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Celtic Britons
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Great Britain and adjacent islands in the 5th century AD, before the invasion and subsequent founding of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
Mainly Brittonic areas
Mainly Pictish areas
Mainly Goidelic areas
The Britons, also known as Celtic Britons or Ancient Britons, were Celtic people who inhabited Great Britain from the British Iron Age into the Middle Ages, at which point their culture and language diverged into the modern Welsh, Cornish and Bretons (among others). They spoke the Common Brittonic language, the ancestor to the modern Brittonic languages.[1]
The traditional view that the Celtic Britons originally migrated from the continent, mostly across the English Channel, with their languages, culture and genes in the Iron Age has been considerably undermined in recent decades by the contention of many scholars that Celtic languages had instead spread north along the Atlantic seaboard during the Bronze Age,[2] and the results of genetic studies, which show a large continuity between Iron Age and older British populations,[3] suggesting trans-cultural diffusion was also very important in the introduction of the Celtic languages.
The earliest evidence for the Britons and their language in historical sources dates to the Iron Age.[4] After the Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century, a Romano-British culture emerged, and Latin and British Vulgar Latin coexisted with Brittonic.[5] During and after the Roman era, the Britons lived throughout Britain. Their relationship with the Picts, who lived north of the Firth of Forth, has been the subject of much discussion, though most scholars now accept that the Pictish language was related to Common Brittonic, rather than a separate Celtic language.[6]
With the beginning of Anglo-Saxon settlement and Gaelic Scots in the 5th century, the culture and language of the Britons fragmented and much of their territory was taken over by the Anglo-Saxons and Scots Gaels. The extent to which this cultural and linguistic change was accompanied by wholesale changes in the population is still a matter of discussion. During this period some Britons migrated to mainland Europe and established significant settlements in Brittany (now part of France) as well as Britonia in modern Galicia, Spain.[4] By the 11th century, remaining Brittonic Celtic-speaking populations had split into distinct groups: the Welsh in Wales, the Cornish in Cornwall, the Bretons in Brittany, and the people of the Hen Ogledd ("Old North") in southern Scotland and northern England. Common Brittonic developed into the distinct Brittonic languages: Welsh, Cumbric, Cornish and Breton.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Language
3 Archaeology and art
4 Territory
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Name[edit]
Main article: Britain (placename)
Further information: Brittia
Gritstone bas-relief of Romano-British woman
The earliest known reference to the inhabitants of Britain seems to come from 4th century BC records of the voyage of Pytheas, a Greek geographer who made a voyage of exploration around the British Isles between 330 and 320 BC. Although none of his own writings remain, writers during the time of the Roman Empire made much reference to them. Pytheas called the islands collectively αἱ Βρεττανίαι (hai Brettaniai), which has been translated as the Brittanic Isles; he also used the term Pretannike. The peoples of these islands were called the Πρεττανοί (Prettanoi), Priteni, Pritani or Pretani. The group included Ireland, which was referred to as Ierne (Insula sacra "sacred island" as the Greeks interpreted it) "inhabited by the race of Hiberni" (gens hibernorum), and Britain as insula Albionum, "island of the Albions".[7][8] The term Pritani may have reached Pytheas from the Gauls, who possibly used it as their term for the inhabitants of the islands.[8]
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was originally compiled by the orders of King Alfred the Great in approximately 890, and subsequently maintained and added to by generations of anonymous scribes until the middle of the 12th century, starts with this sentence: "The island Britain is 800 miles long, and 200 miles broad, and there are in the island five nations: English, Welsh (or British, including the Cornish), Scottish, Pictish, and Latin. The first inhabitants were the Britons, who came from Armenia, and first peopled Britain southward." ("Armenia" is possibly a mistaken transcription of Armorica, an area in northwestern Gaul including modern Brittany.)[9]
The Latin name in the early Roman Empire period was Britanni or Brittanni, following the Roman conquest in AD 43.[10]
The Welsh word Brython was introduced into English usage by John Rhys in 1884 as a term unambiguously referring to the P-Celtic speakers of Great Britain, to complement Goidel; hence the adjective Brythonic referring to the group of languages.[11] "Brittonic languages" is a more recent coinage (first attested 1923 according to the Oxford English Dictionary) intended to refer to the ancient Britons specifically.
In English, the terms "Briton" and British for many centuries originally denoted only the ancient Celtic Britons and their descendants, most particularly the Welsh, Cornish and Bretons, who were seen as heirs to the ancient British people.[12] After the Acts of Union 1707, the terms British and Briton gradually came to be applied to all inhabitants of the Kingdom of Great Britain, including the English, Scottish and some Northern Irish.[13]
Language[edit]
Main articles: Common Brittonic and Brittonic languages
The Staffordshire Moorlands Pan
A flying rowan tree, considered magical by the ancient Britons
Britons migrated westwards during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
The Britons spoke an Insular Celtic language known as Common Brittonic. Brittonic was spoken throughout the island of Britain (in modern terms, England, Wales and Scotland), as well as offshore islands such as the Isle of Man, Scilly Isles, Orkneys, Hebrides, Isle of Wight and Shetlands.[4][14] According to early medieval historical tradition, such as The Dream of Macsen Wledig, the post-Roman Celtic-speakers of Armorica were colonists from Britain, resulting in the Breton language, a language related to Welsh and identical to Cornish in the early period and still used today. Thus the area today is called Brittany (Br. Breizh, Fr. Bretagne, derived from Britannia).
Common Brittonic developed from the Insular branch of the Proto-Celtic language that developed in the British Isles after arriving from the continent in the 7th century BC. The language eventually began to diverge; some linguists have grouped subsequent developments as Western and Southwestern Brittonic languages. Western Brittonic developed into Welsh in Wales and the Cumbric language in the Hen Ogledd or "Old North" of Britain (modern northern England and southern Scotland), while the Southwestern dialect became Cornish in Cornwall and South West England and Breton in Armorica. Pictish is now generally accepted to descend from Common Brittonic, rather than being a separate Celtic language. Welsh and Breton survive today; Cumbric and Pictish became extinct in the 12th century. Cornish had become extinct by the 19th century but has been the subject of language revitalization since the 20th century.
Archaeology and art[edit]
Main article: Celtic art
Ideas about the development of British Iron Age culture changed greatly in the 20th century, and remain in development. Generally cultural exchange has tended to replace migration from the continent as the explanation for changes, although Aylesford-Swarling Pottery and the Arras culture of Yorkshire are examples of developments still thought to be linked to migration.
Although the La Tène style, which defines what is called Celtic art in the Iron Age, was late in arriving in Britain, after 300 BC the ancient British seem to have had generally similar cultural practices to the Celtic cultures nearest to them on the continent. There are significant differences in artistic styles, and the greatest period of what is known as the "Insular La Tène" style, surviving mostly in metalwork, was in the century or so before the Roman conquest, and perhaps the decades after it. By this time Celtic styles seem to have been in decline in continental Europe, even before Roman invasions.
An undercurrent of British influence is found in some artefacts from the Roman period, such as the Staffordshire Moorlands Pan, and it appears that it was from this, passing to Ireland in the late Roman and post-Roman period, that the "Celtic" element in Early Medieval Insular art derived.
Territory[edit]
Main articles: British Iron Age, Roman Britain, and Sub-Roman Britain
Throughout their existence, the territory inhabited by the Britons was composed of numerous ever-changing areas controlled by Brittonic tribes. The extent of their territory before and during the Roman period is unclear, but is generally believed to include the whole of the island of Great Britain, at least as far north as the Clyde-Forth isthmus, and if the Picts are included as Brittonic speaking people (as they more usually are),[15] the entirety of Great Britain and its offshore island groups. The territory north of the Firth of Forth was largely inhabited by the Picts; little direct evidence has been left of the Pictish language, but place names and Pictish personal names recorded in the later Irish annals suggest it was indeed related to the Common Brittonic language rather than to the Goidelic (Gaelic) languages of the Irish, Scots and Manx; indeed their Goidelic Irish name, Cruithne, is cognate with Brythonic Priteni. After the invasion of north western Britain by Gaelic speaking Celts from Ireland from the 6th century AD onwards,part of the Pictish territory was eventually absorbed into the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata and Alba, which became Scotland. The Isle of Man, Shetland, Hebrides and the Orkney islands were originally inhabited by Britons also, but eventually became respectively Manx and Scots Gaelic speaking territories, while the Scilly isles and Anglesey (Ynys Mon) remained Brittonic and the originally Brittonic Isle of Wight was taken by Anglo-Saxons.
In 43 AD, the Roman Empire invaded Britain. The British tribes opposed the Roman legions for many decades, but by 84 AD the Romans had decisively conquered southern Britain and had pushed into Brittonic areas of what would later become northern England and southern Scotland. In 122 AD, they fortified the northern border with Hadrian's Wall, which spanned what is now Northern England. In 142 AD, Roman forces pushed north again and began construction of the Antonine Wall, which ran between the Forth-Clyde isthmus, but they retreated back to Hadrian's Wall after only twenty years. Although the native Britons south of Hadrian's Wall mostly kept their land, they were subject to the Roman governors, whilst the Brittonic-Pictish Britons north of the wall remained fully independent and unconquered. The Roman Empire retained control of "Britannia" until its departure about AD 410, although some parts of Britain had already effectively shrugged off Roman rule decades earlier.
Thirty years or so after the time of the Roman departure, the Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons began a migration to the eastern coast of Britain, where they began to establish their own kingdoms, and the Gaelic speaking Scots migrating from Dál nAraidi (modern Northern Ireland), did the same on the west coast of Scotland and the Isle of Man.[16][17]
At the same time, some Britons established themselves in what is now called Brittany. There they set up their own small kingdoms and the Breton language developed there from Brittonic Insular Celtic rather than Gaulish or Frankish. A further Brittonic colony, Britonia, was also set up at this time in Gallaecia in northwestern Spain.
Many of the old Brittonic kingdoms began to disappear in the centuries after the Anglo-Saxon and Scottish Gaelic invasions; Parts of the regions of modern East Anglia, East Midlands, North East England, Argyll and South East England were the first to fall to the Germanic and Gaelic Scots invasions;
5th Century AD; The kingdom of Ceint (modern Kent) fell in 456 AD, Linnuis (which stood astride modern Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire) was subsumed as early as 500 AD and became the English Kingdom of Lindsey.
6th Century AD; Rhegin (essentially modern Sussex and eastern Hampshire) was likely fully conquered by 510 AD, Ynys Weith (Isle of Wight) fell in 530 AD,[18]Caer Colun (essentially modern Essex) by 540 AD, The Gaels arrived on the north west coast of Britain from Ireland, dispossessed the native Britons and founded Dal Riata which encompassed modern Argyll, Skye and Iona between 500 and 560 AD. Deifr (Deira) which encompassed modern day Teesside, Wearside, Tyneside and Humberside fell to the Anglo-Saxons in 559 AD and Deira became an Anglo-Saxon kingdom after this point. Caer Went had officially disappeared by 575 AD becoming the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of East Anglia. Gwent was only partly conquered; its capital Caer Gloui (Gloucester) was taken by the Anglo-Saxons in 577 AD, handing Gloucestershire and Wiltshire to the invaders, while the westernmost part remained in Brittonic hands, and continued to exist in modern Wales.
7th Century AD; Caer Lundein encompassing London, St. Albans and parts of the Home Counties fell from Brittonic hands by 600 AD,[19] Bryneich which existed in modern Northumbria and County Durham with its capital of Din Guardi (modern Bamburgh) and which included Ynys Metcaut (Lindisfarne) had fallen by 605 AD becoming Anglo-Saxon Bernicia.[20] Caer Celemion (in modern Hampshire and Berkshire) had fallen by 610 AD.[21] Elmet, a large kingdom which covered much of modern Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cheshire and likely had its capital at modern Leeds, was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons in 627 AD. Pengwern, which covered Staffordshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire and Worcestershire, was largely destroyed in 656 AD, with only its westernmost parts in modern Wales remaining under the control of the Britons,[22] and it is likely that Cynwidion which had stretched from modern Bedfordshire to Northamptonshire, fell in the same general period as Pengwern, though a sub-kingdom of Calchwynedd may have clung on in the Chilterns for a time.
8th Century AD; Novant which occupied Galloway and Carrick was soon subsumed by fellow Brittonic-Pictish polities by 700 AD. Aeron which encompassed modern Ayrshire[23] was conquered into the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria by 700 AD.
Some Brittonic kingdoms, such as Rheged, which at its height encompassed much what is today Strathclyde, Cumbria, Northumberland, the Scottish borders, Lancashire and modern Greater Manchester and had a capital at Cair Ligualid (Carlisle), were able to successfully resist these incursions for some time, before the eastern part peacefully joined with the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Bernicia-Northumberland by 730 AD, and the west was taken over by the fellow Britons of Ystrad Clud.[24][25] Similarly, the kingdom of Gododdin, which appears to have had its capital at Din Eidyn (modern Edinburgh and encompassed parts of modern Northumbria, County Durham, Lothian and Clackmannanshire endured until approximately 775 AD before being divided by fellow Brittonic Picts, Gaelic Scots and Anglo-Saxons.
9th Century AD; The Kingdom of Cait, covering modern Caithness, Sutherland, Orkneys and Shetlands was conquered by Gaelic Ccots in 871 AD. Dumnonia (encompassing Cornwall, Devonshire and the Scilly Isles was partly conquered during the mid 9th century AD, with most of modern Devonshire being annexed by the Anglo-Saxons, but leaving Cornwall and the Scilly Isles still in the hands of the Britons, where they became Kernow.
10th Century AD; The Kingdom of Ce which encompassed modern Marr, Banff, Buchan, Fife and much of Aberdeenshire disappeared in 900 AD. Fortriu the largest Pictish kingdom which covered Strathearn, Morayshire and Easter Ross had fallen by approximately 950 AD to the Gaelic Kingdom of Alba (Scotland). Other Pictish kingdoms such as Circinn ( in modern Angus and The Mearns), Fib (modern Fife), Fidach (Inverness and Perthshire), Ath-Fotla (Atholl) had also fallen by the beginning of the 11th century AD.
The Brythonic languages in these areas was replaced by the Old English of the Anglo-Saxons and Scots Gaelic, although this was likely a gradual process in many areas.
Similarly, the Brittonic colony of Britonia in north western Spain appears to have disappeared soon after 900 AD.
11th Century AD; The kingdom of Ystrad Clud (Strathclyde) was for some time a large and powerful Brittonic kingdom of the Henn Ogledd (the 'Old North) which endured until the end of the 11th century, successfully resisting Anglo-Saxon, Gaelic Scots and later also Viking attacks. At its peak it encompassed modern Strathclyde, Dumbartonshire, Cumbria, Stirlingshire, Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, Dumfries and Galloway, Argyll and Bute and parts of North Yorkshire, the western Pennines, and as far as modern Leeds in West Yorkshire.[25][26] Thus the Kingdom of Strathclyde (Ystrad-Clud) became the last of the Brittonic kingdoms of the old north to fall in the 1090s, when it was effectively divided between England and Scotland.[27]
The Britons also retained control of Wales, Kernow (encompassing Cornwall and the Scilly Isles)) until the mid 11th century AD when Cornwall was annexed by the English, with the Isles of Scilly following a few years later.
Wales remained free from Anglo-Saxon, Gaelic Scots and Viking control, and was divided among varying Brittonic kingdoms, the foremost being Gwynedd, Powys (including Clwyd and Ynys Mon (Anglesey), Deheubarth (originally Ceredigion, Seisyllwg and Dyfed), Gwent and Morgannwg (Glamorgan. Some of these Welsh kingdoms initially included territories further east, for example Powys included parts of modern Merseyside, Cheshire and The Wirral and Gwent held parts of modern Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Somerset and Gloucestershire, but had largely been confined to the borders of modern Wales by the beginning of the 12th century.
However, by the beginning of the 12th century, the Anglo-Saxons and Gaels had become the dominant cultural force in most of the formerly Brittonic ruled territory in Britain, and the language and culture of the native Britons was thereafter gradually replaced in those regions,[28] remaining only in Wales, Cornwall, Scilly Isles and Brittany, and for a time in parts of Cumbria, Strathclyde, and eastern Galloway.
Cornwall (Kernow, Dumnonia) had certainly been largely absorbed by England by the 1050s, although it retained a distinct Brittonic culture and language.[29] Britonia in Spanish Galicia seems to have disappeared by 900 AD.
Wales and Brittany remained independent for some time however, with Brittany finally being absorbed into France during the 1490s, and Wales united with England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 in the mid 16th century during the rule of the Tudors (Twdyr), who were themselves of Welsh heritage on the male side.
Wales, Cornwall and Brittany continued to retain a distinct Brittonic culture, identity and language, which they have maintained to the present day. The Welsh language and Breton language remain widely spoken, and the Cornish language, once close to extinction, has experienced a revival since the 20th century. The vast majority of place names and names of geographical features in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany are Brittonic, and Brittonic family and personal names remain common.
During the 19th century, a large number of Welsh farmers migrated to Patagonia in Argentina, forming a community called Y Wladfa, which today consists of over 1,500 Welsh speakers.
In addition, a Brittonic legacy remains in England, Scotland and Galicia in Spain,[30] in the form of often large numbers of Brittonic place and geographical names. Some examples of geographical Brittonic names survive in the names of rivers, such as the Thames, Clyde, Severn, Tyne, Wye, Exe, Dee, Tamar, Tweed, Avon, Trent, Tambre, Navia and River Forth. A number of place names in England and Scotland are of Brittonic rather than Anglo-Saxon or Gaelic origin, such as; London, Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Carlisle, Caithness, Aberdeen, Dundee, Barrow, Exeter, Lincoln, Dumbarton, Brent, Penge, Colchester, Durham, Dover, Leatherhead and York.
See also[edit]
Albion
British Latin
Celtic nations
Cornish people
Cumbric
English people
Fortriu
Genetic history of the British Isles
Gododdin
History of the British Isles
Kingdom of Cat
Kingdom of Ce
Kingdom of Strathclyde
List of Celtic tribes
Scottish people
Welsh people
Yr Hen Ogledd
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Koch, p. 291.
Jump up ^ Review by Joseph F. Eska in Bryn Mawr Classical Review (2013.12.35) of John T. Koch, Barry W. Cunliffe (eds.), Celtic from the West 2: Rethinking the Bronze Age and the Arrival of Indo-European in Atlantic Europe. Celtic studies publications, 16. Oxford; Oakville, CT: Oxbow Books, 2013. ISBN 9781842175293.
Jump up ^ Cristian Capelli; Nicola Redhead; Julia K. Abernethy; Fiona Gratrix; James F. Wilson; Torolf Moen; Tor Hervig; Martin Richards; Michael P. H. Stumpf; Peter A. Underhill; Paul Bradshaw; Alom Shaha; Mark G. Thomas; Neal Bradman & David B. Goldstein (2003). "A Y chromosome census of the British Isles". Current Biology. 13 (11): 979–984. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00373-7. PMID 12781138. ; McEvoy; Richards, M; Forster, P; Bradley, DG (2004). "The Longue Durée of Genetic Ancestry: Multiple Genetic Marker Systems and Celtic Origins on the Atlantic Facade of Europe". American Journal of Human Genetics. 75 (4): 693–702. doi:10.1086/424697. PMC 1182057  . PMID 15309688.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Koch, pp. 291–292.
Jump up ^ Sawyer, P.H. (1998). From Roman Britain to Norman England. pp. 69–74. ISBN 0415178940.
Jump up ^ Forsyth, p. 9.
Jump up ^ Snyder, Christopher A. (2003). The Britons. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-22260-X.
^ Jump up to: a b Foster (editor), R F; Donnchadh O Corrain, Professor of Irish History at University College Cork: Prehistoric and Early Christian Ireland (1 November 2001). The Oxford History of Ireland. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280202-X. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "The Avalon Project". Yale Law School. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
Jump up ^ OED s.v. "Briton". See also Online Etymology Dictionary: Briton
Jump up ^ Online Etymology Dictionary: Brythonic
Jump up ^ Roberts, Peter (2003). Bradshaw, Brendon; Roberts, Peter, eds. "Tudor Wales, national identity, and British inheritance". British Consciousness and Identity: the Making of Britain, 1533-1707. Cambridge University Press: 8. ISBN 9780521893619. Retrieved May 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Briton". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
Jump up ^ While there have been attempts in the past to align the Pictish language with non-Celtic language, the current academic view is that it was Brittonic. See: Forsyth (1997) p. 37: "[T]he only acceptable conclusion is that, from the time of our earliest historical sources, there was only one language spoken in Pictland, the most northerly reflex of Brittonic."
Jump up ^ Forsyth 2006, p. 1447; Forsyth 1997; Fraser 2009, pp. 52–53; Woolf 2007, pp. 322–340
Jump up ^ John E Pattison. Is it necessary to assume an apartheid-like social structure in early Anglo-Saxon England? Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 275(1650), 2423–2429, 2008 doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.0352
Jump up ^ Pattison, John E. (2011) "Integration versus Apartheid in post-Roman Britain: a Response to Thomas et al. (2008)," Human Biology: Vol. 83: Iss. 6, Article 9. pp. 715–733, 2011. Abstract available at: http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol83/iss6/9
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishSouthernBritain05.htm#Ynys Weith
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishSouthernBritain04.htm#Caer Lundein
Jump up ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 515–516.
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsBritain/BritainAtrebates.htm#Caer Celemion
Jump up ^ http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesBritain/BritishSouthernBritain01.htm#Pengwern
Jump up ^ a b c d Bromwich, p. 157.
Jump up ^ Chadwick, H.M.; Chadwick, N.K. (1940). The Growth of Literature. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Kapelle, W.E. (1979). The Norman Conquest of the North: the Region and its Transformation, 1000–1135. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-7099-0040-6.
Jump up ^ Broun, "Dunkeld", Broun, "National Identity", Forsyth, "Scotland to 1100", pp. 28–32, Woolf, "Constantine II"; cf. Bannerman, "Scottish Takeover", passim, representing the "traditional" view.
Jump up ^ Charles-Edards, pp. 12, 575; Clarkson, pp. 12, 63-66, 154-58
Jump up ^ Germanic invaders may not have ruled by apartheid New Scientist, 23 April 2008
Jump up ^ Williams, Ann and Martin, G. H. (tr.) (2002) Domesday Book: a complete translation, London: Penguin, pp. 341–357.
Jump up ^ Young, Simon (2002). Britonia: camiños novos. Noia: Toxosoutos. pp. 123–128. ISBN 978-84-95622-58-7.
References[edit]
Forsyth, Katherine (1997). Language in Pictland (PDF). De Keltische Draak. ISBN 90-802785-5-6.
Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
External links[edit]
BBC – History – Native Tribes of Britain
DNA from ethnic Britons found in Ireland
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text:
Public opinion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Public opinion (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Public opinion consists of the desires, wants, and thinking of the majority of the people; it is the collective opinion of the people of a society or state on an issue or problem. The English term public opinion dates back to the 17th-century work by John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which contains an early consideration of the importance of public opinion in the ordering of politics. The term was derived from the French word l'opinion, which was first used in 1588 by Michel de Montaigne.[1]
This concept came about through the process of urbanization and other political and social forces. For the first time, it became important what people thought, as forms of political contention changed.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Coffee-houses
1.2 Gentleman clubs
2 Concepts
3 Formation
3.1 Mass media effects
4 Role of influentials
5 Relationship with public policy
6 See also
7 Notes
8 Bibliography
9 External links
History[edit]
The emergence of public opinion as a significant force in the political realm can be dated to the late 17th century. However, opinion had been regarded as having singular importance since far earlier. Medieval fama publica or vox et fama communis had great legal and social importance from the 12th and 13th centuries onward.[2] Later, William Shakespeare called public opinion the 'mistress of success' and Blaise Pascal thought it was 'the queen of the world.' John Locke in his treatise An Essay Concerning Human Understanding considered that man was subject to three laws: the divine law, the civil law, and most importantly in Locke's judgement, the law of opinion or reputation. He regarded the latter as of the highest importance because dislike and ill-opinion force people to conform in their behaviour to social norms, however he didn't consider public opinion as a suitable influence for governments.
William Temple in his essay of 1672, On the Original and Nature of Government gave an early formulation of the importance of public opinion. He observed that "...when vast numbers of men submit their lives and fortunes absolutely to the will of one, it...must be force of custom, or opinion...which subjects power to authority."
Temple disagreed with the prevalent opinion that the basis of government lay in a social contract and thought that government was merely allowed to exist due to the favour of public opinion.[3]
The prerequisites for the emergence of a public sphere were increasing levels of literacy which was spurred on by the Reformation, which encouraged individuals to read the Bible in the vernacular, and the rapidly expanding printing presses. During the 18th century religious literature was replaced with secular literature, novels and pamphlets. In parallel to this was the growth in reading societies and clubs. At the turn of the century the first circulating library opened in London and the public library became widespread and available to the public.
Coffee-houses[edit]
Coffeehouse in London, 17th century
An institution of central importance in the development of public opinion, was the coffee-house, which became widespread throughout Europe in the mid-17th century. Although Charles II later tried to suppress the London coffeehouses as "places where the disaffected met, and spread scandalous reports concerning the conduct of His Majesty and his Ministers", the public flocked to them. For several decades following the Restoration, the Wits gathered round John Dryden at Will's Coffee House, in Russell Street, Covent Garden.[4] The coffee houses were great social levellers, open to all men and indifferent to social status, and as a result associated with equality and republicanism.
More generally, coffee houses became meeting places where business could be carried on, news exchanged and The London Gazette (government announcements) read. Lloyd's of London had its origins in a coffeehouse run by Edward Lloyd, where underwriters of ship insurance met to do business. By 1739, there were 551 coffeehouses in London; each attracted a particular clientele divided by occupation or attitude, such as Tories and Whigs, wits and stockjobbers, merchants and lawyers, booksellers and authors, men of fashion or the "cits" of the old city center. Joseph Addison wanted to have it said of him that he had "brought philosophy out of closets and libraries to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea tables and in coffee houses." According to one French visitor, Antoine François Prévost, coffeehouses, "where you have the right to read all the papers for and against the government," were the "seats of English liberty."[5]
Gentleman clubs[edit]
A Club of Gentlemen by Joseph Highmore c. 1730.
Gentlemen's clubs proliferated in the 18th century, especially in the West End of London. Clubs took over the role occupied by coffee houses in 18th century London to some degree, and reached the height of their influence in the late 19th century - some notable names were White's, Brooks's, Arthur's, and Boodle's which still exist today.
These social changes, in which a closed and largely illiterate public became an open and politicized one, was to become of tremendous political importance in the 19th century as the mass media was circulated ever more widely and literacy was steadily improved. Governments increasingly recognized the importance of managing and directing public opinion. This trend is exemplified in the career of George Canning who restyled his political career from its aristocratic origins to one of popular consent when he contested and won the parliamentary seat in Liverpool; a city with a growing and affluent middle class, which he attributed to the growing influence of "public opinion."[6]
Jeremy Bentham was an impassioned advocate of the importance of public opinion in the shaping of constitutional governance. He thought it important that all government acts and decisions should be subject to the inspection of public opinion, because "to the pernicious exercise of the power of government it is the only check."[7] He opined that public opinion had the power to ensure that rulers would rule for the greatest happiness of the greater number. He brought in Utilitarian philosophy in order to define theories of public opinion.
Concepts[edit]
The German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies, by using the conceptional tools of his theory of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, argued (1922, "Kritik der öffentlichen Meinung"), that 'public opinion' has the equivalent social function in societies (Gesellschaften) which religion has in communities (Gemeinschaften).[8]
German social theorist Jürgen Habermas contributed the idea of "Public sphere" to the discussion of public opinion. The Public Sphere, or bourgeois public, is according to Habermas, where "something approaching public opinion can be formed" (2004, p. 351). Habermas claimed that the Public Sphere featured universal access, rational debate, and disregard for rank. However, he believes that these three features for how public opinion are best formed are no longer in place in western liberal democratic countries. Public opinion, in western democracy, is highly susceptible to elite manipulation.
The American sociologist Herbert Blumer has proposed an altogether different conception of the "public." According to Blumer, public opinion is discussed as a form of collective behavior (another specialized term) which is made up of those who are discussing a given public issue at any one time. Given this definition, there are many publics; each of them comes into being when an issue arises and ceases to exist when the issue is resolved. Blumer claims that people participate in public in different capacities and to different degrees. So, public opinion polling cannot measure the public. An educated individual's participation is more important than that of a drunk. The "mass," in which people independently make decisions about, for example, which brand of toothpaste to buy, is a form of collective behavior different from the public.
Public opinion plays an important role in the political sphere. Cutting across all aspects of relationship between government and public opinion are studies of voting behavior. These have registered the distribution of opinions on a wide variety of issues, have explored the impact of special interest groups on election outcomes and have contributed to our knowledge about the effects of government propaganda and policy.
Contemporary, quantitative approaches to the study of public opinion may be divided into 4 categories:
quantitative measurement of opinion distributions;
investigation of the internal relationships among the individual opinions that make up public opinion on an issue;
description or analysis of the public role of public opinion;
study both of the communication media that disseminate the ideas on which opinions are based and of the uses that propagandists and other manipulators make of these media.
The rapid spread of public opinion measurement around the world is reflection of the number of uses to which it can be put. Public opinion can be accurately obtained through survey sampling. Both private firms and governments use surveys to inform public policies and public relations.
Formation[edit]
Numerous theories and substantial evidence exists to explain the formation and dynamics of individuals' opinions. Much of this research draws on psychological research on attitudes. In communications studies and political science, mass media are often seen as influential forces on public opinion. Additionally, political socialization and behavioral genetics sometimes explain public opinion.
Mass media effects[edit]
The formation of public opinion starts with agenda setting by major media outlets throughout the world. This agenda setting dictates what is newsworthy and how and when it will be reported. The media agenda is set by a variety of different environmental and newswork factors that determines which stories will be newsworthy.
Another key component in the formation of public opinion is framing. Framing is when a story or piece of news is portrayed in a particular way and is meant to sway the consumers attitude one way or the other. Most political issues are heavily framed in order to persuade voters to vote for a particular candidate. For example, if Candidate X once voted on a bill that raised income taxes on the middle class, a framing headline would read "Candidate X Doesn't Care About the Middle Class". This puts Candidate X in a negative frame to the news reader.
Social desirability is another key component to the formation of public opinion. Social desirability is the idea that people in general will form their opinions based on what they believe is the prevalent opinion of the social group they identify with. Based on media agenda setting and media framing, most often a particular opinion gets repeated throughout various news mediums and social networking sites, until it creates a false vision where the perceived truth can actually be very far away from the actual truth.
Public opinion can be influenced by public relations and the political media. Additionally, mass media utilizes a wide variety of advertising techniques to get their message out and change the minds of people. Since the 1950s, television has been the main medium for molding public opinion.[9]
Role of influentials[edit]
There have been a variety of academic studies investigating whether or not public opinion is influenced by "influentials," or persons that have a significant effect on influencing opinion of the general public regarding any relevant issues. Many early studies[10][11] have modeled the transfer of information from mass media sources to the general public as a "two-step" process. In this process, information from mass media and other far-reaching sources of information influences influentials, and influentials then influence the general public as opposed to the mass media directly influencing the public.
While the "two-step" process regarding public opinion influence has motivated further research on the role of influential persons, a more recent study by Watts and Dodds (2007)[12] suggests that while influentials play some role in influencing public opinion, "non-influential" persons that make up the general public are also just as likely (if not more likely) to influence opinion provided that the general public is composed of persons that are easily influenced. This is referred to in their work as the "Influential Hypothesis." The authors discuss such results by using a model to quantify the number of people influenced by both the general public and influentials. The model can be easily customized to represent a variety of ways that influencers interact with each other as well as the general public. In their study, such a model diverges from the prior paradigm of the "two-step" process. The Watts and Dodds model introduces a model of influence emphasizing lateral channels of influence between the influencers and general public categories. This thus leads to a more complex flow of influence amongst the three parties involved in influencing public opinion (i.e., media, influencers and general public).
See also: Two-step flow of communication
Relationship with public policy[edit]
The most pervasive issue dividing theories of the opinion-policy relation bears a striking resemblance to the problem of monism-pluralism in the history of philosophy. The controversy deals with the question of whether the structure of socio-political action should be viewed as a more or less centralized process of acts and decisions by a class of key leaders, representing integrated hierarchies of influence in society or whether it is more accurately envisaged as several sets of relatively autonomous opinion and influence groups, interacting with representative decision makers in an official structure of differentiated governmental authority. The former assumption interprets individual, group and official action as part of a single system and reduces politics and governmental policies to a derivative of three basic analytical terms: society, culture and personality.
Despite philosophical arguments regarding public opinion, social scientists (those in sociology, political science, economics and social psychology) present compelling theories to describe how public opinion shapes public policy and find myriad effects of opinion on policy using various empirical research methods. Moreover, researchers find that causal relationships likely run in both directions from opinion to policy and from policy to opinion. On the one hand, public opinion signals public preferences and potential voting behaviors to policymakers.[13][14] This impact should be greater under more stable democratic institutions.[15] It should be greatest in the realm of social policy because the public are highly motivated by potential goods and services they get from the state. On the other hand, social policy impacts public opinion. The goods and services the public gets via social policy builds normative expectations that shape public opinion.[16][17] Plus, social policy constitutes the largest share of state spending budgets, making it an active and contentious political area.[18] Together these theories suggest that causal effects are part of a feedback loop between opinion and policy.[19][20][21] Using increasingly sophisticated methods, scholars are beginning to grasp and identify the feedback of opinion and policy and use this phenomenon to explain the path dependency of institutions.[22][23][24]
See also[edit]
Court of public opinion
Opinion polls
Public sphere
Political socialization
Public figure
Truth
Organizations
American Association for Public Opinion Research
Roper Center for Public Opinion Research
European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research
World Association for Public Opinion Research
Gabriel Tarde
Ferdinand Tönnies
Walter Lippmann
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Wolfgang Donsbach, The International Encyclopedia of Communication. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008
Jump up ^ See (in French) Julien Théry, "Fama : l'opinion publique comme preuve judiciaire. Aperçu sur la révolution médiévale de l'inquisitoire (XIIe-XIVe s.)", in B. Lemesle (ed.), La preuve en justice de l'Antiquité à nos jours, Rennes, PUR, 2003, p. 119-147, available online, and Daniel Smail, Thelma Fernster (ed), Fama. The Politicas of Talk and Reputation, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2003.
Jump up ^ Speier, Hans (1950). "Historical Development of Public Opinion". American Journal of Sociology. University of Chicago Press. 55 (4): 376–88. doi:10.1086/220561. ISSN 1537-5390. JSTOR 2772299 – via JSTOR. (Registration required (help)).
Jump up ^ An historical and chronological deduction of the origin of commerce, from the earliest accounts. : Containing an history of the great commercial interests of the British Empire. To which is prefixed an introduction, exhibiting a view of the ancient and modern state of Europe ; of the importance of our colonies ; and of the commerce, shipping, manufactures, fisheries, &c., of Great-Britain and Ireland ; and their influence on the landed interest. With an appendix, containing the modern politico-commercial geography of the several countries of Europe. Author: Adam Anderson; William Combe; John Walter; Logographic Press.
Jump up ^ Prévost, Abbé (1930) Adventures of a man of quality (translation of Séjour en Angleterre, v. 5 of Mémoires et avantures d'un homme de qualité qui s'est retiré du monde) G. Routledge & Sons, London, OCLC 396693
Jump up ^ Stephen M. Lee, "George Canning and Liberal Toryism, 1801-1827" Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2008
Jump up ^ "public opinion".
Jump up ^ Rolf Fechner/Lars Clausen/Arno Bammé (eds.): Öffentliche Meinung zwischen neuer Religion und neuer Wissenschaft. Ferdinand Tönnies' „Kritik der öffentlichen Meinung" in der internationalen Diskussion, in: Tönnies im Gespräch, tom. 3, Munich/Vienna: Profil 2005, ISBN 3-89019-590-3.
Jump up ^ Diggs-Brown, Barbara (2011) Strategic Public Relations: Audience Focused Practice p.48
Jump up ^ Elihu Katz and Paul Felix Lazarsfeld (1955). Personal Influence: the Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communications. ISBN 1-4128-0507-4.
Jump up ^ Lazarsfeld et al., 1968
Jump up ^ Watts, D.J. and P.S. Dodds (2007). "Influentials, Networks, and Public Opinion Formation" (PDF). Journal of Consumer Research. 34 (4): 441–458. doi:10.1086/518527.
Jump up ^ Pierson, Paul (2002). "Coping with Permanent Austerity: Welfare State Restructuring in Affluent Democracies". Revue Française de Sociologie. 43 (2): 369–406. doi:10.2307/3322510.
Jump up ^ Soroka, Stuart; Wlezien, Christopher (2010). Degrees of Democracy: Politics, Public Opinion and Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Papadakis, Elim (1992). "Public Opinion, Public Policy and the Welfare State". Political Studies. 40 (1): 21–37. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.1992.tb01758.x.
Jump up ^ Mau, Steffen (2004). "Welfare Regimes and the Norms of Social Exchange". Current Sociology. 52 (1): 53–74. doi:10.1177/0011392104039314.
Jump up ^ van Oorschot, Wim (2007). "Culture and Social Policy: A Developing Field of Study". International Journal of Social Welfare. 16 (2): 129–139. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2397.2006.00451.x.
Jump up ^ "Social Expenditures Database". OECD.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Andrea Louise (2012). "Policy Makes Mass Politics". Annual Review of Political Science. 15 (1): 333–351. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-012610-135202.
Jump up ^ Wlezien, Christopher; Soroka, Stuart (2007). "Relationships between Public Opinion and Policy". Oxford Handbook of Political Behavior: 799–817.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Robert (2011). "Public Opinion and American Democracy". Public Opinion Quarterly. 75 (5): 982–1017. doi:10.1093/poq/nfr053.
Jump up ^ Breznau, Nate (14 July 2016). "Positive Returns and Equilibrium: Simultaneous Feedback Between Public Opinion and Social Policy". Policy Studies Journal. doi:10.1111/psj.12171.
Jump up ^ Wlezien, Christopher (1995). "The Public as Thermostat: Dynamics of Preferences for Spending". American Journal of Political Science. 39 (4): 981–1000. doi:10.2307/2111666.
Jump up ^ Pierson, Paul (2000). "Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics". The American Political Science Review. 94 (2): 251–267. doi:10.2307/2586011.
Bibliography[edit]
Edward L. Bernays, Crystallizing Public Opinion, 1923
Daniel L. Smail, Thelma Fernster, Fama. The Politics of Talk and Reputation, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 2003.
Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, 1989 (Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit, Neuwied 1962)
Jacob Shamir/Michal Shamir, The Anatomy of Public Opinion, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000.
Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, 1922.
Norman John Powell, Anatomy of Public Opinion, New York, Prentice-Hall, 1951.
(in French) Julien Théry, "Fama : l'opinion publique comme preuve. Aperçu sur la révolution médiévale de l'inquisitoire (XIIe-XIVe siècles)", in B. Lemesle (ed.), La preuve en justice de l'Antiquité à nos jours, Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2003, pp. 119-147, online.
Ferdinand Tönnies, On Public Opinion, 1970 (Kritik der öffentlichen Meinung, 1922, critical edition by Alexander Deichsel, Rolf Fechner, and Rainer Waßner, Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter 2003)
Bianco, William T., and David T. Canon. "Public Opinion." In American Politics Today. 3rd ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 2013.
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David Akers
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
David Akers
Akers with the Philadelphia Eagles in 2009
No. 6, 2
Position:
Placekicker
Personal information
Born:
(1974-12-09) December 9, 1974 (age 43)
Lexington, Kentucky
Height:
5 ft 10 in (1.78 m)
Weight:
205 lb (93 kg)
Career information
High school:
Lexington (KY) Tates Creek
College:
Louisville
Undrafted:
1997
Career history
Atlanta Falcons (1997)*
Carolina Panthers (1997)*
Washington Redskins (1998)
Berlin Thunder (1999)
Philadelphia Eagles (1999–2010)
San Francisco 49ers (2011–2012)
Detroit Lions (2013)
* Offseason and/or practice squad member only
Career highlights and awards
6× Pro Bowl (2001, 2002, 2004, 2009–2011)
2× First-team All-Pro (2001, 2011)
4× Second-team All-Pro (2002, 2004, 2009, 2010)
PFW Golden Toe Award (2011)
Philadelphia Eagles 75th Anniversary Team
NFL 2000s All-Decade Team
NFL season record for points scored by a kicker (166)
NFL season record for field goals (44)
Inducted into KY Pro Football HOF (2004)
Inducted into Philadelphia Eagles HOF (2017)
Career NFL statistics
Field goals:
386
Field goal attempts:
477
Field goal %:
80.9
Long field goal:
63
Points scored:
1,721
Passing:
2/2, 25 yards, 1 TD
Player stats at NFL.com
David Roy Akers (/ˈeɪkərz/; born December 9, 1974) is a former American football placekicker. He played college football at Louisville, and was signed by the Atlanta Falcons as an undrafted free agent in 1997.
Akers also played for the Carolina Panthers, Washington Redskins, Berlin Thunder, Philadelphia Eagles, San Francisco 49ers, and Detroit Lions. He was selected for the Pro Bowl six times in his career and was at one point tied for the longest field goal in NFL history when he kicked a 63-yard field goal with the San Francisco 49ers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early years
2 College career
3 Professional career
3.1 Atlanta Falcons and Carolina Panthers
3.2 Washington Redskins
3.3 Philadelphia Eagles
3.4 San Francisco 49ers
3.5 Detroit Lions
3.6 NFL records
3.7 NFL statistics
4 Personal life
5 References
6 External links
Early years[edit]
Akers attended Tates Creek High School in Lexington, Kentucky.[1]
College career[edit]
Akers attended college at the University of Louisville and played for the Louisville Cardinals football team. During his four-year college career, Akers kicked a school-record 36 field goals (with a long of 51 yards against Texas A&M University), and ranks second on Louisville's all-time scoring list, with 219 points.
Professional career[edit]
Atlanta Falcons and Carolina Panthers[edit]
Between 1997 and 1998, as an undrafted free agent, Akers spent time trying to make the team with the Atlanta Falcons and Carolina Panthers.
Washington Redskins[edit]
Akers was signed by the Washington Redskins in 1998 and played in one game for them, making two extra points but missing two field goal attempts of 48+ yards each. He was waived by the Redskins during the 1999 season.
Philadelphia Eagles[edit]
After Washington cut Akers, the Philadelphia Eagles claimed him off waivers and allocated him to NFL Europe. A solid season with the Berlin Thunder helped him earn the kicking job for the Eagles in 2000. Akers proved to be one of the biggest special teams surprises in all of the NFL that season. He made 29 out of 33 field goals (an 87.9% success rate), and had a team-record 121 points. Akers earned the NFC Special Teams Player of the Month award in November 2000. He made the Pro Bowl for the first time in 2001 as he went 26-for-31, making a team-record seventeen consecutive field goals during the season.
Akers attempting a field goal in August 2009.
Akers' best statistical season was 2002 when he connected on 30 of 34 field goals (88.2%), scored a team-record 133 points, and made another Pro Bowl. He got fewer chances in 2003, but still made 24 of 29 field goals. He made the third-longest field goal in Eagles' history on September 14, 2003, a 57-yarder against the New England Patriots at the new Lincoln Financial Field (the only longer field goals in Eagles' history were Jake Elliott's 61-yard field goal in 2017 and Tony Franklin's 59-yard field goal in 1979.) In 2004, Akers continued his consistent kicking with an 84.4% field goal percentage, and he made his third Pro Bowl.
Injuries finally got to Akers in 2005 when he tore the hamstring in his non-kicking leg during the opening kickoff against the Oakland Raiders on September 25, 2005. Akers left the game, but returned in the second half with a heavily taped leg to make two extra points and then kick the game-winning 28-yard field goal before collapsing in pain as his teammates mobbed him. He missed the next four games and finished the season 16 for 22.
In 2006, Akers was injury-free, but made only 18 of 23 attempts (78.3%), his second worst season statistically.
On December 16, 2007, in a 10-6 win over the Dallas Cowboys, Akers set the Philadelphia Eagles franchise record for most points and on Thanksgiving in 2008, Akers passed 1,000 career points during a 48-20 win over the Arizona Cardinals.
On December 7, 2008, Akers kicked a 51-yard field goal at Giants Stadium, his longest of the season. In the same game he had two field goals blocked, one of which was returned for a touchdown. At the end of the 2008 regular season, Akers again set the team single-season scoring record with an NFC-best 144 points. He connected on 33 of 40 field goals (82.5 pct), his best percentage since 2004.
On January 11, 2009, Akers kicked three field goals in three attempts during a divisional playoff win over the New York Giants. The second of these set an NFL record for consecutive field goals without a miss during the postseason, previously held by one-time Eagle Gary Anderson. Akers eventually ran his streak to a record 19 consecutive postseason field goal conversions; it was snapped the very next week against the Arizona Cardinals. Akers currently has thirty-five total postseason field goal conversions.
Akers was selected to the 2010 Pro Bowl, his fourth. He was also named to the NFL All-Decade Team for the 2000s.[2] After the 2010 season, he was selected to his fifth career Pro Bowl.
San Francisco 49ers[edit]
Akers was signed by the San Francisco 49ers to a $9 million, three-year contract on July 29, 2011. He kicked a 59-yard field goal just before halftime in a preseason game against the New Orleans Saints on August 12, 2011. On September 18, 2011, he kicked a 55-yard field goal against the Dallas Cowboys, setting a record for the longest field goal made at Candlestick Park.
Akers broke the 49ers' record for most points scored in a season in a 20–3 win over the Pittsburgh Steelers in a Monday Night Football matchup on December 19, 2011.[3] The record was formerly held by the 49ers' Hall of Fame wide receiver, Jerry Rice. In that same game against the Seahawks, Akers broke the all-time record for field goals in a season, surpassing Neil Rackers' 40 in 2005.
On January 1, 2012, Akers broke the NFL record for most points by a kicker in a single season against the St. Louis Rams; he finished with 166 points. In this game, he also extended his NFL record for most field goals made in a single season, finishing with 44, and threw for a touchdown on a fake field goal. Akers made his sixth Pro Bowl at the end of the season.
On September 9, 2012, Akers tied the NFL record for the longest field goal by kicking a 63-yard field goal off the crossbar against the Green Bay Packers at Lambeau Field.[4] The record was originally set by Tom Dempsey and was shared with Jason Elam and Sebastian Janikowski until Broncos kicker Matt Prater broke the record with a 64-yard field goal on December 8, 2013.
The long field goals by Elam, Janikowski, and Prater were all made in Denver, where the ball has the ability to travel slightly farther in thinner air. Elam kicked his 63-yard field goal at Mile High Stadium, while the 63-yarder by Janikowski and the 64-yarder by Prater were at Sports Authority Field at Mile High. It should be noted in track and field, the IAAF denotes any records set 1,000 metres (about 3,937 feet) or more above sea level as altitude-assisted records, and the Dempsey (Tulane Stadium) and Akers (Lambeau Field) records were set below the 1,000m threshold.[5][6]
The 49ers advanced to Super Bowl XLVII following the 2012 season, marking Akers' second appearance in the game. In the game, Akers went 3 for 3 in field goal attempts, but San Francisco narrowly lost to the Baltimore Ravens by a 34–31 score.[7]
On March 6, 2013, Akers was released after two seasons with the 49ers.[8]
Detroit Lions[edit]
On April 6, 2013, Akers signed with the Detroit Lions, three days after the retirement of 21-season Lions kicker Jason Hanson.[9]
NFL records[edit]
Points in a single decade (2000–2009): 1,169
Points in Pro Bowl History: 57
Most points in a season, no touchdowns (2011): 166
Most games 4+ field goals in a season (2011): 6
Most games 10+ points in a season (2011): 10 - tied with four others
Field Goals in an NFL Season: 44[10]
Field Goals attempted in an NFL Season: 52
Longest Field Goal in Pro Bowl History: 53 yards, 2005 (Eagles).
NFL statistics[edit]
Year
Team
Games
Field Goals Made
Field Goals Attempted
Field Goal Percentage
1-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50+
Longest Field Goal
Extra Points Made
Extra Point Attempts
Points
1998 WSH 1 0 2 0.0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2 2
1999 PHI 16 3 6 50.0 0 0 0 3 3 53 2 2 11
2000 PHI 16 29 33 87.9 1 6 15 10 1 51 34 36 121
2001 PHI 16 26 31 83.9 1 9 8 10 3 50 37 38 115
2002 PHI 16 30 34 88.2 0 9 16 7 2 51 43 43 133
2003 PHI 16 24 29 82.8 0 9 7 10 3 57 42 42 114
2004 PHI 16 27 32 84.4 0 4 7 18 3 51 41 42 122
2005 PHI 12 16 22 72.7 0 3 8 9 2 50 23 23 71
2006 PHI 16 18 23 78.3 0 10 5 8 0 47 48 48 102
2007 PHI 16 24 32 75.0 0 12 10 6 4 53 36 36 108
2008 PHI 16 33 40 82.5 2 11 12 10 5 51 45 45 144
2009 PHI 16 32 37 86.5 1 11 9 13 3 52 43 45 139
2010 PHI 16 32 38 84.2 0 12 12 11 3 50 47 47 143
2011 SF 16 44 52 84.6 2 16 14 11 9 55 34 34 166
2012 SF 16 29 42 69.0 1 9 13 13 6 63 44 44 131
2013 DET 16 19 24 79.2 1 5 8 7 3 53 42 43 99
Career 237 386 477 80.9 9 126 144 148 50 63 563 570 1,721
[11]
Personal life[edit]
Akers and his wife, Erika, reside in Franklin, Tennessee, with their sons Luke and Sawyer, and daughter Halley. He has maintained a summer residence in Ocean City, New Jersey.[12]
Akers is a Christian.[13]
In 2001, the Akers family formed the David Akers Kicks for Kids Foundation, which has established programs with the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia to benefit sick children and their families. He also regularly trains in martial arts such as jiu-jitsu and Shaolin Kempo.[14]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Tates Creek, UofL star Akers throws TD pass, kicks 2 field goals in 49ers' win". Lexington Herald Leader. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
Jump up ^ Akers named to All-Decade team | Eagletarian | 01/27/2010
Jump up ^ Branch, Eric (December 20, 2011). "David Akers breaks Rice's 49ers scoring mark". The San Francisco Chronicle.
Jump up ^ "David Akers kicks 63-yard field goal". ESPN. September 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ David Akers's 63-yarder
Jump up ^ Allain, Rhett (December 20, 2011). "Are Field Goals Easier in Denver? - Wired Science". Wired.
Jump up ^ "Super Bowl XLVII - San Francisco 49ers vs. Baltimore Ravens - February 3rd, 2013". Pro-Football-Reference.com. Retrieved 2017-12-02.
Jump up ^ Gonzalez, Antonio (2013-03-06). "49ers release 6-time Pro Bowl kicker David Akers". Yahoo! Sports. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
Jump up ^ Copeland, Kareem (April 5, 2013). "Detroit Lions, David Akers reportedly agree to term". nfl.com. Retrieved September 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kevin Lynch (2011-12-24). "David Akers sets NFL record". blog.sfgate.com. Retrieved 2011-12-24.
Jump up ^ "David Akers Stats". ESPN. ESPN Internet Ventures. Retrieved 11 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Strauss, Robert. "Big-name hunting season at the Shore; Celebrities roam even these simpler environs.", The Philadelphia Inquirer, May 15, 2009. Accessed September 13, 2015. "Eagles kicker David Akers has a house on the south end of the island and, at various times, former boxing champ Mike Tyson, Flyers captain and executive Bobby Clarke, and Eagles running back Brian Westbrook have been reported to own or rent in Ocean City."
Jump up ^ "NFL Kicker David Akers on Navigating Life's Kicks".
Jump up ^ John Guinn. "David Akers Kicks for Kids". Davidakerskicksforkids.org. Retrieved 2008-11-28.
External links[edit]
Stats at Pro-Football-Reference
Kicking Videos by David Akers
San Francisco 49ers bio
Wikimedia Commons has media related to David Akers.
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National Football League | NFL's 2000s All-Decade Team
Tom Brady
Peyton Manning
LaDainian Tomlinson
Edgerrin James
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Shaun Alexander
Lorenzo Neal
Tony Richardson
Randy Moss
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Terrell Owens
Torry Holt
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Zach Thomas
DeMarcus Ware
Champ Bailey
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Ty Law
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Brian Dawkins
Troy Polamalu
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David Akers
Shane Lechler
Brian Moorman
Josh Cribbs
Dante Hall
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[show]
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Philadelphia Eagles 75th Anniversary Team (2007)
Offense
McNabb (QB)
Van Buren (RB)
Byars (FB)
Carmichael (WR)
McDonald (WR)
Pihos (TE)
Thomas (LT)
Key (LG)
Bednarik (C)
Andrews (RG)
Runyan (RT)
Defense
Simmons (DE)
White (DE)
J. Brown (DT)
Johnson (DT)
Bednarik (MLB)
Joyner (OLB)
Wojciechowicz (OLB)
Allen (CB)
Vincent (CB)
Waters (SS)
Dawkins (FS)
Special teams
T. Brown (KR)
Westbrook (PR)
Akers (PK)
Landeta (P)
Papale (ST)
Coach
Andy Reid
[show]
v
t
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2001 AP NFL All-Pro Team
Offense: QB Kurt Warner
RB Marshall Faulk
RB Priest Holmes
WR David Boston
WR Terrell Owens
TE Tony Gonzalez
OT Walter Jones
OT Orlando Pace
G Larry Allen
G Alan Faneca
C Kevin Mawae
Defense: DE John Abraham
DE Michael Strahan
DT Warren Sapp
DT Ted Washington
OLB Jason Gildon
OLB Jamir Miller
ILB Ray Lewis
ILB Brian Urlacher
CB Ronde Barber
CB Aeneas Williams
S Mike Brown
S Brian Dawkins
Special Teams P Todd Sauerbrun
PK David Akers
KR Steve Smith
[show]
v
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2011 AP NFL All-Pro First Team
Offense: QB Aaron Rodgers
RB LeSean McCoy
RB Maurice Jones-Drew
FB Vonta Leach
WR Calvin Johnson
WR Wes Welker
TE Rob Gronkowski
OT Joe Thomas
OT Jason Peters
G Jahri Evans
G Carl Nicks
C Maurkice Pouncey
Defense: DE Jared Allen
DE Jason Pierre-Paul
DT Haloti Ngata
DT Justin Smith
OLB Terrell Suggs
OLB DeMarcus Ware
ILB Patrick Willis
ILB (tie) NaVorro Bowman
ILB (tie) Derrick Johnson
CB Darrelle Revis
CB Charles Woodson
FS Eric Weddle
SS Troy Polamalu
Special teams: P Andy Lee
PK David Akers
KR Patrick Peterson
ST Matthew Slater
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Akers&oldid=814275487"
Categories:
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