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Westward Expansion Trails
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In the American Old West, overland trails were popular means of travel used by pioneers and immigrants throughout the 19th century and especially between 1830 and 1870 as an alternative to sea and railroad transport. These immigrants began to settle various regions of North America west of the Great Plains as part of the mass overland migrations of the mid-19th century. Settlers emigrating from the eastern United States were spurred by various motives, among them religious persecution, economic incentives, and the prospect of new wealth and new freedoms in what was then a largely unspoiled and unregulated country. By the 1840s, several popular and well-established routes had been blazed through the continental interior to destinations in the far west, including the Oregon Trail, California Trail, and Mormon Trail. After the end of the Mexican–American War in 1849, vast new American conquests again enticed mass immigration. Legislation like the Donation Land Claim Act and significant events like the California Gold Rush further lured colonists to travel overland to the west.
Two major wagon-based transportation networks, one typically starting in Missouri and the other in the Mexican province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México, served the majority of migrants during the era of westward expansion. Three of the Missouri-based routes—the Oregon, Mormon, and California Trails—were collectively known as the Emigrant Trails. Historians have estimated at least 500,000 emigrants used these three trails between 1843 and 1869, and despite growing competition from transcontinental railroads, some use even continued into the early 20th century. The major southern routes were the Santa Fe Trail, the Southern Emigrant Trail, and the Old Spanish Trail, as well as its wagon road successor the Mormon Road, a southern spur of the California Trail used in the winter that also made use of the western half of the Old Spanish Trail. Regardless of the trail used, the journey was often slow and arduous, fraught with risks from infectious diseases, dehydration, malnutrition, injury, and harsh weather, with as many as one in ten travelers dying along the way, usually as a result of disease.
The history of these trails and the pioneers who traveled them have since become deeply embedded in the culture and folklore of the United States as some of the most significant influences to shape the content and character of the nation. The remains of many trail ruts can still be observed in various locations throughout the American West. Travelers may loosely follow various routes of the emigrant trails on modern highways through the use of byway signs across the western states.
Contents
[hide]
1 Trail choices
2 Santa Fe Trail
3 Old Spanish Trail
4 Oregon Trail
5 California Trail
6 Mormon Trail
7 Southern Emigrant Trail
8 See also
9 References
Trail choices[edit]
Travelers across what became the Western United States in the 19th century had the choice of several routes. Some of the earliest were those of the Mexicans in the southwest. American trade with Northern Mexico created the Santa Fe Trail between St. Louis and Santa Fe following an 18th-century route pioneered by the Spanish Empire. From Santa Fe, American traders followed the old El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro southward to Chihuahua by way of El Paso del Norte. The Old Spanish Trail from Santa Fe, in Mexican New Mexico Territory to Los Angeles, in Mexican Alta California, developed in 1829-1830 to support the trade of New Mexican wool products for California horses and mules and carried parties of fur traders and emigrants from New Mexico to Southern California.
Following the trails pioneered by fur traders, the Oregon Trail from Independence, Missouri to the Oregon Territory developed crossing the central Great Plains, Rocky Mountains and northern Great Basin. Branching off from that route, some settlers traveled southwestward on the California Trail from Fort Hall, Oregon Territory to Sutters Fort, in Mexican Alta California. Also branching off to the south was the Mormon Trail from Nauvoo, Illinois to Salt Lake City, Utah Territory. During the twenty-five years 1841–1866, 250,000 to 650,000 people "pulled up stakes," and headed west along these trails. About one-third immigrated to Oregon, one-third to California and one-third to Utah, Colorado, and Montana.
Although it is often stated that the Northern trails began in certain cities on the Missouri River, emigrants following any of the three trails typically left from one of three "jumping off" points on the Missouri's steamboat serviced river ports: Independence, Missouri or Saint Joseph, Missouri, or Council Bluffs, Iowa. (Once known as Kanesville, Iowa until 1852; after river dredging in the early 1850s, the latter town at the Missouri-Platte confluence became the most common departure point since it was close in proximity to the River Platte—along which the eastern trails ascend to South Pass above Fort Laramie. ) The trails from these cities (and several others) converged in the mostly empty flatlands of central Nebraska near present-day Kearney, in the vicinity of Fort Kearney. From their confluence there the combined trails followed in succession the Platte, North Platte, and Sweetwater rivers westward across the full widths of Nebraska and Wyoming, and crossed the continental divide south of the Wind River Range through South Pass in southwestern Wyoming.
The most common vehicle for Oregon and California-bound settlers was a covered wagon pulled by a team of oxen or mules (which were greatly preferred for their endurance and strength over horses) in the dry semi-arid terrain common to the high plains in the heat of summer. In later years, following the advice of Brigham Young, many Mormon emigrants made the crossing to Utah with handcarts. For all emigrants, the scarcity of potable water and fuel for fires was a common brutal challenge on the trip, which was exacerbated by the wide ranging temperature changes common to the mountain highlands and high plains where a daylight reading in the eighties or nineties can drop precipitously to a frigid seeming nighttime temperature in the low 40s. In many treeless areas, buffalo chips were the most common source of fuel.
Routes of the California, Mormon and Oregon Trails west of the Rocky Mountains
During the Mexican–American War, the wagon to California road known as Cooke's Wagon Road, or Sonora Road, was built across Nuevo Mexico, Sonora and Alta California from Santa Fe, New Mexico to San Diego. It crossed what was then the northernmost part of Mexico until the 1853 Gadsden Purchase. During the California Gold Rush the routes to California used were increased by the Siskiyou Trail from Oregon. In the south the forty-niners used the Cooke Wagon Road, until some found a short cut, the Tucson Cutoff. This route, not closed to travel in winter, permitted travelers coming to New Mexico Territory on the Santa Fe Trail or on the San Antonio-El Paso Road developed in 1849, across West Texas to El Paso where it followed the El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro north to link up to the Cooke's Wagon Road/Southern Emigrant Trail at the cutoff through the San Diego Crossing. In 1856, as part of an improvement of the route as a military road, a cutoff was built to Cooke's Spring from Mesilla, (part of Mexico until 1853). From Cooke's Spring the road ran to the Yuma Crossing into California and on to Los Angeles. This route became the Southern Emigrant Trail. From Los Angeles the goldfields could be reached by land over the two routes north, the old El Camino Viejo or by what became the Stockton – Los Angeles Road. During the Gold Rush era it was these routes by which many herds of sheep and cattle were driven to California and the goldfields.
With the passes of the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains blocked in winter, another winter route, the Mormon Road between Salt Lake City and Los Angeles was developed by a Mormon expedition from their new settlements at and around Salt Lake City, and by some Mormon Battalion soldiers returning to Utah in 1847–48. The first significant use of the route was by parties of Forty-Niners late in 1849, and by some Mormon trains, to avoid crossing the snow bound Sierra Nevada Mountains by linking up with the Old Spanish Trail in southern Utah and closely following it, with alterations to the route of the mule trails only to allow wagons to traverse it for the first time. Soon afterward it was the route Mormon colonists followed to settle southwestern Utah, a mission in Las Vegas and a colony in San Bernardino, California. This wagon route, also called by some of its early travelers the Southern Route, of the California Trail, remained a minor migration route and in the early 1850s a mail route. After some alterations of the route between Cajon Pass and the border of California and in southern Utah, in 1855, it became a significant seasonal trade route between California and Utah, until 1869, when the transcontinental railroad ended Utah's winter isolation.
Up to 50,000 people, or one-tenth of the emigrants who attempted the crossing continent, died during the trip, most from infectious disease such as cholera, spread by poor sanitation: with thousands traveling along or near the same watercourses each summer, downstream travelers were susceptible to ingesting upstream wastewater including bodily waste. Hostile confrontations with Native Americans, although often feared by the emigrants, were comparatively rare, prior to the American Civil War. Most emigrants traveled in large parties or "trains" of up to several hundred wagons led by a wagon master. In 1859 the government published a guidebook written by Captain Randolph B. Marcy, called The Prairie Traveler, in order to help emigrants prepare for the journey.>[1]
Santa Fe Trail[edit]
Main article: Santa Fe Trail
The Santa Fe Trail was a 19th-century transportation route through central North America that connected Independence, Missouri with Santa Fe, New Mexico. Pioneered in 1821 by William Becknell, it served as a vital commercial highway until the introduction of the railroad to Santa Fe in 1880. Santa Fe was near the end of the El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro which carried trade from Mexico City.
The route skirted the northern edge and crossed the north-western corner of Comancheria, the territory of the Comanches, who demanded compensation for granting passage to the trail, and represented another market for American traders. Comanche raiding farther south in Mexico isolated New Mexico, making it more dependent on the American trade, and provided the Comanches with a steady supply of horses for sale. By the 1840s trail traffic along the Arkansas Valley was so heavy that bison herds could not reach important seasonal grazing land, contributing to their collapse which in turn hastened the decline of Comanche power in the region. The Trail was used as the 1846 U.S. invasion route of New Mexico during the Mexican–American War.
After the U.S. acquisition of the Southwest ending the Mexican–American War, the trail helped open the region to U.S. economic development and settlement, playing a vital role in the expansion of the U.S. into the lands it had acquired. The road route is commemorated today by the National Park Service as the Santa Fe National Historic Trail. A highway route that roughly follows the trail's path through the entire length of Kansas, the southeast corner of Colorado and northern New Mexico has been designated as the Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway.
Old Spanish Trail[edit]
Main article: Old Spanish Trail
The Old Spanish Trail witnessed a brief but furious heyday between 1830 and 1848 as a trade route linking Santa Fe, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California. During that period, Mexican and American traders took woolen goods west over the trail by mule train, and returned eastward with California mules and horses for the New Mexico and Missouri markets. Between 1598 and 1830, Spanish (1598–1821) and later Mexican (1821–1830), and American (1821–1830) traders connected the native trade routes that started to Old Spanish Trail and completed it.
The Trail left Santa Fe and split into two routes. The South or Main Branch headed northwest past Colorado's San Juan mountains to near Green River, Utah. The North Branch proceeded due north into Colorado's San Luis Valley and crossed west over Cochetepa Pass to follow the Gunnison and Colorado rivers to meet the Southern Branch near Green River. From central Utah the trail trended southwest to an area now shared by Utah, Nevada and Arizona. It crossed southern Nevada and passed through the Mojave Desert to San Gabriel Mission and Los Angeles
Oregon Trail[edit]
Main article: Oregon Trail
The Oregon Trail, was the longest of the overland routes used in the westward expansion of the United States, was first traced by explorers and fur traders for traveling to the Oregon Country. The main route of the Oregon Trail stopped at the Hudson's Bay Company Fort Hall, a major resupply route along the trail near present-day Pocatello and where the California Trail split off to the south. Then the Oregon Trail crossed the Snake River Plain of present-day southern Idaho and the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon before reaching the Willamette Valley. It was the only practical way for settlers in wagons without tools, livestock, or supplies to cross the mountains and usually thought critical to the colonization of the American West. Some of the first to travel the Oregon Trail were Christian missionaries, members of the Methodist Episcopal Church who established the Methodist Mission in 1834. Even though they didn't make many converts, they were impressed by the short amount of time needed to reach the Pacific Coast. Rumors about how the sun always shone there and wheat grew as tall as a man attracted American settlers.
American settlers began following the trail in 1841, with the first recorded colonist wagon traingroup being the 1843 "Great Migration" of about 900 colonists, led by Marcus Whitman. The Provisional Government of Oregon was established by such colonists in 1843, generally limited to the Willamette Valley. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 divided the Oregon Country between Great Britain and the United States, mostly along the 49th parallel. The Territory of Oregon was established shortly afterwards, in 1848, and over 12,000 American settlers made the journey there during the decade.
Families usually began their journey at Independence, Missouri, near the Missouri River with the best time to travel being from April to September. The journey to cross the entire Oregon Trail in a covered wagon took from four to six months, following a winding trail 2,000 miles (3,200 km) through prairies, deserts, and across mountains to the Pacific Northwest. The journey was a severe test of strength and endurance so travelers often joined wagon trains traveling about 12–15 miles (19–24 km) per day. Settlers often had to cross flooded rivers. Indians attacked the wagon trains; however, of the 10,000 deaths that occurred from 1835 to 1855, only 4 percent resulted from Indian attacks. Cholera, smallpox, and firearms accidents were the chief causes of death on the trail. Food, water, and wood were always scarce, and the travelers often encountered contaminated water holes. During summer, the trail was crowded with wagon trains, army units, missionaries, hunting parties, traders, and even sightseeing tours. Some travelers complained that they sometimes had to stop early in the day in order to find a good campsite ahead of the crowd. Others spoke of the need to wear masks for protection against the dust kicked up by the heavy traffic.
California Trail[edit]
Main article: California Trail
The main route of the California Trail branched from the Oregon Trail west of Fort Hall, as immigrants went on forward going southwestward into present-day Nevada, then down along the Humboldt River to the Sierra Nevada. The California Trail came into heavy use after the California Gold Rush enticed over 250,000 gold-seekers and farmers to travel overland the gold fields and rich farmlands of California during the 1840s and 1850s. Today, more than 1,000 miles of trail ruts and traces can still be seen in the vast undeveloped lands between Capers Wyoming and the West Coast, reminders of the sacrifices, struggles, and triumphs of early American travelers and settlers. More than 240 historic sites along the trail will eventually be available for public use and interpretation.
Early emigrants once called the California Trail an elephant, due to the difficult journey. If you wanted to get to California in pre-railroad times, you were guaranteed an arduous trek. California emigrants faced the greatest challenges of all the pioneer emigrants of the mid-19th century. In addition to the Rockies, these emigrants faced the barren deserts of Nevada and the imposing Sierra Nevada Range. The travelers of the California Trail often quipped that if you had "seen the elephant," then you had hit some hard traveling.
Mormon Trail[edit]
Main article: Mormon Trail
The Mormon Trail was created by pioneer members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, called "Mormons," who settled in what is now the Great Salt Lake in Utah. The Mormon Trail followed part of the Oregon Trail and then branched off at the fur trading post called Fort Bridger, founded by famed mountain man Jim Bridger. Heading south and following river valleys southwestward to the valley of the Great Salt Lake, Brigham Young led the first Mormons into present-day Utah during 1847. The Mormon Trail is 1,300 miles long and extends from Nauvoo, Illinois to Salt Lake City, Utah. The Mormon Trail was used for more than 20 years after the Mormons used it and has been reserved for sightseeing. The initial movement of the Mormons from Nauvoo, Illinois to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake occurred in two segments: one in 1846 and one in 1847. The first segment, across Iowa to the Missouri River, covered around 265 miles. The second segment, from the Missouri River to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake, covered about 1,032 miles.
From 1846 to 1869, more than 4,600 Mormons traveled along an integral part of the road west, the Mormon Pioneer Trail. The trail started in Nauvoo, Illinois, traveled across Iowa, connected with the Great Platte River Road at the Missouri River, and ended near the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Generally following pre-existing routes, the trail carried tens of thousands of Mormon emigrants to a new home and refuge in the Great Basin. From their labors arose the State of Deseret, later to become the Utah Territory, and finally the State of Utah.
The Mormon pioneers shared similar experiences with others traveling west: the drudgery of walking hundreds of miles, suffocating dust, violent thunderstorms, mud, temperature extremes, bad water, poor forage, sickness, and death. They recorded their experiences in journals, diaries, and letters. The Mormons, however, were a unique part of this migration. Their move to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake was a response to their violent expulsion from Missouri and Illinois. As it was also motivated by a desire to maintain a religious and cultural identity it was necessary to find an isolated area where they could permanently settle and practice their religion in peace.
Southern Emigrant Trail[edit]
Main article: Southern Emigrant Trail
The Southern Emigrant Trail was a major land route for immigration into California from the eastern United States that followed the Santa Fe Trail to New Mexico during the California Gold Rush. Unlike the more northern routes, pioneer wagons could travel year round, mountain passes not being blocked by snows, however it had the disadvantage of summer heat and lack of water in the desert regions through which it passed in New Mexico Territory and the Colorado Desert of California. Subsequently, it was a route of travel and commerce between the eastern United States and California. Many herds of cattle and sheep were driven along this route and it was followed by the San Antonio-San Diego Mail Line in 1857–1858 and then the Butterfield Overland Mail from 1858–1861.
In 1846, General Stephen Watts Kearny and his dragoons with their scout Kit Carson found the route. One year later, Colonel Philip St. George Cooke and the Mormon Battalion followed Kearny’s route establishing the first wagon road. This wagon road became known as Cooke's Wagon Road, or Sonora Road, until the discovery of gold brought a flood of Americans westward in 1849. The discovery of the Tucson Cutoff later that year shortened the route bringing it fully within the territory of the United States. From this date on, the route was called the Southern Emigrant Trail.
Tied in with the Santa Fe Trail and the San Antonio-El Paso Road, by the El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro the Southern Emigrant Trail route in 1849 ran from westward from the El Camino Real to San Diego Crossing and after 1855 Mesilla, New Mexico, westward to Tucson, Arizona, then followed the Gila River to the ferries on the Colorado River near what became Fort Yuma, crossed the Colorado Desert to Vallecito, then up to Warner's Ranch. From Warner's the road then ran either northwest to Los Angeles or west southwest to San Diego.[2][3][4] From either of these towns the traveler could continue north by land to the gold fields on the coast via the El Camino Real or over the Tejon Pass into the San Joaquin Valley by what would become the Stockton – Los Angeles Road or El Camino Viejo. Alternatively they could take ships to San Francisco from San Diego or San Pedro.
See also[edit]
Emigrant Trail in Wyoming
Great Platte River Road
Donner Party
Westward the Women
Applegate-Lassen Trail
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marcy, Randolph B. (1859). The Prairie Traveler: A Hand-book for Overland Expeditions, with Maps, Illustrations, and Itineraries of the Principal Routes Between the Mississippi and the Pacific. New York: Harper & Brothers, Franklin Square. United States Department of War. ISBN 978-1602067738. Retrieved 2 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Marcy (1859) List of Itineraries: XIV.—Wagon-road from San Antonia, Texas, to El Paso, N. M., and Fort Yuma, Cal.
Jump up ^ Marcy (1859) List of Itineraries: XV.—From Fort Yuma to San Diego, California.
Jump up ^ Marcy (1859) List of Itineraries: XXI.—From Fort Yuma to Benicia, California
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Rip It Up (Orange Juice song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Rip It Up"
Single by Orange Juice
from the album Rip It Up
B-side
"Snake Charmer"
"A Sad Lament"
Released
February 1983
Format
7"
12"
Recorded
Berwick Street Studios, London
Genre
Post-punk
Label
Polydor
Songwriter(s)
Edwyn Collins
Producer(s)
Martin Hayles
Orange Juice singles chronology
"I Can't Help Myself"
(1982) "Rip It Up"
(1983) "Flesh of My Flesh"
(1983)
"I Can't Help Myself"
(1982) "Rip It Up"
(1983) "Flesh of My Flesh"
(1983)
"Rip It Up" was a 1983 single by Scottish post-punk band Orange Juice. It was the second single to be released from their 1982 album of the same name. The song became the band's only UK top 40 success, reaching no. 8 in the chart. "Rip It Up" signalled a departure from the sound of the band's earlier singles, with Chic-influenced guitars and using a synthesiser to create a more disco-oriented sound.
The song was sampled in 2009 by British soul singer Beverley Knight on her song "In Your Shoes" from the album 100%.
In 2014, NME ranked it at number 216 in its list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.[1] It was also included by Pitchfork at number 157 in a list of The Best 200 Songs of the 1980s. [2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Recording and influences
2 Music video
3 UK single release
3.1 Track listing
4 Chart positions
5 References
6 External links
Recording and influences[edit]
Roland TB-303
The song was recorded as part of the sessions for Orange Juice's second studio album and would go on to become the title track of said album. It marked a departure from their previous guitar-pop based material, instead utilising Chic style guitar-funk and a bubbling Roland TB-303 synthesiser bassline, becoming the first chart single to feature the instrument.[3] The song also features a snatch of the guitar riff from "Boredom", a song by Buzzcocks that featured on their debut Spiral Scratch EP.[3] The riff chimes briefly in, just as Collins namechecks the song in the lyrics claiming that "...and my favourite song is entitled 'Boredom'."[3] Backing vocals on the song were provided by Paul Quinn, the lead singer of fellow Scottish band Bourgie Bourgie, with whom Collins would later record a single in 1984, a cover of the Velvet Underground song "Pale Blue Eyes."[citation needed]
Music video[edit]
The video opens with the band in a futuristic, but cheaply constructed, control room as they sing, dance and operate various controls. The band then watch themselves on a monitor screen as they walk down a rainy British high street dressed in incongruous, brightly coloured summer clothes. The video then cuts back to the control room, this time with the band playing their instruments superimposed over it, before returning to more scenes of a British city in torrential rain as the band walk around in scuba diving gear. The video finally cuts back to the band playing in a silver foil covered room, before superimposing them over a pile of random photographs.
UK single release[edit]
"Rip It Up" was released as a single in the UK in February 1983. The seven inch vinyl version of the single was available in three versions, a double pack including a second seven-inch and a fold out poster,[4] along with two versions of the standard release, initially with a silver injection moulded labels,[5] and then subsequently with paper printed labels.[6] The song was also released on twelve inch vinyl, with extended versions of the title track and B-side.[4] All versions were housed in a paper sleeve depicting a US P-40 Warhawk fighter plane (decorated with eyes and teeth) partially submerged, tail first, in the sea,[4] drawn by Edwyn Collins.
Track listing[edit]
Single 7"[7]
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length
1. "Rip It Up" Edwyn Collins 3:51
2. "Snake Charmer" Malcolm Ross 4:43
Double 7"[8]
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length
1. "Rip It Up" Edwyn Collins
2. "Snake Charmer" Malcolm Ross
3. "Love Sick" (Live) Edwyn Collins
4. "A Sad Lament" Edwyn Collins
12"[4]
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length
1. "Rip It Up" (Long Version) Edwyn Collins
2. "A Sad Lament" (Long Version) Edwyn Collins
Chart positions[edit]
Chart (1983)
Peak
position
UK Singles Chart[9] 8
New Zealand Singles Chart[7] 42
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.rocklistmusic.co.uk/nme_500_greatest_songs_2014.htm
Jump up ^ http://pitchfork.com/features/lists-and-guides/9700-the-200-best-songs-of-the-1980s/?page=3
^ Jump up to: a b c "Buzzcocks: Boredom / Orange Juice: Rip It Up". Stylus Magazine. 25 August 2004. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Orange Juice - Rip It Up 12". Discogs. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Orange Juice - Rip It Up". Discogs. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Orange Juice - Rip It Up". Discogs. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Orange Juice - Rip It Up (Song)". charts.org.nz. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Orange Juice - Rip It Up". Discogs. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Orange Juice". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
External links[edit]
Music video on YouTube
[hide]
v
t
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Orange Juice
Edwyn Collins
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Studio albums
You Can't Hide Your Love Forever
Rip It Up
Texas Fever
The Orange Juice
Singles
"Falling and Laughing"
"Rip It Up"
Compilations
Ostrich Churchyard
The Heather's on Fire
The Glasgow School
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text:
2018 Winter Olympics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 9 January 2018.
Jump to: navigation, search
"PyeongChang 2018" redirects here. For the Winter Paralympics, see 2018 Winter Paralympics.
XXIII Olympic Winter Games
Host city
Pyeongchang, South Korea
Motto
Passion. Connected.
Korean: 하나된 열정. (Hanadoen Yeoljeong)
Nations participating
90 (estimated)
Events
102 in 7 sports (15 disciplines)
Opening ceremony
9 February (31 days from now)
Closing ceremony
25 February
Stadium
Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium
Winter
< Sochi 2014
Beijing 2022 >
Summer
< Rio de Janeiro 2016
Tokyo 2020 >
Pyeongchang
Location in South Korea
Pyeongchang Winter Olympics
Hangul
평창 동계 올림픽
Hanja
平昌 冬季 올림픽
Revised Romanization
Pyeongchang Donggye Ollimpik
McCune–Reischauer
P'yŏngch'ang Tonggye Ollimp'ik
Part of a series on
2018 Winter Olympics[show]
Bid process (bid details)
Venues
Torch relay
Mascots
Broadcasters
Opening ceremony (flag bearers)
Chronological summary
Medal table (medalists)
World and Olympic records
Concerns and controversies
Closing ceremony (flag bearers)
Paralympics
IOC
KOC
POCOG
v
t
e
The 2018 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XXIII Olympic Winter Games (French: Les XXIIIèmes Jeux olympiques d'hiver; Hangul: 제23회 동계 올림픽; RR: Je-isipsamhoe Donggye Ollimpik) and commonly known as PyeongChang 2018[1] ([pʰjʌŋ.tɕʰaŋ]), is a major international multi-sport event scheduled to take place from 9 to 25 February 2018 in Pyeongchang County, South Korea.
The elected host city was announced on 6 July 2011 by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) after the 123rd IOC Session in Durban, South Africa. Pyeongchang won its bid on the first round of voting, receiving more votes than both Munich, Germany and Annecy, France combined.
These will be South Korea's second Olympic Games and its first Winter Games; Seoul hosted the Summer Games in 1988. Pyeongchang will be the third Asian city to host the Winter Games; the first two were in Japan, at Sapporo (1972) and Nagano (1998).[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Bidding
1.1 Host city election
2 Tickets
3 Preparations
3.1 Torch relay
4 Venues
4.1 Pyeongchang (Mountain cluster)
4.1.1 Alpensia Sports Park
4.1.2 Stand-alone venues
4.2 Gangneung (Coastal cluster)
5 Sports
6 Participating National Olympic Committees
7 Calendar
8 Marketing
8.1 Branding
8.2 Mascots
9 Broadcasting rights
10 Concerns and controversies
10.1 Security
10.2 Jeongseon Alpine Centre Ecological Issues
10.3 Russian doping
10.3.1 Official sanctions
10.3.2 Reaction in Russia
10.3.3 Criticism
11 See also
12 Notes and references
13 External links
Bidding[edit]
Main article: Bids for the 2018 Winter Olympics
Pyeongchang bid to host both the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympic Games but lost in the final rounds of voting by three and four votes respectively. Pyeongchang won its bid for the 2018 Winter Olympic Games in the first round of voting, receiving 63 of the 95 votes cast, giving it the majority required to be elected host city.
Munich also launched a bid to host these Games. Prior to Beijing's successful 2022 Winter Olympics bid, Munich would have become the first city to host both the Winter and the Summer Games, having previously hosted the 1972 Summer Olympics, but received 25 votes. Annecy (in southeastern France) launched a bid, but failed to secure public support from local citizens. Their bid received seven votes.
Host city election[edit]
Pyeongchang was elected as the host city at the 123rd IOC Session in Durban, earning the necessary majority of at least 48 votes in just one round of voting.
2018 Winter Olympics bidding results
City
Nation
Votes
Pyeongchang South Korea 63
Munich Germany 25
Annecy France 7
Tickets[edit]
Ticket prices for the 2018 Winter Olympics were announced in April 2016 and went on sale in October 2016, ranging from ₩20,000 (approximately US$17) to ₩900,000 (US$776). Tickets for the opening and closing ceremonies range from ₩220,000 (US$190) to ₩1.5 million (US$1293). The exact prices were determined through market research; around 50% of the tickets are expected to cost about ₩80,000 (US$69) or less, and tickets in sports that are relatively unknown in the region, such as biathlon and luge, will be made cheaper in order to encourage attendance. By contrast, figure skating and the men's hockey gold-medal game carry the most expensive tickets of the Games.[3]
As of 11 October 2017, domestic ticket sales for the Games have been slow. Of the 750,000 seats allocated to South Koreans, only 20.7% have been sold. International sales have been better, with 59.7% of the 320,000 allocated tickets sold. In total, 61% of tickets have been sold. Sales of tickets to the Paralympic Games are increasing slowly, with 37% of them sold.[4]
Preparations[edit]
On 5 August 2011, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced the formation of the Pyeongchang 2018 Coordination Commission.[5][6] On 4 October 2011, it was announced that the Organizing Committee for the 2018 Winter Olympics would be headed by Kim Jin-sun. The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games (POCOG) was launched at its inaugural assembly on 19 October 2011. The first tasks of the organizing committee were putting together a master plan for the games as well as forming a design for the venues.[7] The IOC Coordination Commission for the 2018 Winter Olympics made their first visit to Pyeongchang in March 2012. By then, construction was already underway on the Olympic Village.[8][9] In June 2012, construction began on a high-speed rail line that will connect Pyeongchang to Seoul.[10]
Olympic venues 2018
The International Paralympic Committee met for an orientation with the Pyeongchang 2018 organizing committee in July 2012.[11] Then-IOC President Jacques Rogge visited Pyeongchang for the first time in February 2013.[12]
On 27 June 2014 the Pyeongchang Olympic Committee announced their mascot selection contest.[13] The contest ran from 15 September 2014 to 30 September 2014. The 2013 Special Olympics World Winter Games were held in Pyeongchang.
The Pyeongchang Organizing Committee for the 2018 Olympic & Paralympic Winter Games created Pyeongchang WINNERS in 2014 by recruiting university students living in South Korea to spread awareness of the Olympic Games through social networking services and news articles.[14]
Torch relay[edit]
Main article: 2018 Winter Olympics torch relay
Venues[edit]
Main article: Venues of the 2018 Winter Olympics and Paralympics
Dragon Valley Ski Resort
Pyeongchang (Mountain cluster)[edit]
Alpensia Sports Park[edit]
The Alpensia Resort in Daegwallyeong-myeon will be the focus of the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics.[15][16]
Pyeongchang Olympic Stadium – opening and closing ceremonies[17]
Alpensia Ski Jumping Centre – ski jumping, Nordic combined, snowboarding (big air)
Alpensia Biathlon Centre – biathlon
Alpensia Cross-Country Centre – cross-country skiing, Nordic combined
Alpensia Sliding Centre – luge, bobsleigh, and skeleton
Olympic Village
Yongpyong Alpine Centre – alpine skiing (slalom, giant slalom)
Stand-alone venues[edit]
Bokwang Snow Park – freestyle skiing and snowboard
Jeongseon Alpine Centre – alpine skiing (downhill, super-G, and combined)
Gangneung (Coastal cluster)[edit]
The coastal cluster is located in the city of Gangneung. The Gangneung Olympic Park will include the following four venues:
Gangneung Hockey Centre – ice hockey (men competition)
Gangneung Curling Centre – curling
Gangneung Oval[17] – speed skating
Gangneung Ice Arena – short track speed skating and figure skating
In addition, a stand-alone venue is located on the grounds of Catholic Kwandong University:
Kwandong Hockey Centre – ice hockey (women competition)
Sports[edit]
The 2018 Winter Olympics will feature 102 events in 15 sports. Four new disciplines in existing sports will be introduced in Pyeongchang, including big air snowboarding, mixed doubles curling, mass start speed skating, and mixed team alpine skiing.[18]
For the first time since 1998, the National Hockey League will not provide accommodations (including a break in the season for all teams during the Olympics) to allow its players to participate in the men's ice hockey tournament. The NHL's decision stemmed from their demands that the IOC cover the cost of insuring the NHL players who participate in the Games. Although it did pay to insure NHL players in Sochi, the IOC was unwilling to do so for Pyeongchang, and was concerned that the NHL's demand could set a precedent for other professional sports bodies to follow. NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman added that a factor in the decision was that the IOC did not allow the NHL to promote the involvement of its players in the Olympics.[19][20][21] The NHL secured the cooperation of the International Ice Hockey Federation and the IOC, who agreed to establish a blacklist forbidding national teams from nominating or accepting players under NHL contract to their Olympic rosters.[22][23]
Numbers in parentheses indicate the number of medal events contested in each sports discipline.
Alpine skiing (11) (details)
Biathlon (11) (details)
Bobsleigh (3) (details)
Cross-country skiing (12) (details)
Curling (3) (details)
Figure skating (5) (details)
Freestyle skiing (10) (details)
Ice hockey (2) (details)
Luge (4) (details)
Nordic combined (3) (details)
Short track speed skating (8) (details)
Skeleton (2) (details)
Ski jumping (4) (details)
Snowboarding (10) (details)
Speed skating (14) (details)
Participating National Olympic Committees[edit]
A total of 90 teams have qualified at least one athlete so far (89 nations, and the delegation from Russia which will compete under the IOC flag).
Ecuador, Eritrea, Kosovo, Malaysia, and Singapore are scheduled to make their Winter Olympics debut if they decide to participate.
North Korean athletes will be allowed to cross the DMZ into South Korea since two North Korean figure skaters qualified.[24][25] North Korea agreed in negotiations with South Korea to send the qualified athletes for the Winter Olympics.[26]
Russia's status remained unclear due to the state-sponsored doping scandal.[27] On 5 December 2017 it was announced that the Russian Olympic Committee was suspended effective immediately. Individual athletes who qualified and can demonstrate they have complied with the IOC's doping regulations will be allowed to compete as "Olympic Athletes from Russia," (OAR) under a neutral flag and with the Olympic anthem played in any ceremony.[28]
[hide]Participating National Olympic Committees[29][30][31][32][33]
Albania
Andorra
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Bermuda
Bolivia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Brazil
Bulgaria
Canada
Chile
China
Colombia
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Dominica
Ecuador
Eritrea
Estonia
Finland
France
Georgia
Germany
Great Britain
Greece
Hong Kong
Hungary
Iceland
India
Iran
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kosovo
Kyrgyzstan
Latvia
Lebanon
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malaysia
Malta
Mexico
Moldova
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Morocco
Netherlands
New Zealand
North Korea
Norway
Olympic Athletes from Russia
Pakistan
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Romania
San Marino
Serbia
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia
South Africa
South Korea (host)
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Chinese Taipei
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Togo
Turkey
Ukraine
United States
Uzbekistan
Calendar[edit]
All dates are KST (UTC+9)

OC Opening ceremony ● Event competitions 1 Event finals EG Exhibition gala CC Closing ceremony
February
8th
Thu
9th
Fri
10th
Sat
11th
Sun
12th
Mon
13th
Tue
14th
Wed
15th
Thu
16th
Fri
17th
Sat
18th
Sun
19th
Mon
20th
Tue
21st
Wed
22nd
Thu
23rd
Fri
24th
Sat
25th
Sun
Events
Ceremonies OC CC N/A
Alpine skiing 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
Biathlon 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
Bobsleigh ● 1 ● 1 ● 1 3
Cross country skiing 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 12
Curling ● ● ● ● ● 1 ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 1 1 3
Figure skating ● ● 1 ● 1 ● 1 ● 1 ● 1 EG 5
Freestyle skiing ● 1 1 ● 1 1 2 ● 1 1 1 1 10
Ice hockey ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● 1 ● ● 1 2
Luge ● 1 ● 1 1 1 4
Nordic combined 1 1 1 3
Short track speed skating 1 1 2 1 3 8
Skeleton ● 1 1 2
Ski jumping ● 1 1 ● 1 1 4
Snowboarding ● 1 1 1 1 1 1 ● ● ● 1 3 10
Speed skating 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 14
Total events
5
7
8
8
6
7
5
9
6
3
5
7
8
6
8
4
102
Cumulative total
5
12
20
28
34
41
46
55
61
64
69
76
84
90
98
102
February
8th
Thu
9th
Fri
10th
Sat
11th
Sun
12th
Mon
13th
Tue
14th
Wed
15th
Thu
16th
Fri
17th
Sat
18th
Sun
19th
Mon
20th
Tue
21st
Wed
22nd
Thu
23rd
Fri
24th
Sat
25th
Sun
102 events

Marketing[edit]
Gold medal of the 2018 Olympics
Branding[edit]
The emblem for the Games was unveiled on 3 May 2013. It is a stylized representation of the hangul letters ㅍ p and ㅊ ch, being the initial sounds of 평창 Pyeongchang. Additionally the left symbol is said to represent the Korean philosophical triad of heaven, earth and humanity (Korean: 천지인 cheon-ji-in), and the right symbol a crystal of ice.[34]
The name of the host city has been intentionally formatted in all official materials as "PyeongChang", rather than "Pyeongchang". This is to alleviate potential confusion with Pyongyang, the similarly-named capital of neighbouring North Korea.[1]
The official pictograms for 24 sports across 15 disciplines were revealed in January 2017 and are designed using the Korean alphabet as inspiration.[35]
Mascots[edit]
Main article: Soohorang and Bandabi
The official mascots for the Games, Soohorang (수호랑), a white tiger, and Bandabi (반다비), an Asiatic black bear, were unveiled on 2 June 2016.[36]
Broadcasting rights[edit]
Main article: List of 2018 Winter Olympics broadcasters
Broadcast rights to the 2018 Winter Olympics in some countries were already sold as part of long-term broadcast rights deals, including the Games' local rightsholder SBS—which extended its rights to the Olympics in July 2011 through 2024.[37]
On 29 June 2015, the IOC announced that Discovery Communications had acquired exclusive rights to the Olympics across Europe, excluding Russia, from 2018 through 2024 on all platforms. Discovery's rights deal will, initially, not cover France due to pre-existing rights deals with France Télévisions that run through the 2020 Games. Unlike previous pan-European deals, such as with the European Broadcasting Union and Sportfive, Discovery will not serve solely as a reseller, as it intends to carry coverage on its regional properties, such as Eurosport and DMAX,[38] but it has committed to sub-license at least 100 hours of coverage to free-to-air networks.[39][40][41] In the United Kingdom, Discovery will hold exclusive pay television rights under license from the BBC; in return, the BBC will sub-license the free-to-air rights to the 2022 and 2024 Olympics from Discovery.[42]
In the United States, the Games will once again be broadcast by NBC under a long-term contract with NBCUniversal; it will be NBC's first Olympics without long-time primary host Bob Costas, who announced on 7 February 2017 his retirement from the role in favour of Mike Tirico.[43][44] On 28 March 2017, NBC also announced that it would air most primetime coverage simultaneously in all time zones in the United States, rather than tape-delayed for the West Coast.[45]
Concerns and controversies[edit]
Main article: Concerns and controversies at the 2018 Winter Olympics
Security[edit]
On 20 September 2017, South Korea's President Moon Jae-in said the country is pushing to ensure security at the Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games amid rising tensions over North Korea's nuclear tests and a series of missile launches.[46] However, on the next day, French Minister of Youth Affairs and Sports Laura Flessel-Colovic said France's Winter Olympics team will boycott the games unless South Korea's security is guaranteed.[47]
On 22 September 2017, Austria and Germany joined France in considering not attending the Games. Karl Stoss, head of Austria's national Olympic committee, said that "if the situation worsens and the security of our athletes is no longer guaranteed, we will not go to South Korea." The German interior ministry said the security question and the possibility of keeping the German team at home would be addressed "in good time" by the government. Several days later, Laura Flessel-Colovic reaffirmed France's participation in the games. Both countries have yet to decide on reaffirming.[48]
In early December 2017, United States Ambassador to the United Nations, Nikki Haley, told Fox News that it was an "open question" whether the United States was going to participate in the games, citing security concerns in the region.[49] However, days later the White House Press Secretary, Sarah Huckabee Sanders, stated that the United States "looks forward to participating" and will attend.[50]
Jeongseon Alpine Centre Ecological Issues[edit]
Environmental groups have raised concerns surrounding the deforestation from the slopes of Gariwang mountain to build the Jeongseon Alpine Centre. Officials claim it is necessary as it is the only slope that will accommodate Olympic requirements and the forest will be restored after the games are done. Environmental groups are sceptical as the forest includes old growth of ancient and rare species. [51]
Russian doping[edit]
Main articles: Doping in Russia, McLaren Report, Oswald Commission, Russia at the 2016 Summer Olympics, and Olympic Athletes from Russia at the 2018 Winter Olympics
Official sanctions[edit]
Proposed OAR logo
On 5 December 2017, the IOC announced that the Russian Olympic Committee had been suspended effective immediately from the 2018 Winter Olympics.[52] Athletes who had no previous drug violations and a consistent history of drug testing were to be allowed to compete under the Olympic Flag as an "Olympic Athlete from Russia" (OAR).[52][53] Under the terms of the decree, Russian government officials were barred from the Games, and neither the country's flag nor anthem would be present.[53] The Olympic Flag and Olympic Anthem will be used instead,[52] and on 20 December 2017 the IOC proposed an alternate logo for the uniforms (seen at right).[54] IOC President Thomas Bach said that "after following due process [the IOC] has issued proportional sanctions for this systematic manipulation while protecting the clean athletes."[55]
Reaction in Russia[edit]
In the past, Vladimir Putin, the President of Russia, and other officials had said that it would be a humiliation for Russia if its athletes were not allowed to compete under the Russian flag.[56] However, his spokesman later said that no boycott had been discussed.[53] After the IOC decision was announced, Ramzan Kadyrov, the head of Chechnya, announced that no Chechen athletes would participate under a neutral flag.[57] On 6 December, Putin stated that the Russian government would not prevent any athletes from participating at the Games as individuals, but there were calls from other politicians for a boycott.[58][59][60][61]
Criticism[edit]
The IOC's decision was criticized by Jack Robertson, primary investigator of the Russian doping program on behalf of the World Anti-Doping Agency, who said that the IOC has issued "a non-punitive punishment meant to save face while protecting the [IOC’s] and Russia’s commercial and political interests". He also emphasized that Russian whistleblowers provided empirical evidence that "99 percent of [their] national-level teammates were doping." According to Robertson, "[WADA] has discovered that when a Russian athlete [reaches] the national level, he or she [has] no choice in the matter: [it is] either dope, or you’re done". "There is currently no intelligence I have seen or heard about that indicates the state-sponsored doping program has ceased", he added.[62] It was also reported that Russian officials intensively lobbied US politicians in an apparent attempt to achieve Grigory Rodchenkov's (main whistleblower) extradition to Russia.[63]
See also[edit]
Olympics portal
2018 Winter Paralympics
2018 Summer Youth Olympics
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Olympics: 2018 Winter Olympics … not in Pyongyang". The Manila Bulletin. Agence France-Presse. 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 31 January 2016. Retrieved 26 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Longman, Jeré; Sang-hun, Choe (6 July 2011). "2018 Winter Games to Be Held in Pyeongchang, South Korea". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Pyeongchang 2018 reveal ticket prices for Winter Olympic Games".
Jump up ^ "PyeongChang Olympics ticket sales get icy reception". The Korea Herald. Herald Media Inc. 11 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Gunilla Lindberg to Chair PyeongChang 2018 Coordination Commission". Archived from the original on 18 September 2011. Retrieved 4 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Coordination Commissions". Olympic.org. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "PyeongChang 2018 Organizing Committee Launched". GamesBids.com. Archived from the original on 20 October 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "PyeongChang 2018 Praised". Gamesbids.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Pyeongchang 2018 have "good grasp of what is expected" says Lindberg after first IOC Coordination Commission visit". Insidethegames.biz. 22 March 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
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Jump up ^ "Pyeongchang 2018 recruits college student reporters: WINNERS". 18 June 2015. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
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values: الألعاب الأولمبية الشتوية 2018 – Arabic

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values: 2018. aasta taliolümpiamängud – Estonian

values: Χειμερινοί Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες 2018 – Greek

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values: XXIII. Zimske olimpijske igre - Pyeongchang 2018. – Croatian

values: Olimpiade Musim Dingin 2018 – Indonesian

values: XXIII Giochi olimpici invernali – Italian

values: אולימפיאדת פיונגצ'אנג (2018) – Hebrew

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values: Тӧвся Олимпиада ворсӧмъяс (2018) – Komi

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Singapore–South Africa relations
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This article has been translated from the article 新加坡－南非關係 in the Chinese Wikipedia, and requires proofreading. If you are confident enough in your fluency of English and Chinese, please feel free to join this translation.
Singapore–South Africa relations

Singapore

South Africa
The Republic of Singapore and the Republic of South Africa are independent countries which achieved independence from Great Britain and maintain friendly bilateral relations. The connections between the two countries are mainly based on their membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, and their interactions in trade and sight-seeing. Both countries cooperate in social and economic development issues.[1]
Singapore has a High Commission in Pretoria while South Africa has a High Commission in Singapore.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Trade relations
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
On August 9, 1965, Singapore was expelled from Malaysia and became an independent state. However, due to the apartheid policy, it did not establish diplomatic relations with South Africa until 1992, when the two countries signed agreements to do so.[2] In 1994, South Africa joined the Commonwealth, resulting in the Embassies of both countries being renamed High Commissions and the Ambassadors becoming High Commissioners.
On March 5, 1997, Nelson Mandela became the first President of South Africa to visit Singapore, where he met President Ong Teng Cheong and Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew.[3] In 2007, S.R. Nathan became the first President of Singapore to visit South Africa.[4]
In January 2013, International Enterprise Singapore set up a centre in Johannesburg, its first overseas centre in Sub-Saharan Africa.[5]
Trade relations[edit]
Singapore products export to South Africa in 2012
South Africa products export to Singapore in 2012
In 2011, the total trade value between Singapore and South Africa was worth S$2.54 billion (or R16 billion).[4] In 2012, the export value from Singapore to South Africa was worth US$1.31 billion, [6] The export value from South Africa to Singapore was worth US$950 million.[6]
Singapore exports were mainly communication equipment, electrical machines, office and data machines, manufactured articles, general industrial machines, plastics, crude rubber, textiles, coffee and spices to South Africa.
During the same period, South Africa mainly exported organic chemicals, petroleum and its products, iron and steels, non-ferrous metals, metal manufactures, vegetables, inorganic chemicals, metallic ores and scraps and paper manufactures to Singapore.[2]
In 2011, the direct investment value from Singapore to South Africa was worth S$491 million (or R3.23 billion),[4] while the direct investment value from South Africa to Singapore was worth 19.04 million Singapore dollars (or R125 million).[4]
Singapore Airlines operates a flight between Singapore Changi Airport and Cape Town International Airport in South Africa, via O.R. Tambo International Airport in Johannesburg.[7] During the 1990s, South African Airways also operated direct flights to Singapore.[8] It later established a codeshare with Singapore Airlines on daily flights between Singapore and Johannesburg.[9]
See also[edit]
Foreign relations of Singapore
Foreign relations of South Africa
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Srimal Fernando. South Africa and Singapore partnership continues to grow stronger. The Diplomacy Society. [2015-04-12].
^ Jump up to: a b Singapore (Republic of). Department of International Relations and Cooperation, Republic of South Africa. Department of International Relations and Cooperation, Republic of South Africa. [2015-04-10].
Jump up ^ SINGAPORE: SOUTH AFRICA'S PRESIDENT NELSON MANDELA VISIT. The Associated Press. 1997-03-05 [2015-04-10].
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bilateral Relations Department of International Relations and Cooperation [2015-04-11].
Jump up ^ "Africa". Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore. Retrieved 2015-04-10.
^ Jump up to: a b What did Singapore export to South Africa in 2012?. Center for International Development of Harvard University. Center for International Development of Harvard University. [2015-04-10].
Jump up ^ Where we fly. Singapore Airlines. Singapore Airlines. [2015-04-11].
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia of African Airlines, Ben R. Guttery, McFarland & Company, 1998, page 192
Jump up ^ SAA customers can now fly to Singapore, South African Airways, 31 August 2006
External links[edit]
High Commission of Singapore in South Africa
High Commission of South Africa in Singapore
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Singapore–South_Africa_relations&oldid=783722887"
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