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List of Olympic Games host cities
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This is a list of host cities of the Olympic Games, both summer and winter, since the modern Olympics began in 1896. Since then, summer games have usually – but not always – celebrated a four-year period known as an Olympiad. There have been 28 Summer Olympic Games held in 23 cities, and 23 Winter Olympic Games held in 20 cities. In addition, three summer and two winter editions of the Games were scheduled to take place but later cancelled due to war: Berlin (summer) in 1916; Tokyo/Helsinki (summer) and Sapporo/Garmisch-Partenkirchen (winter) in 1940; and London (summer) and Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy (winter) in 1944. The 1906 Summer Olympics were officially sanctioned and held in Athens. However, in 1949, the International Olympic Committee (IOC), decided to unrecognize the 1906 Games.[1] Four cities have been chosen by the IOC to host upcoming Olympic Games: Tokyo for the 2020 Summer Olympics, Beijing for the 2022 Winter Olympics, Paris for the 2024 Summer Olympics, and Los Angeles for the 2028 Summer Olympics.
In 2022, Beijing will become the only city that has held both the summer and the winter Olympic Games. Nine cities will have hosted the Olympic Games more than once: Athens (1896 and 2004 Summer Olympics), Paris (1900, 1924 and 2024 Summer Olympics), London (1908, 1948 and 2012 Summer Olympics), St. Moritz (1928 and 1948 Winter Olympics), Lake Placid (1932 and 1980 Winter Olympics), Los Angeles (1932, 1984 and 2028 Summer Olympics), Innsbruck (1964 and 1976 Winter Olympics), Tokyo (1964 and 2020 Summer Olympics) and Beijing (2008 Summer Olympics and 2022 Winter Olympics). In addition, Stockholm hosted the 1912 Summer Olympics and the equestrian portion of the 1956 Summer Olympics.[d] London became the first city to have hosted three Games with the 2012 Summer Olympics. Paris will become the second city to do this with the 2024 Summer Olympics, followed by Los Angeles as the third in 2028. The United States has hosted a total of eight Olympic Games, more than any other country, followed by France with five editions. Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom have each hosted three Games.
The Games have primarily been hosted in the continents of Europe (36 editions) and North America (12 editions); eight Games have been hosted in Asia and two have been hosted in Oceania. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro became South America's first Olympic host city, while the African continent has yet to hold the Games. Other major geographic regions which have never hosted the Olympics include the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia.
Host cities are selected by the IOC membership, usually seven years in advance.[2] The selection process lasts approximately two years. In the first stage, any city in the world may submit an application to become a host city. After 10 months, the Executive Board of the IOC decides which applicant city will become official candidates as based on the recommendation of a working group that reviews the applications. In a second stage, the candidate cities are investigated thoroughly by an Evaluation Commission, which then submits a final short list of cities to be considered for selection. The host city is then chosen by vote of the IOC session, a general meeting of IOC members.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Olympic Games host cities
1.1 Host cities for multiple Summer and Winter Olympic Games
1.2 Number of Olympic Games by country
1.3 Number of Olympic Games by continent
1.4 Unsuccessful cities
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
Olympic Games host cities[edit]
For individual summer and winter lists, see List of modern Summer Olympic Games and List of Winter Olympic Games.
City
Country
Continent
Summer (Olympiad)
Winter
Year
Opening Ceremony
Closing Ceremony
Athens Greece Europe S005I — 1896 000000002018-04-06-0000April 6 000000002018-04-15-0000April 15
Paris France Europe S005II — 1900 000000002018-05-14-0000May 14 000000002018-10-28-0000October 28
St. Louis[a] United States North America S005III — 1904 000000002018-07-01-0000July 1 000000002018-11-23-0000November 23
London[c] United Kingdom Europe S005IV — 1908 000000002018-04-27-0000April 27 000000002018-10-31-0000October 31
Stockholm Sweden Europe S005V — 1912 000000002018-05-05-0000May 5 000000002018-07-22-0000July 22
Berlin Germany Europe S006VI — 1916 Cancelled due to WWI[4]
Antwerp[d] Belgium Europe S007VII — 1920 000000002018-04-20-0000April 20 000000002018-09-12-0000September 12[5]
Chamonix France Europe — W001I 1924 000000002018-01-25-0000January 25 000000002018-02-04-0000February 4[6]
Paris France Europe S008VIII — 000000002018-05-04-0000May 4 000000002018-07-27-0000July 27[7]
St. Moritz Switzerland Europe — W002II 1928 000000002018-02-11-0000February 11 000000002018-02-19-0000February 19[8]
Amsterdam Netherlands Europe S009IX — 000000002018-05-17-0000May 17 000000002018-08-12-0000August 12[9]
Lake Placid United States North America — W003III 1932 000000002018-02-04-0000February 4 000000002018-02-15-0000February 15[10]
Los Angeles United States North America S010X — 000000002018-07-30-0000July 30 000000002018-08-14-0000August 14[11]
Garmisch-Partenkirchen Nazi Germany Europe — W004IV 1936 000000002018-02-06-0000February 6 000000002018-02-16-0000February 16[12]
Berlin Nazi Germany Europe S011XI — 000000002018-08-01-0000August 1 000000002018-08-16-0000August 16[13]
Sapporo
Garmisch-Partenkirchen[e] Empire of Japan
Nazi Germany Asia
Europe — W005aV 1940 Cancelled due to WWII[4]
Tokyo
Helsinki[f] Empire of Japan
Finland Asia
Europe S012XII —
Cortina d'Ampezzo Italy Europe — W005bV 1944
London United Kingdom Europe S013XIII —
St. Moritz Switzerland Europe — W005cV 1948 000000002018-01-30-0000January 30 000000002018-02-08-0000February 8
London United Kingdom Europe S014XIV — 000000002018-07-29-0000July 29 000000002018-08-14-0000August 14
Oslo Norway Europe — W006VI 1952 000000002018-02-14-0000February 14 000000002018-02-25-0000February 25
Helsinki Finland Europe S015XV — 000000002018-07-19-0000July 19 000000002018-08-03-0000August 3
Cortina d'Ampezzo Italy Europe — W007VII 1956 000000002018-01-26-0000January 26 000000002018-02-05-0000February 5
Melbourne
Stockholm[g] Australia
Sweden Oceania
Europe S016XVI — 000000002018-11-22-0000November 22
000000002018-06-10-0000June 10 000000002018-12-08-0000December 8
000000002018-06-17-0000June 17
Squaw Valley United States North America — W008VIII 1960 000000002018-02-18-0000February 18 000000002018-02-28-0000February 28
Rome Italy Europe S017XVII — 000000002018-08-25-0000August 25 000000002018-09-11-0000September 11
Innsbruck Austria Europe — W009IX 1964 000000002018-01-29-0000January 29 000000002018-02-09-0000February 9
Tokyo Japan Asia S018XVIII — 000000002018-10-10-0000October 10 000000002018-10-24-0000October 24
Grenoble France Europe — W010X 1968 000000002018-02-06-0000February 6 000000002018-02-18-0000February 18
Mexico City Mexico North America S019XIX — 000000002018-10-12-0000October 12 000000002018-10-27-0000October 27
Sapporo Japan Asia — W011XI 1972 000000002018-02-03-0000February 3 000000002018-02-13-0000February 13
Munich West Germany Europe S020XX — 000000002018-08-26-0000August 26 000000002018-09-11-0000September 11
Innsbruck Austria Europe — W012XII 1976 000000002018-02-04-0000February 4 000000002018-02-15-0000February 15
Montreal Canada North America S021XXI — 000000002018-07-17-0000July 17 000000002018-08-01-0000August 1
Lake Placid United States North America — W013XIII 1980 000000002018-02-12-0000February 12 000000002018-02-24-0000February 24
Moscow Soviet Union Europe[h] S022XXII — 000000002018-07-19-0000July 19 000000002018-08-03-0000August 3
Sarajevo Yugoslavia Europe — W014XIV 1984 000000002018-02-07-0000February 7 000000002018-02-19-0000February 19
Los Angeles United States North America S023XXIII — 000000002018-07-28-0000July 28 000000002018-08-12-0000August 12
Calgary Canada North America — W015XV 1988 000000002018-02-13-0000February 13 000000002018-02-28-0000February 28
Seoul South Korea Asia S024XXIV — 000000002018-09-17-0000September 17 000000002018-10-02-0000October 2
Albertville France Europe — W016XVI 1992 000000002018-02-08-0000February 8 000000002018-02-23-0000February 23
Barcelona Spain Europe S025XXV — 000000002018-07-25-0000July 25 000000002018-08-09-0000August 9
Lillehammer Norway Europe — W017XVII 1994 000000002018-02-12-0000February 12 000000002018-02-27-0000February 27
Atlanta United States North America S026XXVI — 1996 000000002018-07-19-0000July 19 000000002018-08-04-0000August 4
Nagano Japan Asia — W018XVIII 1998 000000002018-02-07-0000February 7 000000002018-02-22-0000February 22
Sydney Australia Oceania S027XXVII — 2000 000000002018-09-15-0000September 15 000000002018-10-01-0000October 1
Salt Lake City United States North America — W019XIX 2002 000000002018-02-08-0000February 8 000000002018-02-24-0000February 24
Athens Greece Europe S028XXVIII — 2004 000000002018-08-13-0000August 13 000000002018-08-29-0000August 29
Torino Italy Europe — W020XX 2006 000000002018-02-10-0000February 10 000000002018-02-26-0000February 26
Beijing[i] China Asia S029XXIX — 2008 000000002018-08-08-0000August 8 000000002018-08-24-0000August 24
Vancouver Canada North America — W021XXI 2010 000000002018-02-12-0000February 12 000000002018-02-28-0000February 28
London United Kingdom Europe S030XXX — 2012 000000002018-07-27-0000July 27 000000002018-08-12-0000August 12
Sochi Russia Europe[h] — W022XXII 2014 000000002018-02-07-0000February 7 000000002018-02-23-0000February 23
Rio de Janeiro Brazil South America S031XXXI — 2016 000000002018-08-05-0000August 5 000000002018-08-21-0000August 21
Pyeongchang South Korea Asia — W023XXIII 2018 000000002018-02-09-0000February 9 000000002018-02-25-0000February 25
Tokyo Japan Asia S032XXXII — 2020 000000002018-07-24-0000July 24 000000002018-08-09-0000August 9
Beijing China Asia — W024XXIV 2022 000000002018-02-04-0000February 4 000000002018-02-20-0000February 20
Paris France Europe S033XXXIII — 2024 000000002018-07-26-0000July 26 000000002018-08-11-0000August 11
TBD TBD — W025XXV 2026 (TBD)
Los Angeles United States North America S034XXXIV — 2028 000000002018-07-21-0000July 21 000000002018-08-06-0000August 6
TBD TBD — W026XXVI 2030 (TBD)
Host cities for multiple Summer and Winter Olympic Games[edit]
List of cities that hosted multiple editions of the Olympic Games
City
Country
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Total
London United Kingdom Europe 3 (1908, 1948, 2012) 0 3
Paris France Europe 3 (1900, 1924, 2024) 0
Los Angeles United States North America 3 (1932, 1984, 2028) 0
Athens Greece Europe 2 (1896, 2004) 0 2
Tokyo Japan Asia 2 (1964, 2020) 0
Beijing China Asia 1 (2008) 1 (2022)
St. Moritz Switzerland Europe 0 2 (1928, 1948)
Innsbruck Austria Europe 0 2 (1964, 1976)
Lake Placid United States North America 0 2 (1932, 1980)
The 1906 Intercalated Games are not officially recognized by the IOC as an official Olympic Games.
Number of Olympic Games by country[edit]
Nations that have hosted or will host the Summer Olympics
5 times
4 times (no entry)
3 times
2 times
1 time
Never held games
Nations that have hosted or will host the Winter Olympics
4 times or more
3 times
2 times
1 time
Never held games
List of countries ranked by the number of times they hosted the Olympic Games
Rank
Country
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Total
1 United States North America 5 (1904, 1932, 1984, 1996, 2028) 4 (1932, 1960, 1980, 2002) 9
2 France Europe 3 (1900, 1924, 2024) 3 (1924, 1968, 1992) 6
3 Japan Asia 2 (1940, 1964, 2020) 2 (1940, 1972, 1998) 4
4 United Kingdom Europe 3 (1908, 1944, 1948, 2012) 0 3
Canada North America 1 (1976) 2 (1988, 2010)
Italy Europe 1 (1960) 2 (1944, 1956, 2006)
German Empire/ Nazi Germany/ West Germany/ Germany Europe 2 (1916, 1936, 1972) 1 (1936, 1940)
8 China Asia 1 (2008) 1 (2022) 2
South Korea Asia 1 (1988) 1 (2018)
Soviet Union/ Russia Europe 1 (1980) 1 (2014)
Greece Europe 2 (1896, 2004) 0
Australia Oceania 2 (1956, 2000) 0
Norway Europe 0 2 (1952, 1994)
Austria Europe 0 2 (1964, 1976)
Switzerland Europe 0 2 (1928, 1940, 1948)
Sweden Europe 2 (1912, 1956 (equestrian events only)) 0
17 Brazil South America 1 (2016) 0 1
Spain Europe 1 (1992) 0
SFR Yugoslavia/ Bosnia and Herzegovina Europe 0 1 (1984)
Mexico North America 1 (1968) 0
Finland Europe 1 (1940, 1952) 0
Netherlands Europe 1 (1928) 0
Belgium Europe 1 (1920) 0
Number of Olympic Games by continent[edit]
Rank
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Total
1 Europe 17 (1896, 1900, 1908, 1912, 1920, 1924, 1928, 1936, 1940, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1960, 1972, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2012, 2024) 14 (1924, 1928, 1936, 1940, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1956, 1964, 1968, 1976, 1984, 1992, 1994, 2006, 2014) 31
2 North America 7 (1904, 1932, 1968, 1976, 1984, 1996, 2028) 6 (1932, 1960, 1980, 1988, 2002, 2010) 13
3 Asia 4 (1940, 1964, 1988, 2008, 2020) 4 (1940, 1972, 1998, 2018, 2022) 8
4 Oceania 2 (1956, 2000) 0 2
5 South America 1 (2016) 0 1
6 Africa 0 0 0
Unsuccessful cities[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Country
City
Bids
United States Detroit 7
Hungary Budapest 6
Turkey Istanbul 5
Spain Madrid 4
Argentina Buenos Aires 4
Switzerland Lausanne 4
United States Philadelphia 5
United States Chicago 4
United States Minneapolis 3
Cuba Havana 3
Belgium Brussels 3
Azerbaijan Baku 2
Qatar Doha 2
Spain Seville 2
Yugoslavia Belgrade 2
Puerto Rico San Juan 1
Australia Brisbane 1
Slovakia Poprad 1
United States Boston 1
See also[edit]
Olympics portal
List of Commonwealth Games host cities
Notes[edit]
a Originally awarded to Chicago, but moved to St. Louis to coincide with the World's Fair.[14][15]
b The 1906 Games were sanctioned and treated as an Olympic Games when held, and they were recognized as an Olympic Games by the IOC until 1949[16]
c The 1908 Games were originally given to Rome, but were moved to London when Mount Vesuvius erupted.[17]
d The sailing events in 1920 were held in Ostend, Belgium and in Amsterdam, Netherlands.
e The 1940 winter games were originally awarded to Sapporo, but were moved to Garmisch-Partenkirchen before being cancelled.
f The 1940 summer games were originally awarded to Tokyo, but were moved to Helsinki before being cancelled.
g Equestrian events were held in Stockholm, Sweden. Stockholm had to bid for the equestrian competition separately; it received its own Olympic flame and had its own formal invitations and opening and closing ceremonies, just like the regular Summer Olympics.[18]
h Russia/Soviet Union spans the continents of Europe and Asia. However, the Russian National Olympic Committee is part of the European Olympic Committees. Also, Moscow is on the European side of the most commonly recognized boundary between Europe and Asia. (Sochi is in Asia per the usual geographic boundary, being just south of the Greater Caucasus' western end; but political approximations of the continental boundary place it in Europe.)
i Equestrian events were held in China's Hong Kong SAR.[19] Although Hong Kong's separate NOC conducted the equestrian competition, it was an integral part of the Beijing Games (unlike the 1956 Stockholm equestrian competition it was not conducted under a separate Hong Kong bid, separate flame, etc.).[20]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Findling, John E.; Pelle, Kimberly D. (2004). Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-313-32278-5.
Jump up ^ Group, Taylor Francis (2003). The Europa World Yearbook. Taylor and Francis Group. p. 247. ISBN 978-1-85743-227-5.
Jump up ^ "Choice of the Host City". olympic.org. International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-06-04.
^ Jump up to: a b Durántez, Conrado (April–May 1997). "The Olympic Movement, a twentieth-century phenomenon" (PDF). Olympic Review. XXVI (14): 56–57.
Jump up ^ "Antwerp 1920". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Chamonix 1924". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Paris 1924". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "St. Moritz 1928". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Amsterdam 1928". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Lake Placid 1932". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Los Angeles 1932". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Garmisch-Partenkirchen 1936". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Berlin 1936". olympic.org. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "St Louis 1904". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
Jump up ^ "St. Louis gets Olympic Games; International Committee Sanctions the Change for the World's Fair in 1904" (PDF). The New York Times. 1903-02-12. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
Jump up ^ The 2nd International Olympic Games In Athens 1906, Karl Lennartz, Journal of Olympic History, Dec. 2001/Jan. 2002
Jump up ^ "Rome Games moved to London". realclearsports.com. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Stockholm/Melbourne 1956". Swedish Olympic Committee. Archived from the original on 2008-10-09. Retrieved 2008-08-01.
Jump up ^ Tim Pile (June 25, 2008). "Hong Kong saddles up for the Olympics". London: The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
Jump up ^ "2008 Beijing Olympic home page". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2008-05-04.
External links[edit]
"The Olympic Games". olympic.org. International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
[show]
v
t
e
Summer Olympic Games host cities
1896: Athens
1900: Paris
1904: St. Louis
1908: London
1912: Stockholm
1916: None[c1]
1920: Antwerp
1924: Paris
1928: Amsterdam
1932: Los Angeles
1936: Berlin
1940: None[c2]
1944: None[c2]
1948: London
1952: Helsinki
1956: Melbourne
1960: Rome
1964: Tokyo
1968: Mexico City
1972: Munich
1976: Montreal
1980: Moscow
1984: Los Angeles
1988: Seoul
1992: Barcelona
1996: Atlanta
2000: Sydney
2004: Athens
2008: Beijing
2012: London
2016: Rio de Janeiro
2020: Tokyo
2024: Paris
2028: Los Angeles
[c1] Cancelled due to World War I; [c2] Cancelled due to World War II
[show]
v
t
e
Winter Olympic Games host cities
1924: Chamonix
1928: St. Moritz
1932: Lake Placid
1936: Garmisch-Partenkirchen
1940: Cancelled due to World War II
1944: Cancelled due to World War II
1948: St. Moritz
1952: Oslo
1956: Cortina d'Ampezzo
1960: Squaw Valley
1964: Innsbruck
1968: Grenoble
1972: Sapporo
1976: Innsbruck
1980: Lake Placid
1984: Sarajevo
1988: Calgary
1992: Albertville
1994: Lillehammer
1998: Nagano
2002: Salt Lake City
2006: Turin
2010: Vancouver
2014: Sochi
2018: Pyeongchang
2022: Beijing
2026: TBD
2030: TBD
[show]
v
t
e
Olympic Games
Ceremonies
Charter
Participating nations
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Host cities
Bids
Venues
IOC
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Country codes
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Ties
Diploma
Scandals and controversies
Colonialism
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Sports
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Women
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Summer Games
1896 Athens
1900 Paris
1904 St. Louis
1908 London
1912 Stockholm
1916 Berlin
1920 Antwerp
1924 Paris
1928 Amsterdam
1932 Los Angeles
1936 Berlin
1940 Tokyo
1944 London
1948 London
1952 Helsinki
1956 Melbourne
1960 Rome
1964 Tokyo
1968 Mexico City
1972 Munich
1976 Montreal
1980 Moscow
1984 Los Angeles
1988 Seoul
1992 Barcelona
1996 Atlanta
2000 Sydney
2004 Athens
2008 Beijing
2012 London
2016 Rio de Janeiro
2020 Tokyo
2024 Paris
2028 Los Angeles
2032 TBD
Winter Games
1924 Chamonix
1928 St. Moritz
1932 Lake Placid
1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen
1940 Sapporo
1944 Cortina d'Ampezzo
1948 St. Moritz
1952 Oslo
1956 Cortina d'Ampezzo
1960 Squaw Valley
1964 Innsbruck
1968 Grenoble
1972 Sapporo
1976 Innsbruck
1980 Lake Placid
1984 Sarajevo
1988 Calgary
1992 Albertville
1994 Lillehammer
1998 Nagano
2002 Salt Lake City
2006 Turin
2010 Vancouver
2014 Sochi
2018 Pyeongchang
2022 Beijing
2026 TBD
2030 TBD
Ancient Olympic Games
Intercalated Games
1906
Paralympic Games
Youth Olympic Games
Olympics portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Olympic_Games_host_cities&oldid=837813982"
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Exsanguination
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Bleeding out" redirects here. For the Imagine Dragons song, see Bleeding Out (song). For the Korn song, see The Path of Totality.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2006) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Exsanguination is the loss of blood to a degree sufficient to cause death. One does not have to lose all of one's blood to cause death. Depending upon the age, health, and fitness level of the individual, people can die from losing half to two-thirds of their blood; a loss of roughly one-third of the blood volume is considered very serious. Even a single deep cut can warrant suturing and hospitalization, especially if trauma, a vein or artery, or another comorbidity is involved. It is most commonly known as "bleeding to death" or colloquially as "bleeding out". The word itself originated from Latin: ex ("out of") and sanguis ("blood").
Slaughtering animals[edit]
Exsanguination is used as a method of slaughter. Before the fatal incision is made, the animal may be rendered insensible to pain by various methods, including captive bolt, electricity or chemical. Without prior sedation, stunning or anesthetic, this method of slaughter is understood by some to cause a high degree of anxiety,[1] although other studies contradict these findings.[2] The captive bolt is placed against the skull of the animal, and penetrates to cause tissue destruction in the brain, incapacitating the animal so that the procedure may take place. Electricity is used mostly to incapacitate swine, poultry and domestic sheep, whereas a chemical is used for injured livestock.
Continued pumping operation of the heart during exsanguination increases the rate of depletion, and thus hastens death, by raising the fluid pressure of the blood. Because the heart operates like a positive displacement pump, reduction of blood volume will not affect efficiency of cardiac output — deprivation of blood to the heart does gradually result in diminished function, but concurrently with similar death of other parts in the body.[citation needed]
Quickly after the animal is incapacitated it is hung upside down by its hind limbs and an extremely sharp knife, in an orientation parallel to the ground, is fully inserted through the skin just behind the point of the jaw and below the neck bones. From this position, the knife is drawn forward away from the spine to sever the jugular veins, carotid arteries, and trachea. Properly performed, blood will flow freely and death will occur within seconds. Sheep and swine will reach brain death in under 10 seconds; however, larger animals, notably cattle may take up to 40 seconds to reach brain death. This period may extend to a couple of minutes if complications, such as arterial occlusion, occur. However, the animal's inverted position allows blood to flow more precipitously and thus makes an animal regaining consciousness before it is fully exsanguinated highly unlikely. In any case, animal welfare advisory councils clearly emphasize that the time from incapacitation to start of exsanguination should be prompt; recommending a time under 15 seconds.[3]
Beyond the initial cost of purchasing a captive bolt, continued usage of the method is very inexpensive. The animal is incapacitated for the duration of the procedure, so it is one of the safest methods for the slaughterer.
Slaughter by exsanguination is mandated by Judaic kashrut (kosher) and Islamic dhabihah (halal) dietary laws. The double edged pointed knife is prohibited. Instead, a long knife with a squared off end is used that in Jewish law must be at least twice the width of the animal's neck. The operation of sticking or exsanguination is executed faster than when using the pointed knife, as four large blood vessels in the neck are severed simultaneously.
A 1978 study at the University of Veterinary Medicine Hanover indicates that these traditional methods, when executed as prescribed by the religious authorities, gave results which proved "...pain and suffering to the extent as has since long been generally associated in public with this kind of slaughter cannot be registered..." and that "[a complete loss of consciousness] occurred generally within considerably less time than during the slaughter method after captive bolt stunning."[2]
In Islamic and Jewish law, captive bolts and other methods of pre-slaughter paralysis are generally not permissible, as consumption of animals found dead are regarded as carrion and stunned animals that are later killed will come into this category.
Various halal food authorities have more recently permitted the use of a recently developed fail-safe system of head-only stunning using a mushroom shaped hammer head that delivers a blow that is not fatal, proved by it being possible to reverse the procedure and revive the animal after the shock.[4]
See also[edit]
Hypovolemia, blood volume loss
Desanguination
Slaughterhouse
References[edit]
Jump up ^ AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals: 2013 Edition (PDF). American Veterinary Medical Association. 2013. ISBN 978-1-882691-21-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Schulze W, Schultze-Petzold H, Hazem AS, Gross R. Experiments for the objectification of pain and consciousness during conventional (captive bolt stunning) and religiously mandated (“ritual cutting”) slaughter procedures for sheep and calves. Deutsche Tierärztliche Wochenschrift 1978 Feb 5;85(2):62-6. English translation by Dr Sahib M. Bleher
Jump up ^ "Report on the Welfare of Farmed Animals at Slaughter or Killing. Part 1: Red Meat Animals" (PDF). Defra. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-07.
Jump up ^ Masood Khawaja (6 October 2001). "Definition of Halal". Halal Food Authority. Archived from the original on 27 April 2009. Retrieved 2011-10-24.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exsanguination&oldid=822025989"
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A (Pretty Little Liars)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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“A”
Pretty Little Liars character
First appearance
Novel:
Pretty Little Liars (2006)
Television:
"Pilot" (episode 1.01)[1]
Created by
Sara Shepard
Information
Aliases
Original A
Big A
Uber A
A-moji
A.D.
Pathology
Stalker
Spy
Blackmailer
Torturer
Manipulator
M.O.
Spying targets to discover secrets, taunting and threatening their victims via phone
Location
Rosewood, Pennsylvania
"A" is a fictional character created in 2006 by author Sara Shepard. It is a character of both Pretty Little Liars' books and television series, and primarily appears as a stalker and the main antagonist of the stories. "A" is one of the main characters of the stories, appearing anonymously in the majority of the episodes and books.
The villain has already had many portrayals. Its basic occupation is to pursue and threaten the four protagonists of the stories. Thus, many identities have been revealed to be "A". "A" has a specific and unhealthy way of dealing with the protagonists; it often calls them as "bitches", "dolls" and "liars". Its handling and acts of terrorism caused great psychological and emotional damage to the protagonists, even leading them to be hospitalized.
After the revelation of Mona Vanderwaal as the first and original "A", she began receiving visits from someone, known as Red Coat, who offered her a partnership and together they built up the "A-Team". The team had many members but disbanded after the season three finale and Big A began working with a single ally. The identity of the second "A", Red Coat, and the leader of the "A-Team" was revealed to be CeCe Drake, while her ally that donned the Black Widow and other Red Coat disguise was revealed to be Sara Harvey. Five years later, a new mysterious entity arises and begins using Emojis to communicate but later baptizes themselves as "A.D.", while the Liars refer to the anonymous figure as Uber A. Then, in the Series Finale, "A.D." reveals themselves to be Alex Drake, the twin sister of Spencer.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
1.1 Characterization
2 Novels storylines
2.1 The first "A"
2.2 The second "A"
2.2.1 The Helper, or Third "A"
3 Television storylines
3.1 Original "A"
3.2 Big "A"
3.3 Uber "A"
4 The A-Team
4.1 Members
4.1.1 Sara Harvey
4.1.2 Sydney Driscoll
4.1.3 Toby Cavanaugh
4.1.4 Spencer Hastings
4.1.5 Lucas Gottesman
4.1.6 Melissa Hastings
4.1.7 Darren Wilden
4.1.8 Jenna Marshall
4.1.9 Noel Kahn
4.1.10 Aria Montgomery
4.1.11 Mary Drake
4.1.12 Wren Kingston
5 Other "A's"
5.1 Caleb Rivers
5.2 Shana Fring
6 Disguises
6.1 Red Coat
6.2 The Black Widow
6.3 The Queen of Hearts
6.4 The Black Swan
6.5 The Black Hoodie
7 References
Development[edit]
Characterization[edit]
"A" makes appearances as a figure with black leather gloves, a black hood, dark pants, and dark shoes. Throughout the seasons, the story focuses on the mystery of "A". However, "Big A" also sported different disguises, including that of Red Coat, while their ally disguised themselves as The Black Widow, while also donning the Red Coat identity on certain occasions.
Uber A also dressed up as several disguises, including those of a gardener, a maid and a surgeon. They later costume themselves with the traditional look.
Novels storylines[edit]
The first "A"[edit]
Real identity: Mona Vanderwaal.
Three year after the disappearance of Alison DiLaurentis, her four friends, Aria Montgomery, Spencer Hastings, Emily Fields, and Hanna Marin, each receive messages from someone calling themselves "A." The girls had drifted apart over the years, so they had no idea that other people were getting texts as well. Additionally, the texts were about secrets only Ali knew about. At first, the messages were simply teasing and all of the girls wonder if their missing friend was the one who sent them. Though they knew she was most likely dead, she was still the only one who knew their darkest secrets. Once Ali's body is discovered in her old backyard, the girls are even more baffled when they continue to receive threats. At Ali's funeral, the girls are reunited and they find out that they've all been receiving weird messages. As the girls stand outside after the funeral ends, they all get a text saying, "I'm still here, bitches. And I know everything. —A".
From that point on, the messages take on a distinctly more threatening tone. Aria is given an ultimatum to tell her mother about her father's affair by midnight after the Foxy event, or A will do it for her. A continues to play life-altering games with the girls, from encouraging suspicion of Spencer's involvement in Ali's death to outing Emily's sexuality to her conservative mother. However, A makes a serious mistake in texting Hanna on the night of Mona's birthday party. Instead of using the plain Blackberry she bought just for tormenting the girls, A accidentally uses his/her own phone. Hanna, who has a new phone without all of her contacts recognizes the number, compelling A to act before Hanna can reveal A's true identity to the others. A hits Hanna with an SUV, successfully destroying Hanna's phone and putting her into a coma that eventually leads to a temporary loss of memory. Soon after that, "A" puts a drug in Emily's pain cream which causes an Ulcer in the spot where she has been putting the cream. She ends up in the hospital and might not be able to swim again.
A knew that there was a very good chance Hanna would regain her memory. Hanna's best friend, Mona Vanderwaal, informs the girls that she has also received texts from A, drawing the five closer together in trying to figure out who their tormentor is. Mona subtly encourages Spencer's fears that her sister, Melissa, might be A as well as Alison's killer. During Hanna's recovery masquerade celebration, she suddenly regains her memory, revealing that Mona is A. However, she, Emily, and Aria can't do much about it, because Spencer and Mona are on their way to the police station. After Spencer is warned about Mona by text, she tries to escape Mona's car, but Mona catches on rather quickly and diverts to a path in a more remote area of Rosewood. She tells Spencer everything, from seeing Ali launch a firework into Toby Cavanaugh's garage and blind her friend Jenna, to finding Ali's diary of secrets among a pile of old DiLaurentis junk the St. Germains left at the curb, discovering the girls' secrets that only Ali knew. Her motivation was to get revenge for her friend's blindness, even though Jenna and Ali had planned together to launch the firework. Mona didn't know this and got a scar on her stomach from the ordeal. Mona also drops the bombshell that Ian Thomas killed Ali, due to Ali's last diary entry about giving him an ultimatum to break up with Melissa. She then offers Spencer to become A with her and tell Hanna that she must not be remembering correctly, but she refuses. The two fight at Floating Man's Quarry and Spencer accidentally pushes Mona, who falls and has her neck caught between rocks.
The second "A"[edit]
Real identity: Alison DiLaurentis
As the girls move into the big red house they are shocked to receive messages from a new person claiming to be Alison. At first, they believe it's just a prank, especially since the first "A" got major news time. Then the girls believe it's Ian Thomas, who is the prime suspect of the investigation. Spencer is especially certain of this until finding Ian's body in the woods bordering her estate and the old DiLaurentis home. The girls all get a message from "A," saying "He had to go. -A".
However, this Alison is even more twisted than the first; Ian's body disappears and the town is largely convinced that it was a hoax. "A" even teases Spencer, stating, "Just because I said Ian had to go, it didn't mean he had to die." "A" pretends to be Ian, using an IM screenname of USCMidfielderRoxx, a testament to his alma mater and his love for field hockey. Through this new fake identity, "A" feeds Spencer some interesting information about her family, specifically her father's affair with Mrs. DiLaurentis and the possibility that Ali is her half sister. "A" proceeds to torment the girls even more: they force Spencer to focus more on her father's secret by enabling Spencer's surrogate mother to scam her and clear out her two million dollar trust fund. "A" taunts Aria with pictures of her and her mother's new love interest in compromising situations. They threaten to send these to her mother, even though Aria has tried to ward off her mother's new boyfriend. "A" lands Hanna in the Preserve at Addison-Stevens, a lush clinic for troubled patients. "A" sends Emily on a trip to the Amish community in Lancaster to dig up more dirt on Officer Wilden.
Throughout the second half of the series, the second "A" keeps up this forced information search with the girls, pushing them to find more information on Wilden and Jason DiLaurentis. "A" even plants the idea that they killed Ali. However, when Jenna is found dead in Heartless, "A" plants all of their texts, pictures, etc. on a random lecherous construction worker. This is one of the same workers who was involved in building the DiLaurentises' gazebo when "Alison" was still alive. The girls believe it is all over now, though the fact that the suspect is such a random person bothers them.
Everyone in Rosewood is shocked when the DiLaurentis's introduce the existence of a third child, Courtney DiLaurentis. She is the twin of Alison and was kept in various clinics because she was "ill". However, "Courtney" is actually Alison DiLaurentis herself. She reveals her true identity to each of the girls, hoping to gain their friendship and telling them she never died the night of the sleepover. She claims that Courtney must have gotten out of the house and ran into the construction worker, who killed her. Though the girls believe her and are glad to have their friend back, Aria is the most suspicious of her. It was recently discovered that Courtney liked to pretend to be Ali and she wasn't completely buying her story. Additionally, Wilden and Melissa are also suspicious of "Courtney". Melissa knew about the twins since high school, as their brother Jason confided in her. He told her they hated each other, but Spencer tells her about "Courtney's" statements that she and Ali shared everything together."
Ali's time is running out, for besides the few people suspicious of her, the police start to say that the construction worker has an alibi and might not be guilty. Her secret is further endangered when Aria finds and sends in a photo of a reflection of someone spying on the girls during the sleepover. The reflection is too blurry, but it is clearly a female. Ali takes Mona's idea and convinces Spencer that Melissa is the culprit. Meanwhile, she kidnaps Melissa- who has just figured out the truth- and keeps her in her family's Poconos home. She stuffs Melissa in a closet with Ian's corpse.
On the night of the school's Valentine dance, Ali convinces the girls to hang out with her at the Poconos home. They ditch the party and get wasted at her home. She asks them if she could reenact the night of the sleepover and hypnotize them. Everyone reluctantly agrees, and minutes later they wake up to find Ali gone and the door of the room locked. A letter is slid underneath, informing the girls of the horrible truth: The Alison that they had been friends with had been Courtney all along and the real Ali killed her.
Courtney was mentally unsound and wanted to be Ali so badly that she tried to drown her when they were children. One day, when she was home from the mental institute, Courtney stole Ali's ring and imitated her when she saw Spencer and the others sneaking into their backyard. Ali was sent to the new mental institute, the Preserve, in Courtney's place, and was forced to take her sister's messed up life. On the night of the sleepover, she spied on the girls, followed Courtney after her fight with Spencer, and killed her in revenge for taking her perfect life. She hates the girls for ruining her life and tries to kill them too by boarding up the entire home and setting it on fire. The girls, including Melissa, manage to escape, but no one knows whether Ali is alive. It's hinted that she might be, as Emily hears a faint giggle in the distance as she visits Courtney's grave in the evening.
The Helper, or Third "A"[edit]
By the end of Crushed, the Liars know that the Second "A", Alison, has had an accomplice the whole time, and that this accomplice is the Third "A". They believe that Alison did indeed survive the fire in the Poconos house, and thus that the Second and Third "A" are currently operating together to bring them down (and eventually kill them). The helper later is revealed to be Nick Maxwell, Alison's boyfriend when she was hospitalized. Nick was caught by the police when he and Alison planned to kill the Liars via poisoning. However, months later, the Liars visit Nick in the prison in order to discover some clues about Alison's whereabouts, and he gives them some information.
Television storylines[edit]
Original "A"[edit]
Mona Vanderwaal as "A."
Original A was the first "A" and revealed to be Mona Vanderwaal. Mona began torturing Alison by sending her gifts, threats and soon attacking her while wearing a zombie costume. "A" continued to mess with Ali and her mother Jessica DiLaurentis, whom she believed it to be Spencer Hastings. After Alison's disappearance, "A" went away for a year but after the corpse of Bethany Young (believed to be Alison at the time) was found, she reemerged. "A" began sending the Liars messages about things only Alison knew about them and soon even began messing with their parents. Doctor Anne Sullivan had previously dealt with the person behind the hoodie and when "A" trashed her office she immediately recognized the person. She almost exposes her identity to the Liars but "A" kidnaps her and went as far as to threaten her son's life. But the Liars are still close to figuring it out and during the second half of season two they manage to get a hold of "A's" phone. They hatch a plan to catch her with this and it works. They find out that "A" had a lair at the Lost woods resort and Spencer and Mona ("A's" newest victim) head over there and find a room full of pictures of Alison and the girls along with a sketch of "A's" costume to the ball, The Black Swan. However, Spencer begins to notice other clues and soon realizes "A" is right there with her. She turns around to see Mona in a black hoodie, who reveals herself as "A". She kidnaps Spencer and gives her an opportunity to join the "A" team but Spencer declines and the two get into a fight, where Mona is pushed off of a cliff. Though Mona survives, she is sent to Radley Sanitarium for medical assistance. While in the psychiatric hospital, Mona takes up a partnership suggested by the then unknown CeCe Drake that starts off the second game. After this, Mona became another henchmen in the "A" hierarchy, obeying the orders of CeCe, whom she knew as Red Coat. Mona was kicked off of the A-Team in the season three finale. However, Mona joins the new "A.D." team in Season 7, after "A.D." sends Wren to kill her and she offers to help instead. She helps them kidnap Spencer and wears a Melissa mask, but ultimately turns on them and brings the Liars to them, as well as a cop. However, this turns out to be a ruse and the "cop" is actually Mona's French boyfriend, who helps her take Mary and Alex (the two remaining members) to France to live in her own personal Dollhouse. Mona is the final "A" of the series, being the "winner" of the game.
Big "A"[edit]
CeCe Drake as "A".
Big A was the person who took over the "A" game from Mona Vanderwaal after she was admitted to Radley Sanitarium and revealed to be CeCe Drake. She had visited Mona in Radley and used her to get information about the Liars before taking over the game herself and had used Mona, Toby and Spencer to do her dirty work and sometimes went under the Red Coat disguise. Big A often hid out at a lair situated in Room A at an apartment building at Mayflower Hill and a mobile RV which was stolen but Toby gave it back to "A" in exchange for information about his mother's death. However, the Team was disbanded in the third-season finale and CeCe acted on her own with a few minions and an ally, who is Sara Harvey. It is revealed that Charlotte had been hiding out in the basement of the DiLaurentis house and drilled holes through the floor to spy on the family in her Red Coat disguise and shared the identity with Alison. Her disguise as Red Coat was exposed in the fourth season mid finale when Emily was trapped on a saw at Ravenswood and later got into a fight with Aria who discovered her identity and Charlotte later fell off a platform and escaped. In "A is for Answers" the Liars are under attack by "A" who shoots Ezra Fitz on the rooftop. However, in the fifth-season premiere, the shooter is revealed to be Shana Fring who attempted to kill Alison but was later shoved off a stage by Aria and died from the impact. After all of this, Charlotte fled to France under the Vivian Darkbloom identity to escape custody for Wilden's death but returned. In the series's 100 episode, Charlotte placed a bomb in the Cavanaugh house which detonated, signalling her return to Rosewood. In season five, CeCe breaks into the Vanderwaal home and kidnaps Mona just as she is about to tell the Liars that Alison is "A" and covers up her kidnapping as a homicide. She then brings Mona to the Dollhouse and tortures her and forces her to dress up and act like Alison. Just as the Liars are being brought to jail, CeCe kidnaps them and tortures them inside the Dollhouse. Inside, the Liars discover that Big "A" is named Charles DiLaurentis. CeCe/Charlotte reveals herself as "A" and tells her story; saying that she is transgender, was formerly known as Charles DiLaurentis, and became 'A' because the Liars were happy that Alison was gone. She worked with Sara Harvey, who was the Black Widow and a decoy Red Coat, and was also responsible for the "death" of Alison and the death of Wilden, and after telling her story, she attempts suicide by jumping off Radley but is stopped. She is admitted to Welby State and her reign as "A" finally ends and stays in the psychiatric hospital for five years. When she is released, Charlotte is murdered by Mona Vanderwaal and her death causes the birth of "A.D.", the new Uber A. After her death, it is revealed that Noel Kahn was also working for Charlotte. It is also revealed that her birth mother is Jessica's twin, Mary Drake, and her birth father is Ted Wilson, while Spencer is her sister.
Uber "A"[edit]
Alex Drake as "A"
Uber A, also known as A.D., is the third major "A" to have tormented the Liars. In the show's series finale, Uber A's identity is revealed to be Alex Drake, Spencer's twin sister who was put up for adoption at birth. She desperately craves vengeance over the tragic passing of Charlotte DiLaurentis, who was her half-sister, and is trying to seek out the person responsible. Unlike Mona or Charlotte, Alex does not use any nicknames at first but instead signs their messages with emojis, which differentiates her from the A-Team. This causes Caleb to nickname her Amoji. However, in the sixth-season finale, she begins using the alias "A.D." and kidnaps Hanna, whom she believes is accountable for her sister's homicide.[2] Hanna manages to escape Uber A's clutches and Alex goes after Alison, who the Liars suggested as guilty for her own cousin's murder. Uber A eventually finds out that Alison is innocent after searching her jacket. While Uber A does work on their own, she also works through a new "A-Team" of helpers, known to consist of Jenna Marshall, Sydney Driscoll, and Aria Montgomery, who are assisting them in completing the endgame. The series finale explains that Alex Drake was put up for adoption in exchange for a sum of money (for Mary), but then left at an orphanage by her adopted parents who were concerned for their image. She ran away from the orphanage at ten years old and eventually started working in a bar in London, where Wren Kingston mistook her for Spencer, revealing the existence of Alex's twin and Charlotte. Wren introduces Charlotte and Alex in an airport (just after Charlotte met Archer Dunhill) and they immediately connect, becoming very close in a short amount of time. After Charlotte is released from Welby, she tells Alex that she wishes to return to Rosewood and resume the game, but Alex says she shouldn't go unless she gets to come too, since she wants to meet Spencer. Charlotte says no and describes the Hastings as "toxic people" before leaving for Rosewood, where she was murdered by Mona. Alex is enraged and forces Wren to shoot her so that she looks exactly like Spencer and can successfully impersonate her. She then goes to Rosewood and picks up the game as "Uber A". Alex has made several appearances where she impersonates Spencer, including, but not limited to: The run in with Ezra at the airport where she introduced Wren, the kiss between "Spencer" and Toby just before the latter planned to leave Rosewood with Yvonne, and Hanna's "dream" where she "hallucinated" Spencer while A.D held her hostage. The latter was done so that Alex could find out whether Hanna was telling the truth about killing Charlotte.
The A-Team[edit]
The A-Team is a group of anonymous characters that worked together as "A". The team would work under the orders of the "A" in charge, who has been Mona Vanderwaal, the original leader and founder and CeCe Drake, the second leader. Five years later, Alex Drake, also known as Uber A, assembles a team of their own. This team continues using the same name, though is also referred to as the "A.D.-Team".
Members[edit]
Sara Harvey[edit]
Sara was the right-hand woman to Charlotte and also revealed as an A-Team member halfway throughout the sixth season.[3][4] Sara is revealed as a Red Coat and the Black Widow, hired to pose as a decoy whenever Charlotte couldn't sport the Red Coat disguise.[5][6] She then became Charlotte's friend and ally in the "A" game and assisted her in most of her schemes. Sara was allegedly diagnosed with Stockholm Syndrome following Charlotte's arrest, but later discloses to Alison that she lied under oath, also admitting that she and Charlotte were in fact close friends and she felt as though they were sisters. Later, Sara was possibly enlisted by "A.D." to work with them. However, Sara was killed by Noel Kahn after she tried to reveal more than she should to Emily.
Sydney Driscoll[edit]
Sydney is Uber A's helper for a brief while. She is first seen communicating with them through text messages, when she makes a donation under their name at the Vogel Vision Institute. When Aria and Emily confront her, Driscoll claims that she is simply representing a client who prefers to remain anonymous. However, she returns in the following episode and reveals herself to be "A.D.". She offers Aria the chance to join their team, but Aria realizes that Sydney is communicating with someone through an ear piece, revealing that she's just a minion. Aria asks her why she would join their tormentor and Driscoll replies that she wants to be part of the "winning team". However, Uber A, who reveals herself as Spencer's twin sister Alex Drake, reveals in the series finale that Sydney wasn't involved in the Blind School shooting and joined the A-Team because Alex found out she had been stealing from a bank and she fit the hoodie.[7]
Toby Cavanaugh[edit]
Toby was recruited by Mona to join the A-Team when he got a job in Bucks County. His participation in the team was revealed in the mid-season finale of the third season.[8] He worked hand in hand with Mona and did most of the dirty work for the team, like running down Lucas and attacking Hanna. However, like Mona, he didn't know the identity of Red Coat. Spencer finds out about his betrayal and goes off the deep end, especially after discovering his corpse. However, it is revealed that he is alive and well, with the corpse being a trick by Mona and Red Coat that he says he didn't know about until after. He is also revealed to be a double agent and gets kicked off the team.[9]
Spencer Hastings[edit]
Spencer joined the A-Team briefly near the ending of the third season after having been invited by Mona at the Radley while hospitalized.[10] Initially, Spencer was extremely determined to be part of the team. However, she later unfolds the truth behind the disappearance of Toby and became a double agent as well. Likewise Toby, she got kicked off from the team. She is the "A" who kidnapped Malcolm, causing a break up between Ezra and Aria.[9]
Lucas Gottesman[edit]
Lucas was the personal assistant to Mona. He was blackmailed by Mona and the A-Team into sending texts and doing their dirty work. Lucas claims his blackmail began after Mona discovered he was selling test answers, however Mona later discloses that Lucas was the "A" who gave Emily a massage back in the second season while Mona was off riding with Hanna.[11] During the seventh-season episode "Hold Your Piece", Pastor Ted Wilson reveals to Hanna that he used to run a summer camp for troubled boys, and Charlotte was a camper there prior to her sex change. Wilson is disheartened when describing that he interacted with his offspring without awareness they were related. Ted then showcases Hanna a picture of himself back when he worked at the camp, chaperoning Charles and Lucas, whom he described as his son's "only friend".
Melissa Hastings[edit]
Melissa was blackmailed by Mona into wearing the Black Swan disguise to the Masquerade Ball in order to distract Jenna. Mona threatened to reveal her fake pregnancy if she didn't obey her orders. Later, Melissa got onto the Halloween Train dressed as the Queen of Hearts and drugged Aria.[11] Wilden then attempted to push her off of the train in a box with Garrett's dead body. It is implied that she was once again blackmailed. It is implied in "A Dark Ali" that Melissa is once again working for "A", as she is seen handing a recording (presumed stolen by "A") to a man resembling Cyrus Petrillo and later implies to Spencer that "A" has something in store for Ali and the Liars.
Darren Wilden[edit]
Wilden was also part of the team as he was the Queens of Hearts responsible for trying to kill Spencer. He also murdered Garrett Reynolds fearing he'd expose him as a crooked cop and placed his corpse in a box beside a fainted Aria.[11] Wilden's reasoning for helping the team is unknown but implied to be blackmail.
Jenna Marshall[edit]
Jenna was a member of the A-Team during the reign of Big A and was also working anonymously for Uber A. She remains around Rosewood in "Along Comes Mary" and befriends Sara Harvey. Meanwhile, Aria Montgomery and Emily Fields discover that Jenna was on Archer's payroll for unknown reasons. On the episode's closing scene, Marshall and Sara are having drinks at The Radley when an unknown figure approaches the two and reveals themselves to be Noel Kahn, who proceeds to join the duo. When confronted by Emily in regards to her involvement with Archer during "Wanted: Dead or Alive", Jenna admits she befriended Charlotte DiLaurentis after reading about her stay at Welby and reached out. In a flashback, Charlotte enlists Jenna's help to track down the whereabouts of her birth mother and come up with an alias for Archer. The pseudonym "Elliott Rollins" was later created so Archer could deliberately meet Alison and take advantage of her good intentions to benefit Charlotte's eventual release from the psychiatric hospital. In "The DArkest Knight" all of the Liars get a text message, ordering them to head over to 1465, Elm Street. After being lured to an abandoned school for blind students, they're held hostage by Noel and Jenna, with Marshall tracking them down at gunpoint. During the cat-and-mouse chase, Jenna takes aim at the Liars only to backfire, until a second gunshot is heard and it injures Spencer. As Marshall prepares to finish her off, Mary Drake suddenly emerges from behind and knocks her out. While Drake attempts to help Spencer, an unknown figure drags Jenna away from the building. On the closing scene of the episode, the anonymous entity places her in the back of a van, while she questions them if they were responsible for the gunshot that hit Spencer. As the mysterious figure proceeds to rip off an old man's mask and toss it over to Jenna's side, Marshall feels it up and realizes that A.D. was the one who rescued her. At the end of "Playtime", Jenna is seated in A.D.'s lair, sipping tea. She thanks the unidentified individual for the drink and reminds them of their promise to update her on the "game". Dressed in a nurse's uniform, A.D. drops a binder on Marshall's lap with pages of information written in braille. After Jenna reads a paragraph, she mutters the word "endgame" and grins in delight. During "These Boots Were Made for Stalking", Jenna walks into the police station in order to come clean about her actions and interrupts a conversation between Spencer and detective Marco Furey. Marshall reports that she kept a low profile after the events that took place at the abandoned school for blind students to avoid being harmed by Noel. According to Jenna, Noel was accountable for Sara Harvey's homicide and she feared to be his ensuing victim. Kahn recruited Jenna with the assertion that Charlotte left enough money in her will to afford Marshall another eye surgery. Nevertheless, Jenna suspected Noel of stealthily plotting to steal the cash all to himself since his parents had financially cut him off. In an attempt to spare her life, Marshall brought a gun to the deserted sight school as an act of self-defense and pretended to hold a grudge against the Liars. After Jenna describes her side of the story, Furey orders one of his associates to escort Marshall to a conference room so she can make an official statement. As Jenna exits the room, Spencer claims that she's an unreliable narrator. However, Furey informs Spencer that the authorities don't have enough evidence against Marshall because the bullet that injured Spencer didn't match the gun found at the location. Later in the episode, Caleb confronts Jenna stating that the authorities were already detecting holes in her allegations. However, Marshall assures Caleb they won't be able to prosecute her since Noel was the only person who could contradict her statement. In the series finale, Spencer's twin, Alex Drake, is revealed to be "A.D.". She reveals that Jenna was looking for her and recruited Noel to help. However, Jenna was desperate for another chance to see and offered to help her in the game.
Noel Kahn[edit]
Noel Kahn returned to Rosewood to team up with Jenna Marshall and Sara Harvey. Kahn served as one of Charlotte's former minions and worked for her at the Dollhouse, having been responsible for placing blood all over Spencer Hastings to convince she had hurt someone. Noel became the prime suspect for Uber A, particularly after Alison reveals that he pushed a girl down a flight of stairs when he was drunk during a UPenn frat party. Hanna abducts him at the end of "The Wrath of Kahn" in an attempt to obtain a video confession that proves he's their tormentor. In the following episode "The DArkest Knight", she instead ends up slashing his leg with a knife in order to test his DNA and see if it matches Mary Drake's. The results later come back negative and Kahn ends up escaping. Noel and Jenna later lure the Liars to an abandoned school for blind students so they could be held hostage and eventually murdered. During a cat-and-mouse chase, Kahn ends up stumbling upon an axe that decapitates his head after failing to fight Emily and Hanna. In the following episode, "Playtime", Detective Marco Furey informs Spencer that Jenna and Noel frequently visited Archer Dunhill at Welby. During "These Boots Were Made for Stalking", Jenna walks into the police station in order to come clean about her actions and interrupts a conversation between Spencer and detective Marco Furey. Marshall reports that she kept a low profile after the events that took place at the abandoned school for blind students to avoid being harmed by Noel. According to Jenna, Noel was accountable for Sara Harvey's homicide and she feared to be his ensuing victim. Kahn recruited Jenna with the assertion that Charlotte left enough money in her will to afford Marshall another eye surgery. Nevertheless, Jenna suspected Noel of stealthily plotting to steal the cash all to himself since his parents had financially cut him off. In an attempt to spare her life, Marshall brought a gun to the deserted sight school as an act of self-defense and pretended to hold a grudge against the Liars. However, when Caleb later confronts Jenna about the authorities detecting holes in her allegations, she informs him that the only person who could contradict her side of the story was Noel.
Aria Montgomery[edit]
Aria is "A.D.'s" helper. Aria is given the offer to join the team in "Power Play". She accepts in the following episode and begins supplying information to Uber A. After the Liars discover Lucas' graphic novel, Aria is sent by Uber A to retrieve it. Once she delivers it, she is given an "A" hoodie in return. She breaks into Alison's house sporting the disguise and trashes the nursery for her baby. In the next episode, Aria is sent by "A.D." to deliver a "gift" to the Hastings family. She connects to their Bluetooth and leaves a burner phone there to play a video recording of Peter and Mary discussing Jessica's murder. She later gets back into her "A" disguise and breaks into Alison's house to put the puzzle piece onto the and retrieve her file. "A.D." contacts Aria again and gives her a phone to communicate on. "A.D." asks Aria to meet them and to wear the uniform to do so. Mona overhears the call and tells the Liars of Aria's involvement with the A-Team. Aria gets into her "A" hoodie and goes to meet "A.D.", only to be confronted by the Liars. She then officially defects from the team and rejoins the Liars.
Mary Drake[edit]
Mary joins the A.D.-Team after the time jump, when Alex helps break her out of prison and then helps her with kidnapping Spencer and keeping her locked away in their bunker. When Alex tries to kill Spencer, Mary tries to convince her to just keep her locked up, but Alex refuses and punches her to keep her from interfering. Mary and Alex are then kidnapped by Mona and kept as her dolls in her own personal dollhouse.
Wren Kingston[edit]
Wren is one of the helpers to Alex. He shoots her so that she will have the same scar as Spencer and then later comes to Welby to kill Mona as "A.D." for Alex, only stopping once Mona says she can help get Mary out. Alex kills Wren so that she doesn't have to break up with him in order to get her endgame wishes. Despite Wren being the only person to know almost everything about Alex's game, he doesn't participate much during the actual game, only doing a few things for Alex.
Other "A's"[edit]
Caleb Rivers[edit]
Caleb used the identity of "A" to text Hanna in Season 3, in order to trick her into meeting him. He sent her the text "The Apple Rose Grille at closing time. Go alone or Caleb pays. -A" to find out this information from her about the new "A".
Shana Fring[edit]
Shana pretended to be "A" to attack the Liars in New York. She donned a black hoodie and attacked them at the coffee shop, only to end up shooting Ezra instead, who had found out her identity. In the following episode, she continued to hunt down the Liars, and sent a group of black hoodies to trick them. The black hoodies used the alias "A" during their taunting of the Liars. Shana revealed herself to the girls and revealed that she wanted justice for Jenna. The Liars falsely believed that Shana was Big A.[12]
Disguises[edit]
During the TV series, the antagonists used various disguises at parties and events, in order to watch over the girls. They are:
Red Coat[edit]
Main article: Red Coat (Pretty Little Liars)
Red Coat is a disguise used by two members of the A-Team. CeCe Drake took on the disguise to lead the A-Team and go out in public, while she hired Sara Harvey to act as a decoy whenever she couldn't sport the disguise in her assignments.
The Black Widow[edit]
The Black Widow is a previously anonymous character who attended detective Darren Wilden's funeral in "'A' Is for A-l-i-v-e". The disguise is all black clothing, with her face concealed by a black veil. The Black Widow is shown to be a part of the A-Team, when she is seen inside the "A" R.V. placing a Mona doll with the rest of the "A" doll collection. She then lifts up her veil to reveal a burned Ali mask underneath, revealing that she was the Red Coat at the Lodge. In the fifth season, the disguise is seen inside one of "A"'s lairs.[13] In "Game Over, Charles", it is revealed that Sara Harvey was the Black Widow. Charlotte sent her to Wilden's funeral to make sure he was deceased.[3] In "Of Late I Think of Rosewood", Sara shows up to Charlotte's funeral in a variation of the disguise, though this time revealing her face.[14]
In a nightmare that Alison had during "How the 'A' Stole Christmas", her mom, Jessica DiLaurentis shows up as the Black Widow.
The Queen of Hearts[edit]
The Queen of Hearts is a previously anonymous character that made an appearance during the third season's Halloween special, "This Is a Dark Ride".[15] In the fourth season's premiere, it is revealed that there were actually two of them in the Halloween train, Melissa Hastings and Darren Wilden. Wilden attacked Spencer and fought Paige, while Melissa drugged Aria and took her body. Wilden also murdered Garrett Reynolds fearing he'd expose his corrupt activities and Melissa later admits to Spencer that she was blackmailed into doing his bidding. However, in Mona's footage, evidence shows that Wilden tried to abandon the train and Melissa is heard ordering him to stay. Wilden would later place a fainted Aria in a box beside Garrett's corpse and then gathered with Melissa in an attempt to push them off the train. They fled the scene once Aria regained her consciousness and stabbed Wilden.[11]
The Black Swan[edit]
The Black Swan is a previously anonymous character that made an appearance during the Masquerade Ball.[16] Melissa was revealed to be the person behind the disguise in "Birds of a Feather". She claimed that "A" (Mona) threatened her, stating that her false pregnancy would've been exposed if she did not distract Jenna during the event. The disguise is inspired by Odile from Swan Lake.
The Black Hoodie[edit]
Of course, the black hoodie has been the most significant disguise over the years and probably the most well known. Almost every single "A" has worn the signature black hoodie and it will be one of the biggest things for as long as Pretty Little Liars will be remembered. The disguise has been used by Mona, Charlotte, Toby, Spencer, Lucas, Sydney, Aria, Wren, and Alex.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Pretty Little Liars - Pilot". ABC Family. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Swift, Andy (15 March 2016). "Pretty Little Liars Season Finale Recap: [Spoiler]'s Twin Revealed". TVLine. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Game Over, Charles". Pretty Little Liars. 2015.
Jump up ^ Weiss, Shari (11 August 2016). ""Pretty Little Liars" Finale Recap: "Game Over, Charles" (VIDEO)". Gossip Cop. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Sorren, Martha. "Sara Harvey Is Red Coat On 'Pretty Little Liars' & She Was In Cahoots With CeCe". Bustle. Retrieved May 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ Highfill, Samantha. "Pretty Little Liars boss definitively answers who was behind the show's biggest mysteries". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved May 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ http://freeform.go.com/shows/pretty-little-liars/news/who-is-sydney-on-pretty-little-liars
Jump up ^ "The Lady Killer". Pretty Little Liars. 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "A dAngerous gAme". Pretty Little Liars. 2013.
Jump up ^ "What Becomes of the Broken Hearted". Pretty Little Liars. 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "'A' is for A-l-i-v-e". Pretty Little Liars. 2013.
Jump up ^ I. Marlene King [@imarleneking] (6 June 2017). "@SherrieScream4 pretending" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ "Miss Me x 100". Pretty Little Liars. 2014.
Jump up ^ "Pretty Little Liars on Twitter". Twitter. Retrieved 2017-05-12.
Jump up ^ "This Is a Dark Ride". Pretty Little Liars. 2014.
Jump up ^ Director: Glatter, Lesli Linka. Writer: King, I. Marlene (March 19, 2012). "Unmasked". Pretty Little Liars. Season 2. Episode 25. ABC Family.
[hide]
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Pretty Little Liars
Episodes
Season 1
"Pilot"
"For Whom the Bell Tolls"
Season 2
"UnmAsked"
Season 3
"It Happened 'That Night'"
Season 4
"'A' Is for A-l-i-v-e"
"Grave New World"
"Free Fall"
"A Is for Answers"
Season 5
"Miss Me × 100"
"How the 'A' Stole Christmas"
Season 6
"Game On, Charles"
"Game Over, Charles"
"Of Late I Think of Rosewood"
"Charlotte's Web"
"Where Somebody Waits For Me"
"Hush, Hush, Sweet Liars"
Season 7
"Tick-Tock, Bitches"
"Bedlam"
"The Talented Mr. Rollins"
"Hit and Run, Run, Run"
"Along Comes Mary"
"Wanted: Dead or Alive"
"Original G'A'ngsters"
"Exes and OMGs"
"The Wrath of Kahn"
"The DArkest Knight"
"Playtime"
"These Boots Were Made for Stalking"
"Hold Your Piece"
"Power Play"
"In the Eye Abides the Heart"
"The Glove That Rocks the Cradle"
"Driving Miss Crazy"
"Choose or Lose"
"Till Death Do Us Part"
Characters
"A"
Alex Drake
Alison DiLaurentis
Aria Montgomery
Charlotte Drake
Emily Fields
Hanna Marin
Jenna Marshall
Mary Drake
Melissa Hastings
Mona Vanderwaal
Red Coat
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Spencer Hastings
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Related
Book series
2006 novel
Rosewood, Pennsylvania
Ravenswood
Pretty Little Liars: The Perfectionists
Pretty Dirty Secrets
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