text:
List of dates for Easter
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Dates for Easter in the past and coming 20 years
(1998–2038 in Gregorian dates)
Year
Western
Eastern
1998
April 12 April 19
1999
April 4 April 11
2000
April 23 April 30
2001
April 15
2002
March 31 May 5
2003
April 20 April 27
2004
April 11
2005
March 27 May 1
2006
April 16 April 23
2007
April 8
2008
March 23 April 27
2009
April 12 April 19
2010
April 4
2011
April 24
2012
April 8 April 15
2013
March 31 May 5
2014
April 20
2015
April 5 April 12
2016
March 27 May 1
2017
April 16
2018
April 1 April 8
2019
April 21 April 28
2020
April 12 April 19
2021
April 4 May 2
2022
April 17 April 24
2023
April 9 April 16
2024
March 31 May 5
2025
April 20
2026
April 5 April 12
2027
March 28 May 2
2028
April 16
2029
April 1 April 8
2030
April 21 April 28
2031
April 13
2032
March 28 May 2
2033
April 17 April 24
2034
April 9
2035
March 25 April 29
2036
April 13 April 20
2037
April 5
2038
April 25
This is a list of dates for Easter. The Easter dates also affect when Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Maundy Thursday, the Ascension of the Lord and Pentecost occur. Easter may occur on different dates in the Gregorian Calendar and the Julian Calendar. The accompanying table provides both sets of dates, for recent decades and forthcoming years — see the computus article for more details on the calculation.
Contents
[hide]
1 Earliest Easter
1.1 Western (Gregorian)
1.2 Orthodox (Julian)
2 Latest Easter
2.1 Western (Gregorian)
2.2 Orthodox (Julian)
3 Western and Orthodox Easter on the same date
4 Range of dates for Western and Orthodox Easter
5 Public holidays
6 References
7 External links
Earliest Easter[edit]
Western (Gregorian)[edit]
In 1818 the Paschal Full Moon fell on Saturday, March 21 (the equinox). Therefore, the following day, March 22, was Easter. It will not fall as early again until 2285, a span of 467 years. The next earliest Easter between 1818 and 2285 (March 23) occurred in 1845, 1856, 1913 and 2008, and will occur again in 2160—a 11, 57, 95 and 152-year gap, respectively.
Orthodox (Julian)[edit]
The earliest dates for Easter in the Eastern Orthodox Church between 1875 and 2099 are April 4, 1915 and April 4, 2010 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to March 22 in the Julian Calendar.
Latest Easter[edit]
Western (Gregorian)[edit]
In 1943 Easter fell on Sunday, April 25. The ecclesiastical full moon did not occur until Saturday, March 20; because it came before the vernal equinox, the paschal full moon did not happen until Sunday, April 18. Consequently, Easter was the following Sunday (April 25). Easter will not fall as late again until 2038—a span of 95 years. The second latest date for Easter, April 24, occurred in 2011. The latter occurred in 1859 and will not happen again until 2095—152 and 84 years, respectively. However between years 5121 and 6482, Easter will be no later than April 24.
Orthodox (Julian)[edit]
The latest dates for Orthodox Easter between 1875 and 2099 are May 8, 1983, and May 8, 2078 (Gregorian). Both dates are equivalent to April 25 in the Julian Calendar. Orthodox Easter has never fallen on Gregorian May 7 yet; it will happen in 2051 unless these churches change to another calendar.
Western and Orthodox Easter on the same date[edit]
Despite using calendars that are apart by 13 days, Easter 2014 fell on the same date. According to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, the first Paschal Full Moon after the Spring Equinox (March 20) fell on Monday, April 14, 2014. The following Sunday, April 20, was, therefore, Easter Day.
According to the Orthodox (Julian) calendar (which is 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar), the Spring Equinox also falls on March 21. However, in the Gregorian Calendar, this is April 3. The first Orthodox Full Moon after the Equinox falls on (Julian) Tuesday, April 2, 2014 (Gregorian April 15). The following Sunday, (Julian) April 7, is, therefore, Easter Day (Gregorian April 20).
Range of dates for Western and Orthodox Easter[edit]
Both calendars (Gregorian and Julian) calculate Easter as falling on dates between March 22 and April 25 on their calendars. However, because of the 13-day difference, any member of an Orthodox church would observe that the Western Easter falls between March 10 and April 12 on the Julian calendar. Conversely, any member of a Western church would observe that Orthodox Easter falls between April 4 and May 8 on the Gregorian calendar.
Beginning March 14, 2100 (February 29, 2100, in the Julian Calendar), the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars will increase to 14 days.
Public holidays[edit]
This section needs expansion with: details of Easter holidays in other countries; this section currently only mentions those with a four-day weekend. You can help by adding to it. (April 2018)
In Hungary, the United Kingdom except Scotland, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Germany, Switzerland and New Zealand, Easter comprises two public holidays, Good Friday and Easter Monday, making a four-day weekend. The moveable date of Easter sometimes brings it into conflict with other, fixed, public holidays.
In the United Kingdom in 2000 and 2011, the May Day bank holiday was one week after Easter Monday, causing there to be three consecutive weeks with a bank holiday. (In Scotland this did not occur as Easter Monday is not a bank holiday.) In 2011, a bank holiday was declared on Friday 29 April for the Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton;[1] consequently there were four bank holidays within three consecutive calendar weeks (including two in one week), creating two consecutive four-day weekends (Friday 22 — Monday 25 April and Friday 29 April — Monday 2 May), with a three-day working week in between (Tuesday 26 — Thursday 28 April).
In Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland in 2008, Saint Patrick's Day (Monday 17 March) fell six days before Easter (Sunday 23 March), creating a three-day week (Tuesday 18 — Thursday 20 March). This will next happen in 2035, when Saint Patrick's day falls on Saturday, so the public holiday is moved forward to the following Monday 19 March, again six days before Easter.
Note that in the Catholic liturgical calendar, saints' feasts are not observed when they fall during Holy Week; this caused Saint Patrick not to appear in the liturgical calendar for 2008; 17 March was simply celebrated as Holy Monday. In Ireland, the Church chose to celebrate Saint Patrick on Saturday 15 March instead.[2]
In Australia, ANZAC Day is a public holiday on 25 April. In 2000 and 2011, this created a five-day weekend over Easter: in 2000, Easter Monday fell on 24 April, with Easter Tuesday, 25 April, then being ANZAC Day; in 2011, ANZAC Day and Easter Monday coincided on Monday 25 April, which led to a substitute public holiday being declared for Tuesday 26 April.[3] In 2003 and 2014, ANZAC Day fell on Easter Friday, and in 2019 it will fall on Easter Thursday, and in 2038 it will fall on Easter Sunday; the consequence is three-day working weeks immediately following the Easter weekend.
Easter is not a federal holiday in the United States. In North Carolina, however, it was a public holiday from 1935 to 1987.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Royal Wedding Bank Holiday in the United Kingdom".
Jump up ^ "Irish bishops move St. Patrick's Day 2008 over conflict with Holy Week". Catholic News Agency. July 19, 2007. Retrieved April 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ https://www.officeholidays.com/countries/australia/2011.php
Jump up ^ "Easter Monday in the United States". TimeandDate.com. Retrieved October 25, 2016.
External links[edit]
http://tlarsen2.tripod.com/thomaslarsen/easterdates.html – has a much larger list of dates
A chronology since Council Nicaea "Date of Easter Sunday" Father Kevin Michael Laughery, as observed by Western Christians since A.D. 326 (last updated Tuesday, November 4, 2008)
Interactive calculator generates historical feast dates in Julian calendar prior to 1582 Gregorian reforms
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_dates_for_Easter&oldid=835274731"
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text:
Thunderstorm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Electrical storm" redirects here. For other uses, see Electrical storm (disambiguation).
"TSTM" redirects here. For the musical ensemble, see Thirty Seconds to Mars.
For other uses, see Thunderstorm (disambiguation).
Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm over Corfu.
Sign
A large cumulonimbus cloud with lightning and thunder.
Type
Severe
Cloud of origin
Cumulonimbus.
Part of the nature series
Weather
Calendar seasons
Winter
Spring
Summer
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Storms
Cloud
Cumulonimbus cloud
Arcus cloud
Downburst
Microburst
Heat burst
Dust storm
Simoom
Haboob
Monsoon
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Supercell
Thunderstorm
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Thundersnow
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Tornado
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Extratropical cyclone
European windstorm
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Derecho
Landspout
Dust devil
Fire whirl
Waterspout
Winter storm
Ice storm
Blizzard
Ground blizzard
Snowsquall
Precipitation
Drizzle (Freezing drizzle)
Graupel
Hail
Ice pellets (Diamond dust)
Rain (Freezing rain)
Cloudburst
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Rain and snow mixed
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v
t
e
A typical thunderstorm over a field
A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm, lightning storm, or thundershower, is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere, known as thunder.[1] Thunderstorms occur in association with a type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus. They are usually accompanied by strong winds, heavy rain, and sometimes snow, sleet, hail, or, in contrast, no precipitation at all. Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband, known as a squall line. Strong or severe thunderstorms, known as supercells, rotate as do cyclones. While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the troposphere that they occupy, vertical wind shear sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction.
Warm, moist updraft from a thunderstorm associated with a southward-moving frontal boundary – taken from Texarkana, Texas looking north.
Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, sometimes along a front. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses, and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over 20 kilometres (12 mi). As the rising air reaches its dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth's surface. As the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create a downdraft as it pulls cold air with it, and this cold air spreads out at the Earth's surface, occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms.
Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic location but most frequently within the mid-latitude, where warm, moist air from tropical latitudes collides with cooler air from polar latitudes.[2] Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena. Thunderstorms, and the phenomena that occur along with them, pose great hazards. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds, large hailstones, and flash flooding caused by heavy precipitation. Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts.
There are four types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multi-cell cluster, multi-cell lines, and supercells. Supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and most severe. Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes. Dry thunderstorms, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the cloud-to-ground lightning that accompanies them. Several means are used to study thunderstorms: weather radar, weather stations, and video photography. Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century. Beyond the Earth's atmosphere, thunderstorms have also been observed on the planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and, probably, Venus.
Contents
[hide]
1 Life cycle
1.1 Cumulus stage
1.2 Mature stage
1.3 Dissipating stage
2 Classification
2.1 Single-cell
2.2 Multi-cell clusters
2.3 Multicell lines
2.4 Supercells
2.5 Severe thunderstorms
2.6 Mesoscale convective systems
3 Motion
3.1 Back-building thunderstorm
4 Hazards
4.1 Cloud-to-ground lightning
4.2 Hail
4.3 Tornadoes and waterspouts
4.4 Flash flood
4.5 Downburst
4.6 Thunderstorm asthma
5 Safety precautions
5.1 Preparedness
5.2 Safety
6 Frequent occurrences
7 Energy
8 Studies
9 Mythology and religion
10 Outside of Earth
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Life cycle[edit]
Stages of a thunderstorm's life.
See also: Cloud
Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warmer air rises upwards and cooler air will settle at the bottom[3] (this effect can be seen with a hot air balloon).[4] Clouds form as relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises within cooler air. The moist air rises, and, as it does so, it cools and some of the water vapor in that rising air condenses.[5] When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as latent heat of vaporization, which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than the cooler surrounding air[6] continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form and produce lightning and thunder. Meteorological indices such as convective available potential energy (CAPE) and the lifted index can be used to assist in determining potential upward vertical development of clouds.[7] Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions to form:
Moisture
An unstable airmass
A lifting force (heat)
All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three stages: the developing stage, the mature stage, and the dissipation stage.[8] The average thunderstorm has a 24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere, each of these three stages take an average of 30 minutes.[9]
Cumulus stage[edit]
The first stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or developing stage. During this stage, masses of moisture are lifted upwards into the atmosphere. The trigger for this lift can be solar illumination, where the heating of the ground produces thermals, or where two winds converge forcing air upwards, or where winds blow over terrain of increasing elevation. The moisture carried upward cools into liquid drops of water due to lower temperatures at high altitude, which appear as cumulus clouds. As the water vapor condenses into liquid, latent heat is released, which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than the surrounding, drier air. The air tends to rise in an updraft through the process of convection (hence the term convective precipitation). This process creates a low-pressure zone within and beneath the forming thunderstorm. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 500 million kilograms of water vapor are lifted into the Earth's atmosphere.[10]
Mature stage[edit]
Anvil-shaped thundercloud in the mature stage over Swifts Creek, Victoria
In the mature stage of a thunderstorm, the warmed air continues to rise until it reaches an area of warmer air and can rise no farther. Often this 'cap' is the tropopause. The air is instead forced to spread out, giving the storm a characteristic anvil shape. The resulting cloud is called cumulonimbus incus. The water droplets coalesce into larger and heavier droplets and freeze to become ice particles. As these fall, they melt to become rain. If the updraft is strong enough, the droplets are held aloft long enough to become so large that they do not melt completely but fall as hail. While updrafts are still present, the falling rain drags the surrounding air with it, creating downdrafts as well. The simultaneous presence of both an updraft and a downdraft marks the mature stage of the storm and produces cumulonimbus clouds. During this stage, considerable internal turbulence can occur within, which manifests as strong winds, severe lightning, and even tornadoes.[11]
Typically, if there is little wind shear, the storm will rapidly enter the dissipating stage and 'rain itself out',[8] but, if there is sufficient change in wind speed or direction, the downdraft will be separated from the updraft, and the storm may become a supercell, where the mature stage can sustain itself for several hours.[12]
Dissipating stage[edit]
A thunderstorm in an environment with no winds to shear the storm or blow the anvil in any one direction
In the dissipation stage, the thunderstorm is dominated by the downdraft. If atmospheric conditions do not support super cellular development, this stage occurs rather quickly, approximately 20–30 minutes into the life of the thunderstorm. The downdraft will push down out of the thunderstorm, hit the ground and spread out. This phenomenon is known as a downburst. The cool air carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm, the updraft disappears and the thunderstorm will dissipate. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm, moist air, and kills the thunderstorm's further growth.[13] The downdraft hitting the ground creates an outflow boundary. This can cause downbursts, a potential hazardous condition for aircraft to fly through, as a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs, resulting in a decrease of airspeed and the subsequent reduction in lift for the aircraft. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear becomes.[14]
Classification[edit]
Conditions favorable for thunderstorm types and complexes
There are four main types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multi-cell, squall line (also called multi-cell line) and supercell. Which type forms depends on the instability and relative wind conditions at different layers of the atmosphere ("wind shear"). Single-cell thunderstorms form in environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20–30 minutes.
Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters/lines can have longer life cycles as they form in environments of significant vertical wind shear, normally greater than 25 knots (13 m/s) in the lowest 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) of the troposphere,[15] which aids the development of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe weather. The supercell is the strongest of the thunderstorms, most commonly associated with large hail, high winds, and tornado formation. Precipitable water values of greater than 31.8 millimetres (1.25 in) favor the development of organized thunderstorm complexes.[16] Those with heavy rainfall normally have precipitable water values greater than 36.9 millimetres (1.45 in).[17] Upstream values of CAPE of greater than 800 J/kg are usually required for the development of organized convection.[18]
Single-cell[edit]
Main article: Air-mass thunderstorm
A single-cell thunderstorm over Wagga Wagga.
This term technically applies to a single thunderstorm with one main updraft. Also known as air-mass thunderstorms, these are the typical summer thunderstorms in many temperate locales. They also occur in the cool unstable air that often follows the passage of a cold front from the sea during winter. Within a cluster of thunderstorms, the term "cell" refers to each separate principal updraft. Thunderstorm cells occasionally form in isolation, as the occurrence of one thunderstorm can develop an outflow boundary that sets up new thunderstorm development. Such storms are rarely severe and are a result of local atmospheric instability; hence the term "air mass thunderstorm". When such storms have a brief period of severe weather associated with them, it is known as a pulse severe storm. Pulse severe storms are poorly organized and occur randomly in time and space, making them difficult to forecast. Single-cell thunderstorms normally last 20–30 minutes.[9]
Multi-cell clusters[edit]
Main article: Multicellular thunderstorm
A group of thunderstorms over Brazil photographed by the Space Shuttle Challenger.
This is the most common type of thunderstorm development. Mature thunderstorms are found near the center of the cluster, while dissipating thunderstorms exist on their downwind side. Multicell storms form as clusters of storms but may then evolve into one or more squall lines. While each cell of the cluster may only last 20 minutes, the cluster itself may persist for hours at a time. They often arise from convective updrafts in or near mountain ranges and linear weather boundaries, such as strong cold fronts or troughs of low pressure. These type of storms are stronger than the single-cell storm, yet much weaker than the supercell storm. Hazards with the multicell cluster include moderate-sized hail, flash flooding, and weak tornadoes.[9]
Multicell lines[edit]
Main article: Squall line
See also: List of derecho events
A squall line is an elongated line of severe thunderstorms that can form along or ahead of a cold front.[19][20] In the early 20th century, the term was used as a synonym for cold front.[21] The squall line contains heavy precipitation, hail, frequent lightning, strong straight line winds, and possibly tornadoes and waterspouts.[22] Severe weather in the form of strong straight-line winds can be expected in areas where the squall line itself is in the shape of a bow echo, within the portion of the line that bows out the most.[23] Tornadoes can be found along waves within a line echo wave pattern, or LEWP, where mesoscale low pressure areas are present.[24] Some bow echoes in the summer are called derechos, and move quite fast through large sections of territory.[25] On the back edge of the rain shield associated with mature squall lines, a wake low can form, which is a mesoscale low pressure area that forms behind the mesoscale high pressure system normally present under the rain canopy, which are sometimes associated with a heat burst.[26] This kind of storm is also known as "Wind of the Stony Lake" (Traditional Chinese:石湖風 – shi2 hu2 feng1, Simplified Chinese: 石湖风) in southern China.[27]
Supercells[edit]
Main article: Supercell
A supercell thunderstorm over Chaparral, New Mexico.
The setting sun illuminates the top of a classic anvil-shaped thunderstorm cloud in eastern Nebraska, United States.
Supercell storms are large, usually severe, quasi-steady-state storms that form in an environment where wind speed or wind direction varies with height ("wind shear"), and they have separate downdrafts and updrafts (i.e., where its associated precipitation is not falling through the updraft) with a strong, rotating updraft (a "mesocyclone"). These storms normally have such powerful updrafts that the top of the supercell storm cloud (or anvil) can break through the troposphere and reach into the lower levels of the stratosphere, and supercell storms can be 24 kilometres (15 mi) wide. Research has shown that at least 90 percent of supercells cause severe weather.[12] These storms can produce destructive tornadoes, sometimes F3 or higher, extremely large hailstones (10 centimetres or 4 inches diameter), straight-line winds in excess of 130 km/h (81 mph), and flash floods. In fact, research has also shown that most tornadoes occur from this type of thunderstorm.[28] Supercells are the strongest type of thunderstorm, even stronger than the most severe thunderstorms.[9]
Severe thunderstorms[edit]
A thunderstorm is classed as severe if winds reach at least 93 kilometres per hour (58 mph), hail is 25 millimetres (1 in) in diameter or larger, or if funnel clouds or tornadoes are reported.[29][30][31] Although a funnel cloud or tornado indicates a severe thunderstorm, a tornado warning is issued in place of a severe thunderstorm warning. A severe thunderstorm warning is issued if a thunderstorm becomes severe, or will soon turn severe. In Canada, a rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres (2 in) in one hour, or 75 millimetres (3 in) in three hours, is also used to indicate severe thunderstorms.[32] Severe thunderstorms can occur from any type of storm cell. However, multicell, supercell, and squall lines represent the most common forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather.[12]
Mesoscale convective systems[edit]
See also: Mesoscale convective system
MCC moving through New England: August 2, 2006 0600 UTC
A mesoscale convective system (MCS) is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than extratropical cyclones, and normally persists for several hours or more.[33] A mesoscale convective system's overall cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear in shape, and include weather systems such as tropical cyclones, squall lines, lake-effect snow events, polar lows, and Mesoscale Convective Complexes (MCCs), and they generally form near weather fronts. Most mesoscale convective systems develop overnight and continue their lifespan through the next day.[8] The type that forms during the warm season over land has been noted across North America, Europe, and Asia, with a maximum in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening hours.[34][35]
Forms of MCS that develop in the tropics are found in use either the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon troughs, generally within the warm season between spring and fall. More intense systems form over land than over water.[36][37] One exception is that of lake-effect snow bands, which form due to cold air moving across relatively warm bodies of water, and occurs from fall through spring.[38] Polar lows are a second special class of MCS. They form at high latitudes during the cold season.[39] Once the parent MCS dies, later thunderstorm development can occur in connection with its remnant mesoscale convective vortex (MCV).[40] Mesoscale convective systems are important to the United States rainfall climatology over the Great Plains since they bring the region about half of their annual warm season rainfall.[41]
Motion[edit]
Thunderstorm line viewed in reflectivity (dBZ) on a plan position indicator radar display
The two major ways thunderstorms move are via advection of the wind and propagation along outflow boundaries towards sources of greater heat and moisture. Many thunderstorms move with the mean wind speed through the Earth's troposphere, the lowest 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) of the Earth's atmosphere. Weaker thunderstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earth's surface than stronger thunderstorms, as the weaker thunderstorms are not as tall. Organized, long-lived thunderstorm cells and complexes move at a right angle to the direction of the vertical wind shear vector. If the gust front, or leading edge of the outflow boundary, races ahead of the thunderstorm, its motion will accelerate in tandem. This is more of a factor with thunderstorms with heavy precipitation (HP) than with thunderstorms with low precipitation (LP). When thunderstorms merge, which is most likely when numerous thunderstorms exist in proximity to each other, the motion of the stronger thunderstorm normally dictates the future motion of the merged cell. The stronger the mean wind, the less likely other processes will be involved in storm motion. On weather radar, storms are tracked by using a prominent feature and tracking it from scan to scan.[12]
Back-building thunderstorm[edit]
A back-building thunderstorm, commonly referred to as a training thunderstorm, is a thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side (usually the west or southwest side in the Northern Hemisphere), such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction. Though the storm often appears stationary on radar, or even moving upwind, this is an illusion. The storm is really a multi-cell storm with new, more vigorous cells that form on the upwind side, replacing older cells that continue to drift downwind.[42][43] When this happens, catastrophic flooding is possible. In Rapid City, South Dakota, in 1972, an unusual alignment of winds at various levels of the atmosphere combined to produce a continuously training set of cells that dropped an enormous quantity of rain upon the same area, resulting in devastating flash flooding.[44] A similar event occurred in Boscastle, England, on 16 August 2004.[45]
Hazards[edit]
Each year, many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning. While severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and summer, they can occur at just about any time of the year.
Cloud-to-ground lightning[edit]
See also: Lightning strike and Wildfire
A return stroke, cloud-to-ground lightning strike during a thunderstorm.
Cloud-to-ground lightning frequently occurs within the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations. One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the wildfires they are capable of igniting.[46] Under a regime of low precipitation (LP) thunderstorms, where little precipitation is present, rainfall cannot prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat.[47] Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion.[48] In areas with a high frequency for cloud-to-ground lightning, like Florida, lightning causes several fatalities per year, most commonly to people working outside.[49]
Acid rain is also a frequent risk produced by lightning. Distilled water has a neutral pH of 7. “Clean” or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak acid (pH 5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals.[50] Nitric oxide present during thunderstorm phenomena,[51] caused by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen, can result in the production of acid rain, if nitric oxide forms compounds with the water molecules in precipitation, thus creating acid rain. Acid rain can damage infrastructures containing calcite or certain other solid chemical compounds. In ecosystems, acid rain can dissolve plant tissues of vegetations and increase acidification process in bodies of water and in soil, resulting in deaths of marine and terrestrial organisms.[52]
Hail[edit]
Main article: Hail
Hailstorm in Bogotá, Colombia.
Any thunderstorm that produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm.[53] Thunderclouds that are capable of producing hailstones are often seen obtaining green coloration. Hail is more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as orographic lifting), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely.[54] One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India, which reported one of the highest hail-related death tolls on record in 1888.[55] China also experiences significant hailstorms.[56] Across Europe, Croatia experiences frequent occurrences of hail.[57]
In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado, Nebraska, and Wyoming meet, known as "Hail Alley."[58] Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September. Cheyenne, Wyoming is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season.[59] In South America, areas prone to hail are cities like Bogotá, Colombia.
Hail can cause serious damage, notably to automobiles, aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, livestock, and most commonly, farmers' crops.[59] Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft. When hail stones exceed 13 millimetres (0.5 in) in diameter, planes can be seriously damaged within seconds.[60] The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft. Wheat, corn, soybeans, and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage.[55] Hail is one of Canada's most costly hazards.[61] Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund, Uttarakhand, India.[62] The largest hailstone in terms of maximum circumference and length ever recorded in the United States fell in 2003 in Aurora, Nebraska, United States.[63]
Tornadoes and waterspouts[edit]
In June 2007, the town of Elie, Manitoba was struck by an F5 tornado.
Main articles: Tornado and Waterspout
A tornado is a violent, rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud (otherwise known as a thundercloud) or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust.[64] Most tornadoes have wind speeds between 40 and 110 mph (64 and 177 km/h), are approximately 75 metres (246 ft) across, and travel several kilometers (a few miles) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than 1,600 metres (1 mi) across, and stay on the ground for more than 100 kilometres (dozens of miles).[65][66][67]
The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. An EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees but not substantial structures. An EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[68] Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.[69]
Formation of numerous waterspouts in the Great Lakes region. (North America)
A flash flood caused by a severe thunderstorm
Waterspouts have similar characteristics as tornadoes, characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current that form over bodies of water, connecting to large cumulonimbus clouds. Waterspouts are generally classified as forms of tornadoes, or more specifically, non-supercelled tornadoes that develop over large bodies of water.[70] These spiralling columns of air are frequently developed within tropical areas close to the equator, but are less common within areas of high latitude.[71]
Flash flood[edit]
Main article: Flash flood
Flash flooding is the process where a landscape, most notably an urban environment, is subjected to rapid floods.[72] These rapid floods occur more quickly and are more localized than seasonal river flooding or areal flooding[73] and are frequently (though not always) associated with intense rainfall.[74] Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow-moving thunderstorms and is usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it. Flash floods are most common in densely populated urban environments, where few plants and bodies of water are present to absorb and contain the extra water. Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by the force of raging water. Automobiles parked within affected areas can also be displaced. Soil erosion can occur as well, exposing risks of landslide phenomena.
Downburst[edit]
Main article: Downburst
Trees uprooted or displaced by the force of a downburst wind in northwest Monroe County, Wisconsin.
Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to landscapes experiencing thunderstorms. Downburst winds are generally very powerful, and are often mistaken for wind speeds produced by tornadoes,[75] due to the concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight-horizontal characteristic. Downburst winds can be hazardous to unstable, incomplete, or weakly constructed infrastructures and buildings. Agricultural crops, and other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and damaged. Aircraft engaged in takeoff or landing can crash.[8][75] Automobiles can be displaced by the force exerted by downburst winds. Downburst winds are usually formed in areas when high pressure air systems of downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses below it, due to their higher density. When these downdrafts reach the surface, they spread out and turn into the destructive straight-horizontal winds.[8]
Thunderstorm asthma[edit]
Main article: Thunderstorm asthma
Thunderstorm asthma is the triggering of an asthma attack by environmental conditions directly caused by a local thunderstorm. During a thunderstorm, pollen grains can absorb moisture and then burst into much smaller fragments with these fragments being easily dispersed by wind. While larger pollen grains are usually filtered by hairs in the nose, the smaller pollen fragments are able to pass through and enter the lungs, triggering the asthma attack.[76][77][78][79]
Safety precautions[edit]
See also: Emergency management and Tornado preparedness
Most thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully; however, any thunderstorm can become severe, and all thunderstorms, by definition, present the danger of lightning.[80] Thunderstorm preparedness and safety refers to taking steps before, during, and after a thunderstorm to minimize injury and damage.
Preparedness[edit]
Preparedness refers to precautions that should be taken before a thunderstorm. Some preparedness takes the form of general readiness (as a thunderstorm can occur at any time of the day or year).[81] Preparing a family emergency plan, for example, can save valuable time if a storm arises quickly and unexpectedly.[82] Preparing the home by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees, which can be blown over in high winds, can also significantly reduce the risk of property damage and personal injury.[83]
The National Weather Service (NWS) in the United States recommends several precautions that people should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur:[81]
Know the names of local counties, cities, and towns, as these are how warnings are described.[81]
Monitor forecasts and weather conditions and know whether thunderstorms are likely in the area.[84]
Be alert for natural signs of an approaching storm.
Cancel or reschedule outdoor events (to avoid being caught outdoors when a storm hits).[84]
Take action early so you have time to get to a safe place.[84]
Get inside a substantial building or hard-topped metal vehicle before threatening weather arrives.[84]
If you hear thunder, get to the safe place immediately.[84]
Avoid open areas like hilltops, fields, and beaches, and don't be or be near the tallest objects in an area when thunderstorms are occurring.[81][84]
Don't shelter under tall or isolated trees during thunderstorms.[84]
If in the woods, put as much distance between you and any trees during thunderstorms.[84]
If in a group, spread out so that you increase the chances for survivors who could come to the aid of any victims from a lightning strike.[84]
Safety[edit]
While safety and preparedness often overlap, “thunderstorm safety” generally refers to what people should do during and after a storm. The American Red Cross recommends that people follow these precautions if a storm is imminent or in progress:[80]
Take action immediately upon hearing thunder. Anyone close enough to the storm to hear thunder can be struck by lightning.[83]
Avoid electrical appliances, including corded telephones.[80] Cordless and wireless telephones are safe to use during a thunderstorm.[83]
Close and stay away from windows and doors, as glass can become a serious hazard in high wind.[80]
Do not bathe or shower, as plumbing conducts electricity.
If driving, safely exit the roadway, turn on hazard lights, and park. Remain in the vehicle and avoid touching metal.[80]
The NWS stopped recommending the "lightning crouch" in 2008 as it doesn't provide a significant level of protection and will not significantly lower the risk of being killed or injured from a nearby lightning strike.[84][85][86]
Frequent occurrences[edit]
See also: United States rainfall climatology
A mild thunderstorm over Niagara Falls, Ontario.
Thunderstorms occur throughout the world, even in the polar regions, with the greatest frequency in tropical rainforest areas, where they may occur nearly daily. At any given time approximately 2,000 thunderstorms are occurring on Earth.[87] Kampala and Tororo in Uganda have each been mentioned as the most thunderous places on Earth,[88] a claim also made for Singapore and Bogor on the Indonesian island of Java. Other cities known for frequent storm activity include Darwin, Caracas, Manila and Mumbai. Thunderstorms are associated with the various monsoon seasons around the globe, and they populate the rainbands of tropical cyclones.[89] In temperate regions, they are most frequent in spring and summer, although they can occur along or ahead of cold fronts at any time of year.[90] They may also occur within a cooler air mass following the passage of a cold front over a relatively warmer body of water. Thunderstorms are rare in polar regions because of cold surface temperatures.
Some of the most powerful thunderstorms over the United States occur in the Midwest and the Southern states. These storms can produce large hail and powerful tornadoes. Thunderstorms are relatively uncommon along much of the West Coast of the United States,[91] but they occur with greater frequency in the inland areas, particularly the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys of California. In spring and summer, they occur nearly daily in certain areas of the Rocky Mountains as part of the North American Monsoon regime. In the Northeast, storms take on similar characteristics and patterns as the Midwest, but with less frequency and severity. During the summer, air-mass thunderstorms are an almost daily occurrence over central and southern parts of Florida.
Energy[edit]
See also: Sprite (lightning), Upper-atmospheric lightning, and St. Elmo's fire
How thunderstorms launch particle beams into space
If the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitated from a cloud is known, then the total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 5×108 kg of water vapor are lifted, and the amount of energy released when this condenses is 1015 joules. This is on the same order of magnitude of energy released within a tropical cyclone, and more energy than that released during the atomic bomb blast at Hiroshima, Japan in 1945.[10]
The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor results show that gamma rays and antimatter particles (positrons) can be generated in powerful thunderstorms.[92] It is suggested that the antimatter positrons are formed in terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGF). TGFs are brief bursts occurring inside thunderstorms and associated with lightning. The streams of positrons and electrons collide higher in the atmosphere to generate more gamma rays.[93] About 500 TGFs may occur every day worldwide, but mostly go undetected.
Studies[edit]
In more contemporary times, thunderstorms have taken on the role of a scientific curiosity. Every spring, storm chasers head to the Great Plains of the United States and the Canadian Prairies to explore the scientific aspects of storms and tornadoes through use of videotaping.[94] Radio pulses produced by cosmic rays are being used to study how electric charges develop within thunderstorms.[95] More organized meteorological projects such as VORTEX2 use an array of sensors, such as the Doppler on Wheels, vehicles with mounted automated weather stations, weather balloons, and unmanned aircraft to investigate thunderstorms expected to produce severe weather.[96] Lightning is detected remotely using sensors that detect cloud-to-ground lightning strokes with 95 percent accuracy in detection and within 250 metres (820 ft) of their point of origin.[97]
Mythology and religion[edit]
Thunderstorms strongly influenced many early civilizations. Greeks believed that they were battles waged by Zeus, who hurled lightning bolts forged by Hephaestus. Some American Indian tribes associated thunderstorms with the Thunderbird, who they believed was a servant of the Great Spirit. The Norse considered thunderstorms to occur when Thor went to fight Jötnar, with the thunder and lightning being the effect of his strikes with the hammer Mjölnir. Hinduism recognizes Indra as the god of rain and thunderstorms. Christian doctrine accepted the ideas of Aristotle's original work, called Meteorologica, that winds were caused by exhalations from the Earth and that fierce storms were the work of God. These ideas were still within the mainstream as late as the 18th century.[98]
Martin Luther was out walking when a thunderstorm began, causing him to pray to God for being saved and promising to become a monk.[99]
Outside of Earth[edit]
Thunderstorms, evidenced by flashes of lightning, on Jupiter have been detected and are associated with clouds where water may exist as both a liquid and ice, suggesting that a similar mechanism may act as on Earth. (Water is a polar molecule that can carry a charge, so it is capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning.)[100] These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on the Earth.[101] The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior.[102] The clouds of Venus may also be capable of producing lightning; some observations suggest that the lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth.[103]
See also[edit]
Barber's pole
Continuous gusts
Convective storm detection
Hector (cloud)
Severe thunderstorm warning and Severe thunderstorm watch
Thundersnow
Tornado warning
Tornado watch
Training (meteorology)
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Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "Flash Flood". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service. "Flood Products: What Do They Mean?". NOAA. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service. "Flash Flood". NOAA. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b National Weather Service Forecast Office Columbia, South Carolina (2009-01-27). "Downbursts.." National Weather Service Eastern Region Headquarters. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
Jump up ^ Suphioglu C. Thunderstorm Asthma Due to Grass Pollen. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 1998;116:253–260. doi:10.1159/000023953
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Jump up ^ Dabrera G, Murray V, Emberlin J, Ayres JG, Collier C, Clewlow Y, Sachon P. Thunderstorm asthma: an overview of the evidence base and implications for public health advice. QJM. 2013 Mar;106(3):207-17. doi: 10.1093/qjmed/hcs234. PMID 23275386
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e American Red Cross. "Thunderstorm Safety Checklist" (PDF). American Red Cross. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office. "Thunderstorm". Severe Weather Preparedness Information. Albuquerque, NM: NOAA. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Federal Emergency Management Agency. "Thunderstorms and Lightning". Ready. US Department of Homeland Security. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Federal Emergency Management Agency. "What to Do Before a Thunderstorm". US Department of Homeland Security. Archived from the original on 20 August 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j "NWS Lightning Safety Myths". Lightningsafety.noaa.gov. 2014-06-30. Retrieved 2014-08-20.
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Jump up ^ Alan Moller (2003-03-05). "Storm Chase Ethics". Retrieved 2009-09-09.
Jump up ^ Florida Institute of Technology (2009-06-02). "Scientists use high-energy particles from space to probe thunderstorms". Retrieved 2009-09-09.
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Jump up ^ Peter P. Neilley & R. B. Bent (2009). "An Overview of the United States Precision Lightning Network (USPLN)". American Meteorological Society Fourth Conference on the Meteorological Applications of Lightning Data. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
Jump up ^ John D. Cox (2002). Storm Watchers. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 7. ISBN 0-471-38108-X.
Jump up ^ "Martin Luther". Christian History. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Elkins-Tanton, Linda T. (2006). Jupiter and Saturn. New York: Chelsea House. ISBN 0-8160-5196-8.
Jump up ^ Watanabe, Susan, ed. (February 25, 2006). "Surprising Jupiter: Busy Galileo spacecraft showed jovian system is full of surprises". NASA. Retrieved 2007-02-20.
Jump up ^ Kerr, Richard A. (2000). "Deep, Moist Heat Drives Jovian Weather". Science. 287 (5455): 946–947. doi:10.1126/science.287.5455.946b. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
Jump up ^ Russell, S. T.; Zhang, T.L.; Delva, M.; et al. (2007). "Lightning on Venus inferred from whistler-mode waves in the ionosphere". Nature. 450 (7170): 661–662. Bibcode:2007Natur.450..661R. doi:10.1038/nature05930. PMID 18046401.
Further reading[edit]
Burgess, D. W., R. J. Donaldson Jr., and P. R. Desrochers, 1993: Tornado detection and warning by radar. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr., No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 203–221.
Corfidi, S. F., 1998: Forecasting MCS mode and motion. Preprints 19th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, American Meteorological Society, Minneapolis, Minnesota, pp. 626–629.
Davies, J. M., 2004: Estimations of CIN and LFC associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells. Weather Forecast., 19, 714–726.
Davies, J. M., and R. H. Johns, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part I: Helicity and mean shear magnitudes. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds.), Geophysical Monograph 79, American Geophysical Union, 573–582.
David, C. L. 1973: An objective of estimating the probability of severe thunderstorms. Preprint Eight conference of Severe Local Storms. Denver, Colorado, American Meteorological Society, 223–225.
Doswell, C.A., III, D. V. Baker, and C. A. Liles, 2002: Recognition of negative factors for severe weather potential: A case study. Weather Forecast., 17, 937–954.
Doswell, C.A., III, S.J. Weiss and R.H. Johns (1993): Tornado forecasting: A review. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds), Geophys. Monogr. No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 557–571.
Johns, R. H., J. M. Davies, and P. W. Leftwich, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part II: Variations in the combinations of wind and instability parameters. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction and Hazards, Geophys. Mongr., No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 583–590.
Evans, Jeffry S.,: Examination of Derecho Environments Using Proximity Soundings. NOAA.gov
J. V. Iribarne and W.L. Godson, Atmospheric Thermodynamics, published by D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 1973
M. K. Yau and R. R. Rogers, Short Course in Cloud Physics, Third Edition, published by Butterworth-Heinemann, January 1, 1989, EAN 9780750632157 ISBN 0-7506-3215-1
External links[edit]
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