate that Tierra del Fuego was one or more islands rather than part of what was then called Terra Australis. Francis Drake in 1578 and a Dutch VOC expedition in 1616 learned more about the geography. The latter expedition named Cape Horn.
On his first voyage with the HMS Beagle in 1830, Robert FitzRoy picked up four native Fuegians, including "Jemmy Button" (Orundellico) and brought them to England. The surviving three were taken to London to meet the King and Queen and were, for a time, celebrities. They returned to Tierra del Fuego in the Beagle with FitzRoy and Charles Darwin, who made extensive notes about his visit to the islands.
European colonization and extinction of Native Americans (1860–1910)[edit]
View of Puerto Williams
The city of Ushuaia
See also: Tierra del Fuego gold rush, Selknam Genocide, and Patagonian sheep farming boom
During the second half of the 19th century, the archipelago began to come under Chilean and Argentine influence. Both countries sought to claim the whole archipelago based on de jure Spanish colonial titles. Salesian Catholic missions were established in Río Grande and Dawson Island.
Anglican missions were established by British colonists at Keppel Island in the Falklands in 1855 and in 1870 at Ushuaia on the main island, which continued to operate through the 19th century. Thomas Bridges (1842–1898) learned the language and compiled a 30,000-word Yaghan grammar and dictionary while he worked at Ushuaia.[4] It was published in the 20th century and considered an important ethnological work.[4]
An 1879 Chilean expedition led by Ramón Serrano Montaner reported large amounts of placer gold in the streams and river beds of Tierra del Fuego. This prompted massive immigration to the main island between 1883 and 1909. Numerous Argentines, Chileans and Croatians settled in the main island, leading to increased conflicts with native Selk'nam.
Julius Popper, a Romanian explorer, was one of the most successful entrepreneurs in the region. Granted rights by the Argentine government to exploit any gold deposits he found in Tierra del Fuego, Popper has been identified as a central figure in the Selk'nam Genocide.
Following contact with Europeans, the native Selk'nam and Yaghan populations were greatly reduced by unequal conflict and persecution by settlers, by infectious diseases to which the indigenous people had no immunity, and by mass transfer to the Salesian mission of Dawson Island. Despite the missionaries' efforts, many natives died. Today, only a few Selk'nam remain. Some of the few remaining Yaghan have settled in Villa Ukika in Navarino Island; others have scattered across Chile and Argentina.
Following the signing of the Boundary Treaty of 1881, Tierra del Fuego was divided between Argentina and Chile; previously, it had been claimed in its entirety by both countries.
The gold rushes of the late 19th century led to the founding of numerous small settlements by immigrants such as the Argentine settlements of Ushuaia and Río Grande and the Chilean settlements of Porvenir and Puerto Toro.
Recent history (1940–present)[edit]
See also: Beagle conflict
In 1945 a division of Chilean CORFO (Spanish acronym for Production Development Corporation) engaged in oil exploration made a breakthrough discovery of oil in northern Tierra del Fuego. Extraction began in 1949, and in 1950 the state created ENAP (National Petroleum Company) to deal with oil extraction and prospecting. Until 1960, most oil extracted in Chile came from Tierra del Fuego.[5]
During the 1940s Chile and Argentina formulated their Antarctic claims. The governments realized the key role of Tierra del Fuego's geographical proximity in backing their claims as well as in supplying their Antarctic bases. In the 1950s, the Chilean military founded Puerto Williams to counter Ushuaia's monopoly as the only settlement in the Beagle Channel, a zone where Argentina disputed the 1881 borders.
In the 1960s and 1970s, sovereignty claims by Argentina over Picton, Lennox and Nueva Islands in Tierra del Fuego led the two countries in December 1978 to the brink of war. In response to the threat of an Argentine invasion, minefields were deployed and bunkers built on the Chilean side in some areas of Tierra del Fuego. The threat of war caused the Chilean Pinochet regime to give logistical support and information to the British during the Falklands War of 1982. Chilean radar supplied the British with information on Argentine jet movements in Tierra del Fuego, from where the Argentine Air Force launched raids on targets in the Falklands.
In 1986 the Argentine congress decided that the Argentine part of Tierra del Fuego should be a new province; the law was not promulgated until 26 April 1990.[6]
Geography[edit]
The archipelago consists of a main island, Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, often called simply Tierra del Fuego or Isla Grande, with an area of 48,100 km2 (18,572 sq mi), and a group of smaller islands. The main island is split between two countries: 18,507.3 km2 (7,146 sq mi), 38.57% of the total area, belongs to Argentina, while 29,484.7 km2 (11,384 sq mi), 61.43% of the total area, belongs to Chile. The archipelago is divided by an east–west channel, the Beagle Channel, immediately south of the main island. The largest islands south of the Beagle Channel are Hoste and Navarino.
The western part of the main island, and almost all the other islands, belong to Chile. They are part of the Magallanes y Antártica Chilena Region, the capital and chief town of which is Punta Arenas, situated on the mainland across the strait. The biggest Chilean towns are Porvenir, capital of the Chilean Province of Tierra del Fuego, located on the main island; and, on Navarino Island, Puerto Williams, which is the capital of the Antártica Chilena Province. Puerto Toro lies a few kilometers south of Puerto Williams and is arguably the southernmost village in the world. The mostly uninhabited islands north and west of the main island are part of Magallanes Province.
The eastern part of the main island, and a few small islands in the Beagle Channel, belong to Argentina. They are part of the Tierra del Fuego, Antarctic Territory and South Atlantic Islands Province, whose capital is Ushuaia, the biggest city of the archipelago. The other important city in the region is Río Grande on the Atlantic coast.
The Cordillera Darwin in the southwestern part of the main island contains many glaciers that reach the ocean. Mount Darwin is the highest peak at 2,488 metres (8,163 feet).
Geology[edit]
See also: Andean orogeny
The geology of the archipelago is characterized by the effects of the Andean orogeny and the repeated Pleistocene glaciations. The geology of the island can be divided into large east–west-oriented units. The southwestern islands of the archipelago, including Cape Horn, are part of the Patagonian Batholith, while Cordillera Darwin and the area around Beagle Channel form the principal codillera hosting the highest mountains. The Magallanes fold and thrust belt extends north of Almirantazgo Fjord and Fagnano Lake, and north of this lies the Magallanes foreland; an old sedimentary basin that hosts hydrocarbon reserves.[7] Orthogneiss dated at 525 million years is known to underlie some of the oil wells in northern Tierra del Fuego.[8]
The Magallanes–Fagnano Fault, a dextral strike slip fault crosses the southern part of the main island from west to east. It is an active fault, located inside and parallel to the Fuegian fold and thrust belt, and marks the boundary between a southern belt of Paleozoic meta sediments and a northern Mesozoic belt of sedimentary sequences. Fagnano Lake occupies a glacier-carved depression in a pull-apart basin that has developed along the Magallanes-Fagnano Fault zone.[9]
Podzols and inceptisols occur beneath Nothofagus betuloides forests in Tierra del Fuego.[10]
Climate[edit]
This region has a subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfc) with short, cool summers and long, wet, moderately mild winters: the precipitation averages 3,000 mm (118 in) a year in the far west, but precipitation decreases rapidly to the eastern side. Temperatures are steady throughout the year: in Ushuaia they hardly surpass 9 °C (48 °F) in summers and average 0 °C (32 °F) in winters. Snowfall can occur in summer. The cold and wet summers help preserve the ancient glaciers. The southernmost islands possess a sub-antarctic climate typical of tundra that makes the growth of trees impossible. Some areas in the interior have a polar climate. Regions in the world with similar climates to southern Tierra del Fuego are: the Aleutian islands, Iceland, the Alaska Peninsula, the Faroe Islands, Macquarie Island, and the Heard and McDonald Islands.
Flora[edit]
Only 30% of the islands have forests, which are classified as Magellanic subpolar. The northeast is made up of steppe and cool semi-desert.
Six species of tree are found in Tierra del Fuego: canelo or winter's bark (Drimys winteri), Maytenus magellanica, Pilgerodendron uviferum, the southernmost conifer in the world, and three kinds of southern beech: Nothofagus antarctica, Nothofagus pumilio, and the evergreen Nothofagus betuloides. Several kinds of fruit grow in open spaces in these forests, such as beach strawberry (Fragaria chiloensis var. chiloensis forma chiloensis) and calafate (Berberis buxifolia), which have long been gathered by both Native Americans and residents of European descent.[11] These forests are unique in the world for having developed in a climate with such cold summers. Tree cover extends very close to the southernmost tip of South America. Winds are so strong that trees in wind-exposed areas grow into twisted shapes, inspiring people to call them "flag-trees". Tree vegetation extends as far south as the Isla de los Estados, Navarino Island, and the northern part of Hoste Island. Dwarf nothofagus communities are found at altitudes above 500 m (1,640 ft). Going farther south, Wollaston Islands and the southern part of Hoste Island are covered by subantarctic tundra.
Flora in Tierra del Fuego
Drimys winteri flowers
Nothofagus antarctica
Nothofagus pumilio
Nothofagus betuloides
Forests from Tierra del Fuego have expanded beyond local importance; they have been a source of trees that have been planted abroad in places with practically the same climate but which were originally devoid of trees, such as the Faroe Islands and nearby archipelagos. Most species were gathered from the coldest places in Tierra del Fuego, mainly sites with tundra borders. This effort resulted in positive changes, as the heavy winds and cool summers in the Faroe Islands did not allow the growth of trees from other regions in the world. The imported trees are used ornamentally, as curtains against wind, and for fighting erosion caused by storms and grazing in the Faroe Islands.[12]
Fauna[edit]
See also: Beaver eradication in Tierra del Fuego
Sea lions at Isla de los Lobos in the Beagle Channel, near Ushuaia
Among the most notable animals in the archipelago are austral parakeets, sea gulls, guanacos, foxes, kingfishers, condors, king penguins, owls, and firecrown hummingbirds.
North American beavers, introduced during the 1940s, have proliferated and caused considerable damage to the island's forests. The governments have established a wide-reaching program to trap and kill beavers in Tierra del Fuego.[13]
Like the mainland of Chile and Argentina to the north, this archipelago boasts some of the finest trout fishing in the world. Sea-run brown trout often exceed 9 kg (20 lb), particularly in rivers such as the Rio Grande and the San Pablo and in the Lago Fagnano. Much of this water is privately owned, with catch and release and fly fishing only.[citation needed]
Waters adjacent to Tierra del Fuego are very rich in cetacean diversity.[14] Sightings of southern right whales in Tierra del Fuego[15] have increased in the 2000s,[16] as well as humpbacks[17][18] and some others such as blue whales,[19] southern fins, southern seis,[20] and southern minkes.[21][22] Beagle Channel is a prominent area to watch rare, endemic dolphins,[23] and the less-studied pygmy right whales.
Pinnipeds inhabiting the areas include South American sea lions,[24][25] South American fur seals,[26][27] carnivorous leopard seals[28] (seal-eating seal) and gigantic southern elephant seals.[29][30]
Economy[edit]
Today, the main economic activities are fishing, natural gas and oil extraction, sheep farming, and ecotourism. Tourism is gaining in importance and becoming increasingly important as it attracts numerous upmarket visitors. Much of the tourism is based on claims of "southernmost" things: for example, both Ushuaia and Puerto Williams claim to be the "southernmost city in the world." On the Argentine side of Tierra del Fuego, the government has promoted the establishment of several electronic companies.
Energy production is a crucial economic activity. On the Argentine side of Tierra del Fuego during the 2005 to 2010 period, petroleum and natural gas extraction contributed to 20% of the region’s economic output.[31]
See also[edit]
Alberto de Agostini National Park
Beagle conflict
Beaver eradication in Tierra del Fuego
Mamihlapinatapai
The Voyage of the Beagle
Tierra del Fuego National Park
Yaghan language
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Iparraguirre, Sylvia. Tierra del fuego: a biography of the end of the world. p. 146.
Jump up ^ Hogan, C. Michael (4 April 2008). "Bahia Wulaia Dome Middens". Megalithic Portal. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Bergreen, Laurence (2003). Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe. HarperCollins. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-06-186588-6.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cook Tried to Steal Parson's Life Work". New York Times. 21 May 1910. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Martinić, Mateo (1982), La Tierra de los Fuegos (in Spanish), Punta Arenas, Chile: Municipalidad de Porvenir, pp. 164–171
Jump up ^ "Historia de Tierra del Fuego" (in Spanish). Tierradelfuego.gov.ar. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Menichetti, M.; Lodolo, E.; Tassone, A. (March 2008). "Structural geology of the Fuegian Andes and Magallanes fold-and-thrust belt – Tierra del Fuego Island". Geologica Acta. 6 (1). Retrieved 20 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Hervé, Francisco; Miller, Hubert; Pimpirev Christo. 2003. Patagonia – Antarctica Connections before Gondwana Break-Up in Antarctica Contributions to Global Earth Sciences. Chapter 5.1
Jump up ^ Lodolo, Emanuele; Menichetti, Marco; Bartole, Roberto; Ben‐Avraham, Zvi; Tassone, Alejandro; Lippai, Horacio (2003). "Magallanes-Fagnano continental transform fault (Tierra del Fuego, southernmost South America)". Tectonics. 22 (6): 1076. Bibcode:2003Tecto..22.1076L. doi:10.1029/2003TC001500.
Jump up ^ Gerding, Victor; Thiers, Oscar (2002), "Characterization of soils of Nothofagus betuloides (Mirb) Blume forests, in Tierra del Fuego, Chile", Revista chilena de historia natural (in Spanish), 75 (4): 819–833
Jump up ^ Martínez Crovetto, Raúl. 1968. Estudios Etnobotánicos. Nombres de plantas y su utilidad según los indios Onas de Tierra del Fuego, Revista de la Facultad de Agronomía y Veterinaria de la Universidad del Nordeste, Corrientes, Argentina
Jump up ^ Højgaard, A., J. Jóhansen, and S. Ødum (eds) 1989. A Century of Tree Planting in the Faroe Islands, Føroya Frodskaparfelag, Tórshavn.
Jump up ^ Strieker, Gary (9 July 1999). "Argentina eager to rid island of beavers". Cable News Network. Retrieved 30 June 2007.
Jump up ^ https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:LetUsI438EAJ:iwc.int/document_1215.download+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=nz[dead link]
Jump up ^ "Hoy en Rio Grande, Tierra del Fuego (ballena)".
Jump up ^ Goodall, R. Natalie P.; Benegas, G. L.; Dellabianca, N.; Riccialdelli, L.; Pimper, E. L. (17 January 2014). "The Presence of Southern Right Whales off Eastern Tierra del Fuego, 1987–2011" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 5, 2014. Retrieved 2014-05-06.
Jump up ^ "Whale Watching in the Southern Cone – Argentina".
Jump up ^ "Whale Watching in the Southern Cone – Gallery".
Jump up ^ "Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus) on Tierra del Fuego Check List".
Jump up ^ "Minke Whale (Sei Whale?)" – via Flickr.
Jump up ^ "Minke Whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) on Tierra del Fuego Check List".
Jump up ^ "Record of a dwarf minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) in northern Brazil" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Scotia Sea: Part 5. The Great Marine Mammals".
Jump up ^ "Sailing to the Sea Lions and Les Eclaireurs Lighthouse in Catamarans". Archived from the original on January 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Southern Sea Lions: Tierra del Fuego, Argentina". September 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Mark Horrell: Tierra del Fuego" – via Flickr.
Jump up ^ "Ballenas en el Canal de Beagle".
Jump up ^ "Ushuaia Photo: leopard seal".
Jump up ^ "Expedition Uncovers Wildlife Wonders at Tierra del Fuego". February 25, 2011. Archived from the original on July 9, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Cruceros Australis – Fjords of Tierra del Fuego, Patagonia & Cape Horn, Punta Arenas – Ushuaia – Punta Arenas". Archived from the original on May 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos".
References[edit]
Bridges, Lucas. 1948. Uttermost Part of the Earth. Reprint with introduction by Gavin Young, Century Hutchinson, 1987. ISBN 0-7126-1493-1
Keynes, Richard. 2002. Fossils, Finches and Fuegians: Charles Darwin's Adventures and Discoveries on the Beagle, 1832–1836. HarperCollins Publishers, London. Reprint: 2003.
Bollen, Patrick. 2000. "Tierra del Fuego" B/W Photobook. Lannoo Publishers, Tielt, Belgium. ISBN 90-209-4040-6
External links[edit]
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Tierra del Fuego.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tierra del Fuego.
Official website of Argentine Tierra del Fuego
Chile Cultural Society – Tierra del Fuego
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Tierra del Fuego". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Coordinates: 54°S 70°W / 54°S 70°W / -54; -70
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tierra_del_Fuego&oldid=818362872"
Categories:
Tierra del Fuego
Archipelagoes of Argentina
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Islands of Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena Region
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Suburbanization
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A suburban land use pattern in the US
Suburbanization is a population shift from central urban areas into suburbs, resulting in formation of (sub)urban sprawl. Sub-urbanization is inversely related to urbanization, which denotes population shift from rural areas into urban centres.
Many residents of metropolitan regions work within the central urban area, and choose to live in satellite communities called suburbs and commute to work via automobile or mass transit. Others have taken advantage of technological advances to work from their homes. These processes often occur in more economically developed countries, especially in the United States, which is believed to be the first country in which the majority of the population lives in the suburbs, rather than in the cities or in rural areas. Proponents of containing urban sprawl argue that sprawl leads to urban decay and a concentration of lower income residents in the inner city.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 United States
2 Suburbanization in Eastern Europe
3 Tijuana
4 Effects on psychological health
5 Economic impacts
5.1 Impact on urban industry
5.2 Consequences on infrastructure
5.3 Impact on real estate development costs
5.4 Fiscal impact
5.5 Effect on urban diversity
6 See also
7 References
United States[edit]
In the United States, suburbanization began to occur in mass amounts after World War II when soldiers returned home from war and wanted to live in houses outside of the city. During this time America had a prosperous postwar economy and there was more leisure time available and an in creating a family unit. Throughout the years, the desire to separate work life and home life has increased causing an increase in suburban populations. Suburbs are built for particular groups of people and around certain industries like restaurants, shopping, and entertainment which allows suburban residents to travel less and interact more in the suburban area. Suburbs in the United States have also evolved by increases in technology which allows residents to work from home rather than commute.[2]
Recent developments in communication technology, such as the spread of broadband services, the growth of e-mail and the advent of practical home video conferencing, has enabled more people to work from home rather than commuting. Although this can occur either in the city or in the suburbs, the effect is generally decentralizing, which works against the largest advantage of the centre city, which is easier access to information and supplies due to centralization. Similarly, the rise of efficient package express delivery systems, such as FedEx and UPS, which take advantage of computerization and the availability of an efficient air transportation system, also eliminates some of the advantages that were once to be had from having a business located in the city. Industrial, warehousing, and factory land uses have also moved to suburban areas. Cheap telecommunications removes the need for company headquarters to be within quick courier distance of the warehouses and ports. Urban areas suffer from traffic congestion, which creates costs in extra driver costs for the company which can be reduced if they were in a suburban area near a highway. As with residential, lower property taxes and low land prices encourage selling industrial land for profitable brownfield redevelopment.[3]
Suburban areas also offer more land to use as a buffer between industrial and residential and retail space to avoid NIMBY sentiments and gentrification pressure from the local community when residential and retail is adjacent to industrial space in an urban area. Suburban municipalities can offer tax breaks, specialized zoning, and regulatory incentives to attract industrial land users to their area, such as City of Industry, California. The overall effect of these developments is that businesses as well, and not just individuals, now see an advantage to locating in the suburbs, where the cost of buying land, renting space, and running their operations, is cheaper than in the city. This continuing dispersal from a single city center has led to other recent phenomena in American suburbs, the advent of edge cities and exurbs, arising out of clusters of office buildings built in suburban commercial centers on shopping malls and higher density developments. With more and more jobs for suburbanites being located in these areas rather than in the main city core that the suburbs grew out of, traffic patterns, which for decades centered on people commuting into the center city to work in the morning and then returning home in the evening, have become more complex, with the volume of intra-suburban traffic increasing tremendously. By 2000, half of the US population lived in suburban areas.[3]
Suburbanization in Eastern Europe[edit]
In many countries of Europe, sometimes cities became seen as dangerous or very expensive areas to live, while the suburbs were seen as safe places to live and raise a family. There are periods of opposite developments like urbanization.
During Communism, most socialist countries in the Eastern Bloc were characterized by under-urbanization,[4] which meant that industrial growth occurred well in advance of urban growth and was sustained by rural-urban commuting. City growth, residential mobility, land and housing development were under tight political control. Consequently, sub-urbanization in post-communist Europe is not only a recent but also a particular phenomenon. The creation of housing and land markets and state withdrawal from housing provision have led to the development of privatized modes of housing production and consumption, with an increasing role for private actors and, particularly, for households. Yet, the regulatory and institutional frameworks indispensable to a market-driven housing system – including housing finance – have remained underdeveloped, particularly in south-eastern Europe.[5] This environment has undoubtedly stimulated housing self-provision.[6] Clearly, different forces have shaped different outcomes.[7][8][9][10][11][12]
Post-communist suburbanization in Pitesti, Romania
Long-suppressed urbanization and a dramatic housing backlog resulted in extensive peri-urban growth in Tirana (Albania), which during the 1990s doubled the size of the city whereas war refugees put pressure on cities of former Yugoslavia. Elsewhere processes of suburbanization seemed dominant, but their pace differed according to housing shortages, available finance, preferences and the degree of ‘permitted’ informality. The process was slow in Prague during the 1990s and more apparent after 2000, when housing affordability improved. Conversely, Slovenian and Romanian suburban developments visibly surrounded cities/towns during the 1990s. Nonetheless, socialist legacies of underdeveloped infrastructure and the affordability crisis of transition differentiate post-socialist suburbs from their Western counterparts.[6]
Various degrees of informality characterized suburban housing from illegal occupation of public land (Tirana), illegal construction on agricultural private land (Belgrade) to the unauthorized but later legalized developments in Romania. Suburban housing displayed a chaotic/unplanned character, especially in south-eastern Europe where the state retains a degree of illegitimacy. Excepting scattered for-profit housing, much of the new detached suburban houses seem self-developed. Allegedly, owner-building has become a household strategy to adapt to recession, high and volatile inflation, to cut construction costs and, finally, to bridge access to housing. The predominantly owner-built feature of most suburban housing, with the land often obtained at no cost through restitution policies or illegal occupation, allowed a mix of low-/middle-income households within these developments.[6]
Tijuana[edit]
Tijuana has experienced a strong wave of suburbanization from its urban core beginning in 2006. Historically, Tijuana city, with 1/4 the area covering 80 square miles, contained well over 95% of the total population of the municipality, and it was the poor relegated to living outside the city. Despite good highways, however, there was little incentive to move out of the city. However, with a huge escalation of the Mexico drug war violence, middle class city residents and property developers along with retail chains began building suburban communities and sold them as way to isolate themselves and their children from the negative effects. This led to a historic movement to communities outside the urban core, as evidenced by both the type of middle class housing developments and 2010 INEGI census figures.
Effects on psychological health[edit]
Historically it was believed that living in highly urban areas resulted in social isolation, social disorganization, and psychological problems, while living in suburbs was supposed to be better to overall happiness, due to lower population density, lower crime, and a more stable population. A study based on data from 1974, however, found this not to be the case, finding that people living in suburbs had neither greater satisfaction with their neighborhood nor greater satisfaction with the quality of their lives as compared to people living in urban areas.[13]
Economic impacts[edit]
The economic impacts of suburbanization have become very evident since the trend began in the 1950s. Changes in infrastructure, industry, real estate development costs, fiscal policies, and diversity of cities have been easily apparent, as “making it to the suburbs”, mainly in order to own a home and escape the chaos of urban centers, have become the goals of many American citizens. These impacts have many benefits as well as side effects and are becoming increasingly important in the planning and revitalization of modern cities.
Impact on urban industry[edit]
Sprawling Freeway near Toronto, Canada with a suburbanized industry area in the background. Note the far distances from office buildings compared to a downtown. Many office buildings in suburban industry areas are set up on large irrigated campus, versus downtowns that have close buildings and very little greenery.
The days of industry dominating the urban cores of cities are diminishing as population decentralization of urban centers increases. Companies increasingly look to build industrial parks in less populated areas, largely for more modern buildings and ample parking, as well as to appease the popular desire to work in less congested areas. Government economic policies that provide incentives for companies to build new structures and lack of incentives to build on Brownfield land also contribute to the flight of industrial development from major cities to surrounding suburban areas. As suburban industrial development becomes increasingly more profitable, it becomes less financially attractive to build in high-density areas. Another impact of industry leaving the city is the reduction of buffer zones separating metropolitan areas, industrial parks and surrounding suburban residential areas. As this land becomes more economically relevant, the value of such properties very often increases, causing many undeveloped landowners to sell their land.[14][15]
Consequences on infrastructure[edit]
Los Angeles suburbanization continues and America continues to sprawl, the cost of the required water lines, sewer lines, and roads could cost more than $21,000 per residential and non residential development unit, costing the American government $1.12 trillion over the next twenty five years. Along with the costs of infrastructure, existing infrastructure suffers, as most of the government’s money that is dedicated to improving infrastructure goes to paying for the new necessities in areas further out from the urban core. As a result, the government will often forgo maintenance on previously built infrastructure.[16]
Impact on real estate development costs[edit]
For residential properties, suburbanization allows for home prices to decrease, so people can drive until they can find an area in which they can afford to buy a home. However, these homes may lack certain things such as parks and access to public transit. Also, the prices of homes in downtown center usually decreases as well to compete with the inexpensive homes in the suburbs. One of the main benefits of living in the suburbs is that one gets a much larger piece of land than one would in the city. Therefore, as the size of lots increases, the supply of housing is more limited.[17] This is to mean that as city growth patterns increase the population increases leading to suburbanisation which hence leads to the under development of real estate since it is a business.
Fiscal impact[edit]
The fiscal deficit grows as a result of suburbanization, mainly because in less densely populated areas, property taxes tend to be lower. Also, because of the typical spread pattern of suburban housing, the lack of variety of housing types, and the greater distance between homes, real estate development and public service costs increase, which in turn increase the deficit of upper levels of government.[18]
Effect on urban diversity[edit]
As the trend of suburbanization took hold, many of the people who left the city for the suburbs were white. As a result, there was a rise in black home ownership in central cities. As white households left for the suburbs, housing prices in transition neighborhoods fell, which often lowered the cost of home ownership for black households. This trend was stronger in older and denser cities, especially in the northeast and Midwest, because new construction was generally more difficult. As of the 2010 Census, minorities like African Americans, Asian Americans and Indo-Americans have become an increasing large factor in recent suburbanization. Many suburbs now have since 1990 large minority communities in suburban and commuter cities.[19]
Environmental Impacts
With the growth of suburbanization and the spread of people living outside the city this can cause negative impacts on the environment. Suburbanization has been linked to the increase in vehicle mileage, increase land use, and increase in residential energy consumption. From these factors of suburbanization it has then caused a degradation of air quality, increase usage of natural resources like water and oil, as well as increased amounts of greenhouse gas. With the increased use of vehicles to commute to and from the work place this causes increased use of oil and gas as well as increase in emissions. With the increase in emissions from vehicles this then can cause air pollution and degrades the air quality of an area. Suburbanization is growing which causes an increase in housing development which causes an increase in land consumption and available land. Suburbanization has also been linked to increase in natural resource use like water to meet residents’ demands and to maintain suburban lawns. Also with the increase in technology and consumptions of residents there is an increase in energy consumption with the amount of electricity used by residents.[20]
See also[edit]
Urbanisation
Counter urbanisation
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ "Slow Growth and Urban Sprawl: Support for a New Regional Agenda?," Juliet F. Gainsborough, Urban Affairs Review, vol. 37, no. 5 (2002): 728-744.
Jump up ^ Benson, Sonia, ed. (2009). "Suburbanization". UXL Encyclopedia of U.S History. pp. 1498–1501.
^ Jump up to: a b US Census Bureau (2002). Demographic Trends in the 20th Century
Jump up ^ Murray, P., & Szelenyi, I. (1984). The city in the transition to socialism. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 8(10), 90-107
Jump up ^ Tsenkova, S. (2009). Housing Policy Reforms in Post-Socialist Europe: Lost in Transition. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag
^ Jump up to: a b c Soaita, A. M. (2013). Romanian suburban housing: home improvement through owner-building. Urban Studies, 50(10), 2084-2101. doi: 10.1177/0042098012471980
Jump up ^ Stanilov, K. (Ed.). (2007). The Post-Socialist City. Urban Form and Space Transformations in Central and Eastern Europe after Socialism. Dordrecht: Springer
Jump up ^ Hirt, S. A. (2012). Iron Curtains: Gates, Suburbs and Privatization of Space in the Post-Socialist City Pondicherry: Wiley-Blackwell
Jump up ^ Hirt, S., & Petrovic, M. (2011). The Belgrade wall: The proliferation of gated housing in the Serbian capital after socialism. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 35(4), 753–777
Jump up ^ Kahrik, A., & Tammaru, T. (2008). Population composition in new suburban settlements of the Tallinn metropolitan area. Urban Studies, 45(5/6), 1055–1078
Jump up ^ Krisjane, Z., & Berzins, M. (2012). Post-socialist Urban Trends: New Patterns and Motivations for Migration in the Suburban Areas of Rīga, Latvia. Urban Studies, 49(2), 289-306. doi:10.1177/0042098011402232
Jump up ^ Sykora, L., & Ourednicek, M. (2007). Sprawling post-communist metropolis: Commercial and residential suburbanisation in Prague and Brno, the Czech Republic. In E. Razin, M. Dijst & C. Vazquez (Eds.), Employment Deconcentration in European Metropolitan Areas. Market Forces versus Planning (pp. 209-233). Dordrecht: Springer
Jump up ^ Richard E. Adams, "Is happiness a home in the suburbs?: The influence of urban versus suburban neighborhoods on psychological health", Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 353-372.
Jump up ^ Opp, Susan M.; Herberle, Lauren (June 28, 2008). Local Sustainable Urban Development in a Globalized World. Florence, Kentucky: Routledge. ISBN 0754649946.
Jump up ^ Soule, David (2006). Urban Sprawl: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. London: Greenwood Press. pp. 88–89.
Jump up ^ Anthony Downs; Barbara McCann; Sahan Mukherji; Robert Burchell (2005). Sprawl Costs: Economic Impacts of Unchecked Development. Island Press. p. 63.
Jump up ^ Anthony Downs; Barbara McCann; Sahan Mukherji; Robert Burchell (2005). Sprawl Costs: Economic Impacts of Unchecked Development. Island Press. pp. 71–72.
Jump up ^ Anthony Downs; Barbara McCann; Sahan Mukherji; Robert Burchell (2005). Sprawl Costs: Economic Impacts of Unchecked Development. Island Press. pp. 80–81.
Jump up ^ Leah Platt Boustan; Robert A. Margo (2011). "WHITE SUBURBANIZATION AND AFRICAN-AMERICAN HOME OWNERSHIP, 1940-1980". National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
Jump up ^ Kahn, Matthew E (2000). "The Environmental Impact of Suburbanization". Journal of Policy Analysis and Management: 569–586.
Bibliography
Burchell, Downs, McCann, Mukherji. (2005) "Sprawl Costs: Economic Impacts of Unchecked Development" London, Island Press.
Boustan, Margo. "WHITE SUBURBANIZATION AND AFRICAN-AMERICAN HOME OWNERSHIP,1940-1980". National Bureau of Economic Research January 2011 18
Fishman, Robert. (1987) Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia New York: Basic Books.
Garreau, Joel. (1992) Edge City: Life on the New Frontier New York: Anchor Books.
Hayden, Delores. (2004) Building Suburbia: Green Fields and Urban Growth, 1820-2000 New York, Vintage.
Jackson, Kenneth T. (1985), Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-504983-7
Wiese, Andrew. (2006) "African American Suburban Development in Atlanta" Southern Spaces. http://southernspaces.org/2006/african-american-suburban-development-atlanta
Wiese, Andrew. (2005) Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
Soule, David. (2006) "Urban Sprawl: A Comprehensive Reference Guide" London, Greenwood Press.
[1] [2] [3] [4]
[5]
Jump up ^ Massey, Douglas S.; Denton, Nancy A. (1988). "Suburbanization and Segregation in US Metropolitan Areas". American Journal of Sociology. 94.3.
Jump up ^ McIntosh, Peggy (1988). White Privilege and Male Privilege: A Personal Account of Coming to See Correspondences through Work in Women's Studies. Wellesley, MA: Center for Research on Women.
Jump up ^ Mieszkowski, Peter; Mills, Edwin S. (1993). "The Causes of Metropolitan Suburbanization". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 7.3 (3): 135–47. doi:10.1257/jep.7.3.135.
Jump up ^ Pulido, Laura (March 2000). "Rethinking Environmental Racism: White Privilege and Urban Development in Southern California". Department of Geography at the University of Southern California.
Jump up ^ Oliveira, N. Dos Santos (1996). "Favelas and Ghettos: Race and Class in Rio De Janeiro and New York City". Latin American Perspectives. 23.4 (4): 71–89. doi:10.1177/0094582x9602300406.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suburbanization&oldid=816389049"
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Mighty Joe Young (1998 film)
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Mighty Joe Young
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Ron Underwood
Produced by
Ted Hartley
Tom Jacobson
Screenplay by
Mark Rosenthal
Lawrence Konner
Based on
Mighty Joe Young
by Merian C. Cooper
Ruth Rose
Starring
Bill Paxton
Charlize Theron
Rade Šerbedžija
Naveen Andrews
Regina King
David Paymer
Music by
James Horner
Cinematography
Donald Peterman
Oliver Wood
Edited by
Paul Hirsch
Production
company
Walt Disney Pictures
RKO Pictures
The Jacobson Company
Distributed by
Buena Vista Pictures
Release date
December 25, 1998 (1998-12-25)
Running time
114 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$90 million[1]
Box office
$50.6 million (US)[1]
Mighty Joe Young is a 1998 American adventure film based on the 1949 film of the same name. It was directed by Ron Underwood and stars Bill Paxton and Charlize Theron. In the newer film's version, the ape is much larger than in the original. The film grossed $50.6 million in the United States against a production budget of $90 million.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Music
5 Reception
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
As a child, Jill Young witnesses the death of her mother, primatologist Ruth Young, and the mother of Joe, an infant mountain gorilla, at the hands of poachers led by Andrei Strasser, who loses his right thumb and trigger finger to Joe, swearing revenge.
Twelve years later, Jill has raised Joe, now grown to a height of 15 feet (4.6 m) and weighing 2,000 pounds (910 kg). As a result, other gorillas will not accept him and they are both now living in relative peace until a wildlife refuge director, Gregg O'Hara, convinces Jill they would be safer from poachers if they relocated to the United States.
The trio goes to Los Angeles, and win the hearts of the refuge staff at the conservancy, who put Jill in charge of Joe. Jill is approached by Strasser, who is now running a fraudulent animal preserve in Botswana, while actually selling animal organs on the black market. After seeing a news report about Joe, he is eager for revenge. At first Jill does not recognize Strasser, since Strasser's right hand is concealed in his coat pocket. He attempts to convince Jill that Joe would be better off in his wildlife refuge back in Africa. During a gala, Strasser's henchman, Garth, uses a poacher's noisemaker to scare Joe into a frenzy. Joe trashes the gala, with the intention of attacking Strasser, but is captured, and imprisoned in a concrete bunker.
When Jill discovers that Joe may be euthanized, she accepts Strasser's offer. She and the refuge staff smuggle Joe out in a truck. Before their departure, Gregg has fallen in love with Jill and kisses her goodbye. On the way to the airport, Jill notices the half-glove covering Strasser's missing fingers and recognizes him. She fights Strasser and Garth, then jumps from the truck onto Hollywood Boulevard, leading to several automobile accidents. Joe sees her and tilts the truck over onto its side and flees.
Gregg discovers that Strasser is a poacher and goes after Jill and Joe. He finds Jill, who reveals to Gregg that Strasser killed her mother and now plans to kill Joe. They track Joe to a carnival where he is playfully wreaking havoc. Strasser arrives as well and attempts to shoot Jill, but Garth, appalled at Strasser's ruthlessness, turns against him and saves Jill, causing Strasser to misfire at a spotlight, starting a fire and causing the Ferris wheel to break down. After knocking Garth unconscious, Strasser attempts to kill Jill in person, but Joe sneaks up behind them and throws Strasser onto a power line over a transformer. Short two fingers on the hand holding the wire, Strasser loses his grip and falls onto the transformer, where he is electrocuted to death.
Later, at the Santa Monica Pier, Joe attempts to save a child from atop the burning wheel, but the fire burns it down and Joe and the child fall to the ground, where Joe jumps off of the burning wheel, protecting the boy and knocking himself unconscious. Joe survives the fall and awakens and Jill mentions that they need to raise money to open a preserve for him. The young boy named Jason donates some change to Jill after hearing this, prompting the rest of the crowd to contribute.
Joe is returned to Uganda where Jill and Gregg open the "Joe Young Preserve." Finally free, Joe runs off into the jungle.
Cast[edit]
Bill Paxton as Professor Gregory "Gregg" O'Hara
Charlize Theron as Jill Young
John Alexander as Mighty Joe Young
Verne Troyer as Baby Joe Young
Rade Šerbedžija as Andrei Strasser
Regina King as Cecily Banks
Peter Firth as Garth
Naveen Andrews as Pindi
David Paymer as Harry Ruben
Robert Wisdom as Kweli
Christian Clemenson as Jack
Geoffrey Blake as Vern
Lawrence Pressman as Doctor Elliot Baker
Linda Purl as Doctor Ruth Young
Mika Boorem as Young Jill Young
Cory Buck as Jason
Production[edit]
A model of the trailer used in a scene from the film, as seen at a former attraction at Disney's Hollywood Studios in Orlando, Florida.
Cinematographer Donald Peterman suffered head injuries, a broken leg and broken ribs in a crane accident on the film set in 1997. His camera platform plummeted 18 feet (5.5 m) to the ground when the crane snapped. A cameraman was also injured in the accident.[2]
In most of the film, Joe was portrayed by creature-suit performer John Alexander, who wore a radio-controlled animatronic gorilla mask and full body suit created by special makeup effects artist Rick Baker and his crew at Cinovation Studios. To achieve those scenes, Alexander often acted on miniature sets surrounded by blue screen; visual-effects house DreamQuest Images then composited him into footage shot earlier. Joe as an infant was performed by Verne Troyer. For certain scenes, the filmmakers used three full-sized animatronics (one in quadruped, one sitting down, and one in a dead position) also created by Baker's crew. For the digital Joe, visual-effects houses DreamQuest Images and Industrial Light & Magic worked on different scenes, using the same model provided by Baker. Many of these performances were achieved by key-frame animation, but to portray the digital Joe running and jumping, motion-capture data from an infant chimpanzee were used.
Music[edit]
The music for the film was composed and conducted by James Horner. The soundtrack was released in December 1998.
Mighty Joe Young: Original Score
Film score by James Horner
Released
December 8, 1998
Recorded
1998
Length
73:01
Label
Hollywood
James Horner chronology
Back to TitanicString Module Error: Match not foundString Module Error: Match not found Mighty Joe Young Bicentennial ManString Module Error: Match not foundString Module Error: Match not found
Professional ratings
Review scores
Source
Rating
SoundtrackNet
Reception[edit]
The film grossed $50.6 million against a production budget of $90 million.[1] and holds a rating of 52% from Rotten Tomatoes based on 46 reviews. The site's critical consensus is: "Beguiling effects transcend a predictable plot."[3]
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 3 stars out of 4, saying, "Mighty Joe Young is an energetic, robust adventure tale: not too cynical, violent or fragmented for kids, not too tame for adults. After all the calculation behind "Godzilla" or "Armageddon," it has a kind of innocence. It's not about a monster but about a very big, well-meaning gorilla that just wants to be left in peace." Despite giving the film positive reviews, he also pointed out that the romance scenes and villains were only average and by no means exceptional.[4] Common Sense Media gave the film 4 stars and said, "The 1949 RKO version of Mighty Joe Young is a tired monster film of the ape-runs-amuck variety that tried (unsuccessfully) to cash in on the popularity of King Kong. This Disney version has plenty more to offer a young audience. As Jill follows in her mom's footsteps, this environmentally-friendly story provides serious food for thought. It also provides plenty of comic relief. Joe is a feat of technical wizardry; he's so life-like that it's hard to believe he's a composite of animatronic and digital effects. Children will warm to him, especially since Joe is particularly sweet to kids. They will also enjoy Theron's and Paxton's engaging performances, and applaud (as an 8 year-old viewer did) when this couple inevitably gets together. If the climactic sequence is too intense for small children, it certainly ends happily. Mighty Joe Young turns out to be a heart-warming experience with an environmental message."[5] Reelviews Movie Reviews gave the film 3 stars out of 4, and generally positive reviews: "Although Joe's size makes him a monster, his disposition makes him cuddly. Despite not being daring in style or story, Mighty Joe Young is nevertheless a charming and enjoyable adventure, and a rare remake that's better than the original. It may not have the box office punch to exceed the $100 million mark, but it's good enough to entertain an audience."[6] Colin Fraser of eFilm Critic gave it 3 stars, saying, "Strictly for ten-year-olds, Mighty Joe Young has its ample heart in exactly the right place. After an opening sequence that will have kiddies reaching for Kleenex, the action soon picks up with many a thrill on the way. This is not Jurassic Park however and doesn't really deserve its Academy nomination for effects."[7]
Among those who criticized the film included Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide, who gave the film 2.5 stars out of 4 and said, "This is technology-driven spectacle: It's too shallow to really work for adults, but so slow and relentlessly serious that kids are bound to get restless. Joe himself is an amazing creation, less personable, to be sure, than the original lovelorn King Kong, but a far more fully realized character than any of the flesh and blood humans by whom he's surrounded."[8] Paul Clinton of CNN gave it negative reviews, saying, "Great scenery, cartoonish villains, huges leaps of suspended belief, and mouthwatering shots of Charlize Theron are in plentiful supply in "Mighty Joe Young." And baby, can this boy travel. He goes from Africa to L.A. in just one dissolve. Then when he escapes he goes from Hollywood Boulevard, to the Los Angeles river, to the Pacific Palisades in seconds. If you're not familiar with L.A ... trust me ... couldn't happen." and "The gorilla is pretty impressive and expressive, but overall it's much ado about -- not much. I have a feeling this film will be fairly low on the food chain of "must see" holiday films."[9] Stephen Holden of The New York Times gave the film generally unfavorable reviews, saying, "Mighty Joe Young, directed by Ron Underwood from a screenplay by Mark Rosenthal and Lawrence Konner, is saddled with dialogue so wooden that Mr. Paxton and Ms. Theron almost seem animatronic themselves. Little children won't notice. In Joe, they can identify with the biggest, cuddliest simian toy a 6-year-old could ever hope to own."[10] Dustin Putman gave it 2 stars out of 4 and a negative review, saying, "Mighty Joe Young is an agreeable time-waster for older kids (it's much too violent for the youngest viewers) and perhaps some adults, but in a season when children could also choose to see the marvelous The Prince of Egypt, and adults could pick any number of far superior films, Mighty Joe Young simply pales in comparison. Although you could certainly do much worse, there is only one really distinctive quality about the film, and that is Charlize Theron's charismatic performance."[11]
Mighty Joe Young also received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects, losing to What Dreams May Come.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Mighty Joe Young". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Perry Moore, 'Narnia' series executive producer, dies at 39; Don Peterman, Oscar-nominated cinematographer, dies at 79; Nancy Carr, network TV publicist, dies at 50". Los Angeles Times. February 22, 2011. Retrieved February 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Rotten Tomatoes reviews
Jump up ^ "Mighty Joe Young Review (1998)". Roger Ebert.com. Retrieved February 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Mighty Joe Young (1998) Movie Review". Common Sense Media. Retrieved October 1, 2005.
Jump up ^ "Mighty Joe Young Movie Review". Reelviews.
Jump up ^ "Mighty Joe Young (1998)". eFilm Critic.
Jump up ^ "Mighty Joe Young Review". TV Guide.
Jump up ^ "Review: Monkeying around with 'Mighty Joe Young'". CNN. December 25, 1998.
Jump up ^ "Movie Review Mighty Joe Young (1998)". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Mighty Joe Young (1998)". Dustin Putman.
External links[edit]
Official website
Mighty Joe Young on IMDb
Mighty Joe Young at Rotten Tomatoes
Mighty Joe Young at AllMovie
[show]
v
t
e
King Kong
Films
King Kong (1933)
Son of Kong (1933)
King Kong vs. Godzilla (1962)
King Kong Escapes (1967)
King Kong (1976)
King Kong Lives (1986)
King Kong (2005)
Kong: Skull Island (2017)
Related films
Creation (unfinished)
Wasei Kingu Kongu (1933)
King Kong Appears in Edo (1938)
Mighty Joe Young (1949)
Queen Kong (1976)
Bye Bye Monkey (1978)
Mighty Joe Young (1998)
Theatre
King Kong (2013)
Characters
King Kong
Carl Denham
Jack Driscoll
Mechani-Kong
Gorosaurus
Godzilla
Animation
The King Kong Show (1966–1969)
The Mighty Kong (1998)
Kong: The Animated Series (2000-2001)
Kong: King of the Apes (2016)
Video games
King Kong 2: Ikari no Megaton Punch (1986)
King Kong 2: Yomigaeru Densetsu (1986)
Peter Jackson's King Kong (2005)
Attractions
King Kong Encounter (1986)
Kongfrontation (1990)
King Kong: 360 3-D (2010)
Skull Island: Reign of Kong (2016)
Miscellaneous
Comics
Popular culture
Skull Island
Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd.
Kaiju
Godzilla
MonsterVerse
Monsterland and Monster Island
Category
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Ron Underwood
Tremors (1990)
City Slickers (1991)
Heart and Souls (1993)
Speechless (1994)
Mighty Joe Young (1998)
The Adventures of Pluto Nash (2002)
Stealing Sinatra (2003)
Back When We Were Grownups (2004)
In the Mix (2005)
Santa Baby (2006)
The Year Without a Santa Claus (2006)
Holiday in Handcuffs (2007)
Santa Baby 2: Christmas Maybe (2009)
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