text:
Strategy of unbalanced growth
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Unbalanced growth is a natural path of economic development. Situations that countries are in at any one point in time reflect their previous investment decisions and development. Accordingly, at any point in time desirable investment programs that are not balanced investment packages may still advance welfare. Unbalanced investment can complement or correct existing imbalances. Once such an investment is made, a new imbalance is likely to appear, requiring further compensating investments. Therefore, growth need not take place in a balanced way. Supporters of the unbalanced growth doctrine include Albert O. Hirschman, Hans Singer, Paul Streeten, Marcus Fleming, Prof. Rostov and J. Sheehan.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Complementarity
3 Induced investment
4 External economies
5 Social Overhead Capital
6 Development via capital imbalances
7 Backward and forward linkages
8 Linkages and last industries
8.1 Disadvantages
9 Further reading
10 Notes
11 References
Introduction[edit]
The theory is generally associated with Hirschman. He presented a complete theoretical formulation of the strategy. Underdeveloped countries display common characteristics: low levels of GNI per capita and slow GNI per capita growth, large income inequalities and widespread poverty, low levels of productivity, great dependence on agriculture, a backward industrial structure, a high proportion of consumption and low savings, high rates of population growth and dependency burdens, high unemployment and underemployment, technological backwardness and dualism{existence of both traditional and modern sectors}. In a less-developed country, these characteristics lead to scarce resources or inadequate infrastructure to exploit these resources. With a lack of investors and entrepreneurs, cash flows cannot be directed into various sectors that influence balanced economic growth.
Hirschman contends that deliberate unbalancing of the economy according to the strategy is the best method of development and if the economy is to be kept moving ahead, the task of development policy is to maintain tension, disproportions and disequilibrium. Balanced growth should not be the goal but rather the maintenance of existing imbalances, which can be seen from profit and losses. Therefore, the sequence that leads away from equilibrium is precisely an ideal pattern for development. Unequal development of various sectors often generates conditions for rapid development. More-developed industries provide undeveloped industries an incentive to grow. Hence, development of underdeveloped countries should be based on this strategy.
The path of unbalanced growth is described by three phases:
Complementary
Induced investment
External economies
Singer believed that desirable investment programs always exist within a country that represent unbalanced investment to complement the existing imbalance. These investments create a new imbalance, requiring another balancing investment. One sector will always grow faster than another, so the need for unbalanced growth will continue as investments must complement existing imbalance. Hirschman states “If the economy is to be kept moving ahead, the task of development policy is to maintain tensions, disproportions and disequilibrium”.[citation needed] This situation exists for all societies, developed or underdeveloped.
Complementarity[edit]
Complementarity is a situation where increased production of one good or service builds up demand for the second good or service. When the second product is privately produced, this demand will lead to imports or higher domestic production of the second product, as it will be in the interests of the producers to do so. Otherwise, the increased demand takes the form of political pressure. This is the case for such public services such as law and order, education, water and electricity that cannot reasonably be imported.
Induced investment[edit]
Complementarity allows investment in one industry or sector to encourage investment in others. This concept of induced investment is like a multiplier, because each investment triggers a series of subsequent events. Convergence occurs as the output of external economies diminishes at each step. Growth sequences tend to move towards convergence or divergence and the policy is usually concerned with preventing rapid convergence and promoting the possibility of divergence.[clarification needed]
External economies[edit]
New projects often appropriate external economies[clarification needed] created by preceding ventures and create external economies that may be utilized by subsequent ones. Sometimes the project undertaken creates external economies, causing private profit to fall short of what is socially desirable. The reverse is also possible. Some ventures have a larger input of external economies than the output. Therefore, Hirschman says, "the projects that fall into this category must be net beneficiaries of external economies".[citation needed]
Social Overhead Capital[edit]
Social Overhead Capital (SOC) is defined as basic services without which primary, secondary and tertiary productive activities cannot function. In a narrow sense, Social Overhead Capital is defined to include transportation and electricity, while in a wider sense, it includes all public services, including law and order and education. Criteria for classifying an asset as Social Overhead Capital include:
The services provided by the activity should facilitate a great variety of economic activities.
The services provided should be subject to public control.
The services cannot be imported.
The investment needed to provide services should be characterized by some unevenness as well as by high capital output ratio.
Development via capital imbalances[edit]
The strategy of unbalanced growth has been discussed within the frameworks of development through shortage of SOC and development through excess of SOC.
In the first case, the country invests in direct productive activities (DPA). Direct productive activity increases demand for SOC, inducing investment. In the second case, SOC expands, which reduces the cost of services, inducing investment in DPA.[clarification needed]
The cost of producing any unit of output of DPA is inversely proportional to SOC.[clarification needed] The economy's major objective is to attain increasing output of DPA.
One of the paradoxes of development is that poor countries cannot afford to be economical.[clarification needed] According to Hirschman, resources are not scarce per se, but the ability to employ those resources may be lacking. To explain unbalanced growth, Hirschman assumes that the country invests in either DPA or SOC. Both paths set up incentives and an evaluation of their respective efficiency depends on the strengths of entrepreneurial motivations and the response to public pressure of the authorities responsible for SOC.
The major characteristic of the two paths of development is that they yield excess dividends. SOC built ahead of demand creates this demand by making a country more attractive to DPA investors. DPA that outpaces SOC development, creates demand to expand SOC. Balanced growth of DPA and SOC is not achievable in underdeveloped countries, nor it is not a desirable policy, as it does not set up the incentives and the pressure that make for this dividend of induced investment decisions.[clarification needed]
Backward and forward linkages[edit]
Hirschman introduces the concept of backward and forward linkages. A forward linkage is created when investment in a particular project encourages investment in subsequent stages of production. A backward linkage is created when a project encourages investment in facilities that enable the project to succeed. Normally, projects create both forward and backward linkages. Investment should be made in those projects that have the greatest total number of linkages. Projects with many linkages will vary from country to country; knowledge about project linkages can be obtained through input and output studies.
Most underdeveloped economies are primarily agrarian. Agriculture is typically at a primitive stage and hence possesses few linkages, as most output goes for consumption or exports. Therefore, it is said[who?] that underdeveloped countries are lacking in interdependence and linkages.
An example of an industry that has excellent forward and backward linkages is the steel industry. Backward linkages include coal and iron ore mining. Forward linkages include items such as canned goods. While this industry has strong linkages, it is not a good leading sector. Any industry that has a high capital/output ratio and causes significant costs to other businesses has the potential to hurt the developing economy more than it helps it. A better leading sector would be the beer industry.[citation needed]
Linkages and last industries[edit]
The development of an economy using the unbalanced method depends on the linkages between sectors. Hirschman suggests that the best strategy is induced industrialization. This type of development will create more backward and forward linkages and should be the first step taken.
Industries that transform semi-manufactured goods into goods needed by final demand are called "last industries" or "enclave import industries".
In underdeveloped countries, industrialization takes place through such industries, through plants that add final touches to unfinished imported products. Examples are metal fabricating industries, pharmaceutical laboratories and assembly and mixing plants. Such industries have many advantages, as they often require the smaller amounts of capital available in such economies and without having to rely on unreliable domestic producers. Therefore, underdeveloped countries set up such "last industries" first. These industries create long chains of backward linkages. Colombia, Brazil and Mexico are examples of countries that followed this path.
Protection and subsidy of import-replacing industries should come, but at a later stage. The Last Industry Strategy has disadvantages. It can slow the creation of domestic production. Industrialists who have begun working with imports may not accept domestic alternative products that reduce demand for their output. Creating last industries first can create loyalty toward foreign products and distrust of domestic products and their quality. Banks may get used to extending credit for shorter, smaller capital requirements.
Disadvantages[edit]
Disadvantages of the last industry strategy include inhibition of domestic production as domestic demand grows. This is because industrialists who work with imported material will often be hostile to the establishment of domestic industries, because domestic goods are of lower quality, the number of domestic suppliers is small, downstream competition may intensify once inputs are available domestically and competitors may be able to locate closer to the upstream suppliers.
Last/first may accustom domestic consumers to imported goods, making it harder for local producers to find customers. Further, financing may be easier for import-based business.
Further reading[edit]
Hirschman, Albert O. (1958). The Strategy of Economic Development. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-00559-8
Streeten, Paul (1959) Unbalanced Growth, Oxford Economic Papers New Series, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Jun., 1959), pp. 167–190
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
Hirschman, Albert O. "The Strategy of Economic Development," in Agarwal, A.N. and Singh, S.P.(eds), Accelerating Investment in Developing Economies (London Oxford Press, 1969)
Thirwall, A.P. Growth and Development: With special reference to developing economies (London: Macmillian Press ltd.., sixth edition. 1999), pp237–242.
Scitovsky, Tibor. Papers on welfare and Growth (London George Allen and Unwin ltd..1965) Refer to 5th paper entitled "Growth – Balanced and Unbalanced".
Nath, S.K., "Balanced Growth." in Livingstone (ed), Economic Policy for Development (Harmodworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books ltd. 1971)
Han Singer, "The Concept of Balanced Growth and Economic Development; Theory and Facts," University of Texas Conference on Economic Development, April 1958.
Paul Streeten, "Unbalanced Growth." Economic Integration, Sythoff, Leiden (Netherlands), 1961. Reprinted in A. N. Agarwala and S. P. Singh, (eds.), Accelerating Investment in Developing Economies (London: Oxford University Press, 1969).
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Distilled beverage
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Liquor" redirects here. For sweetened and flavored alcoholic beverages, see Liqueur. For the novel series, see Liquor (novel series).
An old whiskey still
A display of various distilled beverages in a supermarket
Some single-drink distilled beverage bottles available in Germany
A distilled beverage, spirit, liquor, hard liquor or hard alcohol is an alcoholic beverage produced by distillation of liquid drinks made with grains, fruit, or vegetables that have already gone through alcoholic fermentation. The distillation process purifies the liquid and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content (commonly expressed as alcohol by volume, ABV).[1] As distilled beverages contain significantly more alcohol, they are considered "harder" – in North America, the term hard liquor is used to distinguish distilled beverages from undistilled ones.
As examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, mead, sake, or cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have a relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%. Brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include vodka, baijiu, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, and whisky. (Also see list of alcoholic drinks, and liquors by national origin.)
Contents
[hide]
1 Nomenclature
2 Etymology
3 History of distillation
3.1 Precursors
3.2 True distillation
3.3 Government regulation
3.4 Microdistilling
4 Flammability
5 Serving
6 Alcohol consumption by country
7 Health effects
7.1 Short-term effects
7.2 Long-term effects
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Nomenclature[edit]
The term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume (ABV).[citation needed]
Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, and American schnapps, are known instead as liqueurs.
Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. Beer and wine, which are not distilled beverages, are limited to a maximum alcohol content of about 20% ABV, as most yeasts cannot reproduce when the concentration of alcohol is above this level; as a consequence, fermentation ceases at that point.
Etymology[edit]
The origin of "liquor" and its close relative "liquid" was the Latin verb liquere, meaning "to be fluid". According to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply "a liquid", can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning "a liquid for drinking" occurred in the 14th century. Its use as a term for "an intoxicating alcoholic drink" appeared in the 16th century.
The term "spirit" in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy. These alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during an alchemical process (as with distillation of alcohol) was called a spirit of the original material.[citation needed]
History of distillation[edit]
Main article: Distillation
Precursors[edit]
Distillation equipment used by the 3rd century alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis,[2][3] from the Byzantine Greek manuscript Parisinus graces.[4]
Distillation was known in the ancient Indian subcontinent, evident from baked clay retorts and receivers found at Taxila and Charsadda in modern Pakistan, dating back to the early centuries of the Christian era. These "Gandhara stills" were only capable of producing very weak liquor, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.[5]
The Chinese may have independently developed the process in the early centuries after Christ, during the Eastern Han dynasty.[6] Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias.[7] Alchemists in Roman Egypt were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century.
Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice. The freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use.
True distillation[edit]
An illustration of brewing and distilling industry methods in England, 1858
The medieval Arabs used the distillation process extensively, and there is evidence that they distilled alcohol. Al-Kindi unambiguously described the distillation of wine in the 9th century.[8][9][10] The process later spread to Italy,[8][5] where later evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century.[11][12]
In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties.[6] A still has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei, dating to the 12th century.[6] In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the Middle East, and was in wide use in the Delhi Sultanate by the 14th century.[5]
Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century.[13] The production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret.
In 1437, "burned water" (brandy) was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany.[14] It was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe.
Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD, when Irish whiskey and German brandy became available. These spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content (about 40% ABV) than the alchemists' pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs. Consumption of distilled beverages rose dramatically in Europe in and after the mid-14th century, when distilled liquors were commonly used as remedies for the Black Death. Around 1400, methods to distill spirits from wheat, barley, and rye beers, a cheaper option than grapes, were discovered. Thus began the "national" drinks of Europe: jenever (Belgium and the Netherlands), gin (England), Schnaps (Germany), grappa (Italy), borovička (Slovakia), horilka (Ukraine), akvavit/snaps (Scandinavia), vodka (Poland and Russia), ouzo (Greece), rakia (the Balkans), and poitín (Ireland). The actual names emerged only in the 16th century, but the drinks were well known prior to then.
Government regulation[edit]
It is legal to distill beverage alcohol as a hobby for personal use in some countries, including New Zealand and the Netherlands.[citation needed]
In the United States, it is illegal to distill beverage alcohol without a license. In some parts of the U.S., it is also illegal to sell a still without a license. However, all states allow unlicensed individuals to make their own beer, and some also allow unlicensed individuals to make their own wine (although making beer and wine is also prohibited in some local jurisdictions).
Microdistilling[edit]
Microdistilling (also known as craft distilling) began to re-emerge as a trend in the United States following the microbrewing and craft beer movement in the last decades of the 20th century. In contrast, large-scale distillation facilities were never as dominant in Scotland, so the tradition of small-scale distillation was never really lost in the Scotch whisky market.
Flammability[edit]
These flaming cocktails illustrate that a distilled beverage will readily catch fire and burn.
See also: Alcohol proof, Flash point, and Fire point
Liquor that contains 40% ABV (80 US proof) will catch fire if heated to about 26 °C (79 °F) and if an ignition source is applied to it. This temperature is called its flash point.[15] The flash point of pure alcohol is 16.6 °C (61.9 °F), less than average room temperature.[16]
The flammability of distilled beverages is applied in the cooking technique Flambé.
The flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10% ABV to 96% ABV are:[17]
10% – 49 °C (120 °F) – ethanol-based water solution
12.5% – about 52 °C (126 °F) – wine[18]
20% – 36 °C (97 °F) – fortified wine
30% – 29 °C (84 °F)
40% – 26 °C (79 °F) – typical vodka, whisky or brandy
50% – 24 °C (75 °F) – strong whisky, bottled in bond whisky
60% – 22 °C (72 °F) – normal tsikoudia (called mesoraki or middle raki), barrel proof whisky
70% – 21 °C (70 °F) – some absinthe, slivovitz
80% – 20 °C (68 °F)
90% or more – 17 °C (63 °F) – neutral grain spirit
Serving[edit]
See also: Bartending terminology
A row of alcoholic beverages – in this case, spirits – in a bar
Distilled beverages can be served:
Neat — at room temperature without any additional ingredient(s)[19]
Up — shaken or stirred with ice, strained, and served in a stemmed glass.
Down — shaken or stirred with ice, strained, and served in a rocks glass.
On the rocks — over ice cubes
Blended or frozen — blended with ice
With a simple mixer, such as club soda, tonic water, juice, or cola
As an ingredient of a cocktail
As an ingredient of a shooter
With water
With water poured over sugar (as with absinthe)
Alcohol consumption by country[edit]
Main article: List of countries by alcohol consumption
The World Health Organization measures and publishes alcohol consumption patterns in different countries. The WHO measures alcohol consumed by persons 15 years of age or older and reports it on the basis of liters of pure alcohol consumed per capita in a given year in a country.[20]
Health effects[edit]
Short-term effects[edit]
Main article: Short-term effects of alcohol
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Distilled spirits contain ethyl alcohol, the same chemical that is present in beer and wine and as such, spirit consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03%-0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence, and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g., slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting, and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). Death may occur due to inhalation of vomit (pulmonary aspiration) while unconscious. A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. As with all alcoholic beverages, driving under the influence, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; as such many countries have penalties for drunk driving.
Long-term effects[edit]
See also: Long-term effects of alcohol consumption
The main active ingredient of distilled spirits is alcohol, and therefore, the health effects of alcohol apply to spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink per day for women and 2 drinks per day for men) is associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death.[21] Drinking more than this amount; however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke.[21] The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents.[21] About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year.[22]
Alcoholism, also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems.[23] It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence.[24][25] In a medical[clarification needed] context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use.[25] Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years[26] and alcohol use is the third-leading cause of early death in the United States.[21] No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.[21][27]
While lower quality evidence suggests a cardioprotective effect, no controlled studies have been completed on the effect of alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism.[28] The American Heart Association "cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."[29]
See also[edit]
Liquor portal
Drink portal
Absinthe
Akvavit
Aguardiente
Alcoholic beverage
Arak
Arrack
Awamori
Baijiu / Shōchū / Soju
Brandy
Borovička
Cachaça
Eau de vie
Er guo tou
Fenny
Freeze distillation
Gin (and Jenever)
Horilka
Liquor store
List of beverages
Mamajuana
Mezcal
Moonshine
Neutral grain spirit
Orujo
Pálinka
Pisco
Poitín
Rakı
Rakia
Rum
Rượu đế
Schnapps
Slivovitz
Vodka
Whisky
Tsikoudia
Tsipouro
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "distilled spirit - alcoholic beverage". Encyclopædia Britannica.
Jump up ^ E. Gildemeister and Fr. Hoffman, translated by Edward Kremers (1913). The Volatile Oils. 1. New York: Wiley. p. 203.
Jump up ^ Bryan H. Bunch and Alexander Hellemans (2004). The History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 88. ISBN 0-618-22123-9.
Jump up ^ Marcelin Berthelot Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888, p.161)
^ Jump up to: a b c Irfan Habib (2011), Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500, page 55, Pearson Education
^ Jump up to: a b c Haw, Stephen G. (2006). "Wine, women and poison". Marco Polo in China. Routledge. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-1-134-27542-7. Retrieved 2016-07-10. The earliest possible period seems to be the Eastern Han dynasty... the most likely period for the beginning of true distillation of spirits for drinking in China is during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties
Jump up ^ Taylor, F. Sherwood (1945). "The Evolution of the Still". Annals of Science. 5 (3): 186. doi:10.1080/00033794500201451. ISSN 0003-3790.
^ Jump up to: a b Ahmad Y. al-Hassan (2001), Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and applied sciences, pages 65-69, UNESCO
Jump up ^ Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources". History of Science and Technology in Islam. Retrieved 2014-04-19.
Jump up ^ The Economist: "Liquid fire - The Arabs discovered how to distil alcohol. They still do it best, say some" December 18, 2003
Jump up ^ Forbes, Robert James (1970). A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. pp. 57, 89. ISBN 978-90-04-00617-1. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Sarton, George (1975). Introduction to the history of science. R. E. Krieger Pub. Co. p. 145.
Jump up ^ Holmyard, Eric John (1990). Alchemy. Courier Dover Publications. p. 53.
Jump up ^ graf-von-katzenelnbogen.com, see entry at Trinkglas.
Jump up ^ "Flash Point and Fire Point". Archived from the original on December 14, 2010. Retrieved March 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Material Safety Data Sheet, Section 5". Retrieved March 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Flash points of ethanol-based water solutions". Retrieved June 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ Robert L. Wolke (5 July 2006). "Combustible Combination". Washington Post. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Walkart, C.G. (2002). National Bartending Center Instruction Manual. Oceanside, California: Bartenders America, Inc. p. 104. ASIN: B000F1U6HG.
Jump up ^ who.int
^ Jump up to: a b c d e O'Keefe, JH; Bhatti, SK; Bajwa, A; DiNicolantonio, JJ; Lavie, CJ (March 2014). "Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 89 (3): 382–93. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005. PMID 24582196.
Jump up ^ "Alcohol Facts and Statistics". Retrieved 9 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Jill Littrell (2014). Understanding and Treating Alcoholism Volume I: An Empirically Based Clinician's Handbook for the Treatment of Alcoholism:volume Ii: Biological, Psychological, and Social Aspects of Alcohol Consumption and Abuse. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 55. ISBN 9781317783145. The World Health Organization defines alcoholism as any drinking which results in problems
Jump up ^ Hasin, Deborah (December 2003). "Classification of Alcohol Use Disorders". pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/. Retrieved 28 February 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Alcohol Use Disorder: A Comparison Between DSM–IV and DSM–5". November 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Schuckit, MA (27 November 2014). "Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens)". The New England Journal of Medicine. 371 (22): 2109–13. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1407298. PMID 25427113.
Jump up ^ Alcohol and Heart Health American Heart Association
Jump up ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "General Information on Alcohol Use and Health". Retrieved 26 June 2008.
Jump up ^ American Heart Association. "Alcohol, Wine and Cardiovascular Disease". Retrieved 26 June 2008.
Bibliography[edit]
Blue, Anthony Dias (2004). The Complete Book of Spirits: A Guide to Their History, Production, and Enjoyment. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-054218-7.
Forbes, Robert (1997). Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-00617-6.
Multhauf, Robert (1993). The Origins of Chemistry. Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. ISBN 2-88124-594-3.
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text:
John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
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John Brown's Raid on Harper's Ferry
Part of pre-Civil War conflicts

Harper's Weekly illustration of U.S. Marines attacking John Brown's "Fort"
Date
October 16–18, 1859
Location
Harpers Ferry, (West) Virginia
Result
U.S. victory
Belligerents
United States Abolitionist Insurgents
Commanders and leaders
Robert E. Lee
Israel Greene
Jeb Stuart John Brown
Strength
88 U.S. Marines
Unknown number of Virginia Militia and Maryland Militia 8 white men
12 free black men
1 freed slave
1 fugitive slave[1]
Casualties and losses
U.S. Marines:
1 killed
1 wounded
Virginia and Maryland Militia:
Unknown 10 killed
7 captured
5 escaped
Civilians:
6 killed
9 wounded
John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry (also known as John Brown's raid or The raid on Harper's Ferry)[2] was an effort by armed abolitionist John Brown to initiate an armed slave revolt in 1859 by taking over a United States arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown's party of 22[1] was defeated by a company of U.S. Marines, led by First Lieutenant Israel Greene.[3] Colonel Robert E. Lee was in overall command of the operation to retake the arsenal. John Brown had originally asked Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass, both of whom he had met in his transformative years as an abolitionist in Springfield, Massachusetts, to join him in his raid, but Tubman was prevented by illness and Douglass declined, as he believed Brown's plan would fail.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Brown's preparation
2 Advance knowledge of raid
3 The raid
3.1 October 16
3.2 October 17
3.3 October 18
3.4 October 19
4 Aftermath
5 Casualties
5.1 John Brown's raiders
5.2 Others
6 Liberated slaves
7 See also
8 Notes
8.1 Citations
8.2 Bibliography
9 External links
Brown's preparation[edit]
John Brown rented the Kennedy Farmhouse, with a small cabin nearby, 4 miles (6.4 km) north of Harpers Ferry near the community of Dargan in Washington County, Maryland,[5] and took up residence under the name Isaac Smith. Brown came with a small group of men minimally trained for military action. His group included 18 men besides himself (13 white men, 5 black men). Northern abolitionist groups sent 198 breech-loading .52 caliber Sharps carbines ("Beecher's Bibles") and 950 pikes (obtained in late September from Charles Blair of Collinsville Axe Co., Collinsville, CT), in preparation for the raid. The United States Armory was a huge complex of buildings that manufactured small arms for the U.S. Army (1801–1861), with an Arsenal (storehouse) that was thought to contain 100,000 muskets and rifles at the time.[6]
An illustration of Brown trying to persuade abolitionist Frederick Douglass to join him in the raid on Harpers Ferry. Douglass refused.
Brown attempted to attract more black recruits. He tried recruiting Frederick Douglass as a liaison officer to the slaves in a meeting held in a quarry at Chambersburg, Pa. It was at this meeting that ex-slave "Emperor" Shields Green consented to join with John Brown on his attack on the United States Armory, Green stating to Douglass "I believe I will go with the old man". Douglass declined, indicating to Brown that he believed the raid was a suicide mission. The plan was "an attack on the federal government" that "would array the whole country against us ... You will never get out alive", he warned.[7]
The Kennedy Farmhouse served as "barracks, arsenal, supply depot, mess hall, debate club, and home". It was very crowded and life there was tedious. Brown was worried about arousing neighbors' suspicions. As a result, the raiders had to stay indoors during the daytime, without much to do but study, drill, argue politics, discuss religion, and play cards and checkers. Brown's daughter-in-law Martha served as cook and housekeeper. His daughter Annie served as lookout. Brown wanted women at the farm, to prevent suspicions of a large all-male group. The raiders went outside at night to drill and get fresh air. Thunderstorms were welcome since they concealed noise from Brown's neighbors.[8]
Brown did not plan to have a sudden raid and escape to the mountains. Rather, he intended to use those rifles and pikes he captured at the arsenal, in addition to those he brought along, to arm rebellious slaves with the aim of striking terror in the slaveholders in Virginia. He believed that on the first night of action, 200-500 black slaves would join his line. He ridiculed the militia and regular army that might oppose him. He planned to send agents to nearby plantations, rallying the slaves. He planned to hold Harpers Ferry for a short time, expecting that as many volunteers, white and black, would join him as would form against him. He would move rapidly southward, sending out armed bands along the way. They would free more slaves, obtain food, horses and hostages, and destroy slaveholders' morale. Brown planned to follow the Appalachian Mountains south into Tennessee and even Alabama, the heart of the South, making forays into the plains on either side.[9]
Advance knowledge of raid[edit]
John Brown in 1859
Brown paid Hugh Forbes $600 to be his drillmaster. Forbes was an English mercenary who served Giuseppe Garibaldi in Italy. Forbes' Manual for the Patriotic Volunteer was found in Brown's papers after the raid. Brown and Forbes argued over strategy and money. Forbes wanted more money so that his family in Europe could join him.[10] Forbes sent threatening letters to Brown's backers in an attempt to get money. Failing in this effort, Forbes traveled to Washington, DC, and met with U.S. Senators William H. Seward and Henry Wilson. He denounced Brown to Seward as a "vicious man" who needed to be restrained, but did not disclose any plans for the raid. Forbes partially exposed the plan to Senator Wilson and others. Wilson wrote to Samuel Gridley Howe, a Brown backer, advising him to get Brown's backers to retrieve the weapons intended for use in Kansas. Brown's backers told him that the weapons should not be used "for other purposes, as rumor says they may be."[11] In response to warnings, Brown had to return to Kansas to shore up support and discredit Forbes. Some historians believe that this trip cost Brown valuable time and momentum.[12]
Estimates are that at least eighty people knew about Brown's planned raid in advance. Many others had reasons to believe that Brown was contemplating a move against the South. One of those who knew was David J. Gue of Springdale, Iowa. Gue was a Quaker who believed that Brown and his men would be killed. Gue, his brother, and another man decided to warn the government "to protect Brown from the consequences of his own rashness." Gue sent an anonymous letter dated August 20, 1859 to Secretary of War John B. Floyd. The letter said that "old John Brown,' late of Kansas," was planning to organize a slave uprising in the South. It said that Brown had a secret agent "in an armory" in Maryland. The letter said that Brown was stockpiling weapons at a secret location in Maryland. Gue warned that Brown planned to leave Maryland and enter Virginia at Harpers Ferry. Gue acknowledged that he was afraid to disclose his identity but asked Floyd not to ignore his warning "on that account." He was hoping that Floyd would send soldiers to Harpers Ferry. He hoped that the extra security would motivate Brown to call off his plans.[13]
Even though President Buchanan offered a $250 reward for Brown, Floyd did not connect the John Brown of Gue's letter to the John Brown of Pottawatomie, Kansas fame. He knew that Maryland did not have an armory (Harpers Ferry is just across the river from Maryland). Floyd figured that the letter writer was a crank and forgot about it. He later said that "a scheme of such wickedness and outrage could not be entertained by any citizen of the United States."[14]
The raid[edit]
October 16[edit]
North American slave revolts

Toussaint Louverture
1526 San Miguel de Guadalupe
(Spanish Florida, Victorious)
c. 1570 Gaspar Yanga's Revolt
(Veracruz, New Spain, Victorious)
1712 New York Slave Revolt
(British Province of New York, Suppressed)
1730 First Maroon War
(British Jamaica, Victorious)
1733 St. John Slave Revolt
(Danish Saint John, Suppressed)
1739 Stono Rebellion
(British Province of South Carolina, Suppressed)
1741 New York Conspiracy
(Province of New York, Suppressed)
1760 Tacky's War
(British Jamaica, Suppressed)
1787 Abaco Slave Revolt
(British Bahamas, Suppressed)
1791 Mina Conspiracy
(Louisiana (New Spain), Suppressed)
1795 Pointe Coupée Conspiracy
(Louisiana (New Spain), Suppressed)
1791–1804 Haitian Revolution
(French Saint-Domingue, Victorious)
1800 Gabriel's Rebellion
(Virginia, Suppressed)
1803 Igbo Landing
(St. Simons Island, Georgia, Suppressed)
1805 Chatham Manor
(Virginia, Suppressed)
1811 German Coast Uprising
(Territory of Orleans, Suppressed)
1815 George Boxley
(Virginia, Suppressed)
1816 Bussa's Rebellion
(British Barbados, Suppressed)
1822 Denmark Vesey
(South Carolina, Suppressed)
1831 Nat Turner's rebellion
(Virginia, Suppressed)
1831–1832 Baptist War
(British Jamaica, Suppressed)
1839 Amistad, ship rebellion
(Off the Cuban coast, Victorious)
1841 Creole case, ship rebellion
(Off the Southern U.S. coast, Victorious)
1842 Slave Revolt in the Cherokee Nation
(Indian Territory, Suppressed)
1859 John Brown's Raid
(Virginia, Suppressed)
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A modern reproduction of the 1848 fire engine house that became known as John Brown's Fort, c. 2007
On Sunday night, October 16, 1859, Brown left four of his men behind as a rear-guard: his son, Owen Brown, Barclay Coppock, and Frank Meriam; he led the rest into the town of Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown detached a party under John Cook Jr. to capture Colonel Lewis Washington, great-grandnephew of George Washington, at his nearby Beall-Air estate, some of his slaves, and two relics of George Washington: a sword allegedly presented to Washington by Frederick the Great and two pistols given by Marquis de Lafayette, which Brown considered talismans.[15] The party carried out its mission and returned via the Allstadt House, where they took more hostages.[16] Brown's main party captured several watchmen and townspeople in Harpers Ferry.
Brown's men needed to capture the weapons and escape before word could be sent to Washington. The raid was going well for Brown's men. They cut the telegraph wire and seized a Baltimore & Ohio train passing through. A free black man was the first casualty of the raid. Hayward Shepherd, an African-American baggage handler on the train, confronted the raiders; they shot and killed him.[17] For some reason, Brown let the train continue, and the conductor alerted the authorities down the line. Brown had been sure that he would win the support of local slaves in joining the rebellion, but a massive uprising did not occur, because word had not been spread about the uprising, so the slaves nearby did not know about it. Although the white townspeople soon began to fight back against the raiders, Brown's men succeeded in capturing the armory that evening.
October 17[edit]
Army workers discovered Brown's men early on the morning of October 17. Local militia, farmers and shopkeepers surrounded the armory. When a company of militia captured the bridge across the Potomac River, any route of escape for the raiders was cut off. During the day, four townspeople were killed, including the mayor. Realizing his escape was cut, Brown took nine of his captives and moved into the smaller engine house, which would come to be known as John Brown's Fort. The raiders blocked entry of the windows and doors and traded sporadic gunfire with surrounding forces. At one point Brown sent out his son, Watson, and Aaron Dwight Stevens with a white flag, but Watson was mortally wounded and Stevens was shot and captured. The raid was rapidly failing. One of Brown's men, William H. Leeman, panicked and made an attempt to flee by swimming across the Potomac River, but he was shot and fatally injured while doing so. During the intermittent shooting, Brown's other son, Oliver, was also hit; he died after a brief period.[18]
At around 3:00 p.m. a militia company led by Captain E.G. Alburtis arrived by train from Martinsburg, Virginia. Most of the militia members were Baltimore & Ohio Railroad employees. The militia forced the raiders inside the engine house. They broke into the guardroom and freed over two dozen prisoners. Eight militiamen were wounded. Alburtis said that he could have ended the raid with help from other citizens.[19]
By 3:30 that afternoon, President James Buchanan ordered a company of U.S. Marines (the only government troops in the immediate area) to march on Harpers Ferry under the command of Brevet Colonel Robert E. Lee, lieutenant colonel of the 2nd U.S. Cavalry Regiment. Lee had been on leave from his regiment, stationed in Texas, when he was hastily called to lead the detachment and had to command it while wearing his civilian clothes.[20]
October 18[edit]
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Lee first offered the role of attacking the engine house to the local militia units on the spot. Both militia commanders declined, and Lee turned to the Marines. On the morning of October 18, Colonel Lee sent Lt. J. E. B. Stuart, serving as a volunteer aide-de-camp, under a white flag of truce to negotiate a surrender of John Brown and his followers. Colonel Lee informed Lt. Israel Greene that if Brown did not surrender, he was to direct the Marines in attacking the engine house. Stuart walked towards the front of the engine house where he told Brown that his men would be spared if they surrendered. Brown refused and as Stuart walked away, he signaled a "thumbs down" to Lt. Greene and his men standing nearby.
Soon after, Greene led a detachment of Marines to attack the engine house. Marines equipped with sledgehammers tried to break through the door, but their efforts were unsuccessful. Greene found a wooden ladder, and he and about 10 Marines used it as a battering ram to force the front doors open. Greene was the first through the door and with the assistance of Lewis Washington, identified and singled out John Brown. Greene later recounted what events occurred next:
Quicker than thought I brought my saber down with all my strength upon [Brown's] head. He was moving as the blow fell, and I suppose I did not strike him where I intended, for he received a deep saber cut in the back of the neck. He fell senseless on his side, then rolled over on his back. He had in his hand a short Sharpe's cavalry carbine. I think he had just fired as I reached Colonel Washington, for the Marine who followed me into the aperture made by the ladder received a bullet in the abdomen, from which he died in a few minutes. The shot might have been fired by someone else in the insurgent party, but I think it was from Brown. Instinctively as Brown fell I gave him a saber thrust in the left breast. The sword I carried was a light uniform weapon, and, either not having a point or striking something hard in Brown's accouterments, did not penetrate. The blade bent double.[21]
In three minutes, all of the raiders still alive were taken prisoner and the action was over.
October 19[edit]
Robert E. Lee made a synopsis of the events that took place at Harpers Ferry. According to Lee's notes, Lee believed John Brown was a madman, "...the plan [raiding the Harpers Ferry Arsenal] was the attempt of a fanatic or madman." Lee also believed that the blacks in the raid were forced by Brown. "The blacks, whom he [John Brown] forced from their homes in this neighborhood, as far as I could learn, gave him no voluntary assistance." Lee attributed John Brown's "temporary success" by creating panic and confusion and by "magnifying" the number of participants involved in the raid.[22]
Aftermath[edit]
See also: Virginia v. John Brown
A contemporary newspaper illustration showing the interior of the engine house immediately before the door is broken down by U.S. Marines
John Brown wrote his last prophecy on December 2 of 1859.
Colonel Lee and John Stuart searched the surrounding country for fugitives who had participated in the attack. Few of Brown's associates escaped, and among those who did, some were sheltered by abolitionists in the north, including William Still.[23] Brown was taken to the court house in nearby Charles Town for trial. He was found guilty of treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia and was hanged on December 2. (This execution was witnessed by the actor John Wilkes Booth, who would later assassinate President Abraham Lincoln.) On the day of his execution, Brown wrote his last testament, which said,
'I John Brown am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty, land: will never be purged away; but with Blood. I had as I now think: vainly flattered myself that without very much bloodshed; it might be done.'[24]
Four other raiders were executed on December 16 and two more on March 16, 1860. In his last speech, at his trial, he said to the court:
'...had I so interfered in behalf of the rich, the powerful, the intelligent, the so-called great, or in behalf of any of their friends, either father, mother, brother, sister, wife, or children, or any of that class, and suffered and sacrificed what I have in this interference, it would have been all right; and every man in this court would have deemed it an act worthy of reward rather than punishment.'[25]
Southerners had a mixed attitude towards their slaves. Many southern whites lived in fear of a slave insurrection. Paradoxically, whites claimed that slaves were well treated and content in bondage. After the raid southerners initially lived in fear of slave uprisings and invasion by armed abolitionists. The South's reaction entered the second phase at around the time of Brown's execution. Southerners were relieved that no slaves had volunteered to help Brown. Southerners felt vindicated in their claims that slaves were content. After Northerners had expressed admiration for Brown's motives, with some treating him as a martyr, Southern opinion evolved into what James M. McPherson called "unreasoning fury."[26]
The first Northern reaction among antislavery advocates to Brown's Raid was one of baffled reproach. William Lloyd Garrison called the raid "misguided, wild, and apparently insane." But through the trial and his execution, Brown was transformed into a martyr. Henry David Thoreau, in A Plea for Captain John Brown, said, "I think that for once the Sharp's rifles and the revolvers were employed in a righteous cause. The tools were in the hands of one who could use them," and said of Brown, "He has a spark of divinity in him."[27] Though "Harper's Ferry was insane," wrote the religious weekly the Independent, "the controlling motive of his demonstration was sublime." To the South, Brown was a murderer who wanted to deprive them of their property. The North "has sanctioned and applauded theft, murder, and treason," said De Bow's Review.[28][29]
Casualties[edit]
John Brown's raiders[edit]
Events leading to
the American Civil War
Slavery
Northwest Ordinance
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
Battle of Negro Fort
Missouri Compromise
Tariff of 1828
Nat Turner's slave rebellion
Nullification Crisis
The Amistad
Prigg v. Pennsylvania
Texas annexation
Mexican–American War
Wilmot Proviso
Manifest destiny
Underground Railroad
Nashville Convention
Compromise of 1850
Fugitive Slave Act of 1850
Uncle Tom's Cabin
Kansas–Nebraska Act
Ostend Manifesto
Bleeding Kansas
Caning of Charles Sumner
Dred Scott v. Sandford
The Impending Crisis of the South
Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
1860 presidential election
Crittenden Compromise
Secession of Southern States
Star of the West
Corwin Amendment
Battle of Fort Sumter
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Killed
John Henry Kagi (Shot and killed while crossing a river. First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)
Jeremiah G. Anderson (At age 26, was mortally wounded and killed by a Marine's bayonet during the final assault on the engine house. Body claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver; last resting place unknown.)
William Thompson (First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)
Dauphin Thompson (Killed in the storming of the engine house. First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)
Oliver Brown (At age 21, the youngest of John Brown’s three sons to participate in the action, he was mortally wounded on the 17th inside the engine house and died the next day. He was first buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; and reburied in 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)
Watson Brown (At age 24, was mortally wounded outside the engine house while carrying a white flag to negotiate with the opposing militia; he died two days later. As his body was claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver, Union troops burned the college in an attack during the Civil War. Brown was reburied in 1882 in a grave near his father's in North Elba, New York.)
Stewart Taylor. Uxbridge, Ontario, Canada (First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)
William Leeman (Shot while trying to escape across the Potomac River. First buried in common grave at Harpers Ferry; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)
Lewis Sheridan Leary (A 24-year-old free black, he was mortally wounded while trying to escape across the Shenandoah River. He was stationed in the rifle factory with Kagi. Alleged to be buried at John Brown gravesite at North Elba, New York. Cenotaph memorial in Oberlin, Ohio.)
Dangerfield Newby (At about 35, he was born into slavery, with a white father who was not his master. He was given permission to move to Ohio along with his mother and siblings, but when he tried to gain freedom for his wife and children, their master refused. This inspired Newby to join Brown’s raid. He was the first raider killed. (His body was mutilated; for example, his ears were cut off by someone in the crowd as souvenirs.) First he was buried at Harpers Ferry; reburied in 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)
Captured
John Brown (also wounded) Tried, convicted and executed by hanging December 2, 1859, in nearby Charles Town.
Aaron Dwight Stevens (shot and captured October 18. Hanged March 16, 1860 in Charles Town. First buried at Eagleswood Mansion New Jersey; reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.[30])
Edwin Coppock (At age 24, he shot and killed the mayor of Harpers Ferry, Fontaine Beckham, during the raid. He was later executed at Charles Town on December 16, 1859 and was buried in Salem, Ohio.)
John Anthony Copeland, Jr. (A 25-year-old free black, he joined the raiders along with his uncle Lewis Leary. He was captured during the raid and executed on December 16, 1859, in Charles Town. The body was claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver. The last resting place is unknown. Cenotaph memorial in Oberlin, Ohio.)
Shields Green (At about age 23, Green was an escaped slave from South Carolina; captured in the engine house on October 18, 1859 and hanged December 16, 1859 in Charles Town. The body was claimed by Winchester Medical College as a teaching cadaver. The last resting place is unknown. Cenotaph memorial in Oberlin, Ohio.)
John Edwin Cook (Escaped into Pennsylvania but soon captured. Hanged December 16, 1859 in Charles Town. Body sent to New York.)
Albert E. Hazlett (Escaped into Pennsylvania but soon captured. Hanged March 16, 1860. Buried at Eagleswood Mansion in Perth Amboy, New Jersey;[30] reburied 1899 in a common grave near John Brown at North Elba, New York.)
Four raiders escaped and were captured about six months later.
Escaped and never captured
Barclay Coppock (Died during US Civil War.)
Charles Plummer Tidd (Died during US Civil War.)
Osborne Perry Anderson (Served as a soldier in Union Army, and wrote a memoir about the raid. Died 1870)
Owen Brown (Served as an officer in Union Army. Died January 8, 1889. Pasadena, California (Brown's Mountain))
Francis Jackson Meriam (Served in the army as a captain in the 3rd South Carolina Colored Infantry.)
Others[edit]
Civilians
Shepherd Heyward (Free African-American B&O baggage master; killed. Buried in African-American Cemetery on Rt. 11 in Winchester, Va., grave is unmarked)[31]
Thomas Boerly (Townsperson; killed.)
George W. Turner (Townsperson; killed.)
Fontaine Beckham (Town mayor; killed.)
A slave belonging to Col. Washington was killed.
A slave belonging to hostage John Allstad was killed.
(Some claim the two slaves voluntarily joined Brown's raiders, others say Brown forced them to fight. Regardless, one was killed trying to escape across the Potomac River, the other was wounded and later died in the Charles Town jail.)
9 other civilians were wounded.
Marines
Private Luke Quinn (Killed during the storming of the engine house.) Buried in Harpers Ferry Catholic Cemetery on Rte. 340.
Private Matthew Ruppert (Shot in the face during the storming of the engine house; survived.)
Liberated slaves[edit]
Mayor Beckham's Will Book called for the liberation of Isaac Gilbert, his wife, and three children upon his death. When Edwin Coppock killed Beckham the five slaves were free.[32]
See also[edit]
List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
Notes[edit]
Citations[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry". History.com. Retrieved 1 May 2015.
Jump up ^ In many books the town is called "Harper's Ferry." For example, "Col. Robert E. Lee's Report Concerning the Attack at Harper's Ferry, October 19, 1859,"; Horace Greeley, The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of America, 1860–64. Volume: 1. (1866), p. 279; French Ensor Chadwick, Causes of the Civil War, 1859–1861 (1906) p. 74; Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Lincoln (1950) vol 2 ch 3; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (1988), p. 201; Stephen W. Sears, Landscape Turned Red: The Battle of Antietam (2003) p. 116.
Jump up ^ Hoffman, Colonel Jon T., USMC: A Complete History, Marine Corps Association, Quantico, Virginia, (2002), p. 84.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Marian (2004). Harriet Tubman: Antislavery Activist (New ed.). Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-7910-8340-6.
Jump up ^ "The Kennedy Farmhouse", John Brown website
Jump up ^ "The Harpers Ferry Raid". pbs.org. Retrieved 2014-12-09.
Jump up ^ James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (2003) p. 205
Jump up ^ National Park Service History Series. John Brown's Raid (2009), pp. 22–30.
Jump up ^ Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Lincoln: Prelude to Civil War, 1859–1861 (1950), vol. 4, pp. 72–73
Jump up ^ National Park Service History Series. John Brown's Raid (2009), p. 16
Jump up ^ Oates (1984), p. 248
Jump up ^ National Park Service. John Brown's Raid (2009), p. 16
Jump up ^ Oates (1984), pp. 284–85
Jump up ^ Oates (1984), p. 285
Jump up ^ Ted McGee (April 5, 1973). "National Register of Historic Places Nomination: Beall-Air" (PDF). National Park Service. Archived from the original (pdf) on February 3, 2013
Jump up ^ Frances D. Ruth (July 1984). "National Register of Historic Places Nomination: Allstadt House and Ordinary" (pdf). National Park Service
Jump up ^ Horton, James Oliver; Lois E. Horton (2006). Slavery and the Making of America. Oxford University Press USA. p. 162. ISBN 978-0195304510.
Jump up ^ Greeley, Horace (1864). The American Conflict: A History:Part One. p. 292. ISBN 9781417908288.
Jump up ^ National Park Service History Series. John Brown's Raid (2009), pp. 49–50
Jump up ^ Emory M. Thomas, Robert E. Lee: A Biography (1995) pp.180
Jump up ^ Israel Green, Eyewitness Account, University of Virginia
Jump up ^ Col. Robert E. Lee, Report to the Adjutant General Concerning the Attack at Harper's Ferry, University of Missouri Kansas City, Law School
Jump up ^ Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rowell & Company, 1887. p. 160
Jump up ^ Oates 1984, p. 351
Jump up ^ Horowitz 2011, p. 212
Jump up ^ James M. McPherson. Battle Cry of Freedom. New York: Oxford University Press (1988), pp. 207–08.
Jump up ^ Norton Anthology of American Literature, Volume B. p. 2057.
Jump up ^ Reynolds, John Brown (2006), p. 340
Jump up ^ James M. McPherson, Battle cry of freedom: the Civil War era (2003) p. 210
^ Jump up to: a b "John Brown's Men Disinterred". New York Times. August 29, 1899. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Stephen Vincent Benet. John Brown's Body. New York. Rinehart & Co. (1927), p. 33
Jump up ^ Stephen B. Oates (1984). To Purge this Land with Blood, p. 296
Bibliography[edit]
Library resources about
John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Earle, Jonathan. John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry: A Brief History with Documents (2008) excerpt and text search
Field, Ron. Avenging Angel; John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry 1859 (2012). Osprey Raid Series #36. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781849087575
Fraser, George MacDonald. Flashman and the Angel of the Lord (1994)
Lee, Robert E. "Col. Robert E. Lee's Report Concerning the Attack at Harper's Ferry, October 19, 1859" online
Horwitz, Tony. Midnight Rising: John Brown and the Raid That Sparked the Civil War (2011) Henry Holt and Company
Mason, J.M. "Senate Select Committee Report on the Harper’s Ferry Invasion, June 15, 1860" online
Nalty, Bernard C. The United States Marines at Harpers Ferry and in the Civil War (1959) History & Museums Division, United States Marine Corps. online
National Park Service History Series. John Brown's Raid, Virginia Beach, VA: The Dunning Company Publishers (2009)
Nevins, Allan. The Emergence of Lincoln: Prelude to Civil War, 1859–1861 (1950), vol 4 of The Ordeal of the Union, esp ch 3 pp 70–97
Oates, Stephen B. To Purge this Land with Blood: A Biography of John Brown (1984). Amherst, MA: The University of Massachusetts Press.
Potter, David M. The Impending Crisis: 1848–1861 (1976) pp 356–84; Pulitzer Prize winning history
Reynolds, David S. John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery, Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights (2006)
Villard, Oswald Garrison. John Brown, 1800–1859: A Biography Fifty Years After (1910) 738 pages, full text online
Thomas, Emory M. Robert E. Lee: A Biography (1995). New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry.
Michael E. Ruane (October 14, 2009). "150 Years Later, John Brown's Failed Slave Revolt Marches On". The Washington Post.
John Brown – 150 Years After Harpers Ferry by Terry Bisson, Monthly Review, October 2009
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values: Raid de John Brown contre Harpers Ferry – French

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