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Uralic languages
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Uralic
Uralian languages
Geographic
distribution
Central, Eastern, and Northern Europe, North Asia
Linguistic classification
One of the world's primary language families
Proto-language
Proto-Uralic
Subdivisions
Finnic
Hungarian
Khanty
Mansi
Mari
Mordvinic
Permic
Sami
Samoyedic
ISO 639-5
urj
Glottolog
ural1272[1]
Geographical distribution of the Uralic languages
The Uralic languages (/jʊəˈrælɪk/; sometimes called Uralian languages /jʊəˈreɪliən/) form a language family of 38[2] languages spoken by approximately 25 million people, predominantly in Northern Eurasia. The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian, which are the official languages of Hungary, Finland, and Estonia, respectively, and of the European Union. Other Uralic languages with significant numbers of speakers are Erzya, Moksha, Mari, Udmurt, and Komi, which are officially recognized languages in various regions of Russia.
The name "Uralic" derives from the fact that the areas where the languages are spoken are found on both sides of the Ural Mountains. Also, the original homeland (Urheimat) is commonly hypothesized to be in the vicinity of the Urals.
Finno-Ugric is sometimes used as a synonym for Uralic, though Finno-Ugric is widely understood to exclude the Samoyedic languages.[3] Scholars who do not accept the traditional notion that Samoyedic split first from the rest of the Uralic family may treat the terms as synonymous.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Homeland
1.2 Early attestations
1.3 Uralic studies
2 Classification
2.1 Traditional classification
2.2 Lexical isoglosses
2.3 Phonological isoglosses
3 Typology
3.1 Grammar
3.2 Phonology
3.3 Lexicography
3.3.1 Selected cognates
3.3.2 Mutual intelligibility
3.4 Comparison
4 Possible relations with other families
4.1 Indo-Uralic
4.2 Uralic–Yukaghir
4.3 Eskimo–Uralic
4.4 Uralo-Siberian
4.5 Ural–Altaic
4.6 Nostratic
4.7 Eurasiatic
4.8 Uralo-Dravidian
4.9 Uralic skepticism
4.10 Other comparisons
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
7.1 External classification
7.2 Linguistic issues
8 External links
8.1 "Rebel" Uralists
History[edit]
Further information: Proto-Uralic
Homeland[edit]
Further information: Proto-Uralic homeland hypotheses
In recent times, linguists often place the Urheimat (original homeland) of the Proto-Uralic language in the vicinity of the Volga River, west of the Urals, close to the Urheimat of the Indo-European languages, or to the east and southeast of the Urals. Historian Gyula László places its origin in the forest zone between the Oka River and central Poland. E. N. Setälä and M. Zsirai place it between the Volga and Kama Rivers. According to E. Itkonen, the ancestral area extended to the Baltic Sea. P. Hajdu has suggested a homeland in western and northwestern Siberia.[4]
Early attestations[edit]
The first plausible mention of a Uralic people is in Tacitus's Germania (c. 98 AD),[5] mentioning the Fenni (usually interpreted as referring to the Sami) and two other possibly Uralic tribes living in the farthest reaches of Scandinavia. There are many possible earlier mentions, including the Iyrcae (perhaps related to Yugra) described by Herodotus living in what is now European Russia, and the Budini, described by Herodotus as notably red-haired (a characteristic feature of the Udmurts) and living in northeast Ukraine and/or adjacent parts of Russia. In the late 15th century, European scholars noted the resemblance of the names Hungaria and Yugria, the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection but did not seek linguistic evidence.[6]
Uralic studies[edit]
The Siberian origin of Hungarians was long hypothesized by European scholars. Here, Sigismund von Herberstein's 1549 map of Moscovia shows "Yugra from where the Hungarians originated" (Iuhra inde ungaroru origo), east of the Ob River. The Ural Mountains in the middle of the maps are labeled Montes dicti Cingulus Terræ ("The mountains called the Girdle of the Earth")
The affinity of Hungarian and Finnish was first proposed in the late 17th century. Two of the more important contributors were the German scholar Martin Vogel, who established several grammatical and lexical parallels between Finnish and Hungarian, and the Swedish scholar Georg Stiernhielm, who commented on the similarities of Sami, Estonian and Finnish, and also on a few similar words between Finnish and Hungarian.[7] These two authors were the first to outline what was to become the classification of the Finno-Ugric, and later Uralic family. This proposal received some of its initial impetus from the fact that these languages, unlike most of the other languages spoken in Europe, are not part of what is now known as the Indo-European family.
In 1717, Swedish professor Olof Rudbeck proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid.[8] In the same year, the German scholar Johann Georg von Eckhart, in an essay published in Leibniz's Collectanea Etymologica, proposed for the first time a relation to the Samoyedic languages.[citation needed]
In 1730, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published his book Das Nord- und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia (The North and East Parts of Europe and Asia), surveying the geography, peoples and languages of Russia. All the main groups of the Uralic languages were already identified here.[9] Nonetheless, these relationships were not widely accepted. Hungarian intellectuals especially were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with Turkic tribes, an attitude characterized by Merritt Ruhlen as due to "the wild unfettered Romanticism of the epoch".[10] Still, in spite of this hostile climate, the Hungarian Jesuit János Sajnovics travelled with Maximilian Hell to survey the alleged relationship between Hungarian and Sami. Sajnovics published his results in 1770, arguing for a relationship based on several grammatical features.[11] In 1799, the Hungarian Sámuel Gyarmathi published the most complete work on Finno-Ugric to that date.[12]
Uralic languages in the Russian Empire (Russian Census of 1897; the census was not held in Finland because it was an autonomous area)
Progress resumed after a number of decades, with the first major field research expeditions on the Uralic languages spoken in the more eastern parts of Russia. These were made in the 1840s by Matthias Castrén (1813–1852) and Antal Reguly (1819–1858), who focused especially on the Samoyedic and the Ob-Ugric languages, respectively. Reguly's materials were worked on by the Hungarian linguist Pál Hunfalvy (1810–1891) and German Josef Budenz (1836–1892), who both supported the Uralic affinity of Hungarian.[13] Budenz was the first scholar to bring this result to popular consciousness in Hungary, and to attempt a reconstruction of the Proto-Finno-Ugric grammar and lexicon.[14] Another late-19th-century Hungarian contribution is that of Ignácz Halász (1855–1901), who published extensive comparative material of Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic in the 1890s,[15][16][17][18] and whose work is at the base of today's wide acceptance of the inclusion of Samoyedic as a part of Uralic.[19] Meanwhile, in the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, a chair for Finnish language and linguistics at the University of Helsinki was created in 1850, first held by Castrén.[20]
In 1883, the Finno-Ugrian Society was founded in Helsinki on the proposal of Otto Donner, and during the late 19th and early 20th century (until the separation of Finland from Russia following the Russian revolution), a large number of stipendiates were sent by the Society to survey the less known Uralic languages. Major researchers of this period included Heikki Paasonen (studying especially the Mordvinic languages), Yrjö Wichmann (studying Permic), Artturi Kannisto (Mansi), Kustaa Fredrik Karjalainen (Khanty), Toivo Lehtisalo (Nenets), and Kai Donner (Kamass).[21] The vast amounts of data collected on these expeditions would provide edition work for later generations of Finnish Uralicists for more than a century.[22]
Classification[edit]
Relative numbers of speakers of Uralic languages
Hungarian
56%
Finnish
20%
Estonian
4.2%
Erzya
2.8%
Moksha
2.5%
Mari
2%
Udmurt
1.9%
Komi
1.6%
Other
8.9%
The Uralic family comprises nine undisputed groups with no consensus classification between them. (Some of the proposals are listed in the next section.) An agnostic approach treats them as separate branches.[23]
Obsolete or native names are displayed in italics.
Finnic (Fennic, Baltic Finnic, Balto-Finnic, Balto-Fennic)
Hungarian (Magyar)
Khanty (Ostyak, Handi, Hantõ)
Mansi (Vogul)
Mari (Cheremis)
Mordvinic (Mordvin, Mordvinian)
Permic (Permian)
Sami (Saami, Samic, Saamic, Lappic, Lappish)
Samoyedic (Samoyed)
There is also historical evidence of a number of extinct languages of uncertain affiliation:
Merya
Muromian
Meshcherian (until 16th century?)
Traces of Finno-Ugric substrata, especially in toponymy, in the northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages.[24]
Traditional classification[edit]
All Uralic languages are thought to have descended, through independent processes of language change, from Proto-Uralic. The internal structure of the Uralic family has been debated since the family was first proposed.[25] Doubts about the validity of most of the proposed higher-order branchings (grouping the nine undisputed families) are becoming more common.[25][26]
A traditional classification of the Uralic languages has existed since the late 19th century.[27] It has enjoyed frequent adaptation in whole or in part in encyclopedias, handbooks, and overviews of the Uralic family. Donner's model is as follows:
Ugric (Ugrian)
Hungarian
Ob-Ugric (Ob Ugrian)
Khanty
Mansi
Finno-Permic (Permian-Finnic)
Permic
Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Cheremisic, Finno-Mari)
Volga-Finnic
Mari
Mordvinic
Finno-Lappic (Finno-Saamic, Finno-Samic)
Sami
Finnic
At Donner's time, the Samoyedic languages were still poorly known, and he was not able to address their position. As they became better known in the early 20th century, they were found to be quite divergent, and they were assumed to have separated already early on. The terminology adopted for this was "Uralic" for the entire family, "Finno-Ugric" for the non-Samoyedic languages (though "Finno-Ugric" has, to this day, remained in use also as a synonym for the whole family). Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic are listed in ISO 639-5 as primary branches of Uralic.
Nodes of the traditional family tree recognized in some overview sources:
Year
Author(s)
Finno-
Ugric
Ugric
Ob-Ugric
Finno-
Permic
Finno-
Volgaic
Volga-
Finnic
Finno-
Samic
1910
Szinnyei[28]
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓
1921
T. I. Itkonen[29]
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗
1926
Setälä[30]
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗
1962
Hajdú[31][32]
✓ ✗[a] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗1 ✗
1965
Collinder[8]
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗
1966
E. Itkonen[33]
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
1968
Austerlitz[34]
✗[b] ✓ ✓ ✗ 2 ✗ ✓ ✗
1977
Voegelin & Voegelin[35]
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
2002
Kulonen[36]
✗ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✓
2007
Lehtinen[37]
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓
2009
Janhunen[38]
✓ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓ ✗
a. Hajdú describes the Ugric and Volgaic groups as areal units.
b. Austerlitz accepts narrower-than-traditional Finno-Ugric and Finno-Permic groups that exclude Samic
Little explicit evidence has however been presented in favour of Donner's model since his original proposal, and numerous alternate schemes have been proposed. Especially in Finland, there has been a growing tendency to reject the Finno-Ugric intermediate protolanguage.[26][39] A recent competing proposal instead unites Ugric and Samoyedic in an "East Uralic" group for which shared innovations can be noted.[40]
The Finno-Permic grouping still holds some support, though the arrangement of its subgroups is a matter of some dispute. Mordvinic is commonly seen as particularly closely related to or part of Finno-Samic.[41] The term Volgaic (or Volga-Finnic) was used to denote a branch previously believed to include Mari, Mordvinic and a number of the extinct languages, but it is now obsolete[26] and considered a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one.
Within Ugric, uniting Mansi with Hungarian rather than Khanty has been a competing hypothesis to Ob-Ugric.
Lexical isoglosses[edit]
Lexicostatistics has been used in defense of the traditional family tree. A recent re-evaluation of the evidence[42] however fails to find support for Finno-Ugric and Ugric, suggesting four lexically distinct branches (Finno-Permic, Hungarian, Ob-Ugric and Samoyedic).
One alternate proposal for a family tree, with emphasis on the development of numerals, is as follows:[43]
Uralic (*kektä "2", *wixti "5" / "10")
Samoyedic (*op "1", *ketä "2", *näkur "3", *tettə "4", *səmpəleŋkə "5", *məktut "6", *sejtwə "7", *wiət "10")
Finno-Ugric (*üki/*ükti "1", *kormi "3", *ńeljä "4", *wiiti "5", *kuuti "6", *luki "10")
Mansic
Mansi
Hungarian (hét "7"; replacement egy "1")
Finno-Khantic (reshaping *kolmi "3" on the analogy of "4")
Khanty
Finno-Permic (reshaping *kektä > *kakta)
Permic
Finno-Volgaic (*śećem "7")
Mari
Finno-Saamic (*kakteksa, *ükteksa "8, 9")
Saamic
Finno-Mordvinic (replacement *kümmen "10" (*luki- "to count", "to read out"))
Mordvinic
Finnic
Phonological isoglosses[edit]
Another proposed tree, more divergent from the standard, focusing on consonant isoglosses (which does not consider the position of the Samoyedic languages) is presented by Viitso (1997),[44] and refined in Viitso (2000):[45]
Finno-Ugric
Saamic–Fennic (consonant gradation)
Saamic
Fennic
Eastern Finno-Ugric
Mordva
(node)
Mari
Permian–Ugric (*δ > *l)
Permian
Ugric (*s *š *ś > *ɬ *ɬ *s)
Hungarian
Khanty
Mansi
The grouping of the four bottom-level branches remains to some degree open to interpretation, with competing models of Finno-Saamic vs. Eastern Finno-Ugric (Mari, Mordvinic, Permic-Ugric; *k > ɣ between vowels, degemination of stops) and Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Saamic, Mari, Mordvinic; *δ́ > δ between vowels) vs. Permic-Ugric. Viitso finds no evidence for a Finno-Permic grouping.
Extending this approach to cover the Samoyedic languages suggests affinity with Ugric, resulting in the aforementioned East Uralic grouping, as it also shares the same sibilant developments. A further non-trivial Ugric-Samoyedic isogloss is the reduction *k, *x, *w > ɣ when before *i, and after a vowel (cf. *k > ɣ above), or adjacent to *t, *s, *š, or *ś.[40]
Finno-Ugric consonant developments after Viitso (2000); Samoyedic changes after Sammallahti (1988)[46]
Saamic
Finnic
Mordvinic
Mari
Permic
Hungarian
Mansi
Khanty
Samoyedic
Medial lenition of *k
no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
Medial lenition of *p, *t
no no yes yes yes yes no no no
Degemination
no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
Consonant gradation
yes yes no no no no no no yes
Development of
*δ
*δ *t *t ∅ *l l *l *l *r
*δ́
*δ *ĺ ď ⟨gy⟩, j *ĺ *j *j
*s
*s *s *s *š *s ∅ *t *ɬ *t
*š
*h *š *š
*ś
*ć *s *ś *ś s ⟨sz⟩ *š *s *s
*ć
*ć č ⟨cs⟩ *ć ~ *š *ć
Note: Proto-Khanty *ɬ in many of the dialects yields *t; it is assumed this also happened in Mansi and Samoyedic.
The inverse relationship between consonant gradation and medial lenition of stops (the pattern also continuing within the three families where gradation is found) is noted by Helimski (1995): an original allophonic gradation system between voiceless and voiced stops would have been easily disrupted by a spreading of voicing to previously unvoiced stops as well.[47]
Based on phonological isoglosses, Häkkinen (2007)[48] proposes the following tree:
Uralic
West Uralic
Saamic
Finnic
Mordvinic
Central Uralic (?)
Mari
Permic
East Uralic
Hungarian
Ob-Ugric
Mansi
Khanty
Samoyedic
Typology[edit]
Structural characteristics generally said to be typical of Uralic languages include:
Grammar[edit]
extensive use of independent suffixes (agglutination)
a large set of grammatical cases marked with agglutinative suffixes (13–14 cases on average; mainly later developments: Proto-Uralic is reconstructed with 6 cases), e.g.:
Erzya: 12 cases
Estonian: 14 cases (15 cases with instructive)
Finnish: 15 cases
Hungarian: 18 cases (together 34 grammatical cases and case-like suffixes)
Inari Sami: 9 cases
Komi: in certain dialects as many as 27 cases
Moksha: 13 cases
Nenets: 7 cases
North Sami: 6 cases
Udmurt: 16 cases
Veps: 24 cases
unique Uralic case system, from which all modern Uralic languages derive their case systems.
nominative singular has no case suffix.
accusative and genitive suffixes are nasal sounds (-n, -m, etc.)
three-way distinction in the local case system, with each set of local cases being divided into forms corresponding roughly to "from", "to", and "in/at"; especially evident, e.g. in Hungarian, Finnish and Estonian, which have several sets of local cases, such as the "inner", "outer" and "on top" systems in Hungarian, while in Finnish the "on top" forms have merged to the "outer" forms.
the Uralic locative suffix exists in all Uralic languages in various cases, e.g. Hungarian superessive, Finnish essive (-na), North Sami essive, Erzyan inessive, and Nenets locative.
the Uralic lative suffix exists in various cases in many Uralic languages, e.g. Hungarian illative, Finnish lative (-s as in rannemmas), Erzyan illative, Komi approximative, and Northern Sami locative.
a lack of grammatical gender, including one pronoun for both he and she; for example, hän in Finnish, tämä in Votic, tema in Estonian, sijə in Komi, ő in Hungarian.
negative verb, which exists in almost all Uralic languages (notably absent in Hungarian)
use of postpositions as opposed to prepositions (prepositions are uncommon).
possessive suffixes
the genitive is also used to express possession in some languages, e.g. Estonian mu koer, colloquial Finnish mun koira, Northern Sami mu beana 'my dog' (literally 'dog of me'). Separate possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns, such as my and your, are rare.
dual, in the Samoyedic, Ob-Ugric and Samic languages and reconstructed for Proto-Uralic
plural markers -j (i) and -t (-d, -q) have a common origin (e.g. in Finnish, Estonian, Võro, Erzya, Samic languages, Samoyedic languages). Hungarian, however, has -i- before the possessive suffixes and -k elsewhere. In the old orthographies, the plural marker -k was also used in the Samic languages.
Possessions are expressed by a possessor in the adessive or dative case, the verb "be" (the copula, instead of the verb "have") and the possessed with or without a possessive suffix. The grammatical subject of the sentence is thus the possessed. In Finnish, for example, the possessor is in the adessive case: "Minulla on kala", literally "At me is fish", i.e. "I have a fish", whereas in Hungarian, the possessor is in the dative case, but appears overtly only if it is contrastive, while the possessed has a possessive ending indicating the number and person of the possessor: "(Nekem) van egy halam", literally "(To me [dative]) is a fish-my", i.e. "(As for me,) I have a fish".
expressions that include a numeral are singular if they refer to things which form a single group, e.g. "négy csomó" in Hungarian, "njeallje čuolmma" in Northern Sami, "neli sõlme" in Estonian, and "neljä solmua" in Finnish, each of which means "four knots", but the literal approximation is "four knot". (This approximation is inaccurate for Finnish and Estonian, where the singular is in the partitive case, such that the number points to a part of a larger mass, like "four of knot(s)".)
Phonology[edit]
Vowel harmony: this is present in many but by no means all Uralic languages. It exists in Hungarian and various Baltic-Finnic languages, and is present to some degree elsewhere, such as in Mordvinic, Mari, Eastern Khanty, and Samoyedic. It is lacking in Sami, Permic and standard Estonian, while it does exist in Võro and elsewhere in South Estonian.[49][50] (Although umlaut letters are used in writing Uralic languages, the languages do not exhibit Germanic umlaut; front and back values are intrinsic features of words and modify suffixes, not vice versa as in umlaut.)
Large vowel inventories. For example, some Selkup varieties have over twenty different monophthongs, and Estonian has over twenty different diphthongs.
Palatalization of consonants; in this context, palatalization means a secondary articulation, where the middle of the tongue is tense. For example, pairs like [ɲ] – [n], or [c] – [t] are contrasted in Hungarian, as in hattyú [hɒcːuː] "swan". Some Sami languages, for example Skolt Sami, distinguish three degrees: plain ⟨l⟩ [l], palatalized ⟨'l⟩ [lʲ], and palatal ⟨lj⟩ [ʎ], where ⟨'l⟩ has a primary alveolar articulation, while ⟨lj⟩ has a primary palatal articulation. Original Uralic palatalization is phonemic, independent of the following vowel and traceable to the millennia-old Proto-Uralic. It is different from Slavic palatalization, which is of more recent origin. The Finnic languages have lost palatalization, but the eastern varieties have reacquired it, so Finnic palatalization (where extant) was originally dependent on the following vowel and does not correlate to palatalization elsewhere in Uralic.
Lack of phonologically contrastive tone.
In many Uralic languages, the stress is always on the first syllable, though Nganasan shows (essentially) penultimate stress, and a number of languages of the central region (Erzya, Mari, Udmurt and Komi-Permyak) synchronically exhibit a lexical accent. The Erzya language can vary its stress in words to give specific nuances to sentential meaning.
Lexicography[edit]
Basic vocabulary of about 200 words, including body parts (e.g. eye, heart, head, foot, mouth), family members (e.g. father, mother-in-law), animals (e.g. viper, partridge, fish), nature objects (e.g. tree, stone, nest, water), basic verbs (e.g. live, fall, run, make, see, suck, go, die, swim, know), basic pronouns (e.g. who, what, we, you, I), numerals (e.g. two, five); derivatives increase the number of common words.
Selected cognates[edit]
The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Uralic family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them.
English
Proto-Uralic
Finnic
Sami
Mordvin
Mari
Permic
Hungarian
Mansi
Khanty
Samoyed
Finnish
Estonian
Võro
South
North
Kildin
Erzya
Meadow
Komi
Udmurt
Northern
Kazym
Vakh
Tundra Nenets
'fire'
*tuli
tuli
(tule-) tuli
(tule-) tuli
(tulõ-) dålle
[tollə] dolla tōll tol tul tɨl- tɨl – – – – tuu
'water'
*weti
vesi
(vete-) vesi
(vee-) vesi
(vii-) – – – ved´ wüt va vu víz wit – – jiʔ
'ice'
*jäŋi
jää jää ijä jïenge
[jɨeŋə] jiekŋa īŋŋ ej i ji jə jég jaaŋk jeŋk jeŋk –
'fish'
*kala
kala kala kala guelie
[kʉelie] guolli kūll’ kal kol – – hal xuul xŭɬ kul xalʲa
'nest'
*pesä
pesä pesa pesä biesie
[piesie] beassi piess’ pize pəžaš poz puz fészek pitʲi – pĕl pʲidʲa
'hand, arm'
*käti
käsi
(käte-) käsi
(käe-) käsi
(käe-) gïete
[kɨedə] giehta kīdt ked´ kit ki ki kéz kaat – köt –
'eye'
*śilmä
silmä silm
(silma-) silm
(silmä-) tjelmie
[t͡ʃɛlmie] čalbmi čall’m śeĺme šinča śin
(śinm-) śin
(śinm-) szem sam sem sem sæwə
'fathom'
*süli
syli
(syle-) süli
(süle-) – sïlle
[sʲɨllə] salla sē̮ll seĺ šülö sɨl sul öl(el) tal ɬăɬ lö̆l tʲíbʲa
'vein / sinew'
*sï(x)ni
suoni
(suone-) soon
(soone-) suuń
(soonõ-) soene
[suonə] suotna sūnn san šün sən sən ín taan ɬɔn lan teʔ
'bone'
*luwi
luu luu luu – – – lovaža lu lɨ lɨ – luw ɬŭw lŏγ le
'blood'
*weri
veri veri veri vïrre
[vʲɨrrə] varra vē̮rr veŕ wür vur vir vér wiɣr wŭr wər –
'liver'
*mïksa
maksa maks
(maksa-) mass
(massa-) mueksie
[mʉeksie] – – makso mokš mus mus
(musk-) máj maat mŏxəɬ muγəl mudə
'urine' /
'to urinate'
*kunśi
kusi
(kuse-) kusi
(kuse-) kusi
(kusõ-) gadtjedh
(gadtje-)
[kɑdd͡ʒə]- gožžat
(gožža-) kōnnče – kəž kudź kɨź húgy xuńś- xŏs- kŏs- –
'to go'
*meni-
mennä
(men-) minema minemä mïnnedh
[mʲɨnnə]- mannat mē̮nne – mija- mun- mɨn- menni men- măn- mĕn- mʲin-
'to live'
*elä-
elää
(elä-) elama
(ela-) elämä
(elä-) jieledh
[jielə]- eallit jēll’e – ila- ol- ul- él- – – – jilʲe-
'to die'
*ka(x)li-
kuolla
(kuol-) koolma kuulma
(kool-) – – – kulo- kola- kul- kul- hal- xool- xăɬ- kăla- xa-
'to wash'
*mośki-
– – mõskma – – – muśke- muška- mɨśkɨ- mɨśk- mos- – – – masø-
Orthographical notes: The hacek denotes postalveolar articulation (⟨ž⟩ [ʒ], ⟨š⟩ [ʃ], ⟨č⟩ [t͡ʃ]) (In Northern Sami, (⟨ž⟩ [dʒ]), while the acute denotes a secondary palatal articulation (⟨ś⟩ [sʲ ~ ɕ], ⟨ć⟩ [tsʲ ~ tɕ], ⟨l⟩ [lʲ]) or, in Hungarian, vowel length. The Finnish letter ⟨y⟩ and the letter ⟨ü⟩ in other languages represent the high rounded vowel [y]; the letters ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ are the front vowels [æ] and [ø].
As is apparent from the list, Finnish is the most conservative of the Uralic languages presented here, with nearly half the words on the list below identical to their Proto-Uralic reconstructions and most of the remainder only having minor changes, such as the conflation of *ś into /s/, or widespread changes such as the loss of *x and alteration of *ï. Finnish has even preserved old Indo-European borrowings relatively unchanged as well. (An example is porsas ("pig"), loaned from Proto-Indo-European *porḱos or pre-Proto-Indo-Iranian *porśos, unchanged since loaning save for loss of palatalization, *ś > s.)
Mutual intelligibility[edit]
The Estonian philologist Mall Hellam proposed cognate sentences that she asserted to be mutually intelligible among the three most widely spoken Uralic languages: Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian:[51]
Estonian: Elav kala ujub vee all.
Finnish: Elävä kala ui veden alla.
Hungarian: Eleven hal úszik a víz alatt.
English: A live fish is swimming underwater.
However, linguist Geoffrey Pullum reports that neither Finns nor Hungarians could understand the other language's version of the sentence.[52]
Comparison[edit]
No Uralic language has exactly the idealized typological profile of the family. Typological features with varying presence among the modern Uralic language groups include:[53]
Feature
Samoyedic
Ob-Ugric
Hungarian
Permic
Mari
Mordvin
Finnic
Samic
Palatalization
+ + + + − + − +
Consonant length
− − + − − − + +
Consonant gradation
−1 − − − − − + +
Vowel harmony
−2 −2 + − + + + −
Grammatical vowel alternation
(ablaut or umlaut)
+ + − − − − −3 +
Dual number
+ + − − − − − +
Distinction between
inner and outer local cases
− − + + + + + −
Determinative inflection
(verbal marking of definiteness)
+ + + − − + − −
Passive voice
− + + − − + + +
Negative verb
+ − − + + ± + +
SVO word order
− − − ±4 − + + +
Notes:
Clearly present only in Nganasan.
Vowel harmony is present in the Uralic languages of Siberia only in some marginal archaic varieties: Nganasan, Southern Mansi and Eastern Khanty.
A number of umlaut processes are found in Livonian.
In Komi, but not in Udmurt.
Possible relations with other families[edit]
Many relationships between Uralic and other language families have been suggested, but none of these are generally accepted by linguists at the present time.
Indo-Uralic[edit]
Main article: Indo-Uralic languages
The Indo-Uralic (or Uralo-Indo-European) hypothesis suggests that Uralic and Indo-European are related at a fairly close level or, in its stronger form, that they are more closely related than either is to any other language family.
Uralic–Yukaghir[edit]
Main article: Uralic–Yukaghir languages
The Uralic–Yukaghir hypothesis identifies Uralic and Yukaghir as independent members of a single language family. It is currently widely accepted that the similarities between Uralic and Yukaghir languages are due to ancient contacts.[54] Regardless, the hypothesis is accepted by a few linguists and viewed as attractive by a somewhat larger number.
Eskimo–Uralic[edit]
Main article: Eskimo–Uralic languages
The Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis associates Uralic with the Eskimo–Aleut languages. This is an old thesis whose antecedents go back to the 18th century. An important restatement of it is Bergsland 1959.[55]
Uralo-Siberian[edit]
Main article: Uralo-Siberian languages
Uralo-Siberian is an expanded form of the Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis. It associates Uralic with Yukaghir, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by Michael Fortescue in 1998.[56]
Ural–Altaic[edit]
Main article: Ural–Altaic languages
Theories proposing a close relationship with the Altaic languages were formerly popular, based on similarities in vocabulary as well as in grammatical and phonological features, in particular the similarities in the Uralic and Altaic pronouns and the presence of agglutination in both sets of languages, as well as vowel harmony in some. For example, the word for "language" is similar in Estonian (keel) and Mongolian (хэл (hel)). These theories are now generally rejected[57] and most such similarities are attributed to language contact or coincidence.
Nostratic[edit]
Main article: Nostratic languages
Nostratic associates Uralic, Indo-European, Altaic, Dravidian, and various other language families of Asia. The Nostratic hypothesis was first propounded by Holger Pedersen in 1903[58] and subsequently revived by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky in the 1960s.
Eurasiatic[edit]
Main article: Eurasiatic languages
Eurasiatic resembles Nostratic in including Uralic, Indo-European, and Altaic, but differs from it in excluding the South Caucasian languages, Dravidian, and Afroasiatic and including Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Nivkh, Ainu, and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by Joseph Greenberg in 2000–2002.[59] Similar ideas had earlier been expressed by Heinrich Koppelmann in 1933 and by Björn Collinder in 1965.[60][61]
Uralo-Dravidian[edit]
The hypothesis that the Dravidian languages display similarities with the Uralic language group, suggesting a prolonged period of contact in the past,[62] is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars, including Robert Caldwell,[63] Thomas Burrow,[64] Kamil Zvelebil,[65] and Mikhail Andronov.[66] This hypothesis has, however, been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages,[67] and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists, such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti.[68]
Uralic skepticism[edit]
In her book, The Uralic language family: facts, myths, and statistics, linguist Angela Marcantonio argues against the existence of the Uralic family, claiming that the languages are no more closely related to each other than they are to various other Eurasian languages.[69]
All of these hypotheses are minority views at the present time in Uralic studies.
Other comparisons[edit]
See also: Alternative theories of the Hungarian language relations
Various unorthodox comparisons have been advanced such as Finno-Basque[70], Hungarian-Etruscan[71], and Cal-Ugrian. These are considered at best spurious fringe-theories by specialists.
See also[edit]
Finland portal
Hungary portal
Languages portal
Uralic peoples
Finno-Ugric peoples
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Uralic". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
Jump up ^ Simons, Gary F.; Fenning, Charles F. "Uralic". Ethnologue. SIL International. Retrieved 14 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Tommola, Hannu (2010). "Finnish among the Finno-Ugrian languages". Mood in the Languages of Europe. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 155. ISBN 90-272-0587-6.
Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, p. 231.
Jump up ^ Anderson, J.G.C. (ed.) (1938). Germania. Oxford: Clarendon Press. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Sebeok, Thomas A. (15 August 2002). Portrait Of Linguists. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-4411-5874-1. OCLC 956101732.
Jump up ^ Wickman 1988, pp. 793–794.
^ Jump up to: a b Collinder, Björn. An Introduction to the Uralic languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 8–27, 34.
Jump up ^ Wickman 1988, pp. 795–796.
Jump up ^ Ruhlen, Merritt (1987). A Guide to the World's Languages. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 64–71. OCLC 923421379.
Jump up ^ Wickman 1988, pp. 796-798.
Jump up ^ Wickman 1988, p. 798.
Jump up ^ Wickman 1988, pp. 801-803.
Jump up ^ Wickman 1988, pp. 803–804.
Jump up ^ Halász, Ignácz (1893). "Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése" (PDF). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 23:1: 14–34.
Jump up ^ Halász, Ignácz (1893). "Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése II" (PDF). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 23:3: 260–278.
Jump up ^ Halász, Ignácz (1893). "Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése III" (PDF). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 23:4: 436–447.
Jump up ^ Halász, Ignácz (1894). "Az ugor-szamojéd nyelvrokonság kérdése IV" (PDF). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 24:4: 443–469.
Jump up ^ Szabó, László (1969). "Die Erforschung der Verhältnisses Finnougrisch–Samojedisch". Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher (in German). 41: 317–322.
Jump up ^ Wickman 1988, pp. 799–800.
Jump up ^ Wickman 1988, pp. 810–811.
Jump up ^ "Lexica Societatis Fenno-Ugricae XXXV". Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura (in Hungarian).
Jump up ^ Salminen, Tapani (2009). "Uralic (Finno-Ugrian) languages".
Jump up ^ Helimski, Eugene (2006). "The «Northwestern» group of Finno-Ugric languages and its heritage in the place names and substratum vocabulary of the Russian North". In Nuorluoto, Juhani. The Slavicization of the Russian North (Slavica Helsingiensia 27) (PDF). Helsinki: Department of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures. pp. 109–127. ISBN 978-952-10-2852-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Marcantonio, Angela (2002). The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. Publications of the Philological Society. 35. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 55–68. ISBN 978-0-631-23170-7. OCLC 803186861.
^ Jump up to: a b c Salminen, Tapani (2002). "Problems in the taxonomy of the Uralic languages in the light of modern comparative studies".
Jump up ^ Donner, Otto (1879). Die gegenseitige Verwandtschaft der Finnisch-ugrischen sprachen (in German). Helsinki. OCLC 1014980747.
Jump up ^ Szinnyei, Josef (1910). Finnisch-ugrische Sprachwissenschaft (in German). Leipzig: G. J. Göschen'sche Verlagshandlung. pp. 9–21.
Jump up ^ Itkonen, T. I. (1921). Suomensukuiset kansat (in Finnish). Helsinki: Tietosanakirjaosakeyhtiö. pp. 7–12.
Jump up ^ Setälä, E. N. (1926). "Kielisukulaisuus ja rotu". Suomen suku (in Finnish). Helsinki: Otava.
Jump up ^ Hájdu, Péter (1962). Finnugor népek és nyelvek (in Hungarian). Budapest.
Jump up ^ Hajdu, Peter (1975). Finno-Ugric Languages and Peoples. Translated by G. F. Cushing. London: André Deutch Ltd. . English translation of Hajdú (1962).
Jump up ^ Itkonen, Erkki (1966). Suomalais-ugrilaisen kielen- ja historiantutkimuksen alalta. Tietolipas (in Finnish). 20. Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura. pp. 5–8.
Jump up ^ Austerlitz, Robert (1968). "L'ouralien". In Martinet, André. Le langage.
Jump up ^ Voegelin, C. F.; Voegelin, F. M. (1977). Classification and Index of the World's Languages. New York/Oxford/Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 341–343.
Jump up ^ Kulonen, Ulla-Maija (2002). "Kielitiede ja suomen väestön juuret". In Grünthal, Riho. Ennen, muinoin. Miten menneisyyttämme tutkitaan. Tietolipas. 180. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. pp. 104–108. ISBN 951-746-332-4.
Jump up ^ Lehtinen, Tapani (2007). Kielen vuosituhannet. Tietolipas. 215. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. ISBN 978-951-746-896-1.
Jump up ^ Janhunen, Juha (2009). "Proto-Uralic – what, where and when?" (pdf). Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia. 258. ISBN 978-952-5667-11-0. ISSN 0355-0230.
Jump up ^ Häkkinen, Kaisa 1984: Wäre es schon an der Zeit, den Stammbaum zu fällen? – Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher, Neue Folge 4.
^ Jump up to: a b Häkkinen, Jaakko 2009: Kantauralin ajoitus ja paikannus: perustelut puntarissa. – Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja 92.
Jump up ^ Bartens, Raija (1999). Mordvalaiskielten rakenne ja kehitys (in Finnish). Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. p. 13. ISBN 952-5150-22-4.
Jump up ^ Michalove, Peter A. (2002) The Classification of the Uralic Languages: Lexical Evidence from Finno-Ugric. In: Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen, vol. 57
Jump up ^ Janhunen, Juha (2009), "Proto-Uralic – what, where and when?" (pdf), Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia, 258, ISBN 978-952-5667-11-0, ISSN 0355-0230
Jump up ^ Viitso, Tiit-Rein. Keelesugulus ja soome-ugri keelepuu. Akadeemia 9/5 (1997)
Jump up ^ Viitso, Tiit-Rein. Finnic Affinity. Congressus Nonus Internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum I: Orationes plenariae & Orationes publicae. (2000)
Jump up ^ Sammallahti, Pekka (1988). "Historical phonology of the Uralic Languages". In Sinor, Denis. The Uralic Languages: Description, History and Foreign Influences. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 478–554. ISBN 978-90-04-07741-6. OCLC 466103653.
Jump up ^ Helimski, Eugen. Proto-Uralic gradation: Continuation and traces. In Congressus Octavus Internationalis Fenno-Ugristarum. Pars I: Orationes plenariae et conspectus quinquennales. Jyväskylä, 1995. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-02. Retrieved 2012-02-24.
Jump up ^ Häkkinen, Jaakko 2007: Kantauralin murteutuminen vokaalivastaavuuksien valossa. Pro gradu -työ, Helsingin yliopiston Suomalais-ugrilainen laitos.
Jump up ^ Austerlitz, Robert (1990). "Uralic Languages" (pp. 567–576) in Comrie, Bernard, editor. The World's Major Languages. Oxford University Press, Oxford (p. 573).
Jump up ^ "Estonian Language" (PDF). Estonian Institute. p. 14. Retrieved 2013-04-16.
Jump up ^ "The Finno-Ugrics: The dying fish swims in water", The Economist, pp. 73–74, December 24, 2005 – January 6, 2006, retrieved 2013-01-19
Jump up ^ Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005-12-26), "The Udmurtian code: saving Finno-Ugric in Russia", Language Log, retrieved 2009-12-21
Jump up ^ Hájdu, Péter (1975). "Arealógia és urálisztika" (pdf). Nyelvtudományi Közlemények (in Hungarian). 77: 147–152. ISSN 0029-6791.
Jump up ^ Rédei, Károly 1999: Zu den uralisch-jukagirischen Sprachkontakten. – Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen 55.
Jump up ^ Bergsland, Knut (1959). "The Eskimo-Uralic hypothesis". Journal De La Société Finno-Ougrienne. 61: 1–29.
Jump up ^ Fortescue, Michael D (1998). Language Relations Across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. Open linguistics series. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-0-304-70330-2. OCLC 237319639.
Jump up ^ Georg, Stefan; Michalove, Peter A.; Ramer, Alexis Manaster; Sidwell, Paul J. (March 1999). "Telling general linguists about Altaic" (PDF). Journal of Linguistics. 35 (1): 65–98. ISSN 1469-7742.
Jump up ^ Pedersen, Holger (1903). "Türkische Lautgesetze" [Turkish Phonetic Laws]. Zeitschrift Der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft (in German). 57 (3): 535–561. ISSN 0341-0137. OCLC 5919317968.
Jump up ^ Greenberg, Joseph Harold (2000). Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Volume 1: Grammar. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3812-5. OCLC 491123067.
Greenberg, Joseph H (2002). Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family. Vol. 2: Lexicon. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4624-3. OCLC 895918332.
Jump up ^ Koppelmann, Heinrich L. (1933). Die Eurasische Sprachfamilie : Indogermanisch, Koreanisch U. Verwandtes (in German). Heidelberg: Carl Winter.
Jump up ^ Collinder, Björn (1965). An Introduction to the Uralic Languages. University of California Press. pp. 30–34.
Jump up ^ Tyler, Stephen (1968), "Dravidian and Uralian: the lexical evidence". Language 44:4. 798–812
Jump up ^ Webb, Edward (1860). "Evidences of the Scythian Affinities of the Dravidian Languages, Condensed and Arranged from Rev. R. Caldwell's Comparative Dravidian Grammar". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 7: 271–298. doi:10.2307/592159.
Jump up ^ Burrow, T. (1944). "Dravidian Studies IV: The Body in Dravidian and Uralian". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 11 (2): 328–356. doi:10.1017/s0041977x00072517.
Jump up ^ Zvelebil, Kamal (2006). Dravidian Languages. In Encyclopædia Britannica (DVD edition).
Jump up ^ Andronov, Mikhail S. (1971), "Comparative Studies on the Nature of Dravidian-Uralian Parallels: A Peep into the Prehistory of Language Families". Proceedings of the Second International Conference of Tamil Studies Madras. 267–277.
Jump up ^ Zvelebil, Kamal (1970), Comparative Dravidian Phonology Mouton, The Hauge. at p. 22 contains a bibliography of articles supporting and opposing the hypothesis
Jump up ^ Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003) The Dravidian Languages Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-77111-0 at p. 43.
Jump up ^ "The Uralic language family: facts, myths, and statistics review by Dr. Edward Vajda" (PDF). Dr. Edward Vajda.
Jump up ^ Trask, R.L. The History of Basque Routledge: 1997 ISBN 0-415-13116-2
Jump up ^ Alinei, Mario (2003), Etrusco: una forma arcaica di ungherese, Bologna, Il Mulino.
References[edit]
Abondolo, Daniel M. (editor). 1998. The Uralic Languages. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08198-X.
Collinder, Björn. 1955. Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary: An Etymological Dictionary of the Uralic Languages. (Collective work.) Stockholm: Almqvist & Viksell. (Second, revised edition: Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag, 1977.)
Collinder, Björn. 1957. Survey of the Uralic Languages. Stockholm.
Collinder, Björn. 1960. Comparative Grammar of the Uralic Languages. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell
Comrie, Bernhard. 1988. "General Features of the Uralic Languages." In The Uralic Languages, edited by Denis Sinor, pp. 451–477. Leiden: Brill.
Décsy, Gyula. 1990. The Uralic Protolanguage: A Comprehensive Reconstruction. Bloomington, Indiana.
Hajdu, Péter. 1963. Finnugor népek és nyelvek. Budapest: Gondolat kiadó.
Helimski, Eugene. Comparative Linguistics, Uralic Studies. Lectures and Articles. Moscow. 2000. (Russian: Хелимский Е.А. Компаративистика, уралистика. Лекции и статьи. М., 2000.)
Laakso, Johanna. 1992. Uralilaiset kansat ('Uralic Peoples'). Porvoo – Helsinki – Juva. ISBN 951-0-16485-2.
Napolskikh, Vladimir. The First Stages of Origin of People of Uralic Language Family: Material of Mythological Reconstruction. Moscow, 1991. (Russian: Напольских В. В. Древнейшие этапы происхождения народов уральской языковой семьи: данные мифологической реконструкции. М., 1991.)
Rédei, Károly (editor). 1986–88. Uralisches etymologisches Wörterbuch ('Uralic Etymological Dictionary'). Budapest.
Wickman, Bo (1988). "The History of Uralic Languages". In Sinor, Denis. The Uralic Languages: Description, History, and Foreign Influences. Leiden: Brill. pp. 792–818. ISBN 978-90-04-07741-6. OCLC 16580570.
External classification[edit]
Sauvageot, Aurélien. 1930. Recherches sur le vocabulaire des langues ouralo-altaïques ('Research on the Vocabulary of the Uralo-Altaic Languages'). Paris.
Linguistic issues[edit]
Künnap, A. 2000. Contact-induced Perspectives in Uralic Linguistics. LINCOM Studies in Asian Linguistics 39. München: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 3-89586-964-3.
Wickman, Bo. 1955. The Form of the Object in the Uralic Languages. Uppsala: Lundequistska bokhandeln.
External links[edit]
"The Finno-Ugrics" The Economist, December 20, 2005
Kulonen, Ulla-Maija: Origin of Finnish and related languages. thisisFINLAND, Finland Promotion Board. Cited 30.10.2009.
"Rebel" Uralists[edit]
"The untenability of the Finno-Ugrian theory from a linguistic point of view" by Dr. László Marácz, a minority opinion on the language family
"The 'Ugric-Turkic battle': a critical review" by Angela Marcantonio, Pirjo Nummenaho, and Michela Salvagni
"Linguistic shadow-boxing" by Johanna Laakso – a book review of Angela Marcantonio’s The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Uralic languages.
[show]
v
t
e
Uralic languages
Finnic
Estonian
Northeastern coastal
South Estonian
Võro
Seto
Finnish
Kven
Meänkieli
Ingrian
Karelian
Karelian proper
Livvi
Ludic
Livonian †
Veps
Votic
Sami
Akkala †
Inari
Kainuu †
Kemi †
Kildin
Lule
Northern
Pite
Skolt
Southern
Ter
Ume
Mordvinic
Erzya
Moksha
Mari
Hill Mari
Meadow Mari
Permic
Komi
Zyrian
Permyak
Yodzyak
Udmurt
Ugric
Hungarian
Khanty
Mansi
Samoyedic
Enets
Yurats †
Nenets
Forest Nenets
Tundra Nenets
Nganasan
Kamassian †
Mator †
Selkup
Others
Merya †
Meshcherian †
Muromian †
† indicate extinct languages
[show]
v
t
e
List of primary language families
Africa
Afro-Asiatic
Austronesian
Khoe
Kx'a
Niger–Congo
Nilo-Saharan?
Tuu
Mande?
Songhay?
Ijaw?
Ubangian?
Kadu?
Isolates
Bangime
Hadza
Jalaa
Sandawe
Kwadi?
Laal?
Shabo?
Sign languages
Arab
BANZSL
French
Lasima
Tanzanian
Others
Europe
and Asia
Afro-Asiatic
Ainu
Austroasiatic
Austronesian
Chukotko-Kamchatkan
Dravidian
Eskimo–Aleut
Great Andamanese
Hmong–Mien
Hurro-Urartian
Indo-European
Japonic
Kartvelian
Koreanic
Mongolic
Northeast Caucasian
Northwest Caucasian
Ongan
Sino-Tibetan
Tai–Kadai
Tungusic
Turkic
Tyrsenian
Uralic
Yeniseian
Yukaghir
Dené–Yeniseian?
Altaic?
Austronesian–Ongan?
Austro-Tai?
Sino-Austronesian?
Digaro?
Kho-Bwa?
Siangic?
Miji?
Vasconic?
Isolates
Basque
Burushaski
Elamite
Hattic
Kusunda
Nihali
Nivkh
Sumerian
Hruso?
Miju?
Puroik?
Sign languages
BANZSL
French
German
Japanese
Swedish
Chinese
Indo-Pakistani
Arab
Chiangmai–Bangkok
Others
New Guinea
and
the Pacific
Arai–Samaia
Arafundi
Austronesian
Baining
Binanderean–Goilalan
Border
Bulaka River
Central Solomons
Chimbu–Wahgi
Doso–Turumsa
East Geelvink Bay
East Strickland
Eleman
Engan
Fas
Kaure–Kosare
Kiwaian
Kutubuan
Kwomtari
Lakes Plain
Lower Mamberamo
Lower Sepik
Madang
Mairasi
North Bougainville
Pauwasi
Piawi
Ramu
Senagi
Sentani
Sepik
Skou
South Bougainville
Teberan
Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran
Torricelli
Trans-Fly
Trans–New Guinea
Turama–Kikorian
West Papuan
Yam
Yawa
Yuat
North Papuan?
Northeast New Guinea?
Papuan Gulf?
Isolates
Abinomn
Anêm?
Ata?
Kol
Kuot
Porome
Taiap?
Pawaia
Porome
Sulka?
Tambora
Wiru
Sign languages
Hawai'i Sign Language
Others
Australia
Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan
Bunuban
Darwin River
Eastern Daly
Eastern Tasmanian
Garawan
Iwaidjan
Jarrakan
Mirndi
Northern Tasmanian
Northeastern Tasmanian
Nyulnyulan
Pama–Nyungan
Southern Daly
Tangkic
Wagaydyic
Western Daly
Western Tasmanian
Worrorran
Yangmanic (Wardaman)
Isolates
Giimbiyu
Malak-Malak
Marrgu
Tiwi
Wagiman
North
America
Algic
Alsea
Caddoan
Chimakuan
Chinookan
Chumashan
Comecrudan
Coosan
Eskimo–Aleut
Iroquoian
Kalapuyan
Keresan
Maiduan
Muskogean
Na-Dene
Palaihnihan
Plateau Penutian
Pomoan
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Families with more than 30 languages are in bold. Families in italics have no living members.
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LCCN: sh85141270
GND: 4062084-0
SUDOC: 027434389
BNF: cb11947660w (data)
NDL: 00575506
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text:
Eighth Crusade
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Eighth Crusade
Part of the Crusades

Death of Louis IX during the siege of Tunis
Date
1270
Location
Tunisia
Result
Muslim victory
Treaty of Tunis
Death of Louis IX
Opening of trade with Tunis
Territorial
changes
Status quo ante bellum
Belligerents
Kingdom of France
Kingdom of Sicily
Kingdom of Navarre Hafsid dynasty
Commanders and leaders
Louis IX #
Charles I of Sicily
Theobald II of Navarre Muhammad I al-Mustansir
[show]
v
t
e
Crusades
In the Holy Land (1095–1291)
First
People's
1101
Norwegian
Venetian
Second
Third
1197
Fourth
Children's
Fifth
Sixth
Barons'
Seventh
Shepherds' 1251
Eighth
Ninth
After 1291
Poor 1309
Shepherds' 1320
Smyrniote 1343–1351
Alexandrian 1365
Savoyard 1366
Barbary 1390
Nicopolis 1396
Varna 1443
Portuguese 1481
Northern Crusades (1147–1410)
Wendish 1147
Swedish
1150
1249
1293
Livonian 1198–1290
Prussian 1217–1274
Lithuanian 1283–1410
Against Christians
Bosnian 1235–1241
Albigensian 1209–1229
Aragonese 1284/5
Despenser's 1382/3
Hussite 1419–1434
Reconquista (718–1492)
Book:The Crusades
Portal:Crusades
The Eighth Crusade was a crusade launched by Louis IX of France against the city of Tunis in 1270. The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades of Frederick II are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth. The crusade is considered a failure after Louis died shortly after arriving on the shores of Tunisia, with his disease-ridden army dispersing back to Europe shortly afterwards.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Preparation
3 Campaign and siege
4 Literary response
5 Notes
6 References
Background[edit]
Despite the failure of the Seventh Crusade, which ended in the capture of King Louis by the Mamluks, the King did not lose interest in crusading. He continued to send financial aid and military support to the settlements in Outremer from 1254 to 1266.[2] While the "crusade" of the King's brother Charles of Anjou against the Hohenstaufen Kingdom of Sicily occupied Papal attention for some years,[3] the advance of Baibars in Syria during the early 1260s became increasingly alarming to Christendom. The War of Saint Sabas between Genoa and Venice had drawn in the Crusader States and depleted their resources and manpower. The exhausted settlements were systematically overrun by the methodical campaigns of Baibars.[4] By 1265, he had raided Galilee and destroyed the cathedral of Nazareth, captured Caesarea and Arsuf and temporarily took Haifa.[5] In late 1266, Louis informed Pope Clement IV that he intended to go on crusade again.[6]
Preparation[edit]
Louis formally took the cross on 24 March 1267 at an assembly of his nobles. A second ceremony took place on 5 June 1267 before a papal legate in Notre-Dame de Paris. Louis's son-in-law, King Theobald II of Navarre, who had also taken the cross, was also present.[7] The response was less enthusiastic than to his calling of the Seventh Crusade in 1248, although its unpopularity may have been exaggerated by his chronicler Jean de Joinville, who was personally opposed to the venture. The crusade was set to sail from Aigues-Mortes in early summer 1270 in Genoese and Marseillois shipping. An Aragonese contingent under James I of Aragon sailed from Barcelona in September 1269, but was caught in a storm and badly damaged; most of the survivors returned home, while one squadron under the King's natural sons Pedro Fernández and Fernán Sánchez reached Acre. Too weak to engage Baibars, they soon returned to Aragon as well.[8]
Louis' initial plan was to descend on the coast of Outremer by way of Cyprus. However, a new plan was developed in 1269, wherein the fleet would first descend on Tunis. This change has often been attributed to the King's brother Charles of Anjou, whose newly-conquered Kingdom of Sicily would benefit from a renewal of its traditional influence on Tunis. However, the details of Charles' preparations suggest that he was not initially aware of the change of plans, which originated at the French court. Louis may have thought that Tunis was an important base of supplies for Egypt; Geoffrey of Beaulieu stated that the King thought that the Khalif of Tunis, Muhammad I al-Mustansir, might be persuaded to convert to Christianity, if given military support.[9]
Pope Clement ceded a tenth of the church's income in Navarre to King Theobald for the financing the crusade. The prior of Roncesvalles and the dean of Tudela were to oversee the collection of the tenth. The preaching of the crusade in Navarre was primarily undertaken by the Franciscans and Dominicans of Pamplona.[7]
Campaign and siege[edit]
A large and well-organized fleet under Louis IX sailed from Aigues-Mortes about a month late, on 1 July 1270. The following day a second fleet under the King of Navarre sailed from Marseille. The two fleets joined up at Cagliari on the southern coast of Sardinia.[7] They landed on the Tunisian coast on 18 July. The crusaders built a fortified camp on the ruins of Carthage and awaited the arrival of the Sicilian contingent under Charles of Anjou. The North African summer bred pestilence, and an epidemic of dysentery swept through the crusading ranks. Louis' Damietta-born son John Tristan died of the disease on 3 August. Soon Louis, too, fell sick, and died, in penitence, on a bed of ashes on 25 August. His brother Charles arrived just after his death.[10]
Because of further diseases the siege of Tunis was abandoned on 30 October by an agreement with the sultan. In this agreement the Christians gained free trade with Tunis, and residence for monks and priests in the city was guaranteed. After hearing of the death of Louis and the evacuation of the crusaders from Tunis, Sultan Baibars of Egypt cancelled his plan to send Egyptian troops to fight Louis in Tunis.[11] The treaty was quite beneficial to Charles of Anjou, who received one-third of a war indemnity from the Tunisians, and was promised that Hohenstaufen refugees in the sultanate would be expelled.[12]
Prince Edward of England arrived with an English fleet the day before the crusaders left Tunis. The English returned to Sicily with the rest of the crusaders; the combined fleet was badly damaged in a storm off Trapani. At the end of April 1271, the English continued to Acre to carry on the Ninth Crusade.
Literary response[edit]
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Bertran d'Alamanon, a diplomat in the service of Charles of Anjou, and Ricaut Bono criticised the de Papal policy of pursuing wars in Italy with money that should have gone overseas.
The failure of the Eighth Crusade, like those of its predecessors, caused a response to be crafted in Occitan poetry by the troubadours. The death of Louis of France especially sparked their creative output, notable considering the hostility which the troubadours had previously shown towards the French monarchy during the Albigensian Crusade. Three planhs, songs of lament, were composed for the death of Louis IX.
Guilhem d'Autpol composed Fortz tristors es e salvaj'a retraire for Louis. Raimon Gaucelm de Bezers composed Qui vol aver complida amistansa to celebrate the preparations of the Crusade in 1268, but in 1270 he had to compose Ab grans trebalhs et ab grans marrimens in commemoration of the French king. Austorc de Segret composed No sai quim so, tan sui desconoissens, a more general Crusading song, that laments Louis but also that either God or Satan is misleading Christians. He also attacks Louis' brother Charles, whom he calls the caps e guitz (head and guide) of the infidels, because he convinced Louis to attack Tunis and not the Holy Land, and he immediately negotiated a peace with the Muslims after Louis' death.
After the Crusade, the aged troubadour Peire Cardenal wrote a song, Totz lo mons es vestitiz et abrazatz (more or less: the entire world is besieged and surrounded [by falsehood]), encouraging Louis' heir, Philip III, to go to the Holy Land to aid Edward Longshanks.
Satiric verses were composed in Tunis about Louis' new plan to invade Tunis: "O Louis, Tunis is the sister of Egypt! thus expect your ordeal! you will find your tomb here instead of the house of Ibn Lokman; and the eunuch Sobih will be here replaced by Munkir and Nakir.".[13]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Crusades of St. Louis". Britannica. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 207–208.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 209.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 239–240.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 240.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 241.
^ Jump up to: a b c Narbaitz 2007, pp. 256–57.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 209–210.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 210.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 210–211.
Jump up ^ Al-Maqrizi, p. 69/vol.2
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 211.
Jump up ^ Verses by a contemporary Tunesian named Ahmad Ismail Alzayat (Al-Maqrizi, p.462/vol.1) – House of Ibn Lokman was the house in Al-Mansurah where Louis was imprisoned in chains after he was captured in Fariskur during the 7th Crusade and where he was under the guard of a eunuch named Sobih. According to Muslim creed Munkir and Nakir are two angels who interrogate the dead.
References[edit]
Al-Maqrizi, Al Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk, Dar al-kotob, Cairo 1997. English translation by Bohn, Henry G., The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings, Chronicles of the Crusades, AMS Press, 1969.
Beebe, Bruce, "The English Baronage and the Crusade of 1270," in Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, vol. xlviii (118), November 1975, pp. 127–148.
Narbaitz, Pierre (2007). Navarra o cuando los vascos tenían reyes. Tafalla: Editorial Txalaparta.
Paterson, Linda (2003). "Lyric allusions to the crusades and the Holy Land." Colston Symposium.
Richard, Jean. The Crusades, C.1071-c.1291, Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-62566-1
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2005) [1987]. The Crusades: A History (2nd ed.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-8264-7270-2.
Strayer, Joseph R. (1969). "The Crusades of Louis IX". In R. L. Wolff; H. W. Hazard. A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades (1189–1311). Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 486–518.
Throop, Palmer A., "Criticism of Papal Crusade Policy in Old French and Provençal." Speculum, Vol. 13, No. 4. (October, 1938), pp. 379–412.
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