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Maquiladora
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A maquila in Mexico
In Mexico, a maquiladora (Spanish pronunciation: [makilaˈðoɾa]) or maquila (IPA: [maˈkila])[1] is a manufacturing operation, where factories import certain material and equipment on a duty-free and tariff-free basis for assembly, processing, or manufacturing and then export the assembled, processed and/or manufactured products, sometimes back to the raw materials' country of origin.[citation needed] They are an example of special economic zones as seen in many countries.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Growth and development
3 Working conditions
4 Gender composition of workforce
5 Environmental effects
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
8.1 Books
8.2 Journal articles
8.3 Government/NGO reports
8.4 News
8.5 Music
8.6 Video
9 External links
History[edit]
In 1964, the Bracero Program, which allowed Mexican agricultural workers to work legally in the U.S. on a seasonal basis, came to an end.[citation needed] Less than a year after the end of the Bracero Program, the Mexican Government launched the Border Industrialization Program (BIP) or the Maquiladora Program, to solve the problem of rising unemployment along the border.[citation needed][2] The maquiladoras became attractive to US firms due to the availability of cheap labor, devaluations of the peso and favorable changes in US customs laws.[citation needed] In 1985, maquiladoras overtook tourism as the largest source of foreign exchange, and since 1996 they have been the second largest industry in Mexico behind the petroleum industry.[3]
Following the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the growth of maquila plants skyrocketed.[citation needed] During the five years before NAFTA, the maquila employment had grown at a rate of 47%; this figure increased to 86% in the next five years. The number of factories also increased dramatically. In the five years preceding NAFTA, 564 new plants opened; in the five years following, 1460 plants opened. However, the maquiladora growth is largely attributable to growth in US demand, and devaluation of the peso and not NAFTA itself.[4][5][6] In the 1970s, most maquiladoras were located around the Mexico–United States border. By 1994, these were spread in the interior parts of the country, although the majority of the plants were still near the border. Recent research indicates that the maquiladora industry affects U.S. border city employment in service sectors.[7]
Although the maquiladora industry suffered due to the early 2000s recession, maquiladoras constituted 54% of the US-Mexico trade in 2004, and by 2005, the maquiladora exports accounted for half of Mexico's exports.[6] The industry had become an important source of foreign direct investment and foreign exchange for Mexico.[citation needed]
In the 2000s, the maquila industry faced competition due to rise of other countries with availability of cheap labor, including Malaysia, India, and Pakistan. The biggest threat came from China's Special Economic Areas.[6]
Growth and development[edit]
During the later half of the sixties, maquiladora industries rapidly expanded geographically and economically and by 1985, had become Mexico’s second largest source of income from exports, behind oil.[8] Since 1973, maquiladoras have also accounted for nearly half of Mexico’s export assembly.[8] Between 1995 and 2000, exports of assembled products in Mexico tripled, and the rate of the industry’s growth amounted to about one new factory per day.[9] By the late twentieth century, the industry accounted for 25 percent of Mexico’s gross domestic product, and 17 percent of total Mexican employment.[10]
Since globalization and physical restructuring[citation needed] have contributed to the competition and advent of low-cost offshore assembly in places such as China, and countries in Central America, maquiladoras in Mexico have been on the decline since 2000: According to federal sources, approximately 529 maquiladoras shut down and investment in assembly plants decreased by 8.2 percent in 2002 after the imposition of countervailing duties on Chinese products, not available in North America, that were part of the electronics supply chain.[9] Despite the decline, over 3,000 maquiladoras still exist along the 2,000 mile-long United States–Mexico border, providing employment for approximately one million workers, and importing more than $51 billion in supplies into Mexico.[11] Research indicates that maquiladoras' post-NAFTA growth is connected to changes in Mexican wages relative to those in Asia and in the United States, and to fluctuations in U.S. industrial production.[12] As of 2006, maquiladoras still accounted for 45 percent of Mexico’s exports.[13] Maquiladoras, in general, are best represented among operations that are particularly assembly intensive.[citation needed]
Working conditions[edit]
See also: Sweatshop
One of the main goals of the Border Industrialization Program was to attract foreign investment. Mexican blue-collar labor is kept cheap and competitive with other major export countries by devaluations in the peso, often corresponding with the end of presidential terms. Mexicans work for approximately one-sixth of the U.S. hourly rate.[14]
Young women are often preferred over older women, as younger women are capable of working longer hours. Although Mexican labor law is much more stringent than American labor laws (e.g. the requirement that workers be paid three months severance after as much time on the job, should they be let go without cause), women are sometimes subjected to unsafe and unsanitary working conditions.[15] Poverty is a key factor that motivates women, in particular, to work in maquiladoras. The minimum wage set by the Mexican government is barely enough to help sustain a family. The minimum wage "buys only about a quarter of the basic necessities that are essential for a typical worker’s family".[16] Maquilas pay at much higher than the minimum wage in most markets since there is a lot of competition for the best workers, and workers will not work without transportation and other bonuses. The 2015 Minimum wage is 70.1 pesos per day in Tijuana (minimum wages vary by zone and worker classification) or about $0.55 per hour at the current exchange rate of 16 pesos per dollar,[17] while most entry level positions in maquilas pay closer to $2 per hour including bonuses and 25% Social Security and housing and retirement.[18]
Gender composition of workforce[edit]
Mexico possesses a strong system of labor laws, yet enforcement of these laws within the maquiladora industry is often lax.[19](p1) While most people who were employed under the original Bracero Program were men, the majority of maquiladora employees are young women.[19](p3)
Environmental effects[edit]
Both the United States and Mexican governments claim to be committed to environmental protection, yet environmental policies have not always been enforced.[19](p42) However, maquilas are required to be certified and to provide an environmental impact statement. In Mexico, most maquiladoras are global players that use international standards for waste treatment and disposal that exceed Mexican requirements and that require any waste generated to be re-exported. Although the La Paz Agreement signed by Mexico and the United States in 1983 requires hazardous waste created by United States corporations to be transported back to the United States for disposal, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that only 91 of the 600 maquiladoras located along the Texas-Mexico border have returned hazardous waste to the United States since 1987.[20] This is likely due to the fact that most maquiladoras are factories that perform sewing and assembly of consumer products and many of the materials that are considered hazardous are incorporated into those products.[citation needed]
Maquiladoras offer showers and sanitary facilities to workers that often lack running water,[clarification needed] thus reducing waste. The United States Geological Survey, the state of California, and the Imperial County Health Department—among others[21]—have all asserted that the New River, which flows from Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico near the Mexico–United States border into California's Salton Sea, is "...the dirtiest river in America."[22]
The EPA's US–Mexico Border 2012 Program has an extensive plan to help with environmental issues along that border.[23]
See also[edit]
Mexico portal
Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement
Economy of Mexico
Free Trade Area of the Americas
Free Trade
Globalization
Colonia (Mexico)
Latin American economy
Maquila Decree
Maquila Solidarity Network
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Also referred to as a "twin plant", or "in-bond" industry.[citation needed]
Jump up ^ Ferrante-Wallace, Joan (2006). Sociology: a global perspective. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-4950-0561-2. OCLC 61232264.
Jump up ^ Louie, Miriam C.Y. (2001). Sweatshop warriors: immigrant women workers take on the global factory. South End Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-89608-638-8.
Jump up ^ Larudee, Mehrene. "Causes of Growth and Decline in Mexico's Apparel Sector." International Review of Applied Economics, Vol 21, September 2007. pp539-559.
Jump up ^ Truett, Lila and Truett, Dale. "NAFTA and the Maquiladoras: Boon or Bane." Contemporary Economic Policy, Vol 25, July 2007. pp374-386
^ Jump up to: a b c Vietor, Richard H.K. and Veytsman, Alexander. "American Outsourcing." Harvard Business School Case Study No. 9-705-037, rev. February 2, 2007 (Boston, MA: HBS Publishing, 2005), p. 6. "The devaluation of the peso in 1994, which overnight reduced all peso-denominated manufacturing costs including energy and labor, improving the profitability of the maquiladoras, explains the growth spurt more than the changes in duties that were the result of NAFTA. US tariffs were already low, and Mexican duties were already not charged to maquiladoras."
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, The Impact of the Maquiladora Industry on U.S. Border Cities, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b Stoddard, Ellwyn R. Maquila: Assembly Plants in Northern Alaska. p. 2.
^ Jump up to: a b Shorris, Earl. The Life and Times of Mexico. p. 531
Jump up ^ Hausman, Angela and Diana L Haytko. Cross-border Supply Chain Relationships: Interpretive Research of Maquiladora Realized Strategies. p. 25.
Jump up ^ Villalobos, J Rene, et al. Inbound for Mexico. p. 38.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, Did NAFTA Really Cause Mexico's High Maquiladora Growth?, July 2001
Jump up ^ Gruben, William C. and Sherry L. Kiser. The Border Economy: NAFTA and Maquiladoras: Is the Growth Connected?
Jump up ^ The Human Race: Escaping From History. Employee turnover is also relatively high, p. 52.
Jump up ^ Aguilar, Delia D., Lacsamana, Anne E. (2004). Women and Globalization. New York: Humanity Books. p. 130. ISBN 1591021626.
Jump up ^ Kopinak, Kathryn (1995). "Gender as a Vehicle for the Subordination of Women Maquiladora Workers in Mexico". Latin American Perspectives. 22: 36. doi:10.1177/0094582x9502200103.
Jump up ^ Minimum wage, Zeta, December 31, 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
Jump up ^ How to start, cost of business, Tijuana EDC. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kamel, Rachel; Hoffman, Anya (1999). The maquiladora reader : cross-border organizing since NAFTA. Philadelphia, PA: American Friends Service Committee. ISBN 978-0-9100-8235-8. OCLC 647067991. Archived from the original on 2015-04-05. Retrieved 2015-04-05. Master and use copy. Digital master created according to Benchmark for Faithful Digital Reproductions of Monographs and Serials, Version 1. Digital Library Federation, December 2002.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Mary E. Free Trade: The Politics of Toxic Waste. p. 48
Jump up ^ "New River Pollution in Mexico, A Historical Overview" (PDF). Regional Water Quality Control Board. December 1, 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007. Retrieved February 16, 2007.
Jump up ^ Sklair, Leslie. Assembling For Development: The Maquila Industry in Mexico and the United States. p. 94.
Jump up ^ US-Mexico Border 2012 Program Archived 2008-05-03 at the Wayback Machine.
Further reading[edit]
Books[edit]
Baklanoff, Eric N. (2008). "Yucatan: Mexico's other maquiladora frontier". In Baklanoff, Eric N.; Moseley, Edward H. Yucatán in an era of globalization. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-5476-3.
Broughton, Chad (2015). Boom, Bust, Exodus: The Rust Belt, the Maquilas, and a Tale of Two Cities. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199765614.
Shorris, Earl (2006). The Life and Times of Mexico. W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32767-0.
Sklair, Leslie (2011). Assembling for Development: The Maquila Industry in Mexico and the United States. Taylor & Francis.
Journal articles[edit]
Brown, Garrett D. "Protecting Workers’ Health and Safety in the Globalizing Economy through International Trade Treaties". International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. Apr-Jun 2005.
Choi, Dae Won and Martin Kenney. "The Globalization of Korean Industry: Korean Maquiladoras in Mexico." (Archive) Frontera Norte, January–July 1997. Volume 5, No. 7. p. 5-22. Article in English, abstract available in Spanish.
Clapp, Jennifer. Piles of Poisons: Despite NAFTA’s Green Promises, Hazardous Waste Problems are Deepening in Mexico. Alternatives Journal, Vol. 28, Iss. 2. Waterloo: Spring 2002.
Hampton, Elaine. Globalization Legacy: A View of U.S. Factory Involvement in Mexican Education. Multicultural Education. Summer 2004.
Hausman, Angela and Diana L. Haytko. Cross-Border Supply Chain Relationships: Interpretive Research of Maquiladora Realized Strategies. The Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, Vol 18, Iss. 6/7. Santa Barbara: 2003
Moffatt, Allison. Murder, Mystery and Mistreatment in Mexican Maquiladoras. Women & Environments International Magazines 66 (2006): 19.
Villalobos, J. Rene, et al., Inbound for Mexico. Industrial Engineer. Norcross: April 2004. Vol. 36, Iss. 4.
Government/NGO reports[edit]
Gruben, William C. and Sherry L. Kiser. The Border Economy: NAFTA and Maquiladoras: Is the Growth Connected? Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. June 2001.
Human Rights Watch. No Guarantees: Sex Discrimination in Mexico’s Maquiladora Sector. The Maquiladora Reader. Philadelphia: Mexico-U.S. Border Program, 1999.
News[edit]
Article on worker-run maquiladora in El Salvador
Music[edit]
Maquiladora - Radiohead
Video[edit]
Campbell, Monica. Maquiladoras: Rethinking NAFTA. PBS, 2002.
The Human Race: Escaping From History. dir. Josh Freed. Green Lion Productions Inc., videocassette, 1994.
Maquilapolis Documentary
External links[edit]
Maquiladora Slavery,.[1] June 1, 2009
Look up maquiladora in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maquiladora.
CorpWatch, Maquiladoras at a Glance. June 30, 1999.
International Museum of Women Feature on Maquiladoras
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Epistle to the Galatians
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The Epistle to the Galatians, often shortened to Galatians, is the ninth book of the New Testament. It is a letter from Paul the Apostle to a number of Early Christian communities in Galatia. Scholars have suggested that this is either the Roman province of Galatia in southern Anatolia, or a large region defined by an ethnic group of Celtic people in central Anatolia.[1]
Paul is principally concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the Mosaic Law during the Apostolic Age. Paul argues that the Gentile Galatians do not need to adhere to the tenets of the Mosaic Law, particularly circumcision, by contextualizing the role of the law in light of the revelation of Christ. Galatians has exerted enormous influence on the history of Christianity, the development of Christian theology, and the study of the apostle Paul.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition
1.1 Authenticity
1.2 Galatia
1.2.1 North Galatian view
1.2.2 South Galatian view
1.2.3 Earliest epistle
2 Outline
3 Contents
4 Significance
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Composition[edit]
No original of the letter is known to survive. The earliest reasonably complete version available to scholars today, named P46, dates to approximately the year 200 AD, approximately 150 years after the original was presumably drafted.[3] This papyrus is fragmented in a few areas, causing some of the original text carefully preserved over the years to be missing, "however, through careful research relating to paper construction, handwriting development, and the established principles of textual criticism, scholars can be rather certain about where these errors and changes appeared and what the original text probably said."[4]
Some scholars date the original composition to c. 50–60 AD.[5] Other scholars agree that Galatians was written between the late 40s and early 50s.[6]
Authenticity[edit]
Main article: Authorship of the Pauline Epistles
Biblical scholars agree that Galatians is a true example of Paul's writing. The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians include its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus.[citation needed] Moreover, Paul's possible description of the Council of Jerusalem (Gal.2:1–10) gives a different point of view from the description in Acts 15:2–29, if it is, in fact, describing the Jerusalem Council.[7]
The central dispute in the letter concerns the question of how Gentiles could convert to Christianity, which shows that this letter was written at a very early stage in church history, when the vast majority of Christians were Jewish or Jewish proselytes, which historians refer to as the Jewish Christians. Another indicator that the letter is early is that there is no hint in the letter of a developed organization within the Christian community at large. This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself.[7]
Nevertheless, a small number of scholars have questioned Paul's authorship of Galatians, such as Bruno Bauer, Abraham Loman, C. H. Weisse and Frank R. McGuire.[8]
Galatia[edit]
Paul's letter is addressed "to the churches of Galatia" (Galatians 1:2), but the location of these churches is a matter of debate. A minority of scholars have argued that the "Galatia" is an ethnic reference to a Celtic people living in northern Asia Minor, but most agree that it is a geographical reference to the Roman province in central Asia Minor, which had been settled by immigrant Celts in the 270s BC and retained Gaulish features of culture and language in Paul's day. Acts of the Apostles records Paul traveling to the "region of Galatia and Phrygia", which lies immediately west of Galatia.[9]
Some[who?] claim the New Testament says that the churches of Galatia (Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe) were founded by Paul himself (Acts 16:6; Galatians.1:8;4:13;4:19). They seem to have been composed mainly of converts from paganism (Galatians 4:8). After Paul's departure, the churches were led astray from Paul's trust/faith-centered teachings by individuals proposing "another gospel" (which centered on salvation through the Mosaic law, so-called legalism), whom Paul saw as preaching a "different gospel" from what Paul had taught (Galatians 1:1–9). The Galatians appear to have been receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Paul's response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching.[7]
The identity of these "opponents" is disputed. However, the majority of modern scholars view them as Jewish Christians, who taught that in order for converts to belong to the People of God, they must be subject to some or all of the Jewish Law, (i.e. Judaizers). The letter indicates controversy concerning circumcision, Sabbath observance, and the Mosaic Covenant. It would appear, from Paul's response, that they cited the example of Abraham, who was circumcised as a mark of receiving the covenant blessings (Genesis 17). They certainly appear to have questioned Paul's authority as an apostle, perhaps appealing to the greater authority of the Jerusalem church governed by James (brother of Jesus).[1]
North Galatian view[edit]
The North Galatian view holds that the epistle was written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia (Acts 18:23). In this view, the visit to Jerusalem, mentioned in Galatians 2:1–10, is identical with that of Acts 15, which is spoken of as a thing of the past. Consequently, the epistle seems to have been written after the Council of Jerusalem. The similarity between this epistle and the epistle to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written at roughly the same time, during Paul's stay in Macedonia in roughly 56–57.[10]
This third date takes the word "quickly" in Gal. 1:6 literally.[11] John P. Meier suggests that Galatians was "written in the middle or late 50s, only a few years after the Antiochene incident he narrates".[12] Eminent Biblical scholar Helmut Koester also subscribes to the "North Galatian Hypothesis". Koester points out that the cities of Galatia in the north consist of Ankyra, Pessinus, and Gordium (of the Gordian Knot fame of Alexander the Great).[13]
South Galatian view[edit]
The South Galatian view holds that Paul wrote Galatians before or shortly after the First Jerusalem Council, probably on his way to it, and that it was written to churches he had presumably planted during either his time in Tarsus (he would have traveled a short distance, since Tarsus is in Cilicia) after his first visit to Jerusalem as a Christian,[14] or during his first missionary journey, when he traveled throughout southern Galatia. If it was written to the believers in South Galatia, it would likely have been written in 49.[15]
Earliest epistle[edit]
A third theory[16] is that Galatians 2:1–10 describes Paul and Barnabas' visit to Jerusalem described in Acts 11:30 and 12:25. This theory holds that the epistle was written before the Council was convened, possibly making it the earliest of Paul's epistles. According to this theory, the revelation mentioned (Gal 2:2) corresponds with the prophecy of Agabus (Acts 11:27–28). This view holds that the private speaking about the gospel shared among the Gentiles precludes the Acts 15 visit, but fits perfectly with Acts 11. It further holds that continuing to remember the poor (Gal. 2: 10) fits with the purpose of the Acts 11 visit, but not Acts 15.[17]
In addition, the exclusion of any mention of the letter of Acts 15 is seen to indicate that such a letter did not yet exist, since Paul would have been likely to use it against the legalism confronted in Galatians. Finally, this view doubts Paul's confrontation of Peter (Gal. 2:11) would have been necessary after the events described in Acts 15. If this view is correct, the epistle should be dated somewhere around 47, depending on other difficult to date events, such as Paul's conversion.[18]
Kirsopp Lake found this view less likely and wondered why it would be necessary for the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15) to take place at all if the issue were settled in Acts 11:30/12:25, as this view holds.[19] Defenders of the view do not think it unlikely an issue of such magnitude would need to be discussed more than once.[20] Renowned New Testament scholar J.B. Lightfoot also objected to this view since it "clearly implies that his [Paul's] Apostolic office and labours were well known and recognized before this conference."[21]
Defenders of this view, such as Ronald Fung, disagree with both parts of Lightfoot's statement, insisting a) Paul received his "Apostolic Office" at his conversion (Gal. 1:15–17; Ac. 9). Fung holds, then, that Paul's apostolic mission began almost immediately in Damascus (Acts 9:20). While accepting that Paul's apostolic anointing was likely only recognized by the Apostles in Jerusalem during the events described in Gal. 2/Acts 11:30, Fung does not see this as a problem for this theory.[21]
Outline[edit]
Valentin de Boulogne's depiction of "Saint Paul Writing His Epistles", 16th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas). Lightfoot notes with respect to verse 6:11 that at this point "the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand".[22]
The citation here is based on the content of the gospel. Alternative outlines have been introduced based on the rhetorical form of the letter.[1]
Galatians
Salutation (1:1–5)
No other gospel: Paul expresses displeasure that the community has turned from the gospel (1:6–10)
The past of Paul, including his life in Judaism (1:13–14), his "apocalypse" from God, often understood as the Conversion of Paul (1:15–16), and his early ministry (1:17–24)
a meeting with the "pillar apostles" in Jerusalem, possibly the Council of Jerusalem reported in Acts 15 (2:1–10)
The Paul/Cephas Incident at Antioch, where Cephas backed down from his previous table fellowship with Gentiles (2:11–14)
Paul's speech expressing that Jews, like Gentiles, are declared righteous by faith (2:15–21)
A Consideration of Law or Faith (3:1–14)
Law and Promise (3:15–20)
Slaves and Sons (3:21–4:7)
Sons of God (3:26)
Concern for the Galatians (4:8–20)
Allegorical Interpretation of Hagar and Sarah (4:21–5:1)
Christian Freedom (5:1–15)
Love thy neighbour (5:14)
Fruit of the Spirit (5:16–26)
The Law of Christ (6:1–10)
Final Warning and Benediction (6:11–18)
Contents[edit]
See also: Biblical law in Christianity
This epistle addresses the question of whether the Gentiles in Galatia were obligated to follow Mosaic Law to be part of the Christ community. After an introductory address (Galatians 1:1–10), the apostle discusses the subjects which had occasioned the epistle.
In the first two chapters, Paul discusses his life before Christ and his early ministry, including interactions with other apostles in Jerusalem. This is the most extended discussion of Paul's past that we find in the Pauline letters (cf. Philippians 3:1–7).[23] Some have read this autobiographical narrative as Paul's defense of his apostolic authority (1:11–19; 2:1–14).[24] Others, however, see Paul's telling of the narrative as making an argument to the Galatians about the nature of the gospel and the Galatians' own situation.[25]
Chapter 3 exhorts the Galatian believers to stand fast in the faith as it is in Jesus. Paul engages in an exegetical argument, drawing upon the figure of Abraham and the priority of his faith to the covenant of circumcision. Paul explains that the law was introduced as a temporary measure, one that is no longer efficacious now that the seed of Abraham, Christ, has come. Chapter 4 then concludes with a summary of the topics discussed and with the benediction, followed by 5:1–6:10 teaching about the right use of their Christian freedom.
In the conclusion of the epistle, Paul wrote, "See with what large letters I am writing to you with my own hand." (Galatians 6:11, ESV) Regarding this conclusion, Lightfoot, in his Commentary on the epistle, says:
"At this point the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2Thessalonians 2:2; 2Thessalonians 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his hand-writing may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."
[26]
Alternatively, some commentators have postulated that Paul's thorn in the flesh was poor eyesight, which caused him to write in characteristically large letters.[27]
Galatians also contains a catalogue of vices and virtues, a popular formulation of ancient Christian ethics.[28]
Probably the most famous single statement made in the Epistle, by Paul, is in chapter 3, verse 28: "There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus." The debate surrounding that verse is legend and the two schools of thought are (1) this only applies to the spiritual standing of people in the eyes of God, it does not implicate social distinctions and gender roles on earth; and (2) this is not just about our spiritual standing but is also very much about how we relate to each other and treat each other in the here and now.[29]
Position (1) emphasises the immediate context of the verse and notes that it is embedded in a discussion about justification: our relationship with God. Position (2) reminds its critics that the "whole letter context" is very much about how people got on in the here and now together, and in fact the discussion about justification came out of an actual example of people treating other people differently (2:11ff).[30]
Significance[edit]
As Canadian religious historian, Barrie Wilson, points out in How Jesus Became Christian[31], Paul's Letter to the Galatians represents a sweeping rejection of Jewish Law (Torah). In so doing Paul clearly takes his Christ movement out of the orbit of Judaism and into an entirely different milieu. Paul's stance constitutes a major contrast to the position of James, brother of Jesus, whose group in Jerusalem adhered to the observance of Torah. Many scholars question whether Paul's view dovetails with Jesus' own teachings concerning the Law.
See also[edit]
Paul the Apostle and Judaism
Prayer of St. John Gabriel Perboyre to Jesus
Textual variants in the Epistle to the Galatians
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Betz, H. D. (1993). "Galatians, Epistle to the". Yale Anchor Bible Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Riches, John (2008). Galatians Through the Centuries. West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Jump up ^ Ehrman, Bart (2005) Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why, Harper SanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-073817-0. p. 60.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce M., A Textual Commentary on the New Testament, 2nd ed., United Bible Societies, 1994. 1–16. ISBN 3-438-06010-8
Jump up ^ "Early Christian Writings".
Jump up ^ M. Coogan, ed. The New Oxford Annotated Bible (Oxford University Press: New York, 2001), 309 NT.
^ Jump up to: a b c Holladay, Carl R. (2005). A Critical Introduction to the New Testament. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. pp. 463–66.
Jump up ^ Longenecker, Richard (1990). Galatians. Zondervan. p. lviii.
Jump up ^ Acts 16:6 and Acts 18:23
Jump up ^ Craig Evans, The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary (Colorado Springs, CO: Victor 2004), 2: 462, Acts 20:2–3
Jump up ^ Craig Evans, The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary (Colorado Springs, CO: Victor 2004), 2: 462.
Jump up ^ Brown, Raymond E. and Meier, John P. Antioch & Rome: New Testament Cradles of Catholic Christianity (Paulist Press: New York, 1983) 113.
Jump up ^ Koester, Helmut, Introduction to the New Testament, Volume 2 (Walter de Gruyter & Co.: Berlin, 2000) 114. (
Jump up ^ Acts 9:30
Jump up ^ Craig Evans, The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary (Colorado Springs, CO: Victor 2004), 2: 462.
Jump up ^ Ronald Y. K. Fung, The Epistle to the Galatians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman's Press, 1988), 16–22. See also New Testament Study Helps: Galatians Theology WebSite
Jump up ^ Ronald Y.K. Fung, The Epistle to the Galatians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman's Press, 1988), 19.
Jump up ^ Ronald Y.K. Fung, The Epistle to the Galatians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman's Press, 1988), 19.
Jump up ^ Kirsopp Lake, The Beginnings of Christianity, vol 5. ed F. J. Foakes-Jackson and K. Lake (London: 1920–33), 201.
Jump up ^ I.H. Marshall, The Acts of the Apostles (Tyndale New Testament Commentaries; Grand Rapids, 1980), 205.
^ Jump up to: a b Ronald Y. K. Fung, The Epistle to the Galatians (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman's Press, 1988), 19
Jump up ^ Lightfoot continues, "From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thessalonians 2:2; 2 Thessalonians 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul." Joseph Barber Lightfoot, Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians.
Jump up ^ Betz, H. D. (1993). "Paul". Yale Anchor Bible Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Holladay, Carl R. (2005). A Critical Introduction to the New Testament. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. pp. 466–67.
Jump up ^ John M. G. Barclay, “Paul’s Story: Theology as Testimony,” in Narrative Dynamics in Paul (Louisville London: Westminster John Knox, 2002), 133–56.
Jump up ^ Lightfoot, J.B. 1865. St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians. Cambridge: Macmillan. pp. 211–12
Jump up ^ Galatians, Tyndale New Testament Commentary, revised edition, p. 233.
Jump up ^ Pate, C. Marvin (2000-01-01). The Reverse of the Curse: Paul, Wisdom, and the Law. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 9783161472862.
Jump up ^ For an overview of the two theories see Jim Reiher, “Galatians 3:28: liberating for women, or of limited application?” Expository Times. (123.6) pp. 272–77. March 2012. Reiher comes down on the side of position (2).
Jump up ^ For an overview of the two theories see Jim Reiher, “Galatians 3:28: liberating for women, or Asof limited application?” Expository Times. (123.6) pp. 272–77. March 2012. Reiher comes down on the side of position (2).
Jump up ^ Barrie Wilson. How Jesus Became Christian. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2008.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Galatians, Epistle to the". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Galatians
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Online translations of the Epistle to Galatians:
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Online Bible at GospelHall.org
Galatians public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions
Related articles:
A Brief Introduction to Galatians
Galatians, Paul, The Torah-Law & Legalism
John Chrysostom's Commentary on Galatians
An alternative commentary on Galatians
A Secular Site on Galatians
Jewish messianic Commentary on Galatians (Jerusalem)
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List of medical colleges in Kerala
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The following is a list of government, private, and self-financing medical institutions in Kerala.
Contents
[hide]
1 Medical colleges
1.1 Government medical colleges
1.2 Private self-financing
2 Government dental colleges
2.1 Government-sponsored self-financing
2.2 Private self-financing
3 Ayurveda colleges
3.1 Government Ayurveda colleges
3.2 Government-aided
3.3 Private self-financing
4 Unani Medical College
5 Homeopathic colleges
5.1 Government homeopathic medical colleges
5.2 Government-aided
6 Siddha medical colleges
6.1 Self-financing Siddha medical colleges
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Medical colleges[edit]
Government medical colleges[edit]
Kasaragod
Kannur
Wayanad
Calicut
Malappuram
Thrissur
Palakkad
Ernakulam
Idukki
Kottayam
Alappuzha
Pathanamthitta
Kollam
Trivandrum
Location of Govt Medical Colleges. 12 functioning (green).2 planned (blue)
College Name
District
Estd Year
Remarks
Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram 1951 1st Medical College in Kerala
Government Medical College, Kozhikode Kozhikode 1957
Government Medical College, Kottayam Kottayam 1962
Government T D Medical College, Alappuzha Alappuzha 1963
Government Medical College, Thrissur Thrissur 1981
Government Medical College, Ernakulam Ernakulam 1999
Government Medical College, Manjeri, Malappuram Malappuram 2013
Government Medical College, Palakkad Palakkad 2014
Government Medical College, Painav, Idukki Idukki 2014 Waiting for MCI approval
Government Medical College, Kollam Kollam 2016
Government Medical College, Konni, Pathanamthitta Pathanamthitta 2016
Academy of Medical Sciences, Pariyaram, Kannur (KNM) Kannur 1995
Government Medical College, Madakkimala, Wayanad Wayanad Planned
Government Medical College, Kasaragod Kasaragod Planned
Kerala govt has plans to take over Pariyaram medical college.[1]
Private self-financing[edit]
College Name
District
Estd Year
Al Azhar Medical College, Thodupuzha Idukki 2014
Amala Institute of Medical Sciences, Amala Nagar, Thrissur Thrissur 2003
Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Ponnekara, Kochi Ernakulam 1998
Azeezia Institute of Medical Sciences & Research, Meeyyannoor, Kollam Kollam 2008
Believers Church Medical College Hospital, Kuttapuzha, Kerala Pathanamthitta 2016
DM Wayanad Institute of Medical sciences, Meppadi, Wayanad Wayanad 2013
Dr. Somervell Memorial CSI Medical College, Karakonam, Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram 2002
Jubilee Mission Medical College and Research Institute, Thrissur Thrissur 2003
Kannur Medical College, Kannur Kannur 2006
Karuna Medical College, Vilayodi, Palakkad Palakkad 2006
Kerala Medical College, Cherupplasery, Palakkad Palakkad 2016
KMCT Medical College, Mukkam, Kozhikode Kozhikode 2008
Malabar Medical College, Kozhikode Kozhikode 2008
Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church Medical Mission, Hospital Kolenchery Ernakulam 2002
MES Academy of Medical Sciences Malappuram 2002
Mount Zion Medical College, Pathanamthitta 2012
PK Das Institute of Medical Sciences, Vaniyamkulam, Palakkad Palakkad 2014
Pushpagiri Institute of Medical Sciences & Research Centre, Thiruvalla, Pathanamthitta Pathanamthitta 2002
Sree Gokulam Medical College & Research Foundation, Venjaramoodu, Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram 2005
Sree Narayana Institute of Medical Sciences, North Paravur, Ernakulam District Ernakulam 2009
SUT Medical College, Vattappara, Thiruvananthapuram Thiruvananthapuram 2006
Travancore Medical College Hospital, Kollam Kollam 2009
SR Medical College Hospital, Varkala Thiruvananthapuram 2016
Government dental colleges[edit]
Government Dental College, Thiruvananthapuram
Government Dental College, Kottayam
Government Dental College, Kozhikode
Government-sponsored self-financing[edit]
Malabar Dental College and Research Centre, Edappal, Malappuram
Pariyaram Dental College, Pariyaram, Kannur (KND)
Private self-financing[edit]
Al-Azhar Dental College, Thodupuzha, Kerala
Annoor Dental College, Puthuppady, Muvattupuzha via, Ernakulam
Azeezia College of Dental Sciences and Research, Meeyyannoor, Kollam
Century International Institute of Dental Science & Research Centre, Poinachi, Kasargod
Dental College, Maypallycutty, Alleppey
Educare Institute of Dental Sciences, Kiliyamannil campus, Chattiparamba, Malappuram[2]
Indira Gandhi Institute of Dental Sciences, Kothamangalam
Kannur Dental College, Anjarakandy, Mamba, Kannur
Kayamkulam Dental College, Kayamkulam
KMCT Dental College, Mampetta, Manassery, Mukkom, Kozhikode
Mar Baselios Dental College, Kothamangalam, Ernakulam
MES Dental College, Perinthalmanna, Palachode, Malappuram
Noorul Islam College of Dental Science, Neyyattinkara, Thiruvananthapuram
PMS College of Dental Sciences and Research Centre, Vattappara, Thiruvananthapuram
PSM College of Dental Science and Research, Akkikavu, Thrissur
Pushpagiri College of Dental Sciences, Thiruvalla, Pathanamthitta
Royal Dental College, Iron Hills, Chalissery PO, Palakkad
Sri Sankara Dental College, Akathumuri, Varkala, Thiruvananthapuram
St. Gregorios Dental College, Chelad PO, Kothamangalm, Ernakulam
Ayurveda colleges[edit]
Government Ayurveda colleges[edit]
Government Ayurveda College, G P O, Thiruvananthapuram
Government Ayurveda College, Dhanwanthari Nagar, Tripunithura, Ernakulam
Government Ayurveda Medical College Kannur, Medical College P O, Pariyaram, Kannur
Government-aided[edit]
Vaidyaretnam Ayurveda College, Thaikkattussery P.O., Ollur, Thrissur
VPSV Ayurveda College, Edarikode P O, Kottakkal, Malappuram
Private self-financing[edit]
Pankajakasthuri Ayurveda Medical College, Kattakada P O, Thiruvananthapuram
Amrita Ayurveda Medical College, Kollam
Ahalia Ayurveda Medical College, Elippara, Kozhipara, Palakkkad
KMCT Ayurveda Medical College, Manasseri P O, Mukkom, Kozhikode
Mannam Ayurveda Co-operative Medical College, Pandalam, Pathanamthitta
Nangelil Ayurveda Medical College, Nellikuzhy P O, Kothamangalam, Ernakulam
P N Panicker Souhruda Ayurveda Medical College, Parakalai P O, Anandhashram via, Kasargode
PNNM Ayurveda Medical College, Cheruthuruthy P O, Shoranur, Thrissur
Parassinikkadavu Ayurveda Medical College, Parassinikadavu P O, Kannur
Santhigiri Ayurveda Medical College, Olassery P O, Kodumbu Via, Palakkad
Sree Narayana Institute of Ayurvedic Studies & Research, Karimpinpuzha P O, Puthur, Kollam
Sreedhareeyam Ayurvedic Research & Development Institute, Koothattukulam, Ernakulam
Vishnu Ayurveda College, Govt. Press P O, Shornur, Palakkad
Unani Medical College[edit]
Markaz Unani Medical College & Hospital
Kaithappoyil, Thamarassery, Calicut, Kerala
Homeopathic colleges[edit]
Government homeopathic medical colleges[edit]
Government Homeopathic Medical College, Iranimuttam, Manacaud P O, Thiruvananthapuram (TVH)
Government Homeopathic Medical College, Karaparamba P O, Kozhikode
Government-aided[edit]
Sree Vidhyadhiraja Homeopathic Medical College, Nemom, Thiruvananthapuram (NEH)
Athurasramam NSS Homeopathic Medical College, Sachivothamapuram P O, Kottayam (KTH)
Dr. Padiyar Memorial Homeopathic Medical College, Chottanikkara P O, Ernakulam (EKH)
Siddha medical colleges[edit]
Self-financing Siddha medical colleges[edit]
Santhigiri Siddha Medical College, Santhigiri P O, Pothencode Via, Thiruvananthapuram
See also[edit]
KEAM
List of engineering colleges in Kerala
List of institutions of higher education in Kerala
References[edit]
MBBS course offered colleges
BDS course offered colleges
BAMS course offered colleges
BHMS course offered colleges
BSMS course offered colleges
Jump up ^ http://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/State-Government-Yet-to-Act-on-Pariyaram-Medical-College-Takeover/2015/07/06/article2904784.ece
Jump up ^ Educare Institute of Dental Sciences
External links[edit]
Official website of CEE
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_medical_colleges_in_Kerala&oldid=819564977"
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Medical colleges in Kerala
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Lists of universities and colleges in Kerala
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