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Water cycle
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Diagram of the Water Cycle
The water cycle
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Earth's water cycle
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As the Earth's surface water evaporates, wind moves water in the air from the sea to the land, increasing the amount of freshwater on land.
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Water vapor is converted to clouds that bring fresh water to land in the form of rain snow and sleet
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Precipitation falls on the ground, but what happens to that water depends greatly on the geography of the land at any particular place.
The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor.
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. When water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.
The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.
Contents
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1 Description
1.1 Processes
2 Residence times
3 Changes over time
4 Effects on climate
5 Effects on biogeochemical cycling
6 Slow loss over geologic time
7 History of hydrologic cycle theory
7.1 Floating land mass
7.2 Hebrew Bible
7.3 Precipitation and percolation
7.4 Precipitation alone
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Description
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Some ice and snow sublimates directly into water vapor. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The water molecule H
2O has smaller molecular mass than the major components of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen, N
2 and O
2, hence is less dense. Due to the significant difference in density, buoyancy drives humid air higher. As altitude increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops (see Gas laws). The lower temperature causes water vapor to condense into tiny liquid water droplets which are heavier than the air, and fall unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of these droplets over a large space up in the atmosphere become visible as cloud. Some condensation is near ground level, and called fog.
Atmospheric circulation moves water vapor around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.
Processes
Many different processes lead to movements and phase changes in water
Precipitation
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.[1] Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[2][better source needed] The rain on land contains 107,000 km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water per year and a snowing only 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi).[3] 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean.[4]
Canopy interception
The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.
Snowmelt
The runoff produced by melting snow.
Runoff
The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Infiltration
The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.[5] A recent global study using water stable isotopes, however, shows that not all soil moisture is equally available for groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration.[6]
Subsurface flow
The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
Evaporation
The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.[7] The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water, 434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans.[2] 86% of global evaporation occurs over the ocean.[4]
Sublimation
The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor by passing the liquid state.[8]
Deposition
This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.
Advection
The movement of water through the atmosphere.[9] Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land.
Condensation
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.[10]
Transpiration
The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air.
Percolation
Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.
Plate tectonics
Water enters the mantle via subduction of oceanic crust. Water returns to the surface via volcanism.
The water cycle involves many of these processes.
Residence times
Average reservoir residence times[11]
Reservoir
Average residence time
Antarctica 20,000 years
Oceans 3,200 years
Glaciers 20 to 100 years
Seasonal snow cover 2 to 6 months
Soil moisture 1 to 2 months
Groundwater: shallow 100 to 200 years
Groundwater: deep 10,000 years
Lakes (see lake retention time) 50 to 100 years
Rivers 2 to 6 months
Atmosphere 9 days
The residence time of a reservoir within the hydrologic cycle is the average time a water molecule will spend in that reservoir (see adjacent table). It is a measure of the average age of the water in that reservoir.
Groundwater can spend over 10,000 years beneath Earth's surface before leaving. Particularly old groundwater is called fossil water. Water stored in the soil remains there very briefly, because it is spread thinly across the Earth, and is readily lost by evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, or groundwater recharge. After evaporating, the residence time in the atmosphere is about 9 days before condensing and falling to the Earth as precipitation.
The major ice sheets - Antarctica and Greenland - store ice for very long periods. Ice from Antarctica has been reliably dated to 800,000 years before present, though the average residence time is shorter.[12]
In hydrology, residence times can be estimated in two ways. The more common method relies on the principle of conservation of mass and assumes the amount of water in a given reservoir is roughly constant. With this method, residence times are estimated by dividing the volume of the reservoir by the rate by which water either enters or exits the reservoir. Conceptually, this is equivalent to timing how long it would take the reservoir to become filled from empty if no water were to leave (or how long it would take the reservoir to empty from full if no water were to enter).
An alternative method to estimate residence times, which is gaining in popularity for dating groundwater, is the use of isotopic techniques. This is done in the subfield of isotope hydrology.
Changes over time
Time-mean precipitation and evaporation as a function of latitude as simulated by an aqua-planet version of an atmospheric GCM (GFDL’s AM2.1) with a homogeneous “slab-ocean” lower boundary (saturated surface with small heat capacity), forced by annual mean insolation.
Global map of annual mean evaporation minus precipitation by latitude-longitude
The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the hydrosphere. However, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 mi3 (1,386,000,000 km3) of the world's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi3 (1,338,000,000 km3) is stored in oceans, or about 97%. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.[13]
During colder climatic periods, more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water supply accumulates as ice to lessen the amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is true during warm periods. During the last ice age, glaciers covered almost one-third of Earth's land mass with the result being that the oceans were about 122 m (400 ft) lower than today. During the last global "warm spell," about 125,000 years ago, the seas were about 5.5 m (18 ft) higher than they are now. About three million years ago the oceans could have been up to 50 m (165 ft) higher.[13]
The scientific consensus expressed in the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Summary for Policymakers is for the water cycle to continue to intensify throughout the 21st century, though this does not mean that precipitation will increase in all regions.[14] In subtropical land areas — places that are already relatively dry — precipitation is projected to decrease during the 21st century, increasing the probability of drought. The drying is projected to be strongest near the poleward margins of the subtropics (for example, the Mediterranean Basin, South Africa, southern Australia, and the Southwestern United States). Annual precipitation amounts are expected to increase in near-equatorial regions that tend to be wet in the present climate, and also at high latitudes. These large-scale patterns are present in nearly all of the climate model simulations conducted at several international research centers as part of the 4th Assessment of the IPCC. There is now ample evidence that increased hydrologic variability and change in climate has and will continue to have a profound impact on the water sector through the hydrologic cycle, water availability, water demand, and water allocation at the global, regional, basin, and local levels.[15] Research published in 2012 in Science based on surface ocean salinity over the period 1950 to 2000 confirm this projection of an intensified global water cycle with salty areas becoming more saline and fresher areas becoming more fresh over the period:[16]
Fundamental thermodynamics and climate models suggest that dry regions will become drier and wet regions will become wetter in response to warming. Efforts to detect this long-term response in sparse surface observations of rainfall and evaporation remain ambiguous. We show that ocean salinity patterns express an identifiable fingerprint of an intensifying water cycle. Our 50-year observed global surface salinity changes, combined with changes from global climate models, present robust evidence of an intensified global water cycle at a rate of 8 ± 5% per degree of surface warming. This rate is double the response projected by current-generation climate models and suggests that a substantial (16 to 24%) intensification of the global water cycle will occur in a future 2° to 3° warmer world.[17]
An instrument carried by the SAC-D satellite Aquarius, launched in June, 2011, measured global sea surface salinity.[18][19]
Glacial retreat is also an example of a changing water cycle, where the supply of water to glaciers from precipitation cannot keep up with the loss of water from melting and sublimation. Glacial retreat since 1850 has been extensive.[20]
Human activities that alter the water cycle include:
agriculture
industry
alteration of the chemical composition of the atmosphere
construction of dams
deforestation and afforestation
removal of groundwater from wells
water abstraction from rivers
urbanization
Effects on climate
The water cycle is powered from solar energy. 86% of the global evaporation occurs from the oceans, reducing their temperature by evaporative cooling.[21] Without the cooling, the effect of evaporation on the greenhouse effect would lead to a much higher surface temperature of 67 °C (153 °F), and a warmer planet.[citation needed]
Aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water increases the total amount of water in the hydrosphere, and has been postulated to be a contributor to sea-level rise.[22]
Effects on biogeochemical cycling
While the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle, flow of water over and beneath the Earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals.[23] Runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus from land to waterbodies.[24] The salinity of the oceans is derived from erosion and transport of dissolved salts from the land. Cultural eutrophication of lakes is primarily due to phosphorus, applied in excess to agricultural fields in fertilizers, and then transported overland and down rivers. Both runoff and groundwater flow play significant roles in transporting nitrogen from the land to waterbodies.[25] The dead zone at the outlet of the Mississippi River is a consequence of nitrates from fertilizer being carried off agricultural fields and funnelled down the river system to the Gulf of Mexico. Runoff also plays a part in the carbon cycle, again through the transport of eroded rock and soil.[26]
Slow loss over geologic time
Main article: Atmospheric escape
The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet's atmosphere allows light chemical elements such as Hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of the exosphere, where the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space without impacting other particles of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind.[27] Planets with hot lower atmospheres could result in humid upper atmospheres that accelerate the loss of hydrogen.[28]
History of hydrologic cycle theory
Floating land mass
In ancient times, it was widely thought that the land mass floated on a body of water, and that most of the water in rivers has its origin under the earth. Examples of this belief can be found in the works of Homer (circa 800 BCE).
Hebrew Bible
In the ancient near east, Hebrew scholars observed that even though the rivers ran into the sea, the sea never became full (). Some scholars conclude that the water cycle was described completely during this time in this passage: "The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about unto the north; it whirleth about continually, and the wind returneth again according to its circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers come, thither they return again" (, KJV).[29] Scholars are not in agreement as to the date of Ecclesiastes, though most scholars point to a date during the time of King Solomon, son of David and Bathsheba, "three thousand years ago,[29] there is some agreement that the time period is 962-922 BCE.[30] Furthermore, it was also observed that when the clouds were full, they emptied rain on the earth (). In addition, during 793-740 BC a Hebrew prophet, Amos, stated that water comes from the sea and is poured out on the earth (, ).[31]
In the Biblical Book of Job, dated between 7th and 2nd centuries BCE,[32] there is a description of precipitation in the hydrologic cycle,[33] "For he maketh small the drops of water: they pour down rain according to the vapour thereof; Which the clouds do drop and distil upon man abundantly" (, KJV).
Precipitation and percolation
In the Adityahridayam (a devotional hymn to the Sun God) of Ramayana, a Hindu epic dated to the 4th century BC, it is mentioned in the 22nd verse that the Sun heats up water and sends it down as rain. By roughly 500 BCE, Greek scholars were speculating that much of the water in rivers can be attributed to rain. The origin of rain was also known by then. These scholars maintained the belief, however, that water rising up through the earth contributed a great deal to rivers. Examples of this thinking included Anaximander (570 BCE) (who also speculated about the evolution of land animals from fish[34]) and Xenophanes of Colophon (530 BCE).[35] Chinese scholars such as Chi Ni Tzu (320 BC) and Lu Shih Ch'un Ch'iu (239 BCE) had similar thoughts.[36] The idea that the water cycle is a closed cycle can be found in the works of Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (460 BCE) and Diogenes of Apollonia (460 BCE). Both Plato (390 BCE) and Aristotle (350 BCE) speculated about percolation as part of the water cycle.
Precipitation alone
Up to the time of the Renaissance, it was thought that precipitation alone was insufficient to feed rivers, for a complete water cycle, and that underground water pushing upwards from the oceans were the main contributors to river water. Bartholomew of England held this view (1240 CE), as did Leonardo da Vinci (1500 CE) and Athanasius Kircher (1644 CE).
The first published thinker to assert that rainfall alone was sufficient for the maintenance of rivers was Bernard Palissy (1580 CE), who is often credited as the "discoverer" of the modern theory of the water cycle. Palissy's theories were not tested scientifically until 1674, in a study commonly attributed to Pierre Perrault. Even then, these beliefs were not accepted in mainstream science until the early nineteenth century.[37]
See also
Water portal
Ecology portal
Bioprecipitation
Drought
Ecohydrology
Flood
Moisture advection
Moisture recycling
Planetary boundaries
Water use
References
Jump up ^ "precipitation | National Snow and Ice Data Center". nsidc.org. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
^ Jump up to: a b Dr. Art's Guide to Planet Earth. The Water Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Estimated Flows of Water in the Global Water Cycle". www3.geosc.psu.edu. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
^ Jump up to: a b "Salinity | Science Mission Directorate". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service Northwest River Forecast Center. Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Evaristo, Jaivime; Jasechko, Scott; McDonnell, Jeffrey J. (2015-09-03). "Global separation of plant transpiration from groundwater and streamflow". Nature. NPG. 525 (7567): 91–94. Bibcode:2015Natur.525...91E. doi:10.1038/nature14983. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 26333467. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ "evaporation | National Snow and Ice Data Center". nsidc.org. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ "sublimation | National Snow and Ice Data Center". nsidc.org. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ "advection | National Snow and Ice Data Center". nsidc.org. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ "condensation | National Snow and Ice Data Center". nsidc.org. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ PhysicalGeography.net. CHAPTER 8: Introduction to the Hydrosphere. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Jouzel, J.; Masson-Delmotte, V.; Cattani, O.; Dreyfus, G.; Falourd, S.; Hoffmann, G.; Minster, B.; Nouet, J.; Barnola, J. M. (2007-08-10). "Orbital and millennial Antarctic climate variability over the past 800,000 years". Science. 317 (5839): 793–796. Bibcode:2007Sci...317..793J. doi:10.1126/science.1141038. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 17615306.
^ Jump up to: a b USGS, Howard Perlman,. "The Water Cycle summary, USGS Water Science School". water.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ "Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis" (PDF). INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE. February 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 3, 2007.
Jump up ^ Vahid, Alavian,; Maher, Qaddumi, Halla; Eric, Dickson,; Michele, Diez, Sylvia; V., Danilenko, Alexander; Fatehali, Hirji, Rafik; Gabrielle, Puz,; Carolina, Pizarro,; Michael, Jacobsen, (2009-11-01). "Water and climate change : understanding the risks and making climate-smart investment decisions". Washington, DC: World Bank: pp. xv. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ Gillis, Justin (2012-04-26). "Study Hints at Greater Threat of Extreme Weather". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ Paul J. Durack; Susan E. Wijffels & Richard J. Matear (27 April 2012). "Ocean Salinities Reveal Strong Global Water Cycle Intensification During 1950 to 2000". Science. 336 (6080): 455–458. Bibcode:2012Sci...336..455D. doi:10.1126/science.1212222. PMID 22539717.
Jump up ^ Justin Gillis (April 26, 2012). "Study Indicates a Greater Threat of Extreme Weather". The New York Times. Retrieved April 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Vinas, Maria-Jose (2013-06-06). "NASA's Aquarius Sees Salty Shifts". NASA. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ "Retreat of Glaciers in Glacier National Park". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ "Water Cycle | Science Mission Directorate". science.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ "Rising sea levels attributed to global groundwater extraction". University of Utrecht. Retrieved February 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ The Environmental Literacy Council. Biogeochemical Cycles. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Phosphorus Cycle - The Environmental Literacy Council". The Environmental Literacy Council. Retrieved 2018-01-15.
Jump up ^ Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet. Nitrogen and the Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ NASA's Earth Observatory. The Carbon Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Nick Strobel (June 12, 2010). "Planetary Science". Archived from the original on September 28, 2010. Retrieved September 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ Rudolf Dvořák (2007). Extrasolar Planets. Wiley-VCH. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-3-527-40671-5. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
^ Jump up to: a b Morris, Henry M. (1988). Science and the Bible (Trinity Broadcasting Network Edition, 1988 ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. p. 15.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (1993). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 369. ISBN 0195046455.
Jump up ^ Merrill, Eugene H.; Rooker, Mark F.; Grisanti, Michael A. (2011). The World and the Word. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic. p. 430. ISBN 9780805440317.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (1993). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 369. ISBN 0195046455.
Jump up ^ Morris, Henry M. (1988). Science and the Bible (Trinity Broadcasting Network Edition, 1988 ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. p. 15.
Jump up ^ Kazlev, M.Alan. "Palaeos: History of Evolution and Paleontology in science, philosophy, religion, and popular culture : Pre 19th Century".
Jump up ^ http://philosophy.unc.edu/people/faculty/james-lesher/xenophanes%20scepticism.pdf (page 9-10)
Jump up ^ Science?, Symposium on the Basis of Civilization--Water (1 January 2004). "The Basis of Civilization--water Science?". International Association of Hydrological Science – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ http://hydrologie.org/ACT/OH2/actes/03_dooge.pdf
Further reading
Anderson, J. G.; Wilmouth, D. M.; Smith, J. B.; Sayres, D. S. (2012). "UV Dosage Levels in Summer: Increased Risk of Ozone Loss from Convectively Injected Water Vapor". Science. 337 (6096): 835. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..835A. doi:10.1126/science.1222978. PMID 22837384.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Water cycle.
The Water Cycle, United States Geological Survey
The Water Cycle for Kids, United States Geological Survey
The water cycle, from Dr. Art's Guide to the Planet.
Water cycle slideshow, 1 Mb Flash multilingual animation highlighting the often-overlooked evaporation from bare soil, from managingwholes.com.
Will the wet get wetter and the dry drier? - Climate research summary from NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory including text, graphics, and animations
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text:
Wonder (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Wonder
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Stephen Chbosky
Produced by
David Hoberman
Todd Lieberman
Screenplay by
Jack Thorne
Steve Conrad
Stephen Chbosky
Based on
Wonder
by R.J. Palacio
Starring
Julia Roberts
Owen Wilson
Jacob Tremblay
Izabela Vidovic
Mandy Patinkin
Daveed Diggs
Music by
Marcelo Zarvos
Cinematography
Don Burgess
Edited by
Mark Livolsi
Production
company
Lionsgate[1]
Mandeville Films[1]
Participant Media[1]
Walden Media[1]
TIK Films[1]
Distributed by
Lionsgate
Release date
November 14, 2017 (2017-11-14) (Regency Village Theater)
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17) (United States)
Running time
113 minutes[2]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$20 million[3]
Box office
$248.5 million[4]
Wonder is a 2017 American drama film directed by Stephen Chbosky and written by Jack Thorne, Steve Conrad, and Stephen Chbosky, based on the 2012 novel of the same name by R.J. Palacio. The film stars Julia Roberts, Owen Wilson, and Jacob Tremblay. The film follows a child with Treacher Collins syndrome trying to fit in. Wonder was released in the United States on November 17, 2017, by Lionsgate and has grossed over $248 million worldwide on a $20 million budget. At the 90th Academy Awards, the film was nominated for Best Makeup and Hairstyling.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
2.1 Main cast members
2.2 Other cast members
3 Production
4 Music
5 Release
5.1 Box office
5.2 Critical response
5.3 Accolades
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
August "Auggie" Pullman is a fifth-grade boy living in North River Heights in upper Manhattan. He has a rare medical facial deformity, which he refers to as "mandibulofacial dysostosis." Due to numerous (27) surgeries, Auggie had been homeschooled by his mother Isabel, but as Auggie is approaching middle school age, Isabel and Nate decide to enroll him in Beecher Prep, a private school, for the start of middle school. At first, Auggie is ostracized by nearly all the student body, but he is soon befriended by a boy named Jack Will.
During Halloween, Auggie wears an old GhostFace mask and costume because his dog, Daisy, threw up on his Boba Fett costume. Unrecognized, he walks around school knowing he would not get tormented while incognito. As he walks through the door to his homeroom he overhears Jack telling Julian Albans that he was only pretending to be friends with Auggie. Feeling betrayed, Auggie wants to quit Beecher Prep and go back to homeschooling, but his older sister Olivia, nicknamed "Via," talks him out of it. Auggie later confides the incident to another friend, a girl named Summer, but swears her to secrecy. When Jack notices that Auggie has become quiet and distant he asks Summer why, but she only gives him the term "Ghost Face" as a clue; Jack is shocked when it suddenly dawns on him that it was Auggie wearing the GhostFace costume, and thus had overheard everything he said to Julian.When Julian wants Jack to switch partners to be with him in a science fair project Jack refuses. When Julian asks Jack does he want to work with that "freak," Jack angrily punches him in the face and a fight ensues between the two, which is soon broken up by Mr. Browne and Ms. Petosa. Jack is suspended for two days, and decides not to get Julian suspended too, knowing it wouldn’t be fair. He later writes an apology letter to Mr. Tushman. Auggie, over winter break, requests Jack's Minecraft coordinates, which Jack sends. Jack apologizes to Auggie, and Auggie accepts.
During the rest of the school year, Auggie is repeatedly bullied by Julian and his group; they leave hurtful notes on his desk and tape to his locker their class picture with Auggie photoshopped out. When Mr. Tushman later confronts Julian and his parents using all the notes and the doctored picture as evidence, Julian's mother proclaims that she had had Auggie edited out of the photo to make it look more presentable to her friends at home; she then says that the school should not be inclusive and that Auggie does not belong there. But despite her threats to pull their funding from the school, Tushman suspends Julian for two days. Julian showed remorse to Tushman for his actions to Auggie.
Meanwhile, Via signs up for Drama Club at her high school after her best friend, Miranda, ignores her; in the process, she meets Justin, a friendly boy with whom she forms a close friendship, which later develops into a romantic relationship. Later, Via is selected to be an understudy for the lead role in the school's production of Our Town, with Justin as the lead actor.
Later on, Isabel and Nate find out that Via's play is coming around, and Via never told them about it, and they get into a fight with Auggie overhearing everything. Auggie later confronts his mom and his sister, who brush it off. Auggie then accuses them of lying and storms off to his room, and then Daisy starts to whimper. Via then rushes up to Auggie's room telling him that Daisy is sick. They say goodbye to Isabel who meets Nate at the hospital. They then return that night without the dog, implying that Daisy died. On the night of the play, Miranda, the lead actress and Via's former best friend, pretends to fall ill. Via takes her place and gives a performance that earns her a standing ovation. After the play, everyone, including Miranda and Justin, go home to the Pullmans and eat pizza to celebrate.
During a school trip to a nature reserve, when Auggie and Jack are accosted and threatened by a group of seventh graders from another school, several of their classmates come to their defense. At the year's end during the graduation ceremony, Tushman announces that Auggie has been selected for the Henry Ward Beecher Medal for standing out; Auggie receives a standing ovation, and the movie ends with everyone applauding Auggie, and Isabel commenting on him being a wonder.
Cast[edit]
Main cast members[edit]
Julia Roberts as Isabel Pullman
Owen Wilson as Nate Pullman
Jacob Tremblay as August "Auggie" Pullman
Izabela Vidovic as Olivia "Via" Pullman
Maccie Margaret Chbosky as Young Olivia
Noah Jupe as Jack Will
Bryce Gheisar as Julian Albans
Elle McKinnon as Charlotte Cody
Millie Davis as Summer Dawson
Ty Consiglio as Amos Conti
Kyle Harrison Breitkopf as Miles Noury
James A. Hughes as Henry Joplin
Sônia Braga as Grans
Mandy Patinkin as Mr. Tushman
Daveed Diggs as Mr. Browne
Ali Liebert as Ms. Petosa
Danielle Rose Russell as Miranda Navas
Nadji Jeter as Justin
Gidget as Darth-Daisy "Daisy", Auggie and Via's dog
Other cast members[edit]
Nicole Oliver as Mrs. Will
Rachel Hayward as Mrs. Navas
Crystal Lowe as Mrs. Sarah Albans
Steve Bacic as Mr. Albans
Erika McKitrick as Ella
Lucia Thain as Savanna Wittenberg
Sasha Neuhaus as Maya Markowitz
Izzy Lieberman as Reid Kingsley
Hannah Hoberman as Rebecca
William Dickinson as Eddie
Emma Tremblay as Michelle
Lydia Jewett as Lina Annan
Armen Bagdasrov as Danny
Kaelyn Breitkopf as Angela
Victoria V. Cruz as the Science Fair judge
Benjamin Ratner as Mr. Davenport
Production[edit]
On November 27, 2012, it was announced that Lionsgate was developing the feature film adaptation of R. J. Palacio's debut novel Wonder, while in talks with John August to write the screenplay.[5] Mandeville Films' David Hoberman and Todd Lieberman would be producing the film.[5] On May 8, 2013, Jack Thorne was hired to adapt the novel, while August, who was previously reported as writer, had departed from the project.[6] In October 2014, John Krokidas was reported to be directing the film,[7] but in April 2015, Paul King was hired to take the directing duties. Steven Conrad was writing the script at that time.[8]
On April 14, 2016, Jacob Tremblay was cast in the film to play the lead role as Auggie Pullman, while Julia Roberts was in talks to play Auggie's mother.[9] On May 5, 2016, Roberts was confirmed to play the mother, with Stephen Chbosky signed on to direct the film.[10] On June 27, 2016, Owen Wilson had joined the film to play Auggie's father.[11] On July 11, 2016, newcomer Noah Jupe joined the film to play Auggie's best friend at school.[12] On July 15, 2016, Daveed Diggs was cast in the film to play Mr. Browne, an English teacher at the school.[13] On August 19, 2016, Sonia Braga joined the cast of the film, portraying the role of Roberts' character's mother.[14]
Jacob's prosthetic makeup, designed and created by Arjen Tuiten, took an hour and half to apply. It consisted of a skull cap with prosthetic ears attached, a facial prosthetic that covered Jacob's face, and a wig to tie it all together.[citation needed]
Marcelo Zarvos composed the film's score.[15]
Music[edit]
Bea Miller composed a song entitled "Brand New Eyes." It was released on August 3, 2017.
Wonder author R.J. Palacio has often credited Natalie Merchant's song “Wonder” from her 1995 album Tigerlily as the inspiration for her best-selling book and at Merchant's invitation, the song will be featured in the soundtrack.[16]
Release[edit]
Wonder was scheduled to be released in the United States on April 7, 2017 by Lionsgate.[17][18] On February 13, 2017, it was announced that the release date for Wonder had been pushed back to November 17, 2017.[19] Wonder had its world premiere at the Regency Village Theater in Los Angeles on November 14, 2017.[20]
Box office[edit]
As of January 21, 2018[update], Wonder has grossed $129.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $118.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $248.5 million, against a production budget of $20 million.[4]
In the United States and Canada, Wonder was released alongside Justice League and The Star and was initially projected to gross around $9 million from 3,096 theaters in its opening weekend.[21] However after grossing $740,000 from Thursday night previews and receiving a large number of group ticket sales, weekend projections were upped to $15 million.[22] Weekend projections were again increased, this time to $28 million, after the film made $9.4 million on its first day. The film went on to debut to $27.1 million, finishing second at the box office behind Justice League.[23] In its second weekend the film dropped just 17.7%, grossing $22.7 million and finishing third at the box office.[24]
Critical response[edit]
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 85% based on 154 reviews and an average rating of 7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Wonder doesn't shy away from its bestselling source material's sentiment, but this well-acted and overall winsome drama earns its tugs at the heartstrings."[25] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 66 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[26] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to receive such a score.[23]
Some with craniofacial disorders have criticized the film for casting an able-bodied actor as Auggie and for its inspirational message.[27][28][29]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.
AARP's Movies for Grownups Awards February 5, 2018 Best Intergenerational Film Wonder Pending [30]
Readers' Choice Poll Wonder Pending
Academy Awards March 4, 2018 Best Makeup and Hairstyling Arjen Tuiten Pending [31]
British Academy Film Awards February 18, 2018 Best Makeup and Hair Naomi Bakstad, Robert Pandini and Arjen Tuiten Pending [32]
Casting Society of America January 18, 2018 Big Budget – Comedy Deborah Aquila, Kara Eide, Tricia Wood and Kris Woz Nominated [33]
Critics' Choice Movie Awards January 11, 2018 Best Young Actor/Actress Jacob Tremblay Nominated [34]
Best Adapted Screenplay Jack Thorne, Steve Conrad and Stephen Chbosky Nominated
Best Hair & Makeup Wonder Nominated
Heartland Film Festival December 31, 2017 Truly Moving Picture Award Stephen Chbosky Won [35]
London Film Critics Circle January 28, 2018 Young British/Irish Performer of the Year Noah Jupe Pending [36]
Make-Up Artists and Hair Stylists Guild February 24, 2018 Feature Motion Picture: Best Contemporary Makeup Naomi Bakstad, Jean Black and Megan Harkness Pending [37]
Feature Motion Picture: Best Contemporary Hair Styling Robert Pandini and Alisa Macmillian Pending
Feature Motion Picture: Best Special Makeup Effects Michael Nickiforek and Arjen Tuiten Pending
Seattle Film Critics Society December 18, 2017 Best Youth Performance Jacob Tremblay Nominated [38]
Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association December 8, 2017 Best Youth Performance Jacob Tremblay Nominated [39]
Women Film Critics Circle December 17, 2017 Best Family Film Wonder Nominated [40]
[41]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Film releases". Variety Insight. Retrieved June 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "WONDER". Lionsgate Press. Retrieved 2017-07-26.
Jump up ^ "Will 'Justice League' Perform Like 'Wonder Woman' or 'Suicide Squad' at the Box Office?". TheWrap. November 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Wonder (2017)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Sneider, Jeff (November 26, 2012). "Lionsgate lining up John August to adapt 'Wonder'". Variety. Retrieved June 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Jr, Mike Fleming (May 8, 2013). "Lionsgate Taps Jack Thorne To Adapt R.J. Palacio Novel 'Wonder'". Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Ford, Rebecca; Kit, Borys (October 7, 2014). "'Kill Your Darlings' Director to Helm YA Adaptation 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (April 23, 2015). "'Paddington' Director Books Lionsgate's YA Adaptation 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Geier, Thom (April 14, 2016). "'Room' Star Jacob Tremblay in Talks for Lionsgate's 'Wonder'". TheWrap. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys; Ford, Rebecca (May 5, 2016). "Julia Roberts to Play Jacob Tremblay's Mother in 'Wonder'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (June 27, 2016). "Owen Wilson to Co-Star With Julia Roberts in 'Wonder' (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (July 11, 2016). "'Night Manager' Actor Joins Julia Roberts, Jacob Tremblay in 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, Ross A. (July 15, 2016). "Tony Winner Daveed Diggs Joins Lionsgate's 'Wonder' In First Post-'Hamilton' Film Role". Deadline. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (August 19, 2016). "Sonia Braga Playing Julia Roberts' Mother in 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved November 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Marcelo Zarvos to Score Steven Chbsoky's 'Wonder'". FilmMusicReporter. January 11, 2017. Retrieved January 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wonder the Film". Natalie Merchant. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Julia Roberts, Jacob Tremblay's Wonder gets spring 2017 release date". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. June 8, 2016. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "First Look! Julia Roberts and Jacob Tremblay Will Melt Your Heart in Wonder". People. August 10, 2016. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Julia Roberts' Drama 'Wonder' Pushed to November". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media, LLC. February 13, 2017. Retrieved February 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Saval, Malina (November 15, 2017). "'Wonder' Premiere Celebrates Book's Six-Year Journey to Big Screen, 'Once-in-a-Lifetime Actor' Jacob Tremblay". Variety. Retrieved January 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ Anita Busch (November 14, 2017). "The Tale Of Two Films: Walden Media's 'The Star' & 'Wonder' Bow On Same Day".
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 17, 2017). "'Justice League' Powers To $13M Thursday Night; Beats 'Wonder Woman' – Friday AM Update". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 17, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 18, 2017). "'Justice League' Encounters Kryptonite At The B.O. With $93M+ Opening: Why The DC Movie Weakened". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 26, 2017). "Thanksgiving B.O. At $268M, +3% Over 2016 Spurred By 'Coco' & Holdovers". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wonder (2017)". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango. Retrieved December 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wonder reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive Inc. Retrieved December 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Henley, Ariel. "Hollywood's Approach to Disabled Characters Is Still a Disaster". Vice. Vice. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Steussy, Lauren. "What it's really like to have the rare disease in 'Wonder'". New York Post. New York Post. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Barack, Lauren. "Critics Question the Representation of Disability in 'Wonder'". School Library Journal. School Library Journal. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Lee, Ashley (January 17, 2018). "AARP's Movies for Grownups Awards: 'The Post' Leads Nominees". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Oscars: 'Shape of Water' Leads With 13 Noms". The Hollywood Reporter. January 23, 2018. Retrieved January 23, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ritman, Alex (January 8, 2018). "BAFTA Awards: 'Shape of Water,' 'Three Billboards,' 'Darkest Hour' Lead Pack of Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ford, Rebecca (January 2, 2018). "Artios Awards: Casting Society Reveals Film Nominees (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Critics' Choice Awards: 'The Shape of Water' Leads With 14 Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. December 6, 2017. Retrieved December 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Truly Moving Picture Award". Heartland film. Archived from the original on February 10, 2017. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Tartaglione, Nancy (December 19, 2017). "'Three Billboards' Leads London Critics' Circle Film Award Nominations". Deadline.com. Retrieved December 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (January 5, 2018). "Makeup Artists and Hair Stylists Guild Awards: 'Darkest Hour,' 'Wonder' Lead Feature Nominees". Deadline.com. Retrieved January 5, 2018.
Jump up ^ "'Blade Runner 2049 Leads the 2017 Seattle Film Critics Society Nominations". Seattle Film Critics Society. Retrieved December 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "The 2017 WAFCA Awards". Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association. December 8, 2017. Retrieved December 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Neglia, Matt (December 12, 2017). "The 2017 Women Film Critics Circle (WFCC) Nominations". Retrieved December 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Benardello, Karen (December 23, 2017). "The Women Film Critics Circle Awards 2017's Best Movies". Shockya.com. Retrieved December 23, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wonder on IMDb
Wonder at AllMovie
Wonder at Box Office Mojo
Wonder at Metacritic
Wonder at Rotten Tomatoes
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Climate of Venezuela
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Climate of Venezuela is characterized for being tropical and isothermal as a result of its geographical location near the Equator, but because of the topography and the dominant wind direction, several climatic types occur which can be the same as found in temperate latitudes, and even polar regions. Latitude exerts little influence on the Venezuelan climate, but the altitude changes it dramatically, particularly the temperature, reaching values very different according to the presence of different thermal floors.
Contents
[hide]
1 General climate
2 Climate zones according to altitude
2.1 Very Hot
2.2 Warm
2.3 Cool
2.4 Mild/Temperate
2.5 Cold
2.6 Very Cold
2.7 Frosty
2.8 Glacial
3 Climate zones according to Köppen
3.1 Group A: Tropical climates
3.2 Group B: Dry climates
3.3 Group C: Temperate climates
3.4 Group E: Alpine climates
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
General climate[edit]
While the coastal cities of Maracaibo, Barcelona, Porlamar and Maiquetia can get extremely hot, cities located at valleys such as Mérida, Caracas, Los Teques and San Cristobal have cooler climates, and the highest towns of Mucuchies and Apartaderos have cold (tundra) climates.
The hottest part of Venezuela is the northwest (Paraguana Peninsula and Guajira Peninsula), where temperatures of more than 38 °C (100 °F) are frequently recorded. The coldest part in the country are located in the highest areas of the Cordillera de Mérida, where temperatures lower than −2 °C (28 °F) are recorded. The Venezuelan Coastal Range and Guiana Highlands have average temperatures from 25 °C (77 °F) to 11 °C (52 °F), while Los Llanos average temperature is over 23 °C (73 °F).
The highest temperature recorded was 42 °C (108 °F) in Machiques,[1] and the lowest temperature recorded was −11 °C (12 °F), it has been reported from an uninhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas (Mérida state),[2] even though no official reports exist, lower temperatures in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada de Mérida are known.
Climate zones according to altitude[edit]
Venezuelan climatic types, according to their thermal floors.
Venezuelan climates are structured in "thermal floors", as mentioned next:[3][4]
Very Hot[edit]
This climate is characterized by very hot temperatures above 26 °C (79 °F), with precipitations that ranges from dry (less than 300 mm) to pluvial (more than 3300 mm) conditions. This climate can be found in areas below 300 m in sedimentary basins and lowlands such as Los Llanos, Orinoco Delta, Maracaibo Basin, Orinoco Basin, coastal plains and islands; it comprises almost all the country. This climate zone is present in cities like Maracaibo, Punto Fijo, Ciudad Guayana, Porlamar, Puerto La Cruz, Barinas, Tucupita, Cumaná, Maturin, Anaco, Ciudad Bolívar, Cabimas, El Vigía and others.
Warm[edit]
Warm climate can be found between 300 and 650 m. It's characterized by temperatures from 23 °C (73 °F) to 26 °C (79 °F) and precipitations that ranges from scarcely rainy (300 – 700 mm) to pluvial (more than 3300 mm) conditions. This climate can be found in lower foothills and plateaus in the Guiana Highlands, Venezuelan Coastal Range, Coro region and Venezuelan Andes. Cities which have this climate zone are Barquisimeto, Maracay, Valencia, Guarenas-Guatire, San Juan de Los Morros, Charallave, Valera, Barinitas, San Antonio del Táchira, Quibor and others.
Cool[edit]
This climate features temperatures between 18 °C (64 °F) to 23 °C (73 °F) and precipitations that ranges from scarcely rainy (300 – 700 mm) to pluvial (more than 3300 mm) conditions. It can be found in the country's mountainous areas between 650 and 1,350-1,600 m This climate zone is present in cities like Mérida, San Cristóbal, Caracas, Sanare, Villa de Cura, Ejido, Trujillo, Escuque, Rubio, Tovar, Boconó, Duaca, Bejuma, Los Teques, Nirgua, Santa Elena de Uairen, among others.
Mild/Temperate[edit]
Mild or Temperate climate can be found in the mountainous areas between 1,350-1,600 to 2,400 m. It features temperatures around 13 °C (55 °F) to 18 °C (64 °F) and precipitations that ranges from scarcely rainy (300 – 700 mm) to pluvial (more than 3300 mm) conditions. This climate zone is present in cities like Mérida (higher part), Colonia Tovar, San Antonio de Los Altos, El Jarillo, El Junquito, Galipan, Timotes, La Grita, Tabay, La Mucuy and others; most of the top of the tepuis also present this climate.
Cold[edit]
This climate is characterized by temperatures above 8 °C (46 °F) and below 13 °C (55 °F), with precipitations that ranges from scarcely rainy (300 – 700 mm) to pluvial (more than 3300 mm) conditions. This climate can be found in mountainous areas around 2,400 to 3,200 m specifically in Sierra de Perija, Cordillera de Mérida, higher elevations at Venezuelan Coastal Range and higher tepuis (Monte Roraima, Kukenan, Cerro Marahuaca, Chimantá Massif). This climate zone is present in towns like Mucuchíes, Chachopo and Los Nevados.
Very Cold[edit]
This climate can be found in the Venezuelan Andes area, between 3,200 and 4,150 m. It's characterized by temperatures from 3 °C (37 °F) to 8 °C (46 °F) and precipitations that ranges from scarcely rainy (300 – 700 mm) to rainy (1800–2500 mm) conditions. This climate zone is present in towns like Apartaderos and Llano del Hato. The condition of this climate is also known as páramo
Frosty[edit]
Frosty climate is found at the highest areas in Venezuelan Andes, between 4,150 and 4,700 m. where the temperatures are between 0 °C (32 °F) to 3 °C (37 °F). This climate zone is present exclusively at Sierra Nevada de Mérida, Sierra de La Culata and Sierra de Santo Domingo.
Glacial[edit]
This climate is characterized by average temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F) all year, it's located in the highest peaks of Venezuela in the Cordillera de Mérida such as Pico Bolívar, Pico Humboldt, Pico La Concha, Pico Bonpland, Pico Espejo, Pico Mucuñuque and Pico Piedras Blancas. Only Pico Bolivar and Pico Humboldt have their glaciers preserved, while the other peaks are exposed to nival zone conditions.
Climate zones according to Köppen[edit]
Köppen climate classification map of Venezuela.
According to the Köppen climate classification, Venezuela's climate types are:[5]
Group A: Tropical climates[edit]
It's the most prevalent and characteristic climate of the country. Maintaining temperatures above 18 °C (64 °F) and rainfall in most of the year:
Tropical savanna climate (Aw)
It can be found throughout the country, dominating Los Llanos and north of the Guayana Region, as well as some parts of the country. It's dry between December and March with an annual rainfall between 600 and 1,500 mm.
Tropical monsoon climate (Am)
It is located in the Guayana Region, Orinoco Delta, west of Zulia, Andean and Coastal range foothills, Paria Peninsula and Barlovento region; with rainfall between 1,600 and 2,500 mm per year and a drought of just 45 days.
Tropical rainforest climate (Af)
It's located south of Venezuela, Orinoco Delta, El Tamá area in west of Venezuela, and south of Maracaibo Lake. Rainfall exceeds 2,500 mm, not tending dry season.
Tropical climates of Venezuela
Tropical savanna climate, influenced by a temperate highland climate in Caracas Valley
Tropical savanna climate in the Gran Sabana
Tropical savanna climate in Los Llanos
Tropical monsoon climate in Sur del Lago
Tropical rainforest climate in Southern Venezuela
Tropical monsoon climate in Canaima
Tropical rainforest climate in Orinoco Delta
Tropical rainforest climate in Paria Peninsula
Tropical hot climate in Margarita Island
Group B: Dry climates[edit]
This type of climate the evaporation exceeds precipitation. In Venezuela is typical of desert and arid coastal areas and with annual temperatures above 18 °C. The cold semiarid type can be found at elevated portions of the Andes.
Hot desert climate (BWh)
It can be found in Guajira Peninsula, Paraguana Peninsula, Araya Peninsula and most of the Insular region.
Hot semi-arid climate (BSh)
It is located in the northern part of Zulia state, most of the area of Lara state and Falcón state, the coastal area, Insular region and some semi-arid areas in Venezuelan Andes.
Cold semi-arid (BSk)
It can be found locked at the temperate zones of high Andean valleys of Cordillera de Mérida.
Dry climates of Venezuela
Hot desert climate in Medanos de Coro National Park
Hot desert climate in Cabo San Roman
Hot desert climate in Guajira Desert
Hot desert climate in Coche Island
Hot desert climate in Los Roques
Cold semi-arid climate in Los Nevados
Hot semi-arid climate in Puerto La Cruz
Hot semi-arid climate in Barquisimeto
Group C: Temperate climates[edit]
The monthly averages temperatures are below 22 °C (72 °F) but above 0 °C (32 °F). At least one month's average temperature is below 18 °C (64 °F):
Temperate highland climates with dry winters (Cwb)
It tends to experience noticeably drier weather during the lower-sun "winter" season. It's located in the medium areas of the Cordillera de Mérida and Sierra de Perija, the highest areas of Venezuelan coastal range, and the top of the highest Guiana Highlands Tepuis.
Temperate highland climates without dry season (Cfb)
This climate doesn't tend to has a dry season. It can be found at tepuis with temperate and pluvial conditions such as Chimantá Massif, Duida–Marahuaca Massif and Neblina–Aracamuni Massif.
Temperate climates of Venezuela
Temperate highland climate in Colonia Tovar
Temperate highland climate in Auyantepui
Temperate highland climate in Amazonas
Temperate highland climate in Sierra La Culata
Temperate highland climate in El Avila National Park
Temperate highland climate in Táchira
Group E: Alpine climates[edit]
It's characterized by average temperatures below 10 °C in all 12 months of the year:
Alpine tundra (ETH)
Also known as páramo climate, this climate often undergo a sudden and drastic change in daily-weather in which they fluctuate between temperatures from below freezing to as high as 20 °C. Mean annual temperatures range from 2 °C (36 °F) to 10 °C (50 °F). It is located above the 3,000 m in the Sierra de Perija and Cordillera de Mérida.
Alpine glacier (EFH)
This climate is reserved to the highest peaks of the Venezuelan Andes, such as Pico Bolívar, Pico Humboldt, Pico La Concha, Pico Bonpland and Pico Espejo, where the annual temperature is below 0 °C. Most of these peaks are free-glaciated but frequently covered by snow during the rainy season. Glaciers in Venezuelan Andes began retreating in the 20th century due to global warming and the currently existing in Pico Bolívar and Pico Humboldt are in danger of disappearing.
Alpine climates of Venezuela
Alpine glacier in the Pico Humboldt
Alpine glacier in the Pico Bolívar
Alpine glacier climate in Pico La Concha
Alpine tundra climate in Sierra de La Culata
Alpine tundra climate in Pico Piedras Blancas
Alpina tundra at Laguna de Mucubají
Alpine tundra at Laguna Coromoto
Snow in Mérida
Alpina tundra at Mifafí Valley
See also[edit]
Geography of Venezuela
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Extreme High Temperature in Venezuela". wunderground. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Extreme Low Temp in Venezuela". Wunderground. Retrieved 16 October 2012. NOTE: Pass the cursor over the subrayed record to see the source of this. "This location is probably uninhabited, but is close to the town of San Isidro de Apartaderos. −11 °C (12 °F) has been reported from an uninhabited high altitude at Páramo de Piedras Blancas, Mérida state."
Jump up ^ Silva, Gustavo (2010). Tipos y subtipos climáticos de Venezuela (PDF) (in Spanish). Universidad de Los Andes. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Silva, Gustavo (2002). "Classification of thermal floors in Venezuela" (PDF). Revista Geográfica Venezolana (in Spanish). 43 (2): 311–328. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Tipos Climáticos". Venezuela Virtual. Archived from the original on 2 September 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2016. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
External links[edit]
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