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Peromyscus maniculatus
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Peromyscus maniculatus
Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Cricetidae
Subfamily: Neotominae
Genus: Peromyscus
Species: P. maniculatus
Binomial name
Peromyscus maniculatus
(Wagner, 1845)
North American deer mouse range
Peromyscus maniculatus is a rodent native to North America. It is most commonly called the deer mouse, although that name is common to most species of Peromyscus, and thus is often called the North American deermouse[2] and is fairly widespread across the continent, with the major exception being the southeast United States and the far north.
Like other Peromyscus species, it is a vector and carrier of emerging infectious diseases such as hantaviruses and Lyme disease.[3][4]
It is closely related to Peromyscus leucopus, the white-footed mouse.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Physical description
3 Behavior
4 Reproduction and life span
4.1 Breeding season
4.2 Nesting
4.3 Gestation, litter size and productivity
4.4 Development of young
4.5 Dispersal
4.6 Longevity and mortality
5 Habitat
6 Cover requirements
7 Predators
8 Diet
9 References
10 External links
Overview[edit]
The species has 56 subspecies.[5] They are all tiny mammals that are plentiful in number.[6] The deer mouse is a small rodent that lives in the Americas and is closely related to the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus.[7] Because the two species are extremely similar in appearance, they are best distinguished through red blood cell agglutination tests or karyotype techniques. The deer mouse can also be distinguished physically by its long and multicolored tail.[8] Deer mice are very often used for laboratory experimentation due to their self cleanliness and easy care.[7]
Physical description[edit]
The deer mouse is small in size, only 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) long, not including the tail. They have large beady eyes and large ears giving them good sight and hearing. Their soft fur can vary in color, from white to black, but all deer mice have a distinguishable white underside and white feet.[7]
Behavior[edit]
Deer mice are nocturnal creatures who spend the day time in areas such as trees or burrows where they have nests made of plant material.[7] The pups within litters of deer mice are kept by the mother within an individual home range. The deer mice do not mingle in groups with their litters. During the development stages, the mice within one litter interact much more than mice of two different litters. Although deer mice live in individual home ranges, these ranges do tend to overlap. When overlapping occurs, it is more likely to be with opposite sexes rather than with the same sex. Deer mice that live within overlapping home ranges tend to recognize one another and interact a lot.[9]
Reproduction and life span[edit]
Breeding season[edit]
Deer mice can reproduce throughout the year, though in most parts of their range, they breed from March to October.[10] Deer mouse breeding tends to be determined more by food availability rather than by season. In Plumas County, California, deer mice bred through December in good mast (both soft and hard masts) years but ceased breeding in June of a poor mast year.[11] Deer mice breed throughout the year in the Willamette Valley, but in other areas on the Oregon coast there is usually a lull during the wettest and coldest weather.[12] In southeastern Arizona at least one-third of captured deer mice were in breeding condition in winter.[13] In Virginia breeding peaks occur from April to June and from September to October.[14]
Nesting[edit]
Female deer mice construct nests using a variety of materials including grasses, roots, mosses, wool, thistledown, and various artificial fibers.[12] The male deer mice are allowed by the female to help nest the litter and keep them together and warm for survival.[5]
In a study, less than half of both male and female deer mice left their original home range to reproduce. This means that there is intrafamilial mating and that the gene flow among deer mice as a whole is limited.[15]
Gestation, litter size and productivity[edit]
Deer mice reproduce profusely and are highest in numbers among their species compared to other local mammals. Peromyscus species' gestation periods range from 22 to 26 days.[16] Typical litters are composed of three to five young;[7] litter size ranges from one to nine young. Most female deer mice have more than one litter per year.[12] Three or four litters per year is probably typical; captive deer mice have borne as many as 14 litters in one year. Males usually live with the family and help care for the young.[10]
Development of young[edit]
Deer mice pups are altricial, i.e. born blind, naked and helpless; development is rapid. Young deer mice have full coats by the end of the second week; their eyes open between 13 and 19 days and they are fully furred and independent in only a few weeks.[12] Females lactate for 27 to 34 days after giving birth; most young are weaned at about 18 to 24 days. The young reach adult size at about 6 weeks and continue to gain weight slowly thereafter.[16]
Age of first estrus averages about 48 days; the earliest recorded was 23 days. The youngest wild female to produce a litter was 55 days old; it was estimated that conception had occurred when she was about 32 days old.[16]
Dispersal[edit]
Deer mouse pups usually disperse after weaning and before the birth of the next litter, when they are reaching sexual maturity. Occasionally juveniles remain in the natal area, particularly when breeding space is limited.[17] Most deer mice travel less than 152 m (499 ft) from the natal area to establish their own home range.[18]
Longevity and mortality[edit]
While their maximum life span is 96 months, the mean life expectancy is 45.5 months for females and 47.5 for males.[19] In many areas deer mice live less than 1 year.[12] O'Farrell reported that a population of deer mice in big sagebrush/grasslands had completely turned over (e.g., there were no surviving adults of the initial population) over the course of one summer.[20] One captive male deer mouse lived 32 months,[12] and there is a report of a forest deer mouse that lived 8 years in captivity (another mouse was fertile until almost 6 years of age).[21]
Habitat[edit]
Peromyscus maniculatus are found in places including Alaska, Canada, and parts of South America.[7] The majority of deer mice nest high up, in large hollow trees. The deer mouse nests alone for the most part but will sometimes nest with a deer mouse of the opposite sex.[15] They are populous in the western mountains and live in wooded areas and areas that were previously wooded. The deer mouse is generally a nocturnal creature.[6] Deer mice can be found active on top of snow or beneath logs during the winter seasons.[5]
Deer mice inhabit a wide variety of plant communities including grasslands, brushy areas, woodlands, and forests.[22] In a survey of small mammals on 29 sites in subalpine forests in Colorado and Wyoming, the deer mouse had the highest frequency of occurrence; however, it was not always the most abundant small mammal.[23] Deer mice were trapped in four of six forest communities in eastern Washington and northern Idaho, and they were the only rodent in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) savanna.[24] In northern New England deer mice are present in both coniferous and deciduous forests.[25] Deer mice are often the only Peromyscus species in northern boreal forest.[11] Subspecies differ in their use of plant communities and vegetation structures. There are two main groups of deer mouse: the prairie deer mouse and the woodland or forest deer mouse group.[22]
Cover requirements[edit]
Deer mice are often active in open habitat; most subspecies do not develop hidden runways the way many voles (Microtus and Clethrionomys spp.) do.[11][26] In open habitat within forests deer mice have a tendency to visit the nearest timber.[27] In central Ontario deer mice used downed wood for runways.[28]
Deer mice nest in burrows dug in the ground or construct nests in raised areas such as brush piles, logs, rocks, stumps, under bark, and in hollows in trees.[12][22][28] Nests are also constructed in various structures and artifacts including old boards and abandoned vehicles. Nests have been found up to 24 m (79 ft) above the ground in Douglas-fir trees.[12]
Predators[edit]
Deer mice are important prey for snakes (Viperidae), owls (Strigidae), mink (Neovison vison), marten (Martes americana) and other weasels (Mustelidae), skunks (Mephites and Spilogale spp.), bobcat (Lynx rufus), domestic cat (Felis catus), coyote (Canis latrans), foxes (Vulpes and Urocyon spp.), and ringtail (Bassariscus astutus).[12]
Diet[edit]
Deer mice are omnivorous; the main dietary items usually include seeds, fruits, arthropods, leaves, and fungi; fungi have the least amount of intake. Throughout the year, the deer mouse will change its eating habits to reflect on what is available to eat during that season. During winter months, the arthropods compose of one-fifth of the deer mouse's food. These include spiders, caterpillars, and heteropterans. During the spring months, seeds become available to eat, along with insects, which are consumed in large quantities. Leaves are also found in the stomachs of deer mice in the spring seasons. During summer months, the mouse consumes seeds and fruits. During the fall season, the deer mouse will slowly change its eating habits to resemble the winter's diet.[6]
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Department of Agriculture document "Peromyscus maniculatus".
Jump up ^ Linzey, A.V. (2008). "Peromyscus maniculatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 5 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Bowers, Nora; Rick Bowers; and Kenn Kaufman (2004). Kaufman Guide to North American Mammals. NY: Houghton-Mifflin Co. p.176.
Jump up ^ Netski, Dale; Brandonlyn Thran & Stephen St. Jeor (1999). "Sin Nombre Virus Pathogenesis in Peromyscus maniculatus". Journal of Virology (1): 585–591.
Jump up ^ Crossland, J. & Lewandowski, A. (2006). "Peromyscus – A fascinating laboratory animal model" (PDF). Techtalk. 11 (1–2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 November 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hanney, Peter W. Rodents: Their Lives and Habits. New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1975.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jameson, E W (1952). "Food of Deer Mice, Peromyscus maniculatus and P. boylei, in the Northern Sierra Nevada, California". Journal of Mammalogy. 33 (1): 50–60. doi:10.2307/1375640. JSTOR 1375640.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f The New Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. (Vol. 12, p. 631). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ Tessier, Nathalie; Sarah Noel & Francois Lapointe (2004). "A new method to discriminate the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) from the white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) using species-specific primers in multiplex PCR". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 82 (11): 1832–35. doi:10.1139/z04-173.
Jump up ^ Dewsbury, Donald (1988). "Kinship, Familiarity, Aggression, and Dominance in Deer Mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) in Seminatural Enclosures". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 102 (2): 124–8. doi:10.1037/0735-7036.102.2.124. PMID 3165063.
^ Jump up to: a b Nowak, Ronald M.; Paradiso, John L. (1983). Walker's mammals of the world. 4th edition. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press
^ Jump up to: a b c Baker, Rollin H. (1968). Habitats and distribution. In: King, John Arthur, ed. Biology of Peromyscus (Rodentia). Special Publication No. 2. Stillwater, OK: The American Society of Mammalogists 98–126.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Maser, Chris; Mate, Bruce R.; Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. (1981). Natural history of Oregon Coast mammals. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-133. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station.
Jump up ^ Brown, J. H.; Zeng, Z. (1989). "Comparative Population Ecology of Eleven Species of Rodents in the Chihuahuan Desert". Ecology. 70 (5): 1507–1525. doi:10.2307/1938209. JSTOR 1938209.
Jump up ^ Wolff, Jerry O. (1994). "Reproductive success of solitarily and communally nesting white-footed mice and deer mice". Behavioral Ecology. 5 (2): 206–209. doi:10.1093/beheco/5.2.206.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolff, Jerry & Deborah Durr (1986). "Winter Nesting Behavior of Peromyscus leucopus and Peromyscus maniculatus". Journal of Mammalogy. 67 (2): 409–12. JSTOR 1380900.
^ Jump up to: a b c Layne, JN (1966). "Postnatal development and growth of Peromyscus floridanus". Growth. 30 (1): 23–45. PMID 5959707.
Jump up ^ Walters, Bradley B (1991). "Small mammals in a subalpine old-growth forest and clearcuts". Northwest Science. 65 (1): 27–31.
Jump up ^ Stickel, Lucille F. (1968). Home range and travels. In: King, John Arthur, ed. Biology of Peromyscus (Rodentia). Special Publication No. 2. Stillwater, OK: The American Society of Mammalogists: 373–411
Jump up ^ Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources (U.S.). Committee on Animal Models for Research on Aging; National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Animal Models for Research on Aging (1981). Mammalian models for research on aging. National Academies. ISBN 978-0-309-03094-6. Retrieved 11 May 2011.
Jump up ^ O'Farrell, Michael J (1978). "Home range dynamics of rodents in a sagebrush community". Journal of Mammalogy. 59 (4): 657–668. doi:10.2307/1380131. JSTOR 1380131.
Jump up ^ Dice, Lee R. 1933. Longevity in Peromyscus maniculatus gracilis. Journal of Mammalogy. 14: 147–148
^ Jump up to: a b c Whitaker, John O., Jr. (1980). National Audubon Society field guide to North American mammals. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
Jump up ^ Raphael, Martin G. (1987). Nongame wildlife research in subalpine forests of the central Rocky Mountains. In: Management of subalpine forests: building on 50 years of research: Proceedings of a technical conference; 1987 July 6–9; Silver Creek, CO. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-149. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 113–122
Jump up ^ Hoffman, G. R. (1960). "The Small Mammal Components of Six Climax Plant Associations in Eastern Washington and Northern Idaho". Ecology. 41 (3): 571–572. doi:10.2307/1933338. JSTOR 1933338.
Jump up ^ Degraaf, Richard M.; Snyder, Dana P.; Hill, Barbara J. (1991). "Small mammal habitat associations in poletimber and sawtimber stands of four forest cover types". Forest Ecology and Management. 46 (3–4): 227–242. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(91)90234-M.
Jump up ^ Wagg, J. W. Bruce. (1964). White spruce regeneration on the Peace and Slave River lowlands. Publ. No. 1069. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Department of Forestry, Forest Research Branch
Jump up ^ Gashwiler, Jay S. (1959). "Small mammal study in west-central Oregon". Journal of Mammalogy. 40 (1): 128–139. doi:10.2307/1376123. JSTOR 1376123.
^ Jump up to: a b Naylor, Brian J. (1994). "Managing wildlife habitat in red pine and white pine forests of central Ontario". Forestry Chronicle. 70 (4): 411–419. doi:10.5558/tfc70411-4.
External links[edit]
Data related to Peromyscus maniculatus at Wikispecies
Description of species
Additional description of species with photos
Additional information on species
Information on hantaviruses, which can be carried by this species
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peromyscus maniculatus.
[show]
v
t
e
Extant species of subfamily Neotominae
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Infraclass: Eutheria
Superorder: Euarchontoglires
Order: Rodentia
Family: Cricetidae
Baiomyini
Baiomys
(Pygmy mice)
Southern pygmy mouse (B. musculus)
Northern pygmy mouse (B. taylori)
Scotinomys
(Brown mice)
Alston's brown mouse (S. teguina)
Chiriqui brown mouse (S. xerampelinus)
Neotomini
Neotoma
(Pack rats)
Subgenus Neotoma: White-throated woodrat (N. albigula)
Tamaulipan woodrat (N. angustapalata)
Bryant's woodrat (N. bryanti)
Nicaraguan woodrat (N. chrysomelas)
Arizona woodrat (N. devia)
Eastern woodrat (N. floridana )
Goldman's woodrat (N. goldmani)
Desert woodrat (N. lepida )
White-toothed woodrat (N. leucodon)
Big-eared woodrat (N. macrotis)
Allegheny woodrat (N. magister)
Neotoma melanura
Mexican woodrat (N. mexicana)
Southern Plains woodrat (N. micropus)
Nelson's woodrat (N. nelsoni)
Bolaños woodrat(N. palatina)
Stephens' woodrat (N. stephensi)
Subgenus Teanopus: Sonoran woodrat (N. phenax)
Subgenus Teonoma: Bushy-tailed woodrat (N. cinerea)
Dusky-footed woodrat (N. fuscipes)
Xenomys
Magdalena rat (X. nelsoni)
Hodomys
Allen's woodrat (H. alleni)
Nelsonia
(Diminutive woodrats)
Goldman's diminutive woodrat (N. goldmani)
Diminutive woodrat (N. neotomodon)
Ochrotomyini
Ochrotomys
Golden mouse (O. nuttalli)
Reithrodontomyini
Peromyscus
(Deer mice)
californicus group: California mouse (P. californicus)
eremicus group: Cactus mouse (P. eremicus)
Angel Island mouse (P. guardia)
San Lorenzo mouse (P. interparietalis)
Dickey's deer mouse (P. dickeyi)
False canyon mouse (P. pseudocrinitus)
Northern Baja deer mouse (P. fraterculus)
Eva's desert mouse (P. eva)
Burt's deer mouse (P. caniceps)
Mesquite mouse (P. merriami)
hooperi group: Hooper's mouse (P. hooperi)
crinitus group: Canyon mouse (P. crinitus)
maniculatus group: Deer mouse (P. maniculatus)
Oldfield mouse (P. polionotus)
Santa Cruz mouse (P. sejugis)
Northwestern deer mouse (P. keeni)
Black-eared mouse (P. melanotis)
Slevin's mouse (P. slevini)
leucopus group: White-footed mouse (P. leucopus)
Cotton mouse (P. gossypinus)
aztecus group: Aztec mouse (P. aztecus)
Gleaning mouse (P. spicilegus)
Winkelmann's mouse (P. winkelmanni)
boylii group: Brush mouse (P. boylii)
Nimble-footed mouse (P. levipes)
Schmidly's deer mouse (P. schmidlyi)
San Esteban Island mouse (P. stephani)
Texas mouse (P. attwateri)
Nayarit mouse (P. simulus)
Tres Marias Island mouse (P. madrensis)
White-ankled mouse (P. pectoralis)
Chihuahuan mouse (P. polius)
truei group: Pinyon mouse (P. truei)
Osgood's mouse (P. gratus)
Perote mouse (P. bullatus)
Zacatecan deer mouse (P. difficilis)
Northern rock mouse (P. nasutus)
melanophrys group: Plateau mouse (P. melanophrys)
Marsh mouse (P. perfulvus)
Puebla deer mouse (P. mekisturus)
furvus group: Blackish deer mouse (P. furvus)
El Carrizo deer mouse (P. ochraventer)
Maya mouse (P. mayensis)
megalops group: Brown deer mouse (P. megalops)
Black-tailed mouse (P. melanurus)
Zempoaltepec (P. melanocarpus)
mexicanus group: Mexican deer mouse (P. mexicanus)
Naked-eared deer mouse (P. gymnotis)
Guatemalan deer mouse (P. guatemalensis)
Chiapan deer mouse (P. zarhynchus)
Big deer mouse (P. grandis)
Yucatan deer mouse (P. yucatanicus)
Stirton's deer mouse (P. stirtoni)
Reithrodontomys
(New World
harvest mice)
Guerrero harvest mouse (R. bakeri)
Short-nosed harvest mouse (R. brevirostris)
Sonoran harvest mouse (R. burti)
Volcano harvest mouse (R. chrysopsis)
Chiriqui harvest mouse (R. creper)
Darien harvest mouse (R. darienensis)
Fulvous harvest mouse (R. fulvescens)
Slender harvest mouse (R. gracilis)
Hairy harvest mouse (R. hirsutus)
Eastern harvest mouse (R. humulis)
Western harvest mouse (R. megalotis)
Mexican harvest mouse (R. mexicanus)
Small-toothed harvest mouse (R. microdon)
Plains harvest mouse (R. montanus)
R. musseri
Nicaraguan harvest mouse (R. paradoxus)
Salt marsh harvest mouse (R. raviventris)
Rodriguez's harvest mouse (R. rodriguezi)
Cozumel harvest mouse (R. spectabilis)
Sumichrast's harvest mouse (R. sumichrasti)
Narrow-nosed harvest mouse (R. tenuirostris)
Zacatecas harvest mouse (R. zacatecae)
Onychomys
(Grasshopper mice)
Chihuahuan grasshopper mouse (O. arenicola)
Northern grasshopper mouse (O. leucogaster)
Southern grasshopper mouse (O. torridus)
Neotomodon
Mexican volcano mouse (N. alstoni)
Podomys
Florida mouse (P. floridanus)
Isthmomys
(Isthmus rats)
Yellow isthmus rat (I. flavidus)
Mount Pirri isthmus rat (I. pirrensis)
Megadontomys
(Giant deer mice)
Oaxaca giant deer mouse (M. cryophilus)
Nelson's giant deer mouse (M. nelsoni)
Thomas's giant deer mouse (M. thomasi)
Habromys
(Deer mice)
Chinanteco deer mouse (H. chinanteco)
Delicate deer mouse (H. delicatulus)
Ixtlán deer mouse (H. ixtlani)
Zempoaltepec deer mouse (H. lepturus)
Crested-tailed deer mouse (H. lophurus)
H. schmidlyi
Jico deer mouse (H. simulatus)
Osgoodomys
Michoacan deer mouse (O. banderanus)
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q649836
ADW: Peromyscus_maniculatus
EoL: 311573
EPPO: PERMMA
Fossilworks: 50256
GBIF: 2437967
iNaturalist: 44396
ITIS: 180276
IUCN: 16672
MSW: 13000464
NCBI: 10042
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peromyscus_maniculatus&oldid=831208642"
Categories:
IUCN Red List least concern species
Peromyscus
Rodents of North America
Mammals of Canada
Mammals of Mexico
Mammals of the United States
Least concern biota of North America
Least concern biota of Mexico
Least concern biota of the United States
Mammals described in 1845
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Hypertext Transfer Protocol
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems.[1] HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web.
Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links (hyperlinks) between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext.
Development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments (RFCs). The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC 2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC 2616 in 1999 and then again by the RFC 7230 family of RFCs in 2014.
A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, and is now supported by major web servers and browsers over TLS using ALPN extension[2] where TLS 1.2 or newer is required.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Technical overview
2 History
3 HTTP session
4 HTTP authentication
4.1 Authentication realms
5 Request methods
5.1 Safe methods
5.2 Idempotent methods and web applications
5.3 Security
5.4 Summary table
6 Status codes
7 Persistent connections
8 HTTP session state
9 Encrypted connections
10 Message format
10.1 Request message
10.2 Response message
10.3 Example session
10.3.1 Client request
10.3.2 Server response
11 Similar protocols
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
15 External links
Technical overview[edit]
URL beginning with the HTTP scheme and the WWW domain name label.
HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client and an application running on a computer hosting a website may be the server. The client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, returns a response message to the client. The response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body.
A web browser is an example of a user agent (UA). Other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers (web crawlers), voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content.
HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers. High-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to reduce network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, by relaying messages with external servers.
HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol,[4] and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is commonly used. However HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol (SSDP).
HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), using the Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI's) schemes http and https. URIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents.
HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP (HTTP/1.0). In HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, etc after the page has been delivered. HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead.
History[edit]
Tim Berners-Lee
The term hypertext was coined by Ted Nelson in 1965 in the Xanadu Project, which was in turn inspired by Vannevar Bush's 1930s vision of the microfilm-based information retrieval and management "memex" system described in his 1945 essay "As We May Think". Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the associated technology for a web server and a text-based web browser. Berners-Lee first proposed the "WorldWideWeb" project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web. The first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server.[5] The response from the server was always an HTML page.[6]
The first documented version of HTTP was HTTP V0.9 (1991). Dave Raggett led the HTTP Working Group (HTTP WG) in 1995 and wanted to expand the protocol with extended operations, extended negotiation, richer meta-information, tied with a security protocol which became more efficient by adding additional methods and header fields.[7][8] RFC 1945 officially introduced and recognized HTTP V1.0 in 1996.
The HTTP WG planned to publish new standards in December 1995[9] and the support for pre-standard HTTP/1.1 based on the then developing RFC 2068 (called HTTP-NG) was rapidly adopted by the major browser developers in early 1996. By March 1996, pre-standard HTTP/1.1 was supported in Arena,[10] Netscape 2.0,[10] Netscape Navigator Gold 2.01,[10] Mosaic 2.7,[citation needed] Lynx 2.5,[citation needed] and in Internet Explorer 2.0.[citation needed] End-user adoption of the new browsers was rapid. In March 1996, one web hosting company reported that over 40% of browsers in use on the Internet were HTTP 1.1 compliant.[citation needed] That same web hosting company reported that by June 1996, 65% of all browsers accessing their servers were HTTP/1.1 compliant.[11] The HTTP/1.1 standard as defined in RFC 2068 was officially released in January 1997. Improvements and updates to the HTTP/1.1 standard were released under RFC 2616 in June 1999.
In 2007, the HTTPbis Working Group was formed, in part, to revise and clarify the HTTP/1.1 specification. In June 2014, the WG released an updated six-part specification obsoleting RFC 2616:
RFC 7230, HTTP/1.1: Message Syntax and Routing
RFC 7231, HTTP/1.1: Semantics and Content
RFC 7232, HTTP/1.1: Conditional Requests
RFC 7233, HTTP/1.1: Range Requests
RFC 7234, HTTP/1.1: Caching
RFC 7235, HTTP/1.1: Authentication
HTTP/2 was published as RFC 7540 in May 2015.
Year
HTTP Version
1991 0.9
1996 1.0
1997 1.1
2015 2.0
HTTP session[edit]
An HTTP session is a sequence of network request-response transactions. An HTTP client initiates a request by establishing a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection to a particular port on a server (typically port 80, occasionally port 8080; see List of TCP and UDP port numbers). An HTTP server listening on that port waits for a client's request message. Upon receiving the request, the server sends back a status line, such as "HTTP/1.1 200 OK", and a message of its own. The body of this message is typically the requested resource, although an error message or other information may also be returned.[1]
HTTP authentication[edit]
HTTP provides multiple authentication schemes such as basic access authentication and digest access authentication which operate via a challenge-response mechanism whereby the server identifies and issues a challenge before serving the requested content.
HTTP provides a general framework for access control and authentication, via an extensible set of challenge-response authentication schemes, which can be used by a server to challenge a client request and by a client to provide authentication information.[12]
Authentication realms[edit]
The HTTP Authentication specification also provides an arbitrary, implementation specific construct for further dividing resources common to a given root URI. The realm value string, if present, is combined with the canonical root URI to form the protection space component of the challenge. This in effect allows the server to define separate authentication scopes under one root URI[12]
Request methods[edit]
An HTTP 1.1 request made using telnet. The request message, response header section, and response body are highlighted.
HTTP defines methods (sometimes referred to as verbs) to indicate the desired action to be performed on the identified resource. What this resource represents, whether pre-existing data or data that is generated dynamically, depends on the implementation of the server. Often, the resource corresponds to a file or the output of an executable residing on the server. The HTTP/1.0 specification[13] defined the GET, POST and HEAD methods and the HTTP/1.1 specification[14] added 5 new methods: OPTIONS, PUT, DELETE, TRACE and CONNECT. By being specified in these documents their semantics are well known and can be depended on. Any client can use any method and the server can be configured to support any combination of methods. If a method is unknown to an intermediate it will be treated as an unsafe and non-idempotent method. There is no limit to the number of methods that can be defined and this allows for future methods to be specified without breaking existing infrastructure. For example, WebDAV defined 7 new methods and RFC 5789 specified the PATCH method.
Main article: List of HTTP header fields
GET
The GET method requests a representation of the specified resource. Requests using GET should only retrieve data and should have no other effect. (This is also true of some other HTTP methods.)[1] The W3C has published guidance principles on this distinction, saying, "Web application design should be informed by the above principles, but also by the relevant limitations."[15] See safe methods below.
HEAD
The HEAD method asks for a response identical to that of a GET request, but without the response body. This is useful for retrieving meta-information written in response headers, without having to transport the entire content.
POST
The POST method requests that the server accept the entity enclosed in the request as a new subordinate of the web resource identified by the URI. The data POSTed might be, for example, an annotation for existing resources; a message for a bulletin board, newsgroup, mailing list, or comment thread; a block of data that is the result of submitting a web form to a data-handling process; or an item to add to a database.[16]
PUT
The PUT method requests that the enclosed entity be stored under the supplied URI. If the URI refers to an already existing resource, it is modified; if the URI does not point to an existing resource, then the server can create the resource with that URI.[17]
DELETE
The DELETE method deletes the specified resource.
TRACE
The TRACE method echoes the received request so that a client can see what (if any) changes or additions have been made by intermediate servers.
OPTIONS
The OPTIONS method returns the HTTP methods that the server supports for the specified URL. This can be used to check the functionality of a web server by requesting '*' instead of a specific resource.
CONNECT
[18] The CONNECT method converts the request connection to a transparent TCP/IP tunnel, usually to facilitate SSL-encrypted communication (HTTPS) through an unencrypted HTTP proxy.[19][20] See HTTP CONNECT tunneling.
PATCH
The PATCH method applies partial modifications to a resource.[21]
All general-purpose HTTP servers are required to implement at least the GET and HEAD methods,[22] and, whenever possible, also the OPTIONS method.[citation needed]
Safe methods[edit]
Some of the methods (for example, HEAD, GET, OPTIONS and TRACE) are, by convention, defined as safe, which means they are intended only for information retrieval and should not change the state of the server. In other words, they should not have side effects, beyond relatively harmless effects such as logging, caching, the serving of banner advertisements or incrementing a web counter. Making arbitrary GET requests without regard to the context of the application's state should therefore be considered safe. However, this is not mandated by the standard, and it is explicitly acknowledged that it cannot be guaranteed.
By contrast, methods such as POST, PUT, DELETE and PATCH are intended for actions that may cause side effects either on the server, or external side effects such as financial transactions or transmission of email. Such methods are therefore not usually used by conforming web robots or web crawlers; some that do not conform tend to make requests without regard to context or consequences.
Despite the prescribed safety of GET requests, in practice their handling by the server is not technically limited in any way. Therefore, careless or deliberate programming can cause non-trivial changes on the server. This is discouraged, because it can cause problems for web caching, search engines and other automated agents, which can make unintended changes on the server. For example, a website might allow deletion of a resource through a URL such as http://example.com/article/1234/delete, which, if arbitrarily fetched, even using GET, would simply delete the article.[23]
One example of this occurring in practice was during the short-lived Google Web Accelerator beta, which prefetched arbitrary URLs on the page a user was viewing, causing records to be automatically altered or deleted en masse. The beta was suspended only weeks after its first release, following widespread criticism.[24][23]
Idempotent methods and web applications[edit]
Methods PUT and DELETE are defined to be idempotent, meaning that multiple identical requests should have the same effect as a single request (note that idempotence refers to the state of the system after the request has completed, so while the action the server takes (e.g. deleting a record) or the response code it returns may be different on subsequent requests, the system state will be the same every time[citation needed]). Methods GET, HEAD, OPTIONS and TRACE, being prescribed as safe, should also be idempotent, as HTTP is a stateless protocol.[1]
In contrast, the POST method is not necessarily idempotent, and therefore sending an identical POST request multiple times may further affect state or cause further side effects (such as financial transactions). In some cases this may be desirable, but in other cases this could be due to an accident, such as when a user does not realize that their action will result in sending another request, or they did not receive adequate feedback that their first request was successful. While web browsers may show alert dialog boxes to warn users in some cases where reloading a page may re-submit a POST request, it is generally up to the web application to handle cases where a POST request should not be submitted more than once.
Note that whether a method is idempotent is not enforced by the protocol or web server. It is perfectly possible to write a web application in which (for example) a database insert or other non-idempotent action is triggered by a GET or other request. Ignoring this recommendation, however, may result in undesirable consequences, if a user agent assumes that repeating the same request is safe when it isn't.
Security[edit]
The TRACE method can be used as part of a class of attacks known as cross-site tracing; for that reason, common security advice is for it to be disabled in the server configuration.[25] Microsoft IIS supports a proprietary "TRACK" method, which behaves similarly, and which is likewise recommended to be disabled.[25]
Summary table[edit]
HTTP Method
RFC
Request Has Body
Response Has Body
Safe
Idempotent
Cacheable
GET RFC 7231 Optional Yes Yes Yes Yes
HEAD RFC 7231 No No Yes Yes Yes
POST RFC 7231 Yes Yes No No Yes
PUT RFC 7231 Yes Yes No Yes No
DELETE RFC 7231 No Yes No Yes No
CONNECT RFC 7231 Yes Yes No No No
OPTIONS RFC 7231 Optional Yes Yes Yes No
TRACE RFC 7231 No Yes Yes Yes No
PATCH RFC 5789 Yes Yes No No No
Status codes[edit]
See also: List of HTTP status codes
In HTTP/1.0 and since, the first line of the HTTP response is called the status line and includes a numeric status code (such as "404") and a textual reason phrase (such as "Not Found"). The way the user agent handles the response primarily depends on the code and secondarily on the other response header fields. Custom status codes can be used since, if the user agent encounters a code it does not recognize, it can use the first digit of the code to determine the general class of the response.[26]
The standard reason phrases are only recommendations and can be replaced with "local equivalents" at the web developer's discretion. If the status code indicated a problem, the user agent might display the reason phrase to the user to provide further information about the nature of the problem. The standard also allows the user agent to attempt to interpret the reason phrase, though this might be unwise since the standard explicitly specifies that status codes are machine-readable and reason phrases are human-readable. HTTP status code is primarily divided into five groups for better explanation of request and responses between client and server as named: Informational 1XX, Successful 2XX, Redirection 3XX, Client Error 4XX and Server Error 5XX.
Persistent connections[edit]
Main article: HTTP persistent connection
In HTTP/0.9 and 1.0, the connection is closed after a single request/response pair. In HTTP/1.1 a keep-alive-mechanism was introduced, where a connection could be reused for more than one request. Such persistent connections reduce request latency perceptibly, because the client does not need to re-negotiate the TCP 3-Way-Handshake connection after the first request has been sent. Another positive side effect is that in general the connection becomes faster with time due to TCP's slow-start-mechanism.
Version 1.1 of the protocol also made bandwidth optimization improvements to HTTP/1.0. For example, HTTP/1.1 introduced chunked transfer encoding to allow content on persistent connections to be streamed rather than buffered. HTTP pipelining further reduces lag time, allowing clients to send multiple requests before waiting for each response. Another addition to the protocol was byte serving, where a server transmits just the portion of a resource explicitly requested by a client.
HTTP session state[edit]
HTTP is a stateless protocol. A stateless protocol does not require the HTTP server to retain information or status about each user for the duration of multiple requests. However, some web applications implement states or server side sessions using for instance HTTP cookies or hidden variables within web forms.
Encrypted connections[edit]
The most popular way of establishing an encrypted HTTP connection is HTTP Secure.[27] Two other methods for establishing an encrypted HTTP connection also exist: Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and using the HTTP/1.1 Upgrade header to specify an upgrade to TLS. Browser support for these two is, however, nearly non-existent.[28][29][30]
Message format[edit]
The client and server communicate by sending plain-text (ASCII) messages. The client sends requests to the server and the server sends responses.
Request message[edit]
The request message consists of the following:
A request line (e.g., GET /images/logo.png HTTP/1.1, which requests a resource called /images/logo.png from the server).
Request header fields (e.g., Accept-Language: en).
An empty line.
An optional message body.
The request line and other header fields must each end with <CR><LF> (that is, a carriage return character followed by a line feed character). The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace.[31] In the HTTP/1.1 protocol, all header fields except Host are optional.
A request line containing only the path name is accepted by servers to maintain compatibility with HTTP clients before the HTTP/1.0 specification in RFC 1945.[32]
Response message[edit]
The response message consists of the following:
A status line which includes the status code and reason message (e.g., HTTP/1.1 200 OK, which indicates that the client's request succeeded).
Response header fields (e.g., Content-Type: text/html).
An empty line.
An optional message body.
The status line and other header fields must all end with <CR><LF>. The empty line must consist of only <CR><LF> and no other whitespace.[31] This strict requirement for <CR><LF> is relaxed somewhat within message bodies for consistent use of other system linebreaks such as <CR> or <LF> alone.[33]
Example session[edit]
Below is a sample conversation between an HTTP client and an HTTP server running on www.example.com, port 80. As mentioned in the previous sections, all the data is sent in a plain-text (ASCII) encoding, using a two-byte CR LF ('\r\n') line ending at the end of each line.
Client request[edit]
GET /index.html HTTP/1.1 Host: www.example.com
A client request (consisting in this case of the request line and only one header field) is followed by a blank line, so that the request ends with a double newline, each in the form of a carriage return followed by a line feed. The "Host" field distinguishes between various DNS names sharing a single IP address, allowing name-based virtual hosting. While optional in HTTP/1.0, it is mandatory in HTTP/1.1.
Server response[edit]
HTTP/1.1 200 OK Date: Mon, 23 May 2005 22:38:34 GMT Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 Content-Encoding: UTF-8 Content-Length: 138 Last-Modified: Wed, 08 Jan 2003 23:11:55 GMT Server: Apache/1.3.3.7 (Unix) (Red-Hat/Linux) ETag: "3f80f-1b6-3e1cb03b" Accept-Ranges: bytes Connection: close <html> <head> <title>An Example Page</title> </head> <body> Hello World, this is a very simple HTML document. </body> </html>
The ETag (entity tag) header field is used to determine if a cached version of the requested resource is identical to the current version of the resource on the server. Content-Type specifies the Internet media type of the data conveyed by the HTTP message, while Content-Length indicates its length in bytes. The HTTP/1.1 webserver publishes its ability to respond to requests for certain byte ranges of the document by setting the field Accept-Ranges: bytes. This is useful, if the client needs to have only certain portions[34] of a resource sent by the server, which is called byte serving. When Connection: close is sent, it means that the web server will close the TCP connection immediately after the transfer of this response.
Most of the header lines are optional. When Content-Length is missing the length is determined in other ways. Chunked transfer encoding uses a chunk size of 0 to mark the end of the content. Identity encoding without Content-Length reads content until the socket is closed.
A Content-Encoding like gzip can be used to compress the transmitted data.
Similar protocols[edit]
The Gopher protocol was a content delivery protocol that was displaced by HTTP in the early 1990s. The SPDY protocol is an alternative to HTTP developed at Google, it is superseded by the new HTTP protocol, HTTP/2.
See also[edit]
HTTP
Persistence
Compression
HTTPS
Request methods
OPTIONS
GET
HEAD
POST
PUT
DELETE
TRACE
CONNECT
PATCH
Header fields
Cookie
ETag
Location
HTTP referer
DNT
X-Forwarded-For
Status codes
301 Moved Permanently
302 Found
303 See Other
403 Forbidden
404 Not Found
451 Unavailable For Legal Reasons
v
t
e
Basic access authentication
Constrained Application Protocol – A semantically similar protocol to HTTP but used UDP or UDP-like messages targeted for devices with limited processing capability. Re-uses HTTP and other internet concepts like Internet media type and web linking (RFC 5988)[35]
Content negotiation
Curl-loader – HTTP/S loading and testing open-source software
Digest access authentication
Fiddler (software)
HTTP compression
HTTP/2 – developed by the IETF's Hypertext Transfer Protocol Bis (httpbis) working group.[36]
HTTP-MPLEX – A backwards compatible enhancement to HTTP to improve page and web object retrieval time in congested networks proposed by Robert Mattson
HTTPS
List of file transfer protocols
List of HTTP header fields
List of HTTP status codes
Representational state transfer (REST)
Variant object
Waka (protocol) – An HTTP replacement proposed by Roy Fielding
Web cache
WebSocket
Wireshark
YXORP, a reverse proxy for the HTTP protocol
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Fielding, Roy T.; Gettys, James; Mogul, Jeffrey C.; Nielsen, Henrik Frystyk; Masinter, Larry; Leach, Paul J.; Berners-Lee, Tim (June 1999). Hypertext Transfer Protocol – HTTP/1.1. IETF. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616.
Jump up ^ "RFC 7301 - Transport Layer Security (TLS) Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Extension". IETF. July 2014.
Jump up ^ Belshe, M.; Peon, R.; Thomson, M. "Hypertext Transfer Protocol Version 2, Use of TLS Features". Retrieved 2015-02-10.
Jump up ^ "Overall Operation". p. 12. sec. 1.4. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-1.4.
Jump up ^ Berners-Lee, Tim. "HyperText Transfer Protocol". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 31 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Tim Berners-Lee. "The Original HTTP as defined in 1991". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 24 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Raggett, Dave. "Dave Raggett's Bio". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Raggett, Dave; Berners-Lee, Tim. "Hypertext Transfer Protocol Working Group". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Raggett, Dave. "HTTP WG Plans". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Simon Spero. "Progress on HTTP-NG". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
Jump up ^ "HTTP/1.1". Webcom.com Glossary entry. Archived from the original on 2001-11-21. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
^ Jump up to: a b Fielding, Roy T.; Reschke, Julian F. (June 2014). Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Authentication. IETF. RFC 7235. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7235.
Jump up ^ Berners-Lee, Tim; Fielding, Roy T.; Nielsen, Henrik Frystyk. "Method Definitions". Hypertext Transfer Protocol – HTTP/1.0. IETF. pp. 30–32. sec. 8. RFC 1945. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1945#section-8.
Jump up ^ "Method Definitions". pp. 51–57. sec. 9. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-9.
Jump up ^ Jacobs, Ian (2004). "URIs, Addressability, and the use of HTTP GET and POST". Technical Architecture Group finding. W3C. Retrieved 26 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "POST". p. 54. sec. 9.5. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-9.5.
Jump up ^ "PUT". p. 55. sec. 9.6. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-9.6.
Jump up ^ "CONNECT". Hypertext Transfer Protocol – HTTP/1.1. IETF. June 1999. p. 57. sec. 9.9. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-9.9. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Khare, Rohit; Lawrence, Scott (May 2000). Upgrading to TLS Within HTTP/1.1. IETF. RFC 2817. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2817.
Jump up ^ "Vulnerability Note VU#150227: HTTP proxy default configurations allow arbitrary TCP connections". US-CERT. 2002-05-17. Retrieved 2007-05-10.
Jump up ^ Dusseault, Lisa; Snell, James M. (March 2010). PATCH Method for HTTP. IETF. RFC 5789. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5789.
Jump up ^ "Method". p. 36. sec. 5.1.1. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-5.1.1.
^ Jump up to: a b Ediger, Brad (2007-12-21). Advanced Rails: Building Industrial-Strength Web Apps in Record Time. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 188. ISBN 0596519729. A common mistake is to use GET for an action that updates a resource. [...] This problem came into the Rails public eye in 2005, when the Google Web Accelerator was released.
Jump up ^ Cantrell, Christian (2005-06-01). "What Have We Learned From the Google Web Accelerator?". Adobe Blogs. Adobe. Retrieved 2017-07-18.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cross Site Tracing". OWASP. Retrieved 2016-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Status-Line". p. 39. sec. 6.1. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-6.1.
Jump up ^ Canavan, John (2001). Fundamentals of Networking Security. Norwood, MA: Artech House. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9781580531764.
Jump up ^ Zalewski, Michal. "Browser Security Handbook". Retrieved 30 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Chromium Issue 4527: implement RFC 2817: Upgrading to TLS Within HTTP/1.1". Retrieved 30 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Mozilla Bug 276813 – [RFE] Support RFC 2817 / TLS Upgrade for HTTP 1.1". Retrieved 30 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "HTTP Message". p. 31. sec. 4. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-4.
Jump up ^ "Apache Week. HTTP/1.1". 090502 apacheweek.com
Jump up ^ "Canonicalization and Text Defaults". sec. 3.7.1. RFC 2616. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616#section-3.7.1.
Jump up ^ Luotonen, Ari; Franks, John (February 22, 1996). Byte Range Retrieval Extension to HTTP. IETF. I-D draft-ietf-http-range-retrieval-00. https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-ietf-http-range-retrieval-00.
Jump up ^ Nottingham, Mark (October 2010). Web Linking. IETF. RFC 5988. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5988.
Jump up ^ "Hypertext Transfer Protocol Bis (httpbis) – Charter". IETF. 2012.
References[edit]
HTTP 0.9 – As Implemented in 1991
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to HTTP.
"Change History for HTTP". W3.org. Retrieved 2010-08-01. A detailed technical history of HTTP.
"Design Issues for HTTP". W3.org. Retrieved 2010-08-01. Design Issues by Berners-Lee when he was designing the protocol.
"Classic HTTP Documents". W3.org. 1998-05-14. Retrieved 2010-08-01. list of other classic documents recounting the early protocol history
HTTP/2 Website Online Tester
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LCCN: sh97000529
GND: 4479982-2
BNF: cb12556450f (data)
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