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Romanesque art
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Carving from Maria Laach Abbey, in the Eifel, Rhineland.
The "Morgan Leaf", detached from the Winchester Bible of 1160−75. Scenes from the life of David.
Romanesque art is the art of Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the rise of the Gothic style in the 12th century, or later, depending on region. The preceding period is known as the Pre-Romanesque period. The term was invented by 19th-century art historians, especially for Romanesque architecture, which retained many basic features of Roman architectural style – most notably round-headed arches, but also barrel vaults, apses, and acanthus-leaf decoration – but had also developed many very different characteristics. In Southern France, Spain and Italy there was an architectural continuity with the Late Antique, but the Romanesque style was the first style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe, from Sicily to Scandinavia. Romanesque art was also greatly influenced by Byzantine art, especially in painting, and by the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these elements was forged a highly innovative and coherent style.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
2 Background
3 Sculpture
3.1 Metalwork, enamels, and ivories
3.2 Architectural sculpture
3.2.1 Sources and style
3.2.2 Subject matter
3.2.3 Late Romanesque sculpture
4 Painting
4.1 Manuscript illumination
4.2 Wall painting
5 Other visual arts
5.1 Embroidery
5.2 Stained glass
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Characteristics[edit]
Outside Romanesque architecture, the art of the period was characterised by a very vigorous style in both sculpture and painting. The latter continued to follow essentially Byzantine iconographic models for the most common subjects in churches, which remained Christ in Majesty, the Last Judgement and scenes from the Life of Christ. In illuminated manuscripts, for which the most lavishly decorated manuscripts of the period were mostly bibles or psalters, more originality is seen, as new scenes needed to be depicted. The same applied to the capitals of columns, never more exciting than in this period, when they were often carved with complete scenes with several figures. The large wooden crucifix was a German innovation at the very start of the period, as were free-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna, but the high relief was above all the sculptural mode of the period.
Master of Pedret, The Virgin and Child in Majesty and the Adoration of the Magi, apse fresco from Tredòs, Val d'Aran, Catalonia, Spain, c. 1100, now at The Cloisters in New York City.
Colours, which can be seen as bright in the 21st century only in stained glass and well-preserved manuscripts, tended to be very striking, and mostly primary. Stained glass became widely used, although survivals are sadly few. In an invention of the period, the tympanums of important church portals were carved with monumental schemes, often again Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgement, but treated with more freedom than painted versions, as there were no equivalent Byzantine models.
Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to be flexible to be squeezed into the shapes of historiated initials, column capitals, and church tympanums; the tension between a tightly enclosing frame, from which the composition sometimes escapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures still often varied in size in relation to their importance, and landscape backgrounds, if attempted at all, were closer to abstract decorations than realism - as in the trees in the "Morgan Leaf". Portraiture hardly existed.
Background[edit]
During this period Europe grew steadily more prosperous, and art of the highest quality was no longer confined, as it largely was in the Carolingian and Ottonian periods, to the royal court and a small circle of monasteries. Monasteries continued to be extremely important, especially those of the expansionist new orders of the period, the Cistercian, Cluniac, and Carthusian, which spread across Europe. But city churches, those on pilgrimage routes, and many churches in small towns and villages were elaborately decorated to a very high standard - these are often the structures to have survived, when cathedrals and city churches have been rebuilt. No Romanesque royal palace has really survived.
The lay artist was becoming a valued figure – Nicholas of Verdun seems to have been known across the continent. Most masons and goldsmiths were now lay, and lay painters such as Master Hugo seem to have been in the majority, at least of those doing the best work, by the end of the period. The iconography of their church work was no doubt arrived at in consultation with clerical advisors.
Sculpture[edit]
Metalwork, enamels, and ivories[edit]
Stavelot Triptych, Mosan, Belgium, c. 1156–58. 48×66 cm with wings open, Morgan Library, New York
Precious objects in these media had a very high status in the period, probably much more so than paintings — the names of more makers of these objects are known than those of contemporary than painters, illuminators or architect-masons. Metalwork, including decoration in enamel, became very sophisticated. Many spectacular shrines made to hold relics have survived, of which the best known is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral by Nicholas of Verdun and others (ca 1180–1225). The Stavelot Triptych and Reliquary of St. Maurus are other examples of Mosan enamelwork. Large reliquaries and altar frontals were built around a wooden frame, but smaller caskets were all metal and enamel. A few secular pieces, such as mirror cases, jewellery and clasps have survived, but these no doubt under-represent the amount of fine metalwork owned by the nobility.
The Gloucester candlestick, early 12th century
The bronze Gloucester candlestick and the brass font of 1108–17 now in Liège are superb examples, very different in style, of metal casting. The former is highly intricate and energetic, drawing on manuscript painting, while the font shows the Mosan style at its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, a triumphal column and other fittings at Hildesheim Cathedral, the Gniezno Doors, and the doors of the Basilica di San Zeno in Verona are other substantial survivals. The aquamanile, a container for water to wash with, appears to have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century. Artisans often gave the pieces fantastic zoomorphic forms; surviving examples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions from impressive seals survive on charters and documents, although Romanesque coins are generally not of great aesthetic interest.
The Cloisters Cross is an unusually large ivory crucifix, with complex carving including many figures of prophets and others, which has been attributed to one of the relatively few artists whose name is known, Master Hugo, who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many pieces it was originally partly coloured. The Lewis chessmen are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of which many pieces or fragments remain from croziers, plaques, pectoral crosses and similar objects.
Architectural sculpture[edit]
The tympanum of Vézelay Abbey, Burgundy, France, 1130s, has much decorative spiral detail in the draperies.
With the fall of the Roman Empire, the tradition of carving large works in stone and sculpting figures in bronze died out, as it effectively did (for religious reasons) in the Byzantine world. Some life-size sculpture was evidently done in stucco or plaster, but surviving examples are understandably rare.[1] The best-known surviving large sculptural work of Proto-Romanesque Europe is the life-size wooden Crucifix commissioned by Archbishop Gero of Cologne in about 960–65, apparently the prototype of what became a popular form. These were later set up on a beam below the chancel arch, known in English as a rood, from the twelfth century accompanied by figures of the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist to the sides.[2] During the 11th and 12th centuries, figurative sculpture strongly revived, and architectural reliefs are a hallmark of the later Romanesque period.
Sources and style[edit]
Figurative sculpture was based on two other sources in particular, manuscript illumination and small-scale sculpture in ivory and metal. The extensive friezes sculpted on Armenian and Syriac churches have been proposed as another likely influence.[3] These sources together produced a distinct style which can be recognised across Europe, although the most spectacular sculptural projects are concentrated in South-Western France, Northern Spain and Italy.
Man and confronted animals, Cahors Cathedral
Images that occurred in metalwork were frequently embossed. The resultant surface had two main planes and details that were usually incised. This treatment was adapted to stone carving and is seen particularly in the tympanum above the portal, where the imagery of Christ in Majesty with the symbols of the Four Evangelists is drawn directly from the gilt covers of medieval Gospel Books. This style of doorway occurs in many places and continued into the Gothic period. A rare survival in England is that of the "Prior's Door" at Ely Cathedral. In South-Western France, many have survived, with impressive examples at Saint-Pierre, Moissac, Souillac,[4] and La Madeleine, Vézelay – all daughter houses of Cluny, with extensive other sculpture remaining in cloisters and other buildings. Nearby, Autun Cathedral has a Last Judgement of great rarity in that it has uniquely been signed by its creator, Giselbertus.[5][6]
A feature of the figures in manuscript illumination is that they often occupy confined spaces and are contorted to fit. The custom of artists to make the figure fit the available space lent itself to a facility in designing figures to ornament door posts and lintels and other such architectural surfaces. The robes of painted figures were commonly treated in a flat and decorative style that bore little resemblance to the weight and fall of actual cloth. This feature was also adapted for sculpture. Among the many examples that exist, one of the finest is the figure of the Prophet Jeremiah from the pillar of the portal of the Abbey of Saint-Pierre, Moissac, France, from about 1130.[6]
One of the most significant motifs of Romanesque design, occurring in both figurative and non-figurative sculpture is the spiral. One of the sources may be Ionic capitals. Scrolling vines were a common motif of both Byzantine and Roman design, and may be seen in mosaic on the vaults of the 4th century Church of Santa Costanza, Rome. Manuscripts and architectural carvings of the 12th century have very similar scrolling vine motifs.
This capital of Christ washing the feet of his Apostles has strong narrative qualities in the interaction of the figures.
Another source of the spiral is clearly the illuminated manuscripts of the 7th to 9th centuries, particularly Irish manuscripts such as the St. Gall Gospel Book, spread into Europe by the Hiberno-Scottish mission. In these illuminations the use of the spiral has nothing to do with vines or other plant forms. The motif is abstract and mathematical. The style was then picked up in Carolingian art and given a more botanical character. It is in an adaptation of this form that the spiral occurs in the draperies of both sculpture and stained glass windows. Of all the many examples that occur on Romanesque portals, one of the most outstanding is that of the central figure of Christ at La Madeleine, Vezelay.[6]
Another influence from Insular art are engaged and entwined animals, often used to superb effect in capitals (as at Silos) and sometimes on a column itself (as at Moissac). Much of the treatment of paired, confronted and entwined animals in Romanesque decoration has similar Insular origins, as do animals whose bodies tail into purely decorative shapes. (Despite the adoption of Hiberno-Saxon traditions into Romanesque styles in England and on the continent, the influence was primarily one-way. Irish art during this period remained isolated, developing a unique amalgam of native Irish and Viking styles which would be slowly extinguished and replaced by mainstream Romanesque style in the early 13th century following the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland.[7])
Judas Iscariot hangs himself, assisted by devils, always a favourite subject of carvers. Autun Cathedral
Subject matter[edit]
Most Romanesque sculpture is pictorial and biblical in subject. A great variety of themes are found on capitals and include scenes of Creation and the Fall of Man, episodes from the life of Christ and those Old Testament scenes which prefigure his Death and Resurrection, such as Jonah and the Whale and Daniel in the lions' den. Many Nativity scenes occur, the theme of the Three Kings being particularly popular. The cloisters of Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey in Northern Spain, and Moissac are fine examples surviving complete, as are the relief sculptures on the many Tournai fonts found in churches in southern England, France and Belgium.
A feature of some Romanesque churches is the extensive sculptural scheme which covers the area surrounding the portal or, in some case, much of the facade. Angouleme Cathedral in France has a highly elaborate scheme of sculpture set within the broad niches created by the arcading of the facade. In the Spanish region of Catalonia, an elaborate pictorial scheme in low relief surrounds the door of the church of Santa Maria at Ripoll.[6]
Around the upper wall of the chancel at the Abbaye d'Arthous, Landes, France, are small figures depicting lust, intemperance and a Barbary ape, symbol of human depravity.
The purpose of the sculptural schemes was to convey a message that the Christian believer should recognize wrongdoing, repent and be redeemed. The Last Judgement reminds the believer to repent. The carved or painted Crucifix, displayed prominently within the church, reminds the sinner of redemption.
Ouroboros, single and in pairs at Kilpeck, England
Often the sculpture is alarming in form and in subject matter. These works are found on capitals, corbels and bosses, or entwined in the foliage on door mouldings. They represent forms that are not easily recognizable today. Common motifs include Sheela na Gig, fearsome demons, ouroboros or dragons swallowing their tails, and many other mythical creatures with obscure meaning. Spirals and paired motifs originally had special significance in oral tradition that has been lost or rejected by modern scholars.
The Seven Deadly Sins including lust, gluttony and avarice are also frequently represented. The appearance of many figures with oversized genitals can be equated with carnal sin, and so can the numerous figures shown with protruding tongues, which are a feature of the doorway of Lincoln Cathedral. Pulling one's beard was a symbol of masturbation, and pulling one's mouth wide open was also a sign of lewdity. A common theme found on capitals of this period is a tongue poker or beard stroker being beaten by his wife or seized by demons. Demons fighting over the soul of a wrongdoer such as a miser is another popular subject.[8]
Pórtico da Gloria, Santiago Cathedral. The colouring once common to much Romanesque sculpture has been preserved.
Late Romanesque sculpture[edit]
Gothic architecture is usually considered to begin with the design of the choir at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, north of Paris, by the Abbot Suger, consecrated 1144. The beginning of Gothic sculpture is usually dated a little later, with the carving of the figures around the Royal Portal at Chartres Cathedral, France, 1150–55. The style of sculpture spread rapidly from Chartres, overtaking the new Gothic architecture. In fact, many churches of the late Romanesque period post-date the building at Saint-Denis. The sculptural style based more upon observation and naturalism than on formalised design developed rapidly. It is thought that one reason for the rapid development of naturalistic form was a growing awareness of Classical remains in places where they were most numerous and a deliberate imitation of their style. The consequence is that there are doorways which are Romanesque in form, and yet show a naturalism associated with Early Gothic sculpture.[6]
One of these is the Pórtico da Gloria dating from 1180, at Santiago de Compostela. This portal is internal and is particularly well preserved, even retaining colour on the figures and indicating the gaudy appearance of much architectural decoration which is now perceived as monochrome. Around the doorway are figures who are integrated with the colonnettes that make the mouldings of the doors. They are three-dimensional, but slightly flattened. They are highly individualised, not only in appearance but also expression and bear quite strong resemblance to those around the north porch of the Abbey of St. Denis, dating from 1170. Beneath the tympanum there is a realistically carved row of figures playing a range of different and easily identifiable musical instruments.
Painting[edit]
The Three Magi from the St. Albans Psalter, English, 12th century.
Manuscript illumination[edit]
A number of regional schools converged in the early Romanesque illuminated manuscript: the "Channel school" of England and Northern France was heavily influenced by late Anglo-Saxon art, whereas in Southern France the style depended more on Iberian influence, and in Germany and the Low Countries, Ottonian styles continued to develop, and also, along with Byzantine styles, influenced Italy. By the 12th century there had been reciprocal influences between all these, although naturally regional distinctiveness remained.
The typical focii of Romanesque illumination were the Bible, where each book could be prefaced by a large historiated initial, and the Psalter, where major initials were similarly illuminated. In both cases more lavish examples might have cycles of scenes in fully illuminated pages, sometimes with several scenes per page, in compartments. The Bibles in particular often had a, and might be bound into more than one volume. Examples include the St. Albans Psalter, Hunterian Psalter, Winchester Bible (the "Morgan Leaf" shown above), Fécamp Bible, Stavelot Bible, and Parc Abbey Bible. By the end of the period lay commercial workshops of artists and scribes were becoming significant, and illumination, and books generally, became more widely available to both laity and clergy.
Wall painting[edit]
Life of St. Eldrado, abbot. 11th century fresco in Novalesa Abbey
Apse of Sant Climent de Taüll, a Spanish fresco by the Master of Taüll, now in Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya.
The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of the Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration. Unfortunately, many of these early wall paintings have been destroyed by damp or the walls have been replastered and painted over. In England, France and the Netherlands such pictures were systematically destroyed or whitewashed in bouts of Reformation iconoclasm. In Denmark and elsewhere many have since been restored. In Catalonia (Spain), there was a campaign to save such murals in the early 20th century (as of 1907) by removing them and transferring them to safekeeping in Barcelona, resulting in the spectacular collection at the National Art Museum of Catalonia. In other countries they have suffered from war, neglect and changing fashion.
A classic scheme for the full painted decoration of a church, derived from earlier examples often in mosaic, had, as its focal point in the semi-dome of the apse, Christ in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within a mandorla and framed by the four winged beasts, symbols of the Four Evangelists, comparing directly with examples from the gilt covers or the illuminations of Gospel Books of the period. If the Virgin Mary was the dedicatee of the church, she might replace Christ here. On the apse walls below would be saints and apostles, perhaps including narrative scenes, for example of the saint to whom the church was dedicated. On the sanctuary arch were figures of apostles, prophets or the twenty-four "elders of the Apocalypse", looking in towards a bust of Christ, or his symbol the Lamb, at the top of the arch. The north wall of the nave would contain narrative scenes from the Old Testament, and the south wall from the New Testament. On the rear west wall would be a Last Judgement, with an enthroned and judging Christ at the top.[9]
The painted crypt of San Isidoro at León, Spain
One of the most intact schemes to exist is that at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe in France. The long barrel vault of the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco, and is decorated with scenes of the Old Testament, showing the Creation, the Fall of Man and other stories including a lively depiction of Noah's Ark complete with a fearsome figurehead and numerous windows through with can be seen the Noah and his family on the upper deck, birds on the middle deck, while on the lower are the pairs of animals. Another scene shows with great vigour the swamping of Pharaoh's army by the Red Sea. The scheme extends to other parts of the church, with the martyrdom of the local saints shown in the crypt, and Apocalypse in the narthex and Christ in Majesty. The range of colours employed is limited to light blue-green, yellow ochre, reddish brown and black. Similar paintings exist in Serbia, Spain, Germany, Italy and elsewhere in France.[10]
The now-dispersed paintings from Arlanza in the Province of Burgos, Spain, though from a monastery, are secular in subject-matter, showing huge and vigorous mythical beasts above a frieze in black and white with other creatures. They give a rare idea of what decorated Romanesque palaces would have contained.
Stained glass, the Prophet Daniel from Augsburg Cathedral, late 11th century.
Other visual arts[edit]
Embroidery[edit]
Romanesque embroidery is best known from the Bayeux Tapestry, but many more closely worked pieces of Opus Anglicanum ("English work" - considered the finest in the West) and other styles have survived, mostly as church vestments.
Stained glass[edit]
The oldest-known fragments of medieval pictorial stained glass appear to date from the 10th century. The earliest intact figures are five prophet windows at Augsburg, dating from the late 11th century. The figures, though stiff and formalised, demonstrate considerable proficiency in design, both pictorially and in the functional use of the glass, indicating that their maker was well accustomed to the medium. At Le Mans, Canterbury and Chartres Cathedrals, and Saint-Denis, a number of panels of the 12th century have survived. At Canterbury these include a figure of Adam digging, and another of his son Seth from a series of Ancestors of Christ. Adam represents a highly naturalistic and lively portrayal, while in the figure of Seth, the robes have been used to great decorative effect, similar to the best stone carving of the period. Glass craftsmen were slower than architects to change their style, and much glass from at least the first part of the 13th century can be considered as essentially Romanesque. Especially fine are large figures of 1200 from Strasbourg Cathedral (some now removed to the museum) and of about 1220 from Saint Kunibert's Church in Cologne.
Most of the magnificent stained glass of France, including the famous windows of Chartres, date from the 13th century. Far fewer large windows remain intact from the 12th century. One such is the Crucifixion of Poitiers, a remarkable composition which rises through three stages, the lowest with a quatrefoil depicting the Martyrdom of St Peter, the largest central stage dominated by the crucifixion and the upper stage showing the Ascension of Christ in a mandorla. The figure of the crucified Christ is already showing the Gothic curve. The window is described by George Seddon as being of "unforgettable beauty".[11] Many detached fragments are in museums, and a window at Twycross Church in England is made up of important French panels rescued from the French Revolution.[12] Glass was both expensive and fairly flexible (in that it could be added to or re-arranged) and seems to have been often re-used when churches were rebuilt in the Gothic style - the earliest datable English glass, a panel in York Minster from a Tree of Jesse probably of before 1154, has been recycled in this way.
See also[edit]
Book: Romanesque Art and Architecture
Romanesque architecture
Regional characteristics of Romanesque architecture
List of Romanesque artists
Spanish Romanesque
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Some (probably) 9th century near life-size stucco figures were discovered behind a wall in Santa Maria in Valle, Cividale del Friuli in Northern Italy relatively recently. Atroshenko and Collins p. 142
Jump up ^ G Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. II,1972 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, pp. 140–142 for early crosses, p. 145 for roods, ISBN 0-85331-324-5
Jump up ^ V.I. Atroshenko and Judith Collins, The Origins of the Romanesque, p. 144–50, Lund Humphries, London, 1985, ISBN 0-85331-487-X
Jump up ^ Howe, Jeffery. "Romanesque Architecture (slides)". A digital archive of architecture. Boston College. Retrieved 2007-09-28.
Jump up ^ Helen Gardner, Art through the Ages’’.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rene Hyughe, Larousse Encyclopedia of Byzantine and Medieval Art
Jump up ^ Roger A. Stalley, "Irish Art in the Romanesque and Gothic Periods." In Treasures of Irish Art 1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D., New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art/Alfred A. Knopf, 1977.
Jump up ^ "Satan in the Groin". beyond-the-pale. Retrieved 2007-09-28.
Jump up ^ James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, p154, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0-7195-3971-4
Jump up ^ Rolf Toman, Romanesque, Könemann, (1997), ISBN 3-89508-447-6
Jump up ^ George Seddon in Lee, Seddon and Stephens, Stained Glass
Jump up ^ Church website
References[edit]
Legner, Anton (ed). Ornamenta Ecclesiae, Kunst und Künstler der Romanik. Catalogue of an exhibition in the Schnütgen Museum, Köln, 1985. 3 vols.
Conrad Rudolph, ed., A Companion to Medieval Art: Romanesque and Gothic in Northern Europe, 2nd ed. (2016)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Romanesque art.
Metropolitan Museum Timeline Essay
crsbi.ac.uk (Electronic archive of medieval British and Irish Romanesque stone sculpture)
Corpus of Romanesque Sculpture in Britain and Ireland
Romanes.com Romanesque Art in France
Círculo Románico: Visigothic, Mozarabic and Romanesque art's in all Europe
Romanesque Sculpture group on Flickr
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Defensive three-second violation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A defensive three-second violation, also known as illegal defense, is a basketball rules infraction in the National Basketball Association (NBA) introduced in the 2001–2002 season. It is assessed when a member of the defending team spends more than three seconds in the free throw lane (also known as the 16-foot lane, or colloquially as "in the paint") while not actively guarding an opponent. To be considered actively guarding, a defender must be within arm's length of an opponent and in a guarding position.[1] A three-second count is suspended if:[2][clarification needed]
a player is in the act of shooting
there is a loss of team control
the defender is actively guarding an opponent
the defender clears the painted area
it is imminent the defender will become legal
In addition, a player guarding an opponent with the ball may be in the paint without actively guarding the opponent.[3]
The team committing a defensive three-second violation is assessed a team technical foul. The offense receives one free throw and retains possession of the ball.[4]
Prior to the 2001–2002 NBA season, any form of zone defense was considered an illegal defense violation and resulted in a warning on the first violation and then a technical foul for any subsequent violations.[5] However, the defensive three-second violation makes it difficult for NBA defenses to play zone, since zone defenses usually position a player in the middle of the key to stop penetration.[6] The Philippine Basketball Association used to follow the illegal defense rule until the 2003 PBA season when it was abolished.[7] The high school game does not use this rule, nor does European basketball.
The WNBA started using it in 2013.[8]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ NBA Official Rules (2009-2010) Rule 10, Section VII, B. Retrieved July 25, 2010
Jump up ^ NBA Official Rules (2009-2010) Rule 10, Section VII, D. Retrieved July 25, 2010
Jump up ^ NBA Official Rules (2009-2010) Rule 10, Section VII, E. Retrieved July 25, 2010
Jump up ^ NBA Official Rules (2009-2010) Rule 10, Section VII, Penalty. Retrieved July 25, 2010
Jump up ^ Blinebury, Fran (June 8, 2006). "Rule changes have NBA back in the fast lane". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved July 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ http://www.sportingcharts.com/dictionary/nba/defensive-three-second-violation.aspx
Jump up ^ Cruz, Agnes (January 24, 2003). "PBA get fresh look this season". Arab News. Retrieved January 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ "WNBA Announces Rules Changes for 2013 Season". WNBA. Retrieved Dec 16, 2012.
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Train wheel
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Flanged railway wheel
Railroad car wheels are affixed to a straight axle, such that both wheels rotate in unison. This is called a wheelset.
A train wheel or rail wheel is a type of wheel specially designed for use on rail tracks. A rolling component is typically pressed onto an axle and mounted directly on a rail car or locomotive or indirectly on a bogie (UK), also called a truck (North America). Wheels are cast or forged (wrought) and are heat-treated to have a specific hardness. New wheels are trued, using a lathe, to a specific profile before being pressed onto an axle. All wheel profiles need to be periodically monitored to ensure proper wheel-rail interface. Improperly trued wheels increase rolling resistance, reduce energy efficiency and may create unsafe operation. A railroad wheel typically consists of two main parts: the wheel itself, and the tire (or tyre) around the outside. A rail tire is usually made from steel, and is typically heated and pressed onto the wheel, where it remains firmly as it shrinks and cools. Monobloc wheels do not have encircling tires, while resilient rail wheels have a resilient material, such as rubber, between the wheel and tire.
Contents
[hide]
1 Wheel geometry and flange
2 Wheel arrangement
3 Wheel-related topics
4 Parts of a rail wheel
5 Wheels for road-rail vehicles
6 Tire
7 Tire installation
8 Causes of damage
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Wheel geometry and flange[edit]
Railway wheel flange (left)
Tram wheel flange (right)
Most train wheels have a conical geometry, which is the primary means of keeping the train's motion aligned with the track.[1] Train wheels have a flange on one side to keep the wheels, and hence the train, running on the rails, when the limits of the geometry-based alignment are reached, e.g. due to some emergency or defect. See Hunting oscillation. Some wheels have a cylindrical geometry, where flanges are essential to keep the train on the rail track.
Wheel arrangement[edit]
Main article: Wheel arrangement
Wheel-related topics[edit]
Driving wheel: A wheel in contact with the rail that also propels a locomotive.
Bogie
Flat: A wheel defect where the tread of a wheel has a flat spot and is no longer round; flats can be heard as regular clicking or banging noises when the wheel passes by. This is caused either by a locked bearing, or a brake that was not fully released before the car was moved, dragging the wheel without turning.
Pony truck: A two-wheel truck (US) or bogie (UK) at the front of a locomotive
Sand: granular material poured on the rail in front of the drive wheels to improve traction. (Sandite is a more specialised form for a similar purpose.)
Slippery rail: The condition of fallen leaves or other debris lying on and clinging to a railroad track that could cause train wheel slippage, resulting in premature wheel wear and train delays.
Torpedo (US): A small explosive device strapped to the top of the rail to alert an approaching train of danger ahead. A torpedo creates a loud noise upon contact with a locomotive wheel, signaling the engineer to reduce speed to 20 mph or less; the train cannot resume its original speed until it has traveled at least a mile beyond where it encountered the device. Traditionally used in pairs to ensure that the sound registered with train crews, torpedoes today are essentially obsolete as modern locomotive cabs' soundproof construction renders the devices useless. (UK:Detonator)
Trailing wheel
Wheel climb: The process of a wheel climbing up and often off the inside or gauge side of the rail. It is a major source of derailments. Wheel climb is more likely to occur in curves with wheels whose flanges are worn or have improper angles. See Rail adhesion.
Wheel flange: The inner section of a wheel that rides between the two rails. The angle between the wheel tread and flange is often specific to the rail to prevent wheel climb and possible derailments. See Rail adhesion. The wheel flange is part of the wheel tire.
Wheel tapper: An historical railway occupation; people employed to tap train wheels with hammers and listen to the sound made to determine the integrity of the wheel; cracked wheels, like cracked bells, do not sound the same as their intact counterparts. The job was associated with the steam age, but they still operate in some eastern European countries. Modern planned maintenance procedures have mostly obviated the need for the wheel-tapper.
Wheel tread: The slightly conical section (often with a 1 in 20 slope) of a railroad wheel that is the primary contact point with the rail. See Rail adhesion.
Wheelset: the wheel-axle assembly of a rail vehicle. The frame assembly beneath each end of a car, railcar or locomotive that holds the wheelsets is called the bogie (or truck).
Parts of a rail wheel[edit]
Crank pin: A pin protruding from a wheel into a main or coupling rod.
Wheels for road-rail vehicles[edit]
The small rail wheels fitted to road-rail vehicles allow them to be stored away when the vehicle is in road-going mode.
Wheels used for road-rail vehicles are normally smaller than those found on other types of rolling stock (such as locomotives or carriages). This is because the wheel has to be stored clear of the ground when the vehicle is in road-going mode - Such wheels can be as small as 245 mm (9.65 in) in diameter. In Australia, wheels for Road-rail vehicles should comply with the requirements of AS7514.4 which is the standard for infrastructure maintenance vehicle wheels.
Tire[edit]
Main article: Railway tire
The wheels of many rail vehicles, especially steam locomotives and older types of rolling stock are fitted with steel tires (or tyres in British English, Australian English and others) to provide a replaceable wearing element on a costly wheel.
These steel tires should not be confused with the tires fitted to rubber-tyred metros and people movers, for example some lines of the Paris Métro, the Mexico City Metro, the Caracas Metro, the Montreal Metro, Sapporo Subway, Seattle Center Monorail, Taipei Rapid Transit System and the Santiago Metro.
Tire installation[edit]
Steel tire on a steam locomotive's driving wheel is heated with gas flames to expand and loosen it so it may be slipped over the wheel.
Replacing a whole wheel because of a worn contact surface is expensive, so older types of railway wheels were fitted with replaceable steel tires. The tire is a hoop of steel that is fitted around the steel wheel centre. The tire is machined with a shoulder on its outer face to locate it on the wheel centre, and a groove on the inside diameter of the flange face. The inside diameter of the tire is machined to be slightly less than the diameter of the wheel centre on which it is mounted, to give an interference fit.
The tire is fitted by heating to a controlled temperature, avoiding overheating. This causes the tire to expand. The wheel centre, usually already mounted on the axle, is lowered into the tire which is flange side up. The tire cools, and the retaining ring (a shaped steel bar rolled into a hoop) is fitted into the groove. Hydraulically operated rolls swage the groove down on to the retaining ring.
The tire is primarily held in place by its interference fit. The shoulder on the outside and the retaining ring also keep the tire in place if the interference fit is lost. This is most often due to severe drag braking down a gradient, or due to an error in the machining.
Removal of a worn tire is by machining out the retaining ring and heating the tire to relax the interference fit.
Some steam locomotive wheels had tires bolted through the rim, or with a second smaller shoulder machined on the inside face of the tire. This shoulder was severely limited in size as it had to pass over the wheel centre for assembly.
Tires of different designs were fitted to wheels with wooden centers (Mansell wheels in the UK) and to various other types.
The use of tires is becoming obsolete. The utilisation of traditional freight wagons was often so low that tires never needed renewal, so it was cheaper to fit a one-piece ("monoblock") wheel. Monoblock wheels are lighter and offer better integrity as there is no tire to come loose. Modern flow-line repair lines are disrupted by the inspection of the wheel centre once the tire is removed, possibly generating extra rectification work, and the need to make each tire fit its allocated wheel centre. Monoblock wheels are now more economical.
Causes of damage[edit]
The most usual cause of damage is drag braking on severe gradients. Because the brake blocks apply directly on the tire, it is heated up, relaxing the interference fit. It is not feasible to fit the tire with such a heavy interference as to eliminate this risk entirely, and the retaining ring will ensure that the tire can only rotate on the wheel center, maintaining its alignment. In rare instances the rotation could be so severe as to wear the retaining ring down till it breaks, which could result in derailment.
Severe braking or low adhesion may stop the rotation of the wheels while the vehicle is still moving can cause a flat spot on the tire and localized heat damage to the tire material.
Tires are reasonably thick, about 3 inches (76 mm), giving plenty of room for wear. Worn tires or tires with flats are re-profiled on a wheel lathe if there is sufficient thickness of material remaining.
See also[edit]
Adhesive weight
Conical shape
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Liszewski, Andrew (15 March 2017). "The Reason Trains Have Angled Wheels Is Incredibly Clever". Gizmodo. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
ISO 1005 Parts 1-9 BS 5892 Parts 1-6 AS7414.4
External links[edit]
"APTA PR-CS-RP-003-98 Recommended Practice for Developing a Clearance Diagram for Passenger Equipment 5.3.2.1 Design tolerances" (PDF). APTA.com. American Public Transportation Association. 1998-03-26. Retrieved 2015-01-17.
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text:
List of banks in Bangladesh
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The banking sector in Bangladesh consists of several types of institution:[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Central bank
2 Scheduled Banks
3 State Owned Banks
4 Private Commercial Banks
5 Islamic Commercial Private Banks
6 Foreign Commercial Banks
7 Non-Scheduled Banks
8 Non Bank Financial Institutions
9 Specialized Financial Institutions (Semi Formal Sector)
10 References
Central bank[edit]
Bangladesh Bank is the central bank of Bangladesh and the chief regulatory authority in the banking sector.
Pursuant to Bangladesh Bank Order, 1972 the Government of Bangladesh reorganized the Dhaka Branch of the State Bank of Pakistan as the central bank of the country, and named it Bangladesh Bank with retrospective effect from 16 December 1971.
Scheduled Banks[edit]
Secheduled Banks are licensed under the Bank Company Act, 1991 (Amended up to 2013).[1]
State Owned Banks[edit]
Sonali Bank Ltd.
Janata Bank Ltd.
Agrani Bank Ltd.
Rupali Bank Ltd.
Bangladesh Krishi Bank
Bangladesh Development Bank Limited.
Basic Bank Limited
Private Commercial Banks[edit]
AB Bank Limited
Bangladesh Commerce Bank Limited
Bank Asia Limited
Bengal Bank Limited
BRAC Bank Limited
City Bank Limited
Dhaka Bank Limited
Dutch-Bangla Bank Limited
Eastern Bank Limited
IFIC Bank Limited
Jamuna Bank Limited
Meghna Bank Limited
Mercantile Bank Limited
Midland Bank
Modhumoti Bank Limited
Mutual Trust Bank Limited
National Bank Limited
National Credit & Commerce Bank Limited
NRB Bank Limited
NRB Commercial Bank Limited
One Bank Limited
Premier Bank Limited
Prime Bank Limited
Pubali Bank Limited
South Bangla Agriculture & Commerce Bank Limited
Southeast Bank Limited
Standard Bank Limited
The Farmers Bank Limited
Trust Bank Limited
United Commercial Bank Limited
Uttara Bank Limited
Shimanto Bank Ltd
Islamic Commercial Private Banks[edit]
Islami Somaz Bank Limited
Al-Arafah Islami Bank Limited
EXIM Bank Limited
First Security Islami Bank Limited
ICB Islamic Bank Limited
Islami Bank Bangladesh Limited
Shahjalal Islami Bank Limited
Social Islami Bank Limited
Union Bank Limited
Foreign Commercial Banks[edit]
Bank Al-Falah Limited
Citibank N.A
Commercial Bank of Ceylon PLC
Habib Bank Limited
National Bank of Pakistan
Standard Chartered Bank
State Bank of India
Punjab National Bank
Woori Bank
HSBC
Non-Scheduled Banks[edit]
Non-Scheduled Banks are licensed only for specific functions and objectives, and do not offer the same range of services as scheduled banks.[1]
Ansar VDP Unnayan Bank
Karmashangosthan Bank
Probashi Kollyan Bank
Grameen Bank
Jubilee Bank
Palli Sanchay Bank
Non Bank Financial Institutions[edit]
Investment Corporation of Bangladesh[2]
Agrani SME Financing Company Limited
Bangladesh Finance and Investment Company Limited
Bangladesh Industrial Finance Company Limited
Bangladesh Infrastructure Finance Fund Limited
Bay Leasing and Investment Limited
CAPM Venture Capital and Finance Limited
Delta Brac Housing Finance Corporation Limited
Far-east Finance & Investment Limited
FAS Finance & Investment Limited
First Finance Limited
GSP Finance Company (Bangladesh) Limited
Hajj Finance Company Limited
IDLC Finance Limited
Industrial and Infrastructure Development Finance Company Limited
IPDC Finance Limited
Infrastructure Development Company Limited
International Leasing and Financial Services Limited
Islamic Finance and Investment Limited
LankaBangla Finance Limited
Meridian Finance and Investment Limited
MIDAS Financing Limited
National Finance Limited
National Housing Finance and Investments Limited
People's Leasing and Financial Services Limited
Phoenix Finance and Investments Limited
Premier Leasing & Finance Limited
Prime Finance & Investment Limited
Reliance Finance Limited
Saudi-Bangladesh Industrial & Agricultural Investment Company Limited
SEAF Bangladesh Venture Limited
The UAE-Bangladesh Investment Company Limited
Union Capital Limited
United Finance Limited
Uttara Finance and Investments Limited
Specialized Financial Institutions (Semi Formal Sector)[edit]
House Building Financial Corporation (HBFC)
Palli Karma Sahayak Foundation (PKSF)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Financial System". Central Bank of Bangladesh. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Relevant links". Central Bank of Bangladesh. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
[hide]
v
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List of banks in Asia
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_banks_in_Bangladesh&oldid=832850714"
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This page was last edited on 28 March 2018, at 10:02.
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