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Committee of Public Safety
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For other uses, see Committee of Public Safety (disambiguation).
The Committee of Public Safety (French: Comité de salut public)—created in April 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July 1793—formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror (1793–94), a stage of the French Revolution. The Committee of Public Safety succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence (established in January 1793) and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. As a wartime measure, the Committee—composed at first of nine, and later of twelve, members—was given broad supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. It was formed as an administrative body to supervise and expedite the work of the executive bodies of the Convention and of the government ministers appointed by the Convention. As the Committee tried to meet the dangers of a coalition of European nations and counter-revolutionary forces within the country, it became more and more powerful.
In July 1793, following the defeat at the Convention of the Girondins, the prominent leader of the radical Jacobin, Maximilien Robespierre, was added to the Committee. The power of the Committee peaked between August 1793 and July 1794. In December 1793, the Convention formally conferred executive power upon the Committee.
The execution of Robespierre in July 1794 represented a reactionary period against the Committee of Public Safety. This is known as the Thermidorian Reaction, as Robespierre's fall from power occurred during the Revolutionary month of Thermidor. The Committee's influence diminished,[1] and it was disestablished in 1795.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins and evolution
1.1 Committee of discussion
1.1.1 Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists
1.2 Committee of rule
1.3 Fall of the Committee, and aftermath
2 Composition
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Origins and evolution[edit]
Committee of discussion[edit]
Lettre anglaise (English Letter) dated 29 June 1793 as published by the French National convention during the Revolution (1793). This document was used to prove English spying and conspiracy.
On 5 April 1793, the French military commander and former minister of war General Charles François Dumouriez defected to Austria, following the publication of an incendiary letter in which he threatened to march his army on the city of Paris if the National Convention did not accede to his leadership. News of his defection caused alarm in Paris, where imminent defeat by the Austrians and their allies was feared. A widespread belief held that revolutionary France was in immediate peril, threatened not only by foreign armies and by recent anti-revolutionary revolts in the Vendée, but also by foreign agents who plotted the destruction of the nation from within.[2]
The betrayal of the revolutionary government by Dumouriez lent greater credence to this belief. In light of this threat, the Girondin leader Maximin Isnard proposed the creation of a nine-member Committee of Public Safety. Isnard was supported in this effort by Georges Danton, who declared, "This Committee is precisely what we want, a hand to grasp the weapon of the Revolutionary Tribunal."[2]
The Committee was formally created on 6 April 1793. Closely associated with the leadership of Danton, it was initially known as "the Danton Committee".[3] Danton steered the Committee through the 31 May and 2 June 1793 journées that resulted in the fall of the Girondins, and through the intensifying war in the Vendée. However, when the Committee was recomposed on 10 July, Danton was not included. Nevertheless, he continued to support the centralization of power by the Committee.[4]
On 27 July 1793, Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the Committee. At this time, the Committee was entering a more powerful and active phase, which would see it become a de facto dictatorship alongside its powerful partner, the Committee of General Security. The role of the Committee of Public Safety included the governance of the war (including the appointment of generals), the appointing of judges and juries for the Revolutionary Tribunal,[5] the provisioning of the armies and the public, the maintenance of public order, and oversight of the state bureaucracy.[6]
The Committee was also responsible for interpreting and applying the decrees of the National Convention, and thus for implementing some of the most stringent policies of the Terror—for instance, the levée en masse, passed on 23 August 1793, the Law of Suspects, passed on 17 September 1793, and the Law of the Maximum, passed on 29 September 1793. The broad and centralized powers of the Committee were codified by the Law of 14 Frimaire (also known as the Law of Revolutionary Government) on 4 December 1793.[citation needed]
Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists[edit]
On 5 December 1793, journalist Camille Desmoulins began publishing Le Vieux Cordelier, a newspaper initially aimed—with the approval of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety[7]—at the ultra-revolutionary Hébertist faction, whose extremist demands, anti-religious fervor, and propensity for sudden insurrections were problematic for the Committee. However, Desmoulins quickly turned his pen against the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security, comparing their reign to that of the Roman tyrants chronicled by Tacitus, and expounding the "indulgent" views of the Dantonist faction.[citation needed]
Consequently, though the Hébertists were arrested and executed in March 1794, the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security ensured that Desmoulins and Danton were also arrested. Hérault de Séchelles—a friend and ally of Danton—was expelled from the Committee of Public Safety, arrested, and tried alongside them. On 5 April 1794, the Dantonists went to the guillotine.[8]
Committee of rule[edit]
Maximilien Robespierre, member of the Committee of Public Safety
The elimination of the Hébertists and the Dantonists made evident the strength of the committees, as had their ability to control and silence opposition. The creation, in March 1794, of a "General Police Bureau"—reporting nominally to the Committee of Public Safety, but more often directly to Robespierre and his closest ally, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just—served to increase the power of the Committee of Public Safety, and of Robespierre himself.
The Law of 22 Prairial, proposed by the Committee of Public Safety and enacted on 10 June 1794, went further in establishing the iron control of the Revolutionary Tribunal and, above it, the Committees of Public Safety and General Security. The law enumerated various forms of public enemies, made mandatory their denunciation, and severely limited the legal recourse available to those accused. The punishment for all crimes under the Law of 22 Prairal was death. From the initiation of this law to the fall of Robespierre on 27 July, more people were condemned to death than in the entire previous history of the Revolutionary Tribunal.[9]
However, even as the Terror reached its height, and with it the Committee's political power, discord was growing within the revolutionary government. Members of the Committee of General Security resented the autocratic behavior of the Committee of Public Safety, and particularly the encroachment of the General Police Bureau upon their own brief.[10] Arguments within the Committee of Public Safety itself had grown so violent that it relocated its meetings to a more private room to preserve the illusion of agreement.[11] Robespierre, a fervent supporter of the theistic Cult of the Supreme Being, found himself frequently in conflict with anti-religious Committee members Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne. Moreover, Robespierre's increasingly extensive absences from the Committee due to illness (he all but ceased to attend meetings in June 1794) created the impression that he was isolated and out of touch.
Fall of the Committee, and aftermath[edit]
When it became evident, in mid-July 1794, that Robespierre and Saint-Just were planning to strike against their political opponents Joseph Fouché, Jean-Lambert Tallien, and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier (the latter two of whom were members of the Committee of General Security), the fragile truce within the government was dissolved. Saint-Just and his fellow Committee of Public Safety member Barère attempted to keep the peace between the Committees of Public Safety and General Security; however, on 26 July, Robespierre delivered a speech to the National Convention in which he emphasized the need to "purify" the Committees and "crush all factions."[12] In a speech to the Jacobin Club that night, he attacked Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, who had refused to allow the printing and distribution of his speech to the Convention.
On the following day, 27 July 1794 (or 9 Thermidor according to the Revolutionary calendar), Saint-Just began to deliver a speech to the Convention in which he had planned to denounce Collot d'Herbois, Billaud-Varenne, and other members of the Committee of Public Safety. However, he was almost immediately interrupted by Tallien and by Billaud-Varenne, who accused Saint-Just of intending to "murder the Convention."[13] Barère, Vadier, and Stanislas Fréron joined the accusations against Saint-Just and Robespierre. The arrest of Robespierre, his brother Augustin, and Saint-Just was ordered, along with that of their supporters, Philippe Le Bas and Georges Couthon.
A period of intense civil unrest ensued, during which the members of the Committees of Public Safety and General Security were forced to seek refuge in the Convention. The Robespierre brothers, Saint-Just, Le Bas, and Couthon ensconced themselves in the Hôtel de Ville, attempting to incite an insurrection. Ultimately, faced with defeat and arrest, Le Bas committed suicide. Saint-Just, Couthon, and Maximilien and Augustin Robespierre were arrested and guillotined on 28 July.[14]
The ensuing period of upheaval, dubbed the Thermidorian Reaction, saw the repeal of many of the Terror's most unpopular laws and the reduction in power of the Committees of General Security and Public Safety. The Committees ceased to exist under the Constitution of the Year III (1795), which marked the beginning of the Directory.[citation needed]
Composition[edit]
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The Committee was initially composed of nine members, all selected by the National Convention for one month at a time, without term limits. Its first members, instated on 6 April 1793, were as follows, in order of election.
After Robespierre's election to the Committee on 27 July 1793, the Committee increased its membership to twelve. The list below represents the Committee's membership.
April 1793 – July 1793:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party
Bertrand Barère (1755–1841) Hautes-Pyrénées Maraisard
Jean-François Delmas (1751–1798) Haute-Garonne Montagnard
Jean-Jacques Bréard (1751–1840) Charente-Inférieure Montagnard
Pierre-Joseph Cambon (1756–1820) Hérault Montagnard
Georges Danton (1759–1794) Seine Montagnard
Jean Debry (1760–1834) Aisne Montagnard
Jean-François Delacroix (1753–1794) Eure-et-Loir Maraisard
Louis-Bernard Guyton-Morveau (1737–1816) Côte-d'Or Girondin
Jean Baptiste Treilhard (1742–1810) Seine-et-Oise Girondin
July 1793 – July 1794:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party
Bertrand Barère (1755–1841) Hautes-Pyrénées Maraisard
Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne (1756–1819) Seine Montagnard
Lazare Carnot (1753–1823) Pas-de-Calais Maraisard
Georges Couthon (1755–1794) Puy-de-Dôme Montagnard
Claude-Antoine Prieur-Duvernois (1763–1832) Côte-d'Or Montagnard
Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (1749–1796) Seine Montagnard
Robert Lindet (1746–1825) Eure Montagnard
Pierre Louis Prieur (1756–1827) Marne Montagnard
Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) Seine Montagnard
Jeanbon Saint-André (1749–1813) Lot Montagnard
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just (1767–1794) Aisne Montagnard
Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles (1759–1794) Seine-et-Oise Montagnard
See also[edit]
Commissioners of the Committee of Public Safety
Committee of General Security
National Convention
Historiography of the French Revolution
Revolutionary Tribunal
Reflections on the Revolution in France
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Committee of Public Safety". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Belloc (1899), p. 210.
Jump up ^ Mantel (2009).
Jump up ^ Belloc (1899), p. 235.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 284.
Jump up ^ Furet (1992), p. 134.
Jump up ^ Furet (1992), p. 141.
Jump up ^ "Danton Versus Robespierre: The Quest for Revolutionary Power". www.ucumberlands.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 328.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 331.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 340.
Jump up ^ Madelin (1916), p. 418.
Jump up ^ Madelin (1916), p. 422.
Jump up ^ "Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror". www.loyno.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Committee of Public Safety.
Belloc, Hillaire (1899). Danton: A Study. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Furet, François (1992). Revolutionary France, 1770–1880. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Linton, Marisa, Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2013).
Madelin, Louis (1916). The French Revolution. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Mantel, Hilary (6 August 2009). "He Roared". London Review of Books. 3 (15): 3–6. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
Palmer, R.R. (September 1941). "Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety". Journal of Modern History. 13 (3): 375–397. JSTOR 1871581.
——— (1970). Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05119-4.
Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Scurr, Ruth (2006). Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution. New York: Owl Books.
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Benjamin Stone (Law & Order character)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Ben Stone
Law & Order character
First appearance
"Prescription for Death"
Last appearance
"Old Friends"
Portrayed by
Michael Moriarty
Time on show
1990–1994
Seasons
1, 2, 3, 4
Credited appearances
88 episodes (total)
Succeeded by
Jack McCoy
Benjamin "Ben" Stone is a fictional character portrayed by Michael Moriarty in the TV drama Law & Order. He was the Executive Assistant District Attorney for New York County until his resignation at the end of season four. He appeared in 88 episodes.
Contents
[hide]
1 Character overview
2 Career within the show
3 Post-departure
4 Family
5 Reason for departure
6 References
Character overview[edit]
Stone works in the Manhattan District Attorney's office under Alfred Wentworth (in the pilot episode) and Adam Schiff. He was raised in an Irish Catholic family. He was raised mostly by his Irish grandmother,[1] his father having been an alcoholic.[2] Stone is divorced and has a son, Peter Stone, who was the Deputy Chief of the Special Prosecutions Bureau in Chicago and is now the Chief ADA of the Sex Crimes Bureau in New York,[3] and a daughter, Pamela.[4]
Stone's prosecutorial methods are portrayed as being grounded in moral principles stemming from his Catholic faith. He is shown to be pro-life[5] and opposed to the death penalty.[6] He also is a strong advocate of social justice, having marched in the civil rights movement.[7] It is implied that Stone, like actor Moriarty, is a Dartmouth College alumnus, with references to "fraternity row" and New Hampshire.
Career within the show[edit]
Stone became Executive Assistant DA in 1985 after convicting con artist and murderer Philip Swann, who years later enters a civil suit against Stone when the validity of the conviction is called into question. (Swann is ultimately found guilty, however, and sent back to prison.)[8] Stone's assistants have been Paul Robinette and Claire Kincaid.
A strict, unyielding boss, Stone can be very difficult to work with; in the pilot episode, Sergeant Max Greevey and Detective Mike Logan, intimate that Stone "eats ADAs for lunch."[9] Nevertheless, Stone is usually rather soft-spoken, and is fond of using harmless words like "sir" to convey his contempt for the people he prosecutes.
Stone makes his last appearance in the show in the episode "Old Friends," the final episode of season four. The episode portrays a racketeering case in which the main witness (portrayed by Allison Janney), whose testimony Stone had secured by threatening to send her to prison, is murdered by the Russian Mafia. He feels responsible for her death and resigns from the DA's office.[10] He is succeeded by Jack McCoy as Executive ADA.
Post-departure[edit]
Stone is mentioned in the 1996 episode "Custody" as a possible witness against a judge. When his former assistant Paul Robinette, now a defense attorney, wants a judge to recuse himself for past comments showing bias against drug addicts and support for forced sterilization, Robinette threatens to subpoena Stone to testify about the comments, which both he and Stone heard the judge make. Upon hearing of the threat, Schiff informs McCoy that Stone "is travelling in Europe, not available to testify at any hearing." However, the judge by this time has already declared himself "unavailable" to hear the case.
Twenty-one years later, his son Peter is introduced in the Chicago Justice episode "Uncertainty Principle". He has followed in his father’s footsteps as an ADA. In the 19th season of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Peter succeeds Rafael Barba as ADA for the titular sex crimes bureau.
The opening scene of the Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episode "The Undiscovered Country" (aired in 2018) reveals that Ben has passed away from something unknown. The episode shows Ben's successor as Manhattan DA, Jack McCoy, giving the eulogy at the funeral.
Family[edit]
Stone's son is Peter Stone, a Cook County Assistant State's Attorney and lead character on Chicago Justice.[11] Peter first appears on the Chicago P.D. episode "Justice", which is the backdoor pilot for Chicago Justice. After the latter's cancellation, Peter will also star in season 19 of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.[12]
Stone also had a daughter, Pamela, who appears in the nineteenth-season episode "Send in the Clowns" of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Pamela is schizophrenic, living in a psychiatric hospital in upstate New York. According to Peter, Ben would visit Pamela once a week, and Peter has continued the visits since their father's death.
Reason for departure[edit]
Stone's departure from the series stemmed from actor Michael Moriarty's dispute with the network and U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno, who in 1993 began promoting legislation to limit portrayals of violence on television. Moriarty, who was outspoken against Reno and what he felt was government censorship, was scheduled to appear on NBC shows Today and Now with Tom Brokaw and Katie Couric, but both ended up canceled. Moriarty had already taped his segment for Now; for his Today show appearance, during which he was scheduled to debate Senator Kent Conrad, he was replaced by FCC chairman Reed Hundt. Both appearances were scheduled to air on January 26, 1994. Moriarty submitted his resignation to producer Dick Wolf on January 25, 1994, and his departure was written into the series.[13][14]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Troubles". Law & Order. Season 1. Episode 20. November 26, 1991. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Prescription For Death". Law & Order. Season 1. Episode 1. September 13, 1990. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - NBC's New Comedies Earn Key Timeslots with Strong Support While Powerful Sunday Lineup Launches March 5 as #1 Network Sets Midseason Slate - TheFutonCritic.com".
Jump up ^ "Night and Fog". Law & Order. Season 3. Episode 13. February 3, 1993. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Life Choice". Law & Order. Season 1. Episode 12. January 8, 1991. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Vengeance". Law & Order. Season 2. Episode 16. February 18, 1992. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Sanctuary". Law & Order. Season 4. Episode 19. April 13, 1994. NBC.
Jump up ^ "American Dream". Law & Order. Season 4. Episode 8. November 9, 1993. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Everybody's Favorite Bagman". Law & Order. Season 1. Episode 6. October 30, 1990. NBC.
Jump up ^ "Old Friends". Law & Order. Season 4. Episode 22. May 25, 1994. NBC.
Jump up ^ Stanhope, Kate (January 18, 2017). "'Chicago Justice': Dick Wolf Talks 3-Show Crossover, 'Law & Order' Comparisons". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kimberly Roots (August 8, 2017). "Law & Order SVU: Philip Winchester to Bring Chicago Justice Role to NY". TVLine. Retrieved August 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Brozan, Nadine (February 1, 1994). "Chronicle". The New York Times. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Weber, Bruce (March 4, 1994). "On Stage, and Off". The New York Times. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
[hide]
v
t
e
Law & Order
Characters
Police
Sgt. Max Greevey
Sgt. Phil Cerreta
Lennie Briscoe
Joe Fontana
Ed Green
Cyrus Lupo
Mike Logan
Rey Curtis
Nick Falco
Nina Cassady
Kevin Bernard
Captain Donald Cragen
Lieutenant Anita Van Buren
District attorneys
Benjamin Stone
Jack McCoy
Michael Cutter
Paul Robinette
Claire Kincaid
Jamie Ross
Abbie Carmichael
Serena Southerlyn
Alexandra Borgia
Connie Rubirosa
Adam Schiff
Nora Lewin
Arthur Branch
Recurring characters
Elizabeth Olivet, Ph.D.
Emil Skoda, M.D.
Elizabeth Rodgers, M.D.
Danielle Melnick
Seasons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Notable episodes
"Prescription for Death"
"Everybody's Favorite Bagman"
"Manhood"
"Aftershock"
"Empire"
"Mother's Day"
"Sunday in the Park with Jorge"
"Public Service Homicide"
"Burn Card"
"The Drowned and the Saved"
"Dignity"
"Fed"
"Blackmail"
"Steel-Eyed Death"
"Boy on Fire"
"Rubber Room"
TV film
Exiled: A Law & Order Movie
See also
Episodes
Cast
Law & Order franchise
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benjamin_Stone_(Law_%26_Order_character)&oldid=838364842"
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text:
Indian elephant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the species also referred to as the Indian elephant, see Asian elephant.
Indian elephant
Tusked male, Bandipur National Park
Female, Nagarhole National Park
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Family: Elephantidae
Genus: Elephas
Species: E. maximus
Subspecies: E. m. indicus
Trinomial name
Elephas maximus indicus
(Cuvier), 1798
The Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) is one of three recognized subspecies of the Asian elephant and native to mainland Asia. Since 1986, Elephas maximus has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List as the wild Asian elephant population has declined by at least 50% since the 1940s to 1930s, i.e. three elephant generations. The Asian elephant is threatened by habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Distribution and habitat
3 Ecology and behaviour
4 Threats
5 Conservation
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Characteristics[edit]
The skull of Indian elephant at the Göteborgs Naturhistoriska Museum, Göteborg, Västra Götaland County, Sweden
In general, Asian elephants are smaller than African elephants and have the highest body point on the head. The tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level.[2] Indian elephants reach a shoulder height of between 2 and 3.5 m (6.6 and 11.5 ft), weigh between 2,000 and 5,000 kg (4,400 and 11,000 lb), and have 19 pairs of ribs. Their skin color is lighter than of maximus with smaller patches of depigmentation, but darker than of sumatranus. Females are usually smaller than males, and have short or no tusks.[3]
The largest Indian elephant was 3.43 metres (11.3 ft) high at the shoulder.[4] In 1985, two large elephant bulls were spotted for the first time in Bardia National Park, and named Raja Gaj and Kanchha. They roamed the park area together and made occasional visits to the females. Raja Gaj stood 11 ft 3 in (3.43 m) tall at the shoulder and had a massive body weight. His appearance has been compared to that of a Stegodon and mammoth due to his high bi-domed shaped head. His forehead and domes were more prominent than in other Asian bull elephants.[5][6]
Indian elephants have smaller ears, but relatively broader skulls and larger trunks than African elephants. Toes are large and broad. Unlike their African cousins, their abdomen is proportionate with their body weight but the African elephant has a large abdomen as compared to the skulls.[citation needed]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
Further information: List of Indian states by elephant population
Wild elephants in Munnar, Kerala
An elephant herd in Jim Corbett National Park
Elephants bathing at Madumalai Elephant Camp
An elephant at Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary
The Indian elephant is native to mainland Asia: India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Laos, China, Cambodia, and Vietnam. It is regionally extinct in Pakistan.[1] It inhabits grasslands, dry deciduous, moist deciduous, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. In the early 1990s, the estimated wild populations included:[7]
27,785–31,368 in India,[8] where populations are restricted to four general areas:[7]
in the Northwest — at the foot of the Himalayas in Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh, ranging from Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary to the Yamuna River;
in the Northeast – from the eastern border of Nepal in northern West Bengal through western Assam along the Himalaya foothills as far as the Mishmi Hills, extending into eastern Arunachal Pradesh, the plains of upper Assam, and the foothills of Nagaland, to the Garo Hills of Meghalaya through the Khasi Hills, to parts of the lower Brahmaputra plains and Karbi Plateau; isolated herds occur in Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, and in the Barak Valley districts of Assam:
in the central part — in Odisha, Jharkhand, and in the southern part of West Bengal, with some animals wandering into Chhattisgarh;
in the South – eight populations are fragmented from each other in northern Karnataka, in the crestline of Karnataka–Western Ghats, in Bhadra–Malnad, in Brahmagiri–Nilgiris–Eastern Ghats, in Nilambur–Silent Valley–Coimbatore, in Anamalai–Parambikulam, in Periyar–Srivilliputhur, and one in Agasthyamalai;
100–125 in Nepal, where their range is restricted to a few protected areas in the Terai along the border with India. In 2002, estimates ranged from 106 to 172 resident and migratory elephants, with most of them in Bardia National Park;[9]
150–250 in Bangladesh, where only isolated populations survive in the Chittagong Hills;
250–500 in Bhutan, where their range is limited to protected areas in the south along the border with India;
4,000–5,000 in Myanmar, where populations are highly fragmented, and occur in the northern ranges and Arakan Yoma in western, Pegu Yoma of central Myanmar, Tenasserim and Shan State;
A tusked male at Khao Yai National Park, Thailand
2,500–3,200 in Thailand, mainly in the mountains along the border with Myanmar, with smaller fragmented populations occurring in the peninsula in the south;
2,100–3,100 in Malaysia;
500–1,000 Laos, where they remain widely but patchily distributed in forested areas, both in the highlands and lowlands;
200–250 in China, where they survive only in the prefectures of Xishuangbanna, Simao, and Lincang of southern Yunnan;
250–600 in Cambodia, where they primarily inhabit the mountains of the south-west and in Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri Provinces;
70–150 in the southern parts of Vietnam.
Ecology and behaviour[edit]
Wild Indian Elephants
Elephants are classified as megaherbivores and consume up to 150 kg (330 lb) of plant matter per day.[10] They are generalist feeders, and both grazers and browsers. In a study area of 1,130 km2 (440 sq mi) in southern India, elephants were recorded to feed on 112 different plant species, most commonly of the order Malvales, and the legume, palm, sedge and true grass families. They graze on the tall grasses, but the portion consumed varies with season. When the new flush appears in April, they remove the tender blades in small clumps. Later, when grasses are higher than 0.5 m (1.6 ft), they uproot entire clumps, dust them skilfully and consume the fresh leave tops, but discard the roots. When grasses are mature in autumn, they clean and consume the succulent basal portions with the roots, and discard the fibrous blades. From the bamboos, they eat seedlings, culms and lateral shoots. During the dry season from January to April, they mainly browse on both leaves and twigs preferring the fresh foliage, and consume thorn bearing shoots of acacia species without any obvious discomfort. They feed on the bark of white thorn and other flowering plants, and consume the fruits of wood apple, tamarind, kumbhi and date palm.[11]
In Nepal's Bardia National Park, elephants consume large amounts of the floodplain grass, particularly during the monsoon season. They browse more in the dry season with bark constituting a major part of their diet in the cool part of that season.[12] During a study in a tropical moist mixed deciduous forested area of 160 km2 (62 sq mi) in Assam, elephants were observed to feed on about 20 species of grasses, plants and trees. Grasses such as Imperata cylindrica and Leersia hexandra constituted by far the most predominant component of their diet.[13]
A herd of wild elephant at Kui Buri National Park, Thailand
The movement and habitat utilisation patterns of an elephant population were studied in southern India during 1981–83 within a 1,130 km2 (440 sq mi) study area. The vegetation types of this area encompasses dry thorn forest at 250 to 400 m (820 to 1,310 ft), deciduous forest at 400 to 1,400 m (1,300 to 4,600 ft), stunted evergreen forest and grassland at 1,400 to 1,800 m (4,600 to 5,900 ft). Five different elephant clans, each consisting of between 50 and 200 individuals had home ranges of between 105 km2 (41 sq mi) and 320 km2 (120 sq mi), which overlapped. They preferred habitat where water was available and food plants were palatable. During the dry months of January to April, they congregated at high densities of up to five individuals per km2 in river valleys where browse plants had a much higher protein content than the coarse tall grasses on hill slopes. With the onset of rains in May, they dispersed over a wider area at lower densities, largely into the tall grass forests, to feed on the fresh grasses, which then had a high protein value. During the second wet season from September to December, when the tall grasses became fibrous, they moved into lower elevation short grass open forests. The normal movement pattern could be upset during years of adverse environmental conditions. However, the movement pattern of elephants in this region has not basically changed for over a century, as inferred from descriptions recorded during the 19th century.[14]
In the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve three elephant clans had overall home ranges of 562 km2 (217 sq mi), 670 km2 (260 sq mi) and 799 km2 (308 sq mi) in the beginning of the 1990s. During three years of survey, their annual home ranges overlapped to a large extent with only minor shifts in the home ranges between years.[15]
Threats[edit]
Prime elephant habitat consists of forested areas
A calf in the Nagarhole National Park with injuries on the head indicating a possible attack by a leopard or a tiger
Ivory chopsticks
The pre-eminent threats to Asian elephants today are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, which are driven by an expanding human population, and lead in turn to increasing conflicts between humans and elephants when elephants eat or trample crops.[1] Loss of significant extents of elephant range and suitable habitat continues; their free movement is impeded by reservoirs, hydroelectric projects and associated canals, irrigation dams, numerous pockets of cultivation and plantations, highways, railway lines, mining and industrial development.[7]
Poaching of elephants for ivory is a serious threat in some parts of Asia. Poaching of tuskers impacts on sex ratios that become highly female biased; genetic variation is reduced, and fecundity and recruitment may decline.[7] Poaching has dramatically skewed adult sex ratios in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, where between 1969 and 1989 the adult male:female sex ratio changed from 1:6 to 1:122.[16]
Elephant conservation in northern West Bengal has been set back due to high-levels of human–elephant conflict and elephant mortality owing to railway accidents. The railway track between Siliguri and Alipurduar passes through 74 km (46 mi) of various forest divisions. Every day, 20 trains run on this track at high speeds. Elephants that pass through from one forest patch to another dash against the trains and die. A total of 39 dead elephants were reported during the period of 1958 to 2008, of which ten were reported killed between 2004 and 2008.[17]
In Bangladesh, forested areas that served as prime elephant habitat have undergone drastic reduction, which had a severe impact on the wild elephant population. Habitat loss and fragmentation is attributed to the increasing human population and its need for fuel wood and timber. Illegal timber extraction plays a significant role in deforestation and habitat degradation. As a result of the shrinking habitat, elephants have become more and more prone to coming into direct conflict with humans.[18]
In Myanmar, demand for elephant ivory for making tourist items is higher than ever before. The military government shows little interest in reducing the ivory trade, while the elephants in the country have become the silent victims. After the worldwide ivory ban, prices of raw ivory in the country skyrocketed from $76 a kilo for large tusks in 1989/90 to over $200 a kilo by the mid-1990s. Foreign tourists are responsible for the massive rise in price of ivory tusks which fuels the illegal killing of elephants. There is also a sizeable trade in ivory chopsticks and carvings, smuggled by traders from Myanmar into China.[19]
Young wild-born elephants are removed from their mothers in Myanmar for use in Thailand's tourism industry. Mothers are often killed in the process, and calves are placed alongside unrelated cows to suggest they are with their mothers.[20] The calves are often subjected to a 'breaking in' process, which may involve being tied up, confined, starved, beaten and tortured, as a result of which two-thirds may perish.[21]
Conservation[edit]
Elephant Raju at Indira Gandhi Zoological Park, Visakhapatnam
Elephas maximus is listed on CITES Appendix I.[1] Project Elephant was launched in 1992 by the Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests to provide financial and technical support of wildlife management efforts by states for their free ranging populations of wild Asian Elephants. The project aims to ensure long-term survival of viable conservation reliant populations of elephants in their natural habitats by protecting the elephants, their habitats and migration corridors. Other goals of Project Elephant are supporting research of the ecology and management of elephants, creating conservation awareness among local people, providing improved veterinary care for captive elephants.[22][23]
See also[edit]
Sri Lankan elephant
Sumatran elephant
Borneo elephant
Elephants in Kerala culture
Mela shikar
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Choudhury, A.; Lahiri Choudhury, D. K.; Desai, A.; Duckworth, J. W.; Easa, P. S.; Johnsingh, A. J. T.; Fernando, P.; Hedges, S.; Gunawardena, M.; Kurt, F., Karanth, U. Lister, A., Menon, V., Riddle, H., Rübel, A. & Wikramanayake, E. (IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group) (2008). "Elephas maximus". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2008: e.T7140A12828813. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T7140A12828813.en. Retrieved 14 January 2018. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Shoshani, J., Eisenberg, J. F. (1982). Elephas maximus. Mammalian Species 182: 1–8.
Jump up ^ Shoshani, J. (2006). Taxonomy, Classification, and Evolution of Elephants In: Fowler, M. E., Mikota, S. K. (eds.) Biology, medicine, and surgery of elephants. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-8138-0676-3. pp. 3–14.
Jump up ^ Pillai, N.G. (1941). On the height and age of an elephant. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 42: 927–928.
Jump up ^ Ben S. Roesch. "Living Stegodont or Genetic Freak?". Archived from the original on 8 November 2006. Retrieved 2008-06-18. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ Furaha tenVelde, P. (1997). The wild elephants of the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 17: 41–44.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sukumar, R. (1993). The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management Second edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43758-X
Jump up ^ "Elephant Reserves". ENVIS Centre on Wildlife & Protected Areas. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Bhatta, S. R. (2006). Efforts to conserve the Asian elephant in Nepal. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 25: 87–89.
Jump up ^ Samansiri, K. A. P., Weerakoon, D. K. (2007). Feeding Behaviour of Asian Elephants in the Northwestern Region of Sri Lanka. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group. Number 2: 27–34
Jump up ^ Sukumar, R. (1990). Ecology of the Asian Elephant in southern India. II. Feeding habits and crop raiding patterns Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine.. Journal of Tropical Ecology (1990) 6: 33–53.
Jump up ^ Pradhan, N.M.B., Wegge, P., Moe, S.R., Shrestha, A.K. (2008). Feeding ecology of two endangered sympatric megaherbivores: Asian elephant Elephas maximus and greater one-horned rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in lowland Nepal. Wildlife Biology 14: 147–154.
Jump up ^ Borah, J., Deka, K. (2008). Nutritional Evaluation of Forage Preferred by Wild Elephants in the Rani Range Forest, Assam, India. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 28: 41–43.
Jump up ^ Sukumar, R. (1989). Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India. l. Movement and habitat utilization patterns Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Journal of Tropical Ecology 5: 1–18.
Jump up ^ Baskaran, N., Desai, A. A. (1996). Ranging behaviour of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, South India. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 15: 41–57.
Jump up ^ Chandran, P. M. (1990). Population dynamics of elephants in Periyar Tiger Reserve. Pages 51–56 in: C. K. Karunakaran (ed.) Proceedings of the Symposium on Ecology, Behaviour and Management of Elephants in Kerala. Kerala Forest Department, Trivandrum, India.
Jump up ^ Roy, M. Baskaran, N., Sukumar, R. (2009). The Death of Jumbos on Railway Tracks in Northern West Bengal. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 31: 36–39.
Jump up ^ Islam, M.–A. (2006). Conservation of the Asian elephant in Bangladesh. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 25: 21–26.
Jump up ^ Vigne, L., Martin, E. (2002). Myanmar’s ivory trade threatens wild elephants. Gajah: Journal of the IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 21: 85–86.
Jump up ^ Shand, M. (21 July 2012). "The agonising blows that expose the evil secrets of Thailand's elephant tourism con: The Duchess of Cornwall's brother tells how baby elephants are brutally starved and tortured". Daily Mail. London. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Tourism driving illegal elephant trade in Burma and Thailand – video". guardian.co.uk. London. 24 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Project Elephant". wildlifeofindia.org. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Project Elephant". Government of India. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
Further reading[edit]
G. P. Sanderson (1907) Thirteen years among the wild beasts of India: their haunts and habits from personal observation : with an account of the modes of capturing and taming elephants. John Grant, Edinburgh. 8th edition in 2000 by Asian Educational Services, New Delhi. ISBN 81-206-1464-X. ISBN 978-81-206-1464-2
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Elephas maximus indicus.
WWF: Indian elephant[permanent dead link]
Animal Diversity Web: Elephas maximus Asiatic elephant
Honolulu Zoo: Indian Elephant
Paintings of Indian Elephants
[hide]
v
t
e
Extant Proboscidea species by family
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Infraclass Eutheria
Superorder Afrotheria
Elephantidae
(Elephants)
Elephas
Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus)
Borneo Elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis)
Indian Elephant (Elephas maximus indicus)
Sri Lankan Elephant (Elephas maximus maximus)
Sumatran Elephant (Elephas maximus sumatranus)
Loxodonta
(African elephants)
African Bush Elephant (L. africana)
African Forest Elephant (L. cyclotis)
Category
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q591305
EoL: 1285512
Fossilworks: 233499
GBIF: 5219462
iNaturalist: 465033
ITIS: 727608
MSW: 11500006
NCBI: 99487
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indian_elephant&oldid=836285914"
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