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Visa policy of India
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Entry and exit passport stamps issued to a German citizen at Delhi airport
Indian tourist visa issued in Australia with Indian entry and exit stamps
Visitors to India must obtain a visa from an Indian diplomatic mission unless they come from one of the visa-exempt countries or a country whose citizens may obtain a visa on arrival, or an e-Visa online.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Visa policy map
2 Freedom of movement
3 Overseas Citizens of India/Persons of Indian Origin
4 Visa-free entry
5 Visa on arrival
6 e-Visa
7 Reform
7.1 2013
7.2 2014
7.3 2015
7.4 2016
7.5 2017
8 Costs for visa applications
9 Restricted and Protected Area Permits
10 Pakistani Passport Holders and Persons of Pakistani Origin
10.1 Visa on arrival for persons over 65 years of age
11 Diplomatic or official passports
12 Visitor statistics
13 See also
14 References
15 External links
Visa policy map[edit]
Visa policy of India
Freedom of movement[edit]
Further information: 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship and Bhutan–India relations § 1949 Treaty
Citizens of the following countries do not require visas or passports to enter India (unless arriving from mainland China), and may remain in the country without any limit of stay. Citizens of these countries may also live and work freely in India:[1]
Bhutan
Nepal
Overseas Citizens of India/Persons of Indian Origin[edit]
Foreign citizens possessing an Overseas Citizen of India registration certificate or holders of a Persons of Indian Origin Card are exempt from visa requirements, have the right of domicile in India and are allowed unlimited entries into India. Citizens of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, mainland China, Nepal or Pakistan are generally not entitled to hold Overseas Indian Citizenship.
Visa-free entry[edit]
Citizens of the following countries do not require visas to enter India (unless arriving from mainland China):[1]
Maldives (90 days)
[show]Date of visa abolition
March 1979: Maldives[2]
Visa on arrival[edit]
Citizens of the following countries can apply for a visa on arrival (VOA) in Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata or Mumbai. The visa is issued for business, tourist, medical and conference categories, and has a validity of 30 days.[3] The cost is ₹2,000. The VOA facility can only be used for no more than two times in one calendar year.[4][1] Alternatively, foreign citizens eligible for a VOA can apply for an e-Visa instead if they intend to visit India for a period longer than 30 days, or if they intend to enter the country through an airport or seaport not covered by the VOA scheme.
Japan (30 days)
e-Visa[edit]
This clickable map shows a list of airports that accept the e-Visa.
On 27 November 2014, the Electronic Travel Authorisation (ETA) facility became operational for citizens of over 40 eligible countries, including those who are eligible for visa on arrival. The list was further expanded to 113 countries in August 2015 (see chart below).[5] ETA is issued for tourism, visiting friends and family, short duration medical treatment and business visits. The scheme was renamed to e-Tourist Visa (eTV) on 15 April 2015.[6] On 1 April 2017 the scheme was renamed e-Visa with three subcategories: e-Tourist Visa, e-Business Visa and e-Medical Visa.
An application for e-Visa must be made at least four calendar days in advance of the date of arrival and can be made as early as 120 days in advance. The visa is valid for 60 calendar days from the date of arrival, and can be obtained twice in a calendar year. Double entry is permitted on e-Tourist Visa and e-Business Visa. Triple entry is permitted on e-Medical Visa. The duration of stay cannot be extended.[7] The e-Visa fees are divided into four slabs of zero, US$25, US$50 and US$75, depending on nationality (based on reciprocity; see table below and notes), plus a bank fee of 2.5% of the visa fee.[8]
e-Visa allows arrival at the following 25 airports and 3 seaports:[9]
Ahmedabad
Amritsar
Bagdogra
Bengaluru
Chandigarh
Chennai
Coimbatore
Delhi
Gaya
Goa
Guwahati
Hyderabad
Jaipur
Kochi
Kolkata
Kozhikode
Lucknow
Mangaluru
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
Thiruvananthapuram
Tiruchirappalli
Varanasi
Visakhapatnam
Cochin
Goa
Mangalore
Exit is possible via any authorized immigration check post.
Citizens of the following countries and territories who hold ordinary passports are eligible to obtain the e-Visa (unless the citizen is of Pakistani origin):[10][11][12]
All European Union citizens[13]
Albania
Andorra
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina3
Armenia
Australia
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Bolivia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Costa Rica
Cote D'Ivoire
Cuba
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Eritrea
Fiji3
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Ghana
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hong Kong
Iceland
Indonesia
Iran
Israel
Jamaica3
Japan2
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati3
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lesotho
Liberia
Liechtenstein
Macau
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Mali
Marshall Islands3
Mauritius3
Mexico
Micronesia3
Moldova
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Mozambique1
Myanmar
Namibia
Nauru3
New Zealand
Cook Islands3
Niue3
Nicaragua
Niger
Norway
Oman
Palau3
Palestine
Panama
Papua New Guinea3
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Russia1
Rwanda
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Samoa3
San Marino
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles3
Sierra Leone
Singapore2
Solomon Islands3
South Africa3
South Korea
Sri Lanka2
Suriname
Swaziland
Switzerland
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Tonga3
Trinidad and Tobago
Tuvalu3
Uganda
Ukraine1
United Arab Emirates
United States1
Uruguay3
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu3
Vatican City
Venezuela
Vietnam
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Note: Since 3 November 2015, the visa fee for citizens of
countries with mark "1" are US $75
countries with mark "2" are US $25
countries with mark "3" are free of charge
countries without mark are US $50
[show]Date of e-visa eligibility
27 November 2014: Australia, Brazil, Cambodia, Djibouti, Fiji, Finland, Germany, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Luxembourg, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Mexico, Micronesia, Myanmar, Nauru, New Zealand (including Cook Islands and Niue), Norway, Oman, Palau, Palestine, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Russia, Samoa, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Korea, Thailand, Tonga, Tuvalu, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United States, Vanuatu, Vietnam[14]
January 2015: Guyana[15]
14 April 2015: Sri Lanka[16]
1 May 2015: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Estonia, France, Georgia, Grenada, Haiti, Honduras, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Vatican City, and British Overseas Territories citizens of Anguilla, Cayman Islands and Montserrat[17]
30 July 2015: China, Hong Kong, Macau[18]
15 August 2015: Andorra, Argentina, Armenia, Belgium, Bolivia, Colombia, Cuba, East Timor, Guatemala, Hungary, Ireland, Jamaica, Malaysia, Malta, Monaco, Mongolia, Mozambique, Netherlands (including Aruba), Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Seychelles, Slovenia, Spain, Suriname, Sweden, Taiwan, Tanzania, United Kingdom, Uruguay, Venezuela, and British Overseas Territories citizens of Turks and Caicos Islands[19]
26 February 2016: Albania, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brunei, Bulgaria, Cape Verde, Comoros, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Eritrea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Greece, Guinea, Iceland, Ivory Coast, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Moldova, Namibia, Romania, San Marino, Senegal, Serbia, Slovakia, South Africa, Swaziland, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Trinidad and Tobago, Zambia, Zimbabwe[20]
1 April 2017: Angola, Azerbaijan, Burundi, Cameroon, Cyprus, Italy, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Uzbekistan
July 2017: Uganda[21][22]
5 March 2018: Kazakhstan[23]
26 April 2018: Kyrgyzstan[24]
Reform[edit]
2013[edit]
In October 2013, India decided to initiate the process of extending visa-on-arrival access to 40 more nations.[25] In January 2014, plans were confirmed by Planning Minister of India.[26] The sixteen different types of visa would also be reduced to three: work, business and tourism.[27] The proposal initially met resistance from intelligence agencies and the possible problem of queues emerged.[28][29]
2014[edit]
In February 2014 it was announced that Indian intelligence agencies had given their approval to visa-on-arrival for up to 180 countries, largely due to the new possibilities provided by the Immigration, Visa and Foreigners' Registration and Tracking (IVFRT) system. The system would not be a typical visa on arrival in order to avoid clutter at the airports, but a system based on a prior online applications modelled after Australian Electronic Travel Authority system.[30][31][32]
On 5 February 2014 it was decided to introduce visa-on-arrival to tourists from 180 countries. Technical implementation, such as setting up the website for applications, was expected to take about 6 months and the authorities hoped to have it in place for the tourist season beginning in October 2014. Prospective visitors would have to pay a fee and the electronic version of the visa should be granted within three days. The program was expected to apply to all international airports. However, nationals of Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Somalia, Sudan were to be excluded from this program.[33]
In July 2014 it was announced that India hoped to implement the program for citizens of 40 countries in the first phase by December 2014 and later on for 109 additional countries if the first phase were implemented successfully.[34]
In August 2014 it was revealed that ministries of Tourism, Home Affairs and External Affairs could not agree on the list of countries for the ETA. The Ministry of Tourism proposed to allow the new system for the citizens of the 15 countries with the most visitors to India, the Ministry of External Affairs proposed to create a balanced list with some Asian and African countries, while the Ministry of Home Affairs proposed to exclude all countries with high security concerns.[35]
In September 2014 Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that the United States would be added to the list of countries whose citizens may obtain a visa on arrival.[36] However, in October 2014 the planned introduction of the new e-Visa system was pushed from 2 October 2014 to June 2015.[37] It was also revealed that the list of visa on arrival countries was unlikely to be expanded in 2014.[38]
In November 2014 it was announced that the e-visa system might be rolled out for about 25 countries including the 13 countries which were already eligible for visa on arrival.[39] Later that month it was announced that 28 countries would become eligible for an electronic visa on 27 November 2014 and that the list would include visa on arrival eligible countries as well as Brazil, Germany, Israel, Jordan, Mauritius, Norway, Palestine, Russia, Thailand, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United States.[40][41]
In November 2014, the Indian Prime Minister announced visa on arrival facility for nationals of all Pacific countries and Australia.[42][43]
2015[edit]
The manual processing of the visa on arrival was discontinued in January 2015.[44] Until 26 January 2015, citizens of the following countries holding ordinary passports were granted visa on arrival without obtaining an ETA (unless they were of Bangladeshi or Pakistani origin), for a single stay up to 30 days in India when traveling as a tourist or for visiting family or friends:[1][45][44]
Cambodia
Finland
Indonesia
Japan
Laos
Luxembourg
Myanmar
New Zealand
Philippines
Singapore
South Korea
Vietnam
In February 2015, the Ministry of Tourism proposed extending the facility to citizens of China, United Kingdom, Spain, France, Italy and Malaysia.[46] Subsequently, the Minister of Finance announced that the facility would be extended, in stages, to citizens of 150 countries.[47] In March 2015 it was announced that 53 nations were shortlisted for the second round of expansion of the system based on the number of tourist arrivals in the previous years.[48]
After the Government was criticised for naming the new policy "Visa on arrival" it decided to rename it to "e-Tourist Visa (eTV)" in April 2015.[49][50]
The e-Tourist Visa facility was extended to 31 new countries on 1 May 2015.[51]
In May 2015, Indian Foreign Ministry announced that Chinese citizens will be able to apply for e-Tourist Visa facility in order to coordinate Prime Minister Narendra Modi visiting China between 14 and 16 May. Disputes about the Sino-Indian border and national security would be postponed.[52]
On 29 July 2015 Indian Ministry of Home Affairs announced the extension of e-Tourist Visa facility to China, Hong Kong and Macau with effect from 30 July 2015.[53]
The list of eligible nationalities was extended with 36 new countries on 15 August 2015. On the same day the list of eTV airports was expanded with 7 new airports.[11] The extension to 150 nationalities was scheduled to be finished by 31 March 2016.[54]
In September 2015 it was announced that the list would be expanded by another 37 countries.[55]
2016[edit]
In January 2016 it was announced that the extension would take place by March 2016.[56] In November 2015 it was announced that the visa validity will be extended to 180 days.[57]
In January 2016 it was announced that the multiple entries would become available and that e-Tourist Visa holders would receive a gift pack on arrival.[58]
The eTV list was extended for tourists from 37 more countries on 26 February 2016.[59]
In September 2016 it was announced that the electronic visa scheme would be reformed to include 27 visa codes denoting various visit purposes such as tourism, business or medical visits.[60] It was also announced that the list of visa on arrival eligible countries would be expanded.[61]
On 30 November 2016 the Government of India approved further liberalization, simplification and rationalization of visa regime in India. It also announced that more countries would be added to the e-visa list.[62] The e-visa would have a validity of 60 days and could be applied for by foreign nationals up to four months ahead of the visit.[63] Five seaports - Mumbai, Kochi, Chennai, Goa and Mangalore - would receive tourists coming with e-visa.[64]
2017[edit]
From 1 April 2017 e-visas are granted under three categories of tourist, business and medical. The window for application under e-visa scheme was increased from 30 days to 120 days, and duration of stay on e-visa was increased from 30 days to 60 days, with double entry on e-tourist and e-business visa, and triple entry on e-medical visa.[65] The list of eligible nationalities was also further expanded with 11 new countries,[62] and the list of arrival ports was increased from 16 to 24 airports and 3 seaports.[10]
In July 2017 Uganda was added to the list of e-Visa eligible countries.[66]
Costs for visa applications[edit]
Visa applications can be submitted in person or sent by post to an Indian consulate. It can also be submitted to designated Visa service provider in certain countries.[67] Costs differ per consulate and region. Some visa-handling services charge a small fee in addition, to check that completed application form meets all requirements and submit the documents on the applicant's behalf.[68]
Citizens of the following countries do not pay a visa fee – Argentina, Cook Islands, Fiji, Jamaica, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Mauritius, Micronesia, Myanmar, Nauru, Niue Island, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Seychelles, Solomon Island, South Africa, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uruguay and Vanuatu.[69][70]
Restricted and Protected Area Permits[edit]
A Protected Area Permit (PAP) is required to enter the states of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim and some parts of the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan and Uttarakhand. A Restricted Area Permit (RAP) is required to enter the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of Sikkim. Some of these requirements are occasionally lifted for a year at a time. Permits are not required for nationals of Bhutan travelling by air to/from Thimphu via Bagdogra and for nationals of Nepal travelling by air to/from Kathmandu (if travelling by land a pass issued by either the Foreigners Regional Registration Office, Superintendent of police or the diplomatic representation of India in Bhutan or Nepal is required).[1] Special permits are needed to enter Lakshadweep Islands. Maldivian citizens are allowed to visit Minicoy island for fifteen days if allowed by the High Commissioner of India to the Maldives.[citation needed]
Pakistani Passport Holders and Persons of Pakistani Origin[edit]
Persons who ever held Pakistani citizenship, or who have a parent or spouse that held Pakistani citizenship are ineligible for India's new E-Visa scheme, and so must apply to their local Indian mission for visas. Applicants who once held Pakistani citizenship require lengthy processing times, while foreign spouses and those of Pakistani origin who never held Pakistani citizenship typically experience shorter processing times.[71] India also forbids Pakistani applicants with dual-nationality from applying on their non-Pakistani passport.[71]
Visa on arrival for persons over 65 years of age[edit]
As of 31 March 2013, Pakistani citizens over the age of 65 with the sole objective of meetings friends or family are granted a 45-day visa upon arrival at the Attari-Wagah Checkpoint, so long as the applicant provides a sponsorship certificate from their contacts in India attesting that they will be responsible for the visit of their Pakistani friend or relative, and which must also be countersigned by a: DM, SP, SDM, Tehsildar, BDO, SHO, Groups A officer of State and Central Government, or principal/headmaster of a government college or government school who attest that they personally know the sponsor.[71] This scheme does not apply for those who wish to visit Punjab, Kerala and Restricted Areas, nor does it apply to those who have ever been denied an Indian visa before.[71]
Diplomatic or official passports[edit]
Visa policy for diplomatic or official passport holders
India
Visa-free for diplomatic and official passport holders
Visa-free for diplomatic passports
Visa required for diplomatic or official passports holders
Holders of diplomatic or official passports of the following countries do not require a visa for India – Albania, Argentina, Bangladesh, Belarus, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Russia, Rwanda, Serbia, Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Thailand, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Uruguay, Venezuela and Vietnam and diplomatic passports only of the following countries – Afghanistan, Armenia, Cuba, France, Germany, Greece, Japan, Kenya, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Malta, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Turkmenistan and Ukraine.[1][72]
India signed a visa waiver agreement for holders of diplomatic, special and official passports with Palestine,[73] Belize in September 2017,[74] Oman in February 2018,[75] Saint Kitts and Nevis in February 2018,[76] Azerbaijan,[77] Swaziland,[78] and Zambia[79] in April 2018 and they are yet to come into force.
Visitor statistics[edit]
Most visitors arriving in India were from the following countries of nationality:[80]
Country
2016
2015
2014
2013
Bangladesh 01 1,380,409 02 1,133,879 02 942,562 03 524,923
United States 02 1,296,939 01 1,213,624 01 1,118,983 01 1,085,309
United Kingdom 03 941,883 03 867,601 03 838,860 02 809,444
Canada 04 317,239 05 281,306 06 268,485 06 255,222
Malaysia 05 301,961 06 272,941 07 262,026 09 242,649
Sri Lanka 06 297,418 04 299,513 04 301,601 04 262,345
Australia 07 293,625 07 263,101 09 239,762 11 218,967
Germany 08 265,928 08 248,314 10 239,106 07 252,003
China 09 251,313 11 206,322 12 181,020 12 174,712
France 10 238,707 09 230,854 08 246,101 08 248,379
Russia 11 227,749 12 172,419 05 269,832 05 259,120
Japan 12 208,847 10 207,415 11 219,106 10 220,283
Total 13 8,804,411 13 8,027,133 13 7,679,099 13 6,967,601
See also[edit]
India portal
Visa requirements for Indian citizens
Tourism in India
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
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text:
Coal power in the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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U.S. 2014 Electricity generation by type.[1]
Coal electrical generation (black line), compared to other sources, 1949-2016
See also: Coal mining in the United States
Electricity produced by coal consumption
Coal power in the United States accounted for 39% of the country's electricity production at utility-scale facilities in 2014, 33% in 2015, and 30.4% in 2016[2] Coal supplied 16.5 quadrillion BTUs[dubious – discuss] of primary energy to electric power plants in 2013, which made up nearly 92% of coal's contribution to energy supply.[3] Utilities buy more than 90 percent of the coal consumed in the United States.[4]
Coal has been used to generate electricity in the United States since an Edison plant was built in New York City in 1882.[5] The first alternating current power station was opened by General Electric in Ehrenfeld, Pennsylvania in 1902, servicing the Webster Coal and Coke Company.[5] By the mid-twentieth century, coal had become the leading fuel for generating electricity in the US. The long, steady rise of coal-fired generation of electricity shifted to a decline after 2007. The decline has been linked to the increased availability of natural gas, decreased consumption,[6] renewable power, and more stringent environmental regulations. The Environmental Protection Administration has advanced restrictions on coal plants to counteract mercury pollution, smog, and global warming.
Contents
[hide]
1 Recent trends, comparisons, and forecasts
1.1 Canceled and slowed proposals
2 Environmental impacts
2.1 Acid rain
2.1.1 Sulfur dioxide emissions
2.2 Carbon footprint: CO2 emissions
2.3 Mercury pollution
3 Public debate
3.1 Advocates
3.2 Opposition
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Recent trends, comparisons, and forecasts[edit]
Further information: Coal phase out
The average share of electricity generated from coal in the US has dropped from 52.8% in 1997 to 45.0% in 2009.[7] In 2009, there were 1436 coal-powered units at the electrical utilities across the US, with a total nominal capacity of 338.732 GW[8] (compared to 1024 units at nominal 278 GW in 2000).[9] The actual average generated power from coal in 2006 was 227.1 GW (1.991 trillion kilowatt-hours per year),[10] the highest in the world and still slightly ahead of China (1.95 trillion kilowatt-hours per year) at that time.[11][citation needed] In 2000, the US average production of electricity from coal was 224.3 GW (1.966 trillion kilowatt-hours for the year).[10] In 2006, US electrical generation consumed 1,026,636,000 short tons (931,349,000 metric tons) or 92.3% of the coal mined in the US.[12]
External image
Coal mining in U.S., natural gas prices
Due to emergence of shale gas, coal consumption declined from 2009.[13][6] In the first quarter of 2012, the use of coal for electricity generation declined substantially more, 21% from 2011 levels. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, 27 gigawatts of capacity from coal-fired generators is to be retired from 175 coal-fired power plants between 2012 and 2016.[14] Natural gas showed a corresponding increase, increasing by a third over 2011.[15] Coal's share of electricity generation dropped to just over 36%.[15] Coal use continues to decline rapidly through November 2015 with its share around 33.6%.[16]
The coal plants are mostly base-load plants.
As of July 7 2011, utility companies will shut down and retire aging coal-fired power plants following the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) announcement of the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAP).[17] The extent of shutdowns and reduction in utilization will depend on factors such as future price of natural gas and cost of installation of pollution control equipment; however, as of 2013, the future of coal-fired power plants in the United States did not appear promising.[18][19] Recent estimates gauge that an additional 40 gigawatts (GW) of coal-fired capacity will retire by 2020 (in addition to the nearly 20GW that have retired as of 2014). This is driven most strongly by inexpensive natural gas competing with coal, and EPA’s Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS), which require significant reductions in emissions of mercury, acid gases, and toxic metals, scheduled to take effect in April 2015.[20] Over 13 GW of coal power plants built between 1950-70 were retired in 2015, averaging 133 MW per plant.[21] In Texas, the price drop of natural gas has reduced the capacity factor in 7 of the state's coal plants (max. output 8 GW), and they contribute about a quarter of the state's electricity.[22]
The cost of transporting coal may be around $20 for trains, or $5-6 for barge and truck.[23][24] US Government subsidies for coal production are around $8/tonne for the Powder River Basin.[25]
Canceled and slowed proposals[edit]
On October 19 2007, the Kansas Department of Health and Environment was the first government agency to reject a permit for a new coal-fired plant planned by Sunflower Electric Power Corporation on the basis of carbon dioxide emissions.[26]
Southwestern Power Group's Bowie Power Station proposed an IGCC plant that was scrapped in favor of a natural gas plant. Regulatory uncertainty was cited as one of the reasons.
A proposed 1,960MW Florida Power & Light's Glades Power Plant was rejected by the Florida Public Service Commission. Uncertainty over possible future carbon taxes was cited as one of the reasons.
An air permit for a plant in Kentucky was rejected in August 2007 in a circuit court on the basis its air pollution control analysis was inadequate.
Cancellation of 8 (out of an intended 11) proposed coal plants of former TXU Corporation in Texas by the current owners, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. and TPG, was finalized on October 15, 2007.[27]
Environmental impacts[edit]
In the United States, three coal-fired power plants reported the largest toxic air releases in 2001:[28]
CP&L Roxboro Steam Electric Plant in Semora, North Carolina. The four-unit, 2,462 megawatt facility is one of the largest power plants in the United States.
Reliant Energy's Keystone Power Plant in Shelocta, Pennsylvania.
Georgia Power Bowen Steam Electric Generating Plant in Cartersville, Georgia.
The Environmental Protection Agency classified the 44 sites as potential hazards to communities, which means the waste sites could cause death and significant property damage if an event such as a storm or a structural failure caused a spill. They estimate that about 300 dry landfills and wet storage ponds are used around the country to store ash from coal-fired power plants. The storage facilities hold the noncombustible ingredients of coal and the ash trapped by equipment designed to reduce air pollution.[29]
Acid rain[edit]
Further information: Acid rain
Byproducts of coal plants have been linked to acid rain.
Sulfur dioxide emissions[edit]
86 coal powered plants have a capacity of 107.1 GW, or 9.9% of total U.S. electric capacity, they emitted 5,389,592 tons of SO2 in 2006 – which represents 28.6% of U.S. SO2 emissions from all sources.[30]
Carbon footprint: CO2 emissions[edit]
Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States
Emissions from electricity generation account for the largest share of U.S. greenhouse gases, 38.9% of U.S. production of carbon dioxide in 2006 (with transportation emissions close behind, at 31%). Although coal power only accounted for 49% of the U.S. electricity production in 2006, it was responsible for 83% of CO2 emissions caused by electricity generation that year, or 1,970 Tg of CO2 emissions. Further 130 Tg of CO2 were released by other industrial coal-burning applications.[31]
Click Here to see a graph displaying CO2 emissions from coal powered plants.
Mercury pollution[edit]
U.S. coal-fired electricity-generating power plants owned by utilities emitted an estimated 48 tons of mercury in 1999, the largest source of man-made mercury pollution in the U.S.[32] In 1995-96, this accounted for 32.6% of all mercury emitted into the air by human activity in the U.S. In addition, 13.1% was emitted by coal-fired industrial and mixed-use commercial boilers, and 0.3% by coal-fired residential boilers, bringing the total U.S. mercury pollution due to coal combustion to 46% of the U.S. man-made mercury sources.[33] In contrast, China's coal-fired power plants emitted an estimated 200 ± 90 tons of mercury in 1999, which was about 38% of Chinese human-generated mercury emissions (45% being emitted from non-ferrous metals smelting).[34] Mercury in emissions from power plants can be reduced by the use of activated carbon.
Public debate[edit]
Advocates[edit]
In 2007 an advertising campaign was launched to improve public opinion on coal power titled America's Power. This was done by the American Coalition for Clean Coal Electricity (then known as Americans for Balanced Energy Choices), a pro-coal organization started in 2000.
Opposition[edit]
In the face of increasing electricity demand through the 2000s, the US has seen a "Growing Trend Against Coal-Fired Power Plants". In 2005 the 790 MW Mohave Power Station closed rather than implement court ordered pollution controls. In 2006 through 2007 there was first a bullish market attitude towards coal with the expectation of a new wave of plants, but political barriers and pollution concerns escalated exponentially, which is likely to damage plans for new generation and put pressure on older plants.[35] In 2007, 59 proposed coal plants were cancelled, abandoned, or placed on hold by sponsors as a result of financing obstacles, regulatory decisions, judicial rulings, and new global warming legislation.[36][37]
The Stop Coal campaign has called for a moratorium on the construction of any new coal plants and for the phase out of all existing plants, citing concern for global warming.[38] Others have called for a carbon tax and a requirement of carbon sequestration for all coal power plants.[39]
The creation in January 2009 of a Presidential task force (to look at ways to alter the energy direction of the United States energy providers) favors the trend away from coal-fired power plants.
See also[edit]
Coal mining in the United States
Mountaintop removal mining
Superfund
List of largest power stations in the United States
List of the largest coal power stations in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm?t=epmt_1_01
Jump up ^ https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=427&t=3
Jump up ^ https://flowcharts.llnl.gov/index.html https://flowcharts.llnl.gov/content/energy/energy_archive/energy_flow_2013/2013USEnergy.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/cityregion/s_586978.html
^ Jump up to: a b Speight, James G. (2012-09-04). The Chemistry and Technology of Coal, Third Edition. CRC Press. p. 13. ISBN 9781439836460.
^ Jump up to: a b Trevor Houser, Jason Bordoff and Peter Marsters (April 25, 2017). "Can Coal Make a Comeback?". energypolicy.columbia.edu. Center on Global Energy Policy, School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University. Retrieved 15 May 2017. Increased competition from cheap natural gas is responsible for 49 percent of the decline in domestic U.S. coal consumption. Lower-than-expected demand is responsible for 26 percent, and the growth in renewable energy is responsible for 18 percent.
Jump up ^ Electric Power Monthly - Energy Information Administration
Jump up ^ "Existing Electric Generating Units in the United States". Energy Information Administration. 2009. Retrieved 2010-07-27.
Jump up ^ "Inventory of Electric Utility Power Plants in the United States 2000". Energy Information Administration. March 2002. Retrieved 2008-06-19.
^ Jump up to: a b "Electric Power Annual with data for 2006". Energy Information Administration. October 2007. Retrieved 2008-06-19.
Jump up ^ See Wikipedia article on Chinese economy
Jump up ^ "U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector". Energy Information Administration. July 25, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
Jump up ^ Liam Denning. "Trump can’t make both coal and fracking great again" 2016-05-29. Quote: "The trend of gas taking market share from coal began in earnest in 2009 — which just happens to be when the cost of gas to produce electricity collapsed"
Jump up ^ Gerhardt, Tina (1 November 2012). "Record Number of Coal Power Plants Retire". E-Magazine. Archived from the original on 1 November 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Electric Power Monthly, March 2011 (released May 2012), U.S. Energy Information Administration
Jump up ^ http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm?t=epmt_1_01
Jump up ^ EPA finalizes rules for cross-state air pollution - The Hill's E2-Wire
Jump up ^ Brad Plumer (April 8, 2013). "Study: The coal industry is in far more trouble than anyone realizes". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ Lincoln F. Pratson; Drew Haerer; Dalia Patiño-Echeverri (March 15, 2013). "Fuel Prices, Emission Standards, and Generation Costs for Coal vs Natural Gas Power Plants". Environmental Science & Technology. American Chemical Society. doi:10.1021/es4001642. Retrieved April 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ "AEO2014 projects more coal-fired power plant retirements by 2016 than have been scheduled". Today in Energy. U.S Energy Information Administration. Retrieved July 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Coal made up more than 80% of retired electricity generating capacity in 2015". EIA. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "5 Charts That Show How Coal Is Getting Killed in Texas". Retrieved October 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ http://www.eia.gov/coal/transportationrates/pdf/table1.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.eia.gov/coal/transportationrates/
Jump up ^ http://www.carbontracker.org/report/coal-subsidies/
Jump up ^ Washington Post. Power Plant Rejected Over Carbon Dioxide For First Time.
Jump up ^ Talibre, Iriq (2007-10-15). "Plans for 8 Texas coal plants formally canceled". The Dallas Morning News. Retrieved 2008-06-19.
Jump up ^ Coal and Oil Power Plants Top North American Polluter List
Jump up ^ Associated Press - June 2009
Jump up ^ "Technology Transfer Network: State Emission Index". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on 2008-12-04. Retrieved May 2008. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ "Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990–2006" (PDF). U.S. EPA. April 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
Jump up ^ "Mercury emissions control R&D". U.S. Dept. of Energy. 2006-01-18. Archived from the original on 2007-12-22. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
Jump up ^ "Mercury study: Report to Congress (EPA-452/R-97-004)" (PDF). 2. United States Environmental Protection Agency. December 1997. Retrieved 2008-07-31.
Jump up ^ Streets D. G.; Hao J.; Wu Y.; et al. (2005). "Anthropogenic mercury emissions in China". Atmos. Environ. 39 (40): 7789–7806. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.08.029.
Jump up ^ Palang Thai: The Growing Trend Against Coal-Fired Power Plants (USA)
Jump up ^ "59 Coal Plants Cancelled, Abandoned, or Put on Hold in 2007," Lowbagger.org, 1/22/08
Jump up ^ "Victories 2007," CoalSwarm
Jump up ^ Want to stop global warming? STOP COAL!
Jump up ^ Cap-&-Trade and Carbon Tax Legislation
External links[edit]
Carbon-emissions culprit? Coal.
Clean Air Watch.
State Coal Profile Index Map
Coal production in the United States – an historical overview
Is America Ready to Quit Coal?
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