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Lōʻihi Seamount
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Lōihi Seamount
Yellow iron oxide-covered lava rock on the flank of Lōʻihi
Summit depth
975 m (3,199 ft).[1]
Height
over 3,000 m (10,000 ft) above the ocean floor[2]
Summit area
Volume—660 km3 (160 mi3)[3]
Translation
Loʻihi means "long" in Hawaiian,[4] so named in 1955.[3] (Hawaiian)
Pronunciation
[loːˈʔihi]
Location
Location
Southeast of the island of Hawaiʻi
Coordinates
18°55′N 155°16′W / 18.92°N 155.27°W / 18.92; -155.27Coordinates: 18°55′N 155°16′W / 18.92°N 155.27°W / 18.92; -155.27[1]
Country
Hawaiʻi, US
Geology
Type
Submarine volcano
Volcanic arc/chain
Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain
Age of rock
At least 400,000 years old[5]
Last eruption
February to August 1996[3]
History
Discovery date
1940 – US Coast and Geodetic Survey chart number 4115[5]
First visit
1978[5]
Lōihi Seamount (also known as Lōʻihi) is an active submarine volcano about 35 km (22 mi) off the southeast coast of the island of Hawaii.[6] The top of the seamount is about 975 m (3,000 ft) below sea level. This seamount is on the flank of Mauna Loa, the largest shield volcano on Earth. Lōihi, meaning "long" in Hawaiian, is the newest volcano in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, a string of volcanoes that stretches over 5,800 km (3,600 mi) northwest of Lōʻihi. Unlike most active volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean that make up the active plate margins on the Pacific Ring of Fire, Lōʻihi and the other volcanoes of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain are hotspot volcanoes and formed well away from the nearest plate boundary. Volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands arise from the Hawaii hotspot, and as the youngest volcano in the chain, Lōihi is the only Hawaiian volcano in the deep submarine preshield stage of development.
Lōihi began forming around 400,000 years ago and is expected to begin emerging above sea level about 10,000–100,000 years from now. At its summit, Lōʻihi Seamount stands more than 3,000 m (10,000 ft) above the seafloor, making it taller than Mount St. Helens was before its catastrophic 1980 eruption. A diverse microbial community resides around Lōihi's many hydrothermal vents.
In the summer of 1996, a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes was recorded at Lōʻihi. This series included more earthquakes than any other swarm in Hawaiian recorded history. The swarm altered 10 to 13 square kilometres (4 to 5 sq mi) of the seamount's summit; one section, Pele's Vents, collapsed entirely upon itself and formed the renamed Pele's Pit. The volcano has remained relatively active since the 1996 swarm and is monitored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS). The Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory (HUGO) provided real-time data on Lōʻihi between 1997 and 2002. Lōʻihi last erupted in 1996, before the earthquake swarm of that summer.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characteristics
1.1 Geology
1.2 Age and growth
2 Activity
2.1 1996 earthquake swarm
2.2 Recent activity
3 Exploration
3.1 Early work
3.2 1996 to present
3.3 HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory)
4 Ecology
4.1 Hydrothermal vent geochemistry
4.2 Microorganisms
4.3 Macroorganisms
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Characteristics[edit]
Geology[edit]
See also: Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes
Lōʻihi is a seamount, or underwater volcano, on the flank of Mauna Loa, the Earth's largest shield volcano. It is the newest volcano created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot in the extensive Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain. The distance between the summit of the older Mauna Loa and the summit of Lōʻihi is about 80 km (50 mi), which is, coincidentally, also the approximate diameter of the Hawaiʻi hotspot.[3] Lōʻihi consists of a summit area with three pit craters, an 11 km (7 mi) long rift zone extending north from the summit, and a 19 km (12 mi) long rift zone extending south-southeast from the summit.[7]
The summit's pit craters are named West Pit, East Pit, and Pele's Pit.[8] Pele's Pit is the youngest of this group and is located at the southern part of the summit. The walls of Pele's Pit stand 200 m (700 ft) high and were formed in July 1996 when its predecessor, Pele's Vent, a hydrothermal field near Lōʻihi's summit, collapsed into a large depression.[6] The thick crater walls of Pele's Pit—averaging 20 m (70 ft) in width, unusually thick for Hawaiian volcanic craters—suggest its craters have filled with lava multiple times in the past.[9]
Bathymetric mapping of Lōʻihi; the arrow points to Pele's Pit.
Lōihi's north–south trending rift zones create a distinctive elongated shape, from which the volcano's Hawaiian name, meaning "long", derives.[10] The north rift zone consists of a longer western portion and a shorter eastern rift zone. Observations show that both the north and south rift zones lack sediment cover, indicating recent activity. A bulge in the western part of the north rift zone contains three 60–80 m (200–260 ft) cone-shaped prominences.[9]
Until 1970, Lōihi was thought to be an inactive volcano that had been transported to its current location by sea-floor spreading. The seafloor under Hawaii is 80–100 million years old and was created at the East Pacific Rise, an oceanic spreading center where new sea floor forms from magma that erupts from the mantle. New oceanic crust moves away from the spreading center. Over a period of 80–100 million years, the sea floor under Hawaii moved from the East Pacific Rise to its present location 6,000 km (4,000 mi) west, carrying ancient seamounts with it. When scientists investigated a series of earthquakes off Hawaii in 1970, they discovered that Lōihi was an active member of the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain.
Three dimensional rendering of the Seamount
Lōʻihi is built on the seafloor with a slope of about five degrees. Its northern base on the flank of Mauna Loa is 1,900 m (6,200 ft) below sea level, but its southern base is a more substantial 4,755 m (15,600 ft) below the surface. Thus, the summit is 931 m (3,054 ft) above the seafloor as measured from the base of its north flank, but 3,786 m (12,421 ft) high when measured from the base of its southern flank.[3]
Lōihi is following the pattern of development that is characteristic of all Hawaiian volcanoes. Geochemical evidence from Lōihi lavas indicates that Lōihi is in transition between the preshield and shield volcano stage, providing valuable clues to the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes. In the preshield stage, Hawaiian volcanoes have steeper sides and a lower level of activity, producing an alkali basalt lava.[11][12] Continued volcanism is expected to eventually create an island at Lōihi. Lōʻihi experiences frequent landslides; the growth of the volcano has destabilized its slopes, and extensive areas of debris inhabit the steep southeastern face. Similar deposits from other Hawaiian volcanoes indicate that landslide debris is an important product of the early development of Hawaiian volcanoes.[5] Lōʻihi is predicted to rise above the surface in 10,000 to 100,000 years.[1]
Age and growth[edit]
A sample of basalt pillow lava collected from Lōʻihi, at 1,180 metres below sea level
Radiometric dating was used to determine the age of rock samples from Lōʻihi. The Hawaii Center for Volcanology tested samples recovered by various expeditions, notably the 1978 expedition, which provided 17 dredge samples. Most of the samples were found to be of recent origin; the oldest dated rock is around 300,000 years old. Following the 1996 event, some young breccia was also collected. Based on the samples, scientists estimate Lōʻihi is about 400,000 years old. The rock accumulates at an average rate of 3.5 mm (0.14 in) per year near the base, and 7.8 mm (0.31 in) near the summit. If the data model from other volcanoes such as Kīlauea holds true for Lōʻihi, 40% of the volcano's mass formed within the last 100,000 years. Assuming a linear growth rate, Lōihi is 250,000 years old. However, as with all hotspot volcanoes, Lōihi's level of activity has increased with time; therefore, it would take at least 400,000 years for such a volcano to reach Lōihi's mass.[5] As Hawaiian volcanoes drift northwest at a rate of about 10 cm (4 in) a year, Lōʻihi was 40 km (25 mi) southeast of its current position at the time of its initial eruption.[13]
Activity[edit]
Lōihi is a young and fairly active volcano, although less active than nearby Kīlauea. In the past few decades, several earthquake swarms have been attributed to Lōihi, the largest of which are summarized in the table below.[14] The volcano's activity is now known to predate scientific record keeping of its activity, which commenced in 1959.[15] Most earthquake swarms at Lōihi have lasted less than two days; the two exceptions are the 1991–92 earthquake, lasting several months, and the 1996 event, which was shorter but much more pronounced. Both of the earthquakes followed a pattern of activity that began on the flank and migrated to the summit. The 1996 event was directly observed by an autonomous ocean bottom observatory (OBO), allowing scientists to calculate the depth of the earthquakes as 6 km (4 mi) to 8 km (5 mi) below the summit, approximating to the position of Lōihi's extremely shallow magma chamber.[5] This is evidence that Lōʻihi's seismicity is volcanic in origin.[8]
The low-level seismic activity documented on Lōihi since 1959 has shown that between two and ten earthquakes per month are traceable to the summit.[15] Earthquake swarm data have been used to analyze how well Lōihi's rocks propagate seismic waves and to investigate the relationship between earthquakes and eruptions. This low level activity is periodically punctuated by large swarms of earthquakes, each swarm comprising up to hundreds of earthquakes. The majority of the earthquakes are not distributed close to the summit, though they follow a north–south trend. Rather, most of the earthquakes occur in the southwest portion of Lōʻihi.[5] The largest recorded swarms took place on Lōihi in 1971, 1972, 1975, 1991–92 and 1996. The nearest seismic station is around 30 km (20 mi) from Lōʻihi, on the south coast of Hawaii. Seismic events that have a magnitude under 2 are recorded often, but their location cannot be determined precisely as it can for larger events.[16] In fact, HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory), positioned on Lōihi's flank, detected ten times as many earthquakes as were recorded by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) seismic network.[5]
1996 earthquake swarm[edit]
Major Events
Year(s)
Summary
1996 Evidence of eruption in early 1996, and large, well-recorded earthquake swarm in the summer. Started on February 25, 1996, and lasted until August 9, 1996.[16][17]
1991 An OBO positioned on the seamount to track a recent earthquake swarm collected evidence of deflation, possibly due to magma withdrawal.[5]
1986 Possible eruption, occurred on September 20, 1986 (one day).[17]
1984–85 Nine events of magnitude 3 or greater, measuring between 3.0 and 4.2, were recorded from November 11, 1984, to January 21, 1985.[16] Eruption possible, but uncertain.[17]
1975 Prominent earthquake swarm from August 24, 1975, to November 1975.[17]
1971–72 Possible eruption from September 17, 1971, to September 1972.[17] Eruption uncertain.
1952 An earthquake swarm on Lōʻihi in 1952 was the event that first brought attention to the volcano, previously thought extinct.[5]
50 BC
± 1000 Confirmed ancient eruption[17]
5050 BC
± 1000 Confirmed ancient eruption[17]
7050 BC
± 1000 Confirmed ancient eruption, most likely on the east flank[16]
This table indexes only possible volcanic eruptions and major events. Lōʻihi has also been the site of multiple earthquake swarms occurring on a nearly semi-annual basis.
The largest amount of activity recorded for the Lōihi seamount was a swarm of 4,070 earthquakes between July 16 and August 9, 1996.[3] This series of earthquakes was the largest recorded for any Hawaiian volcano to date in both amount and intensity. Most of the earthquakes had moment magnitudes of less than 3.0. "Several hundred" had a magnitude greater than 3.0, including more than 40 greater than 4.0 and a 5.0 tremor.[16][18]
The final two weeks of the earthquake swarm were observed by a quick response cruise launched in August 1996. The National Science Foundation funded an expedition by University of Hawaii scientists, led by Frederick Duennebier, that began investigating the swarm and its origin in August 1996. The scientists' assessment laid the groundwork for many of the expeditions that followed.[19] Follow-up expeditions to Lōʻihi took place, including a series of manned-submersible dives in August and September. These were supplemented by a great deal of shore-based research.[18] Fresh rock collected during the expedition revealed that an eruption occurred before the earthquake swarm.[20]
Submersible dives in August were followed by NOAA-funded research in September and October 1996. These more detailed studies showed the southern portion of Lōʻihi's summit had collapsed, a result of a swarm of earthquakes and the rapid withdrawal of magma from the volcano. A crater 1 km (0.6 mi) across and 300 m (1,000 ft) deep formed out of the rubble. The event involved the movement of 100 million cubic meters of volcanic material. A region of 10 to 13 km2 (4 to 5 sq mi) of the summit was altered and populated by bus-sized pillow lava blocks, precariously perched along the outer rim of the newly formed crater. "Pele's Vents," an area on the southern side, previously considered stable, collapsed completely into a giant pit, renamed "Pele's Pit". Strong currents make submersible diving hazardous in the region.[19]
The researchers were continually met by clouds of sulfide and sulfate. The sudden collapse of Pele's Vents caused a large discharge of hydrothermal material. The presence of certain indicator minerals in the mixture suggested temperatures exceeded 250 °C, a record for an underwater volcano. The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers, the hydrothermal vent plumes located along mid-ocean ridges. Samples from mounds built by discharges from the hydrothermal plumes resembled white smokers.[21]
The studies demonstrated that the most volcanically and hydrothermally active area was along the southern rift. Dives on the less active northern rim indicated that the terrain was more stable there, and high lava columns were still standing upright.[19] A new hydrothermal vent field (Naha Vents) was located in the upper-south rift zone, at a depth of 1,325 m (4,350 ft).[5][22]
Recent activity[edit]
Lōʻihi has remained largely quiet since the 1996 event; no activity was recorded from 2002 to 2004. The seamount showed signs of life again in 2005 by generating an earthquake bigger than any previously recorded there. USGS-ANSS (Advanced National Seismic System) reported two earthquakes, magnitudes 5.1 and 5.4, on May 13 and July 17. Both originated from a depth of 44 km (27 mi). On April 23, a magnitude 4.3 earthquake was recorded at a depth of approximately 33 km (21 mi). Between December 7, 2005, and January 18, 2006, a swarm of around 100 earthquakes occurred, the largest measuring 4 on the Moment magnitude scale and 12 km (7 mi) to 28 km (17 mi) deep. Another earthquake measuring 4.7 was later recorded approximately midway between Lōihi and Pāhala (on the south coast of the Hawaii (Island)).[14]
Exploration[edit]
Early work[edit]
Expedition Timeline[show]
Date
Study (most on R/V Kaʻimikai-o-Kanaloa and with Pisces V)
1940 Lōʻihi's first depiction on a map was on Survey Chart 4115, compiled by the US Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1940.[5]
1978 An expedition formed to study intense seismic activity in the region at the time.
Data collected was the first solid evidence of the volcano being active.[5]
1979 More extensive sampling (17 dredgehauls) from this expedition seemed to confirm the 1970 results.[5]
1980 Extensive hydrothermal fields found, yielding more evidence. First high-resolution bathymetric mapping.[5]
1987 Marking and study of several hydrothermic fields[22]
August 1996 Emergency response team dives reacting to extensive activity, led by Frederick Duennebier.[23]
Early Sept. 1997 Studies of hydrothermal vents (Batiza and McMurtry, Chief Scientists)[23]
Late August 1997 Geological studies of recent eruptions at Lōʻihi (Garcia and Kadko, Chief Scientists)[23]
October 1997 HUGO deployment (Frederick Duennebier, Chief Scientist)[23]
September–October 1998 Series of dives by multiple science parties to visit New Pit, Summit Area and HUGO.[23]
January 1998 HUGO revisit (Frederick Duennebier, Chief Scientist)[23]
October 2002 HUGO recovered from sea bottom.[24]
October 2006
October 2007
October 2008
October 2009 FeMO (Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory) cruises to investigate iron-oxidizing microbes at Lōʻihi.
Much is learned about Lōʻihi's microbial community.[25]
Lōʻihi Seamount's first depiction on a map was on Survey Chart 4115, a bathymetric rendering of part of Hawaiʻi compiled by the US Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1940. At the time, the seamount was non-notable, being one of many in the region. A large earthquake swarm first brought attention to it in 1952. That same year, geologist Gordon A. MacDonald hypothesized that the seamount was actually an active submarine shield volcano, similar to the two active Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa and Kīlauea. Macdonald's hypothesis placed the seamount as the newest volcano in the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, created by the Hawaiʻi hotspot. However, because the earthquakes were oriented east–west (the direction of the volcanic fault) and there was no volcanic tremor in seismometers distant from the seamount, Macdonald attributed the earthquake to faulting rather than a volcanic eruption.[5]
R/V (research vessel) Kaʻimikai-o-Kanaloa (KoK) launching Pisces V, a battery-powered submersible. The R/V KoK is the support ship for the Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL).
Geologists suspected the seamount could be an active undersea volcano, but without evidence the idea remained speculative. The volcano was largely ignored after the 1952 event, and was often mislabeled as an "older volcanic feature" in subsequent charts.[5] Geologist Kenneth O. Emery is credited with naming the seamount in 1955, describing the long and narrow shape of the volcano as Loihi.[7] The Hawaiian word lōʻihi means "long".[10] In 1978, an expedition studied intense, repeated seismic activity known as earthquake swarms in and around the Lōʻihi area. Rather than finding an old, extinct seamount, data collected revealed Lōʻihi to be a young, possibly active volcano. Observations showed the volcano to be encrusted with young and old lava flows. Fluids erupting from active hydrothermal vents were also found.[2]
In 1978, a US Geological Survey research ship collected dredge samples and photographed Lōʻihi's summit with the goal of studying whether Lōʻihi is active. Analysis of the photos and testing of pillow lava rock samples appeared to show that the material was "fresh", yielding more evidence that Lōʻihi is still active. An expedition from October 1980 to January 1981 collected further dredge samples and photographs, providing additional confirmation.[26] Studies indicated that the eruptions came from the southern part of the rift crater. This area is closest to the Hawaiʻi hotspot, which supplies Lōʻihi with magma.[5] Following a 1986 seismic event, a network of five ocean bottom observatories (OBOs) were deployed on Lōʻihi for a month. Lōʻihi's frequent seismicity makes it an ideal candidate for seismic study through OBOs.[5] In 1987, the submersible DSV Alvin was used to survey Lōʻihi.[27] Another autonomous observatory was positioned on Lōʻihi in 1991 to track earthquake swarms.[5]
1996 to present[edit]
The bulk of information about Lōʻihi comes from dives made in response to the 1996 eruption. In a dive conducted almost immediately after seismic activity was reported, visibility was greatly reduced by high concentrations of displaced minerals and large floating mats of bacteria in the water. The bacteria that feed on the dissolved nutrients had already begun colonizing the new hydrothermal vents at Pele's Pit (formed from the collapse of the old ones), and may be indicators of the kinds of material ejected from the newly formed vents. They were carefully sampled for further analysis in a laboratory.[19] An OBO briefly sat on the summit before a more permanent probe could be installed.[28]
Repeated multibeam bathymetric mapping was used to measure the changes in the summit following the 1996 collapse. Hydrothermal plume surveys confirmed changes in the energy, and dissolved minerals emanating from Lōʻihi. Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory, HURL's 2,000 m (6,562 ft) submersible Pisces V allowed scientists to sample the vent waters, microorganisms and hydrothermal mineral deposits.[6]
Since 2006, the Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO), funded by the National Science Foundation and Microbial Observatory Program, has led cruises to Lōʻihi investigate its microbiology every October. The first cruise, on the ship R/V Melville and exploiting the submersible JASON2, lasted from September 22 to October 9. These cruises study the large number of Fe-oxidizing bacteria that have colonized Lōʻihi. Lōʻihi's extensive vent system is characterized by a high concentration of CO2 and Iron, while being low in sulfide. These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron-oxidizing bacteria, called FeOB, to thrive in.[25]
Ocean bottom observatory (OBO) at Pele's Vents
HUGO (Hawaii Undersea Geological Observatory)[edit]
In 1997, scientists from the University of Hawaiʻi installed an ocean bottom observatory (OBO) on the summit of Lōʻihi Seamount.[14] The submarine observatory was nicknamed HUGO, (Hawaiʻi Undersea Geological Observatory). HUGO was connected to the shore, 34 km (21 mi) away, by a fiber optic cable. It gave scientists real-time seismic, chemical and visual data about the state of Lōʻihi, which had by then become an international laboratory for the study of undersea volcanism.[19] The cable that provided HUGO with power and communications broke in October 1998, effectively shutting it down. On January 19 of the following year, HUGO was visited by Pisces V. The observatory functioned for four years before it went dead again in 2002.[29]
Ecology[edit]
Hydrothermal vent geochemistry[edit]
Vent[22]
Depth
Location
Notes
Pele's 1,000 m (3,281 ft) Summit Destroyed 1996
Kapo's 1,280 m (4,199 ft) Upper South rift No longer venting
Forbidden 1,160 m (3,806 ft) Pele's Pit over 200 °C
Lohiau ("slow") 1,173 m (3,850 ft)[8] Pele's Pit 77 °C
Pahaku ("rocky") 1,196 m (3,924 ft) South rift zone 17 °C
Ula ("red") 1,099 m (3,606 ft) South summit Diffuse venting
Maximilian 1,249 m (4,098 ft) West summit flank Diffuse venting
Naha 1,325 m (4,347 ft) South rift 23 °C
Lōʻihi's mid-Pacific location and its well-sustained hydrothermal system contribute to a rich oasis for a microbial ecosystem. Areas of extensive hydrothermal venting are found on Lōʻihi's crater floor and north slope,[6] and along the summit of Lōʻihi itself. Active hydrothermal vents were first discovered at Lōʻihi in the late 1980s. These vents are remarkably similar to those found at the mid-ocean ridges, with similar composition and thermal differences. The two most prominent vent fields are at the summit: Pele's Pit (formally Pele's Vents) and Kapo's Vents. They are named after the Hawaiian deity Pele and her sister Kapo. These vents were considered "low temperature vents" because their waters were only about 30 °C. The volcanic eruption of 1996 and the creation of Pele's Pit changed this, and initiated high temperature venting; exit temperatures were measured at 77 °C in 1996.[22]
Microorganisms[edit]
The vents lie 1,100 m (3,600 ft) to 1,325 m (4,347 ft) below the surface, and range in temperature from 10 to over 200 °C.[22][30] The vent fluids are characterized by a high concentration of CO
2 (up to 17 mM) and Fe (Iron), but low in sulfide. Low oxygen and pH levels are important factors in supporting the high amounts of Fe (iron), one of the hallmark features of Lōʻihi. These characteristics make a perfect environment for iron-oxidizing bacteria, called FeOB, to thrive in.[25] An example of these species is Mariprofundus ferrooxydans, sole member of the class Zetaproteobacteria.[31] The composition of the materials was similar to that of black smokers, that are a habitat of archaea extremophiles. Dissolution and oxidation of the mineral observed over the next two years suggests the sulfate is not easily preserved.[21]
A diverse community of microbial mats surround the vents and virtually cover Pele's Pit. The Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL), NOAA's Research Center for Hawaiʻi and the Western Pacific, monitors and researches the hydrothermal systems and studies the local community.[6] The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded an extremophile sampling expedition to Lōʻihi in 1999. Microbial mats surrounded the 160 °C vents, and included a novel jelly-like organism. Samples were collected for study at NSF's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center (MarBEC).[6] In 2001, Pisces V collected samples of the organisms and brought them to the surface for study.[19]
NOAA's National Undersea Research Center and NSF's Marine Bioproducts Engineering Center are cooperating to sample and research the local bacteria and archaea extremophiles.[6] The fourth FeMO (Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory) cruise occurred during October 2009.[32]
Macroorganisms[edit]
Marine life inhabiting the waters around Lōʻihi is not as diverse as life at other, less active seamounts. Fish found living near Lōʻihi include the Celebes monkfish (Sladenia remiger), and members of the Cutthroat eel family, Synaphobranchidae.[33] Invertebrates identified in the area include two species endemic to the hydrothermal vents, a bresiliid shrimp (Opaepele loihi) of the family Alvinocarididae (described in 1995), and a tube or pogonophoran worm. Dives conducted after the 1996 earthquake swarms were unable to find either the shrimp or the worm, and it is not known if there are lasting effects on these species.[34]
From 1982 to 1992, researchers in Hawaiʻi Undersea Research Laboratory submersibles photographed the fish of Lōʻihi Seamount, Johnston Atoll, and Cross Seamount at depths between 40 m (130 ft) and 2,000 m (6,600 ft).[35][36] A small number of species identified at Lōʻihi were newly recorded sightings in Hawaiʻi, including the Tassled coffinfish (Chaunax fimbriatus), and the Celebes monkfish.[35]
See also[edit]
List of volcanoes in the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b Rubin, Ken (2006-01-19). "General Information About Loihi". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. SOEST. Retrieved 2009-02-01.
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Jump up ^ Best, Myron G. (1991). Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated. p. 359. ISBN 978-1-4051-0588-0.
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^ Jump up to: a b Caplan-Auerbach, Jackie (1998-07-22). "Recent Seismicity at Loihi Volcano". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. SOEST. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Loihi – Monthly Reports". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Loihi – Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2009-03-13. Dates for older eruptions retrieved through Isotope dating.
^ Jump up to: a b Rubin, Ken (1998-07-22). "The 1996 Eruption and July–August Seismic Event". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. SOEST. Retrieved 2009-03-01.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "HURL Current Research: Loihi after the July–August event". 1999 Research. SOEST. 2001. Archived from the original on 2009-03-05. Retrieved 2009-03-01.
Jump up ^ Garcia, M.O., Graham, D.W., Muenow, D.W., Spencer, K., Rubin, K.H., Norman, M.D. (1998). "Petrology and geochronology of basalt breccia from the 1996 earthquake swarm of Loihi seamount, Hawaii: magmatic history of its 1996 eruption". Bulletin of Volcanology. 59 (8): 577–92. Bibcode:1998BVol...59..577G. doi:10.1007/s004450050211. ISSN 0258-8900. Retrieved 2009-06-13. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Davis, Alicé S.; David A. Clague; Robert A. Zierenberg; C. Geoffrey Wheat; Brian L. Cousens (Apr 2003). "Sulfide formation related to changes in the hydrothermal system on Loihi Seamount, Hawaiʻi, following the seismic event in 1996". The Canadian Mineralogist. Mineralogical Association of Canada. 41 (2): 57–472. doi:10.2113/gscanmin.41.2.457.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Rubin, Ken (1998-07-22). "Recent Activity at Loihi Volcano: Hydrothermal Vent and Buoyant Plume Studies". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. SOEST. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Rubin, Ken. "Cruises to Loihi Since the 1996 Eruption and Seismic Swarm". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. SOEST. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
Jump up ^ Duennebier, Fred (2002-10-01). "HUGO: Update and Current Status". SOEST. Retrieved 2009-03-17.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Introduction to the Biology and Geology of Loihi Seamount". Loihi Seamount. Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory (FeMO). 2009-02-01. Retrieved 2009-03-02.
Jump up ^ Macdonald, Gordon A.; Agatin T. Abbott; Frank L. Peterson (1983) [1970]. Volcanoes in the Sea: The Geology of Hawaii (2nd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 0-8248-0832-0.
Jump up ^ Garcia, M.O., Irving, A.J., Jorgenson, B.A., Mahoney, J.J., Ito, E. (1993). "An evaluation of temporal geochemical evolution of Loihi summit lavas: results from Alvin submersible dives". Journal of Geophysical Research. 98 (B1): 537–550. Bibcode:1993JGR....98..537G. doi:10.1029/92JB01707. Retrieved 2009-06-13. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Bryan, Carol; Cooper, P. (December 1995). "Ocean-bottom seismometer observations of seismic activity at Loihi". Marine Geophysical Researches. Springer Netherlands. 17: 485–501. Bibcode:1995MarGR..17..485B. doi:10.1007/BF01204340. ISSN 0025-3235. Archived from the original on 2013-01-03. Retrieved 2009-06-13.
Jump up ^ "HUGO: The Hawaiʻi Undersea Geo-Observatory". SOEST. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
Jump up ^ Emerson, David; Craig L. Moyer (June 2002). "Neutrophilic Fe-Oxidizing Bacteria Are Abundant at the Loihi Seamount Hydrothermal Vents and Play a Major Role in Fe Oxide Deposition". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. American Society for Microbiology. 68 (6): 3085–93. doi:10.1128/AEM.68.6.3085-3093.2002. PMC 123976  . PMID 12039770.
Jump up ^ Emerson, David; Rentz, Jeremy A.; Lilburn, Timothy G.; Davis, Richard E.; Aldrich, Henry; Chan, Clara; Moyer, Craig L. (2007). Reysenbach, Anna-Louise, ed. "A novel lineage of proteobacteria involved in formation of marine Fe-oxidizing microbial mat communities". PLoS ONE. 2 (8): e667. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..667E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000667. PMC 1930151  . PMID 17668050.
Jump up ^ "FeMO4 Dive Cruise 2009". FeMO. EarthRef.org. 2009-10-17. Retrieved 2010-02-08.
Jump up ^ Rubin, Ken (1998-09-07). "A Tour of Loihi". Hawaii Center for Volcanology. SOEST. Retrieved 2009-03-15.
Jump up ^ Rubin, Ken (1998-07-22). "Recent Activity at Loihi Volcano – 1996 Seismic/Volcanic Event Summary". Hawaii Center For Volcanology. SOEST. Retrieved 2009-05-30. The only two vent-specific macrofaunal species described from Loihi have been a novel bresiliid shrimp, Opaepele loihi (Williams and Dobbs, 1995), and a unique lineage of pogonophoran worm (R. Vrijenhoek, pers. comm.). The post-event dives, however, found no evidence for either, and the long-term impact of the event on these species is unknown.
^ Jump up to: a b Chave, E.H.; B.C. Mundy (1994). "Deep-Sea Benthic Fish of the Hawaiian Archipelago, Cross Seamount, and Johnston Atoll". Pacific Science. University of Hawaiʻi. 48 (4): 367–409. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
Jump up ^ Data from Chave, E.H. and B.C. Mundy (1994) and Scripps Institution of Oceanography (2002). "Observation Data". University of the Pacific. Archived from the original on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2009-03-16. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Further reading[edit]
Auerbach-Caplan, J.; F. Duennebier (2001-05-25). "Seismic and acoustic signals detected at Loʻihi Seamount by the Hawaiʻi Undersea Geo-Observatory" (PDF). Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems. American Geophysical Union and the Geochemical Society. 2 (5): 1525–2027. Bibcode:2001GGG.....2.1024C. doi:10.1029/2000GC000113. ISSN 1525-2027. Retrieved 2009-04-27.
Chave, E. H.; Alexander Malahoff (1998). In Deeper Waters: Photographic Studies of Hawaiian Deep-sea Habitats and Life-forms. University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN 0-8248-2003-7.
F. K. Duennebier, N. C. Becker, J. Caplan-Auerbach, D. A. Clague, J. Cowen, M. Cremer, M. Garcia, F. Goff, A. Malahoff, G. M. McMurtry, B. P. Midson, C. L. Moyer, M. Norman, P. Okubo, J. A. Resing, J. M. Rhodes, K. Rubin, F. J. Sansone, J. R. Smith, K. Spencer, X. Wen, and C. G. Wheat (1997-06-03). "Researchers rapidly respond to submarine activity at Loihi volcano, Hawaii" (PDF). Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union. 78 (22): 229–33. Bibcode:1997EOSTr..78Q.229T. doi:10.1029/97EO00150. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Emery, K.O. (1955). "Submarine topography south of Hawaii". Pacific Science. University of Hawaiʻi Press. 9: 286–91.
"Loihi – Data Sources". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution.
Klein, F. (1982). "Earthquakes at Lōʻihi submarine volcano and the Hawaiian hot spot". Journal of Geophysical Research. 87: B9. Bibcode:1982JGR....87....9K. doi:10.1029/JA087iA01p00009. ISSN 0148-0227.
Macdonald, G.A. (1952). "The South Hawaii Earthquakes of March and April, 1952". The Volcano Letter (515): 3–5.
Malahoff, Alexander; Gary M. McMurtry; John C. Wiltshire; Hsueh-Wen Yeh (1982-07-15). "Geology and chemistry of hydrothermal deposits from active submarine volcano Loihi, Hawaii". Nature. Nature Publishing Group. 298 (5871): 234–39. Bibcode:1982Natur.298..234M. doi:10.1038/298234a0.
Malahoff, A.; Gregory, T.; Bossuyt, A.; Donachie, S.; Alarn, M. (Oct 2002). "A seamless system for the collection and cultivation of extremophiles from deep-ocean hydrothermal vents". IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering. IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society. 27 (4): 862–69. doi:10.1109/JOE.2002.804058. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
J.G. Moore, D.A. Clague, W.R. Normark (Feb 1982). "Diverse basalt types from Loihi Seamount, Hawaii". Geology. Geological Society of America. 10 (2): 88–92. Bibcode:1982Geo....10...88M. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<88:DBTFLS>2.0.CO;2. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Scripps Institution of Oceanography. (2002). Benthic Invertebrate Collection Database.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lōʻihi Seamount.
Hawaii Center for Volcanology, University of Hawaiʻi.
Loʻihi Seamount—USGS website.
Loihi Submarine Volcano: A unique, natural extremophile laboratory—NOAA research site.
HURL Current Research – Loihi after the July–August event, on the 1996 Lōʻihi Seamount Exploration
Recent volcanic activity at Loihi – University of Hawaiʻi
Fe-Oxidizing Microbial Observatory Project (FeMO) Webpage – Earthref.org
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text:
Second Temple
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Second Temple
בית־המקדש השני
Model of Herod's Temple (a renovation of the Second Temple) in the Israel Museum, created in 1966 as part of the Holyland Model of Jerusalem. The model was inspired by the writings of Josephus.
Alternate name
Herod's Temple
Location
Jerusalem
Coordinates
31°46′41″N 35°14′07″E / 31.778013°N 35.235367°E / 31.778013; 35.235367
Type
Temple
Part of
Herodian Temple Mount
Height
45.72 metres (150.0 ft)
History
Builder
Likely Zerubbabel, largely renovated by Herod the Great.
Material
local limestone
Founded
c. 537–516 BCE (construction)
Abandoned
70 CE (destroyed)
Periods
Early Roman Empire
Site notes
Excavation dates
1930, 1967, 1968, 1970–1978, 1996–1999, 2007
Archaeologists
Charles Warren, Benjamin Mazar, Ronny Reich, Eli Shukron, Yaakov Billig
Condition
Ruin, archaeological park
Ownership
Disputed, currently managed by the Jerusalem Islamic Waqf
Public access
Yes (limited)
The Second Temple (Hebrew: בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ הַשֵּׁנִי, Beit HaMikdash HaSheni) was the Jewish Holy Temple which stood on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem during the Second Temple period, between 516 BCE and 70 CE. According to Jewish tradition, it replaced Solomon's Temple (the First Temple), which was destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, when Jerusalem was conquered and part of the population of the Kingdom of Judah was taken into exile to Babylon.
Jewish eschatology includes a belief that the Second Temple will be replaced by a future Third Temple.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biblical narrative
2 Rabbinical literature
3 Rededication by the Maccabees
4 Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest
5 Herod's Temple
5.1 Construction
5.2 Platform
5.3 Court of the Gentiles
5.4 Pinnacle
5.5 Inside the Soreg
5.6 Temple sanctuary
6 Pilgrimages
7 Destruction
8 Archaeology
9 Second Temple Judaism
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Biblical narrative[edit]
Main article: Second Temple period
The accession of Cyrus the Great of the Persian Empire in 559 BCE made the re-establishment of the city of Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the Temple possible.[1][2] According to the closing verses of the second book of Chronicles and the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, when the Jewish exiles returned to Jerusalem following a decree from Cyrus the Great (Ezra 1:1–4, 2 Chron 36:22–23), construction started at the original site of Solomon's Temple. After a relatively brief halt due to opposition from peoples who had filled the vacuum during the Jewish captivity (Ezra 4), work resumed c. 521 BCE under Darius the Great (Ezra 5) and was completed during the sixth year of his reign (c. 516 BCE), with the temple dedication taking place the following year.[citation needed]
These events represent the final section in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible.[1]
The original core of the book of Nehemiah, the first-person memoir, may have been combined with the core of the Book of Ezra around 400 BCE. Further editing probably continued into the Hellenistic era.[3]
The book tells how Nehemiah, at the court of the king in Susa, is informed that Jerusalem is without walls and resolves to restore them. The king appoints him as governor of the province Yehud Medinata and he travels to Jerusalem. There he rebuilds the walls, despite the opposition of Israel's enemies, and reforms the community in conformity with the law of Moses. After 12 years in Jerusalem, he returns to Susa but subsequently revisits Jerusalem. He finds that the Israelites have been backsliding and taking non-Jewish wives, and he stays in Jerusalem to enforce the Law.
Based on the biblical account, after the return from Babylonian captivity, arrangements were immediately made to reorganize the desolated Yehud Province after the demise of the Kingdom of Judah seventy years earlier. The body of pilgrims, forming a band of 42,360,[4] having completed the long and dreary journey of some four months, from the banks of the Euphrates to Jerusalem, were animated in all their proceedings by a strong religious impulse, and therefore one of their first concerns was to restore their ancient house of worship by rebuilding their destroyed Temple[5] and reinstituting the sacrificial rituals known as the korbanot.
On the invitation of Zerubbabel, the governor, who showed them a remarkable example of liberality by contributing personally 1,000 golden darics, besides other gifts, the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury with great enthusiasm.[6] First they erected and dedicated the altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly stood, and they then cleared away the charred heaps of debris which occupied the site of the old temple; and in the second month of the second year (535 BCE), amid great public excitement and rejoicing, the foundations of the Second Temple were laid. A wide interest was felt in this great movement, although it was regarded with mixed feelings by the spectators (Haggai 2:3, Zechariah 4:10).[5]
The Samaritans made proposals for co-operation in the work. Zerubbabel and the elders, however, declined all such cooperation, feeling that the Jews must build the Temple without help. Immediately evil reports were spread regarding the Jews. According to Ezra 4:5, the Samaritans sought to "frustrate their purpose" and sent messengers to Ecbatana and Susa, with the result that the work was suspended.[5]
Seven years later, Cyrus the Great, who allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple, died (2 Chronicles 36:22–23) and was succeeded by his son Cambyses. On his death, the "false Smerdis", an impostor, occupied the throne for some seven or eight months, and then Darius became king (522 BCE). In the second year of his rule the work of rebuilding the temple was resumed and carried forward to its completion (Ezra 5:6–6:15), under the stimulus of the earnest counsels and admonitions of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah. It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 BCE, more than twenty years after the return from captivity. The Temple was completed on the third day of the month Adar, in the sixth year of the reign of Darius, amid great rejoicings on the part of all the people (Ezra 6:15,16), although it was evident that the Jews were no longer an independent people, but were subject to a foreign power. The Book of Haggai includes a prediction that the glory of the second temple would be greater than that of the first (Haggai 2:9).[5]
Some of the original artifacts from the Temple of Solomon are not mentioned in the sources after its destruction in 597 BCE, and are presumed lost. The Second Temple lacked the following holy articles:
The Ark of the Covenant[2][5] containing the Tablets of Stone, before which were placed[7] the pot of manna and Aaron's rod[5]
The Urim and Thummim[2][5] (divination objects contained in the Hoshen)
The holy oil[5]
The sacred fire.[2][5]
In the Second Temple, the Kodesh Hakodashim (Holy of Holies) was separated by curtains rather than a wall as in the First Temple. Still, as in the Tabernacle, the Second Temple included:
The Menorah (golden lamp) for the Hekhal
The Table of Showbread
The golden altar of incense, with golden censers.[5]
According to the Mishnah (Middot iii. 6), the "Foundation Stone" stood where the Ark used to be, and the High Priest put his censer on it on Yom Kippur.[2]
The Second Temple also included many of the original vessels of gold that had been taken by the Babylonians but restored by Cyrus the Great.[5][8] According to the Babylonian Talmud (Yoma 22b),[2] however, the Temple lacked the Shekinah, the dwelling or settling divine presence of God, and the Ruach HaKodesh, the Spirit of Holiness, present in the first.
Rabbinical literature[edit]
Traditional rabbinic literature state that the Second Temple stood for 420 years and based on the 2nd-century work Seder Olam Rabbah, placed construction in 350 BCE (3408 AM), 166 years later than secular estimates, and destruction in 70 CE (3829 AM).[9]
Rededication by the Maccabees[edit]
Following the conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great, it became part of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt until 200 BCE, when King Antiochus III the Great of Syria defeated King Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt at the Battle of Paneion.[10] Judea became at that moment part of the Seleucid empire of Syria. When the Second Temple in Jerusalem was looted and its religious services stopped, Judaism was effectively outlawed. In 167 BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes ordered an altar to Zeus erected in the Temple. He also banned circumcision and ordered pigs to be sacrificed at the altar of the Temple.[11]
Following the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid empire, the Second Temple was rededicated and became the religious pillar of the Jewish Hasmonean kingdom, as well as culturally associated with the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah.
Hasmonean dynasty and Roman conquest[edit]
There is some evidence from archaeology that further changes to the structure of the Temple and its surroundings were made during the Hasmonean rule. Salome Alexandra, the queen of Hasmonean Kingdom appointed her elder son Hyrcanus II as the high priest of Judaea. Her younger son Aristobulus II was determined to have the throne, and as soon as she died he seized the throne. Hyrcanus, who was in line to be the king, agreed to be contented with being the high priest. Antipater, the governor of Idumæa, encouraged Hyrcanus not to give up his throne. Eventually Hyrcanus fled to Aretas III, king of the Nabateans, and returned with an army to take back the throne. He defeated Aristobulus and besieged Jerusalem. The Roman general Pompey, who was in Syria fighting against the Armenians in the Third Mithridatic War, sent his lieutenant to investigate the conflict in Judaea. Both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed to him for support. Pompey was not diligent in making a decision about this which caused Aristobulus to march off. He was pursued by Pompey and surrendered but his followers closed Jerusalem to Pompey's forces. The Romans besieged and took the city in 63 BCE. The priests continued with the religious practices inside the Temple during the siege. The temple was not looted or harmed by the Romans. Pompey himself, perhaps inadvertently, went into the Holy of Holies and the next day ordered the priests to repurify the Temple and resume the religious practices.[12]
Solomon's Temple which was on the site prior to the building of the Second Temple
Herod's Temple[edit]
This picture shows the temple as imagined in 1966 in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem.
Reconstruction of the temple under Herod began with a massive expansion of the Temple Mount. Religious worship and temple rituals continued during the construction process.[13] When the Roman emperor Caligula planned to place his own statue inside the temple, Herod's grandson Agrippa I was able to intervene and convince him against this.
Construction[edit]
James Tissot – Reconstruction of Jerusalem and the Temple of Herod – Brooklyn Museum
A model of the southern wall and Royal Colonnade or Stoa
Eastern portion of the southern wall of the Temple Mount
Remains of the Hulda Gates
Marwan Mosque on the site of Solomon's Stables
Herod's Temple was one of the larger construction projects of the 1st century BCE.[14] Josephus records that Herod was interested in perpetuating his name through building projects, that his construction programs were extensive and paid for by heavy taxes, but that his masterpiece was the Temple of Jerusalem.[14]
The old temple built by Zerubbabel was replaced by a magnificent edifice. An agreement was made between Herod and the Jewish religious authorities: the sacrificial rituals, called offerings, were to be continued unabated for the entire time of construction, and the Temple itself would be constructed by the priests. Later the Exodus 30:13 sanctuary shekel was reinstituted to support the temple as the temple tax.
Platform[edit]
Mt. Moriah had a plateau at the northern end, and steeply declined on the southern slope. It was Herod's plan that the entire mountain be turned into a giant square platform. The Temple Mount was originally intended to be 1600 feet wide by 900 feet broad by 9 stories high, with walls up to 16 feet thick, but had never been finished. To complete it, a trench was dug around the mountain, and huge stone "bricks" were laid. Some of these weighed well over 100 tons, the largest measuring 44.6 feet by 11 feet by 16.5 feet and weighing approximately 567 to 628 tons,[15][16] while most were in the range of 2.5 by 3.5 by 15 feet (approximately 28 tons). King Herod had architects from Greece, Rome and Egypt plan the construction. The blocks were presumably quarried by using pickaxes to create channels. Then they hammered in wooden beams and flushed them with water to force them out. Once they were removed, they were carved into precise squares and numbered at the quarry to show where they would be installed. The final carving would have been done by using harder stones to grind or chisel them to create precise joints. They would have been transported using oxen and specialized carts. Since the quarry was uphill from the temple they had gravity on their side but care needed to be taken to control the descent. Final installation would have been done using pulleys or cranes. Roman pulleys and cranes weren't strong enough to lift the blocks alone so they may have used multiple cranes and levers to position them.[17] As the mountainside began to rise, the western side was carved away to a vertical wall and bricks were carved to create a virtual continuation of the brick face, which was continued for a while until the northern slope reached ground level. Part of the Antonian hill to the north of Moriah was annexed to the complex and the area between was filled up with landfill.
The project began with the building of giant underground vaults upon which the temple would be built so it could be larger than the small flat area on top of Mount Moriah. Ground level at the time was at least 20 ft. (6m) below the current level, as can be seen by walking the Western Wall tunnels. Legend has it that the construction of the entire complex lasted only three years, but other sources such as Josephus say that it took far longer, although the Temple itself may have taken that long. During a Passover visit by Jesus the Jews replied that it had been under construction for 46 years.[18] It is possible that the complex was only a few years completed when the future Emperor Titus destroyed the Temple in 70 CE.
Court of the Gentiles[edit]
This area was primarily a bazaar, with vendors selling souvenirs, sacrificial animals, food, as well as currency changers, exchanging Roman for Tyrian money because the Jews were not allowed to coin their own money and they viewed Roman currency as an abomination to the Lord,[19] as also mentioned in the New Testament account of Jesus and the Money Changers when Jerusalem was packed with Jews who had come for Passover, perhaps numbering 300,000 to 400,000 pilgrims.[20][21] Guides that provided tours of the premises were also available. Jewish males had the unique opportunity to be shown inside the temple itself.
The priests, in their white linen robes and tubular hats, were everywhere, directing pilgrims and advising them on what kinds of sacrifices were to be performed.
Behind them, as they entered the Court of the Gentiles from the south through the Huldah Gates, was the Royal Porch, which contained a marketplace, administrative quarters, and a synagogue. On the upper floors, the great Jewish sages held court, priests and Levites performed various chores, and from there, tourists were able to observe the events. The Royal Porch is widely accepted to be part of Herod's work; however, recent archaeological finds in the Western Wall tunnels suggest that it was built in the first century during the reign of Agripas, as opposed to the first century BCE,[22] while the theory that Herod began the extension and the Royal Porch is based mainly on Josephus's possibly politically motivated claim. During Herod's reign the porch was not yet open to the public)
To the east of the court was Solomon's Porch, and to the north, the soreg, the "middle wall of separation",[23] a stone wall separating the public area from the inner sanctuary where only Jews could enter, described as being 3 cubits high by Josephus (Wars 5.5.2 [3b] 6.2.4).
Pinnacle[edit]
The accounts of Jesus' temptations in Matthew's and Luke's gospels both suggest that the Second Temple had one or more pinnacles (Greek: το πτερυγιον του ιερου):
Then he [Satan] brought Him to Jerusalem, set Him on the pinnacle of the temple, and said to Him, "If You are the Son of God, throw Yourself down from here."[24]
Inside the Soreg[edit]
According to Josephus, there were ten entrances into the inner courts, four on the south, four on the north, one on the east and one leading east to west from the Court of Women to the court of the Israelites, named the Nicanor Gate.[25] The gates were: On the south side (going from west to east) the Fuel Gate, the Firstling Gate, the Water Gate. On the north side, from west to east, are the Jeconiah Gate, the Offering Gate, the Women's Gate and the Song Gate. On the Eastern side, the Nicanor gate, which is where most Jewish visitors entered. A few pieces of the Soreg have survived to the present day.
Within this area was the Court of the Women, open to all Jews, male and female. Even a ritually unclean Cohen could enter to perform various housekeeping duties. There was also a place for lepers (considered ritually unclean), as well as a ritual barbershop for Nazirites. In this, the largest of the temple courts, one could see constant dancing, singing and music.
Only men were allowed to enter the Court of the Israelites, where they could observe sacrifices of the high priest in the Court of the Priests. The Court of the Priests was reserved for Levite priests.
Temple sanctuary[edit]
The Foundation Stone under the Dome of the Rock, a possible historical location for the Kodesh Hakodashim
Between the entrance of the building and the curtain veiling the Holy of Holies were the famous vessels of the temple: the menorah, the incense-burning altar, and various other implements.
Pilgrimages[edit]
Proposed reconstruction of Robinson's Arch
Roman triumphal procession with spoils from the Temple, depicted on the inside wall of the Arch of Titus in Rome
The Madaba Map depiction of 6th-century Aelia Capitolina has the Cardo Maximus, the town’s main street, beginning at the northern gate, today's Damascus Gate, and traversing the city in a straight line from north to south to "Nea Church".
Robinson's Arch – remains of the entrance built by Herod to the Royal Colonnade
Remnants of the 1st century Stairs of Ascent, discovered by archaeologist Benjamin Mazar, to the entrance of the Temple Courtyard. Pilgrims coming to make sacrifices at the Temple would have entered and exited by this stairway.
Stones from the Western Wall thrown down by Roman soldiers in 70 CE
See also: Pilgrimage § Judaism
Jews from distant parts of the Roman Empire would arrive by boat at the port of Jaffa (now part of Tel Aviv), where they would join a caravan for the three-day trek to the Holy City and would then find lodgings in one of the many hotels or hostelries. Then they changed some of their money from the profane standard Greek and Roman currency for Jewish and Tyrian money, the latter two considered religious.[26][27] The pilgrims would purchase sacrificial animals, usually a pigeon or a lamb, in preparation for the following day's events.
The first thing pilgrims would do would be to approach the public entrance on the south side of the Temple Mount complex. They would check their animals, then visit a mikveh, where they would ritually cleanse and purify themselves. The pilgrims would then retrieve their sacrificial animals, and head to the Huldah gates. After ascending a staircase three stories in height, and passing through the gate, the pilgrims would find themselves in the Court of the Gentiles.
Destruction[edit]
Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (1850 painting by David Roberts). Looking southwest
View of Temple Mount looking southwest
View of the southern part of Temple Mount
Main article: Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)
In 66 CE the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire. Four years later, in 70 CE, Roman legions under Titus retook and destroyed much of Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The Arch of Titus, located in Rome and built to commemorate Titus' victory in Judea, depicts a Roman victory procession with soldiers carrying spoils from the Temple, including the Menorah. According to an inscription on the Colosseum, Emperor Vespasian built the Colosseum with war spoils in 79 CE—possibly from the spoils of the Second Temple.[28]
The sects of Judaism that had their base in the Temple dwindled in importance, including the priesthood and the Sadducees.[29]
The destruction date according to the Hebrew calendar was the 9th of Av, also known as Tisha B'Av.[30] The Temple itself was located on the site of what today is the Dome of the Rock. The gates let out close to Al-Aqsa Mosque (which came much later).[13] Although Jews continued to inhabit the destroyed city, Emperor Hadrian established a new city called Aelia Capitolina. At the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, many of the Jewish communities were massacred and Jews were banned from living inside Jerusalem. A pagan Roman temple was set up on the former site of Herod's Temple.[12]
Archaeology[edit]
In 1871, a hewn stone measuring 60 × 90 cm. and engraved with Greek uncials was discovered near a court on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and identified by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau as being the Temple Warning inscription. The stone inscription outlined the prohibition extended unto those who were not of the Jewish nation to proceed beyond the soreg separating the larger Court of the Gentiles and the inner courts. The inscription read in seven lines:
ΜΗΟΕΝΑΑΛΛΟΓΕΝΗΕΙΣΠΟ
ΡΕΥΕΣΟΑΙΕΝΤΟΣΤΟΥΠΕ
ΡΙΤΟΙΕΡΟΝΤΡΥΦΑΚΤΟΥΚΑΙ
ΠΕΡΙΒΟΛΟΥΟΣΔΑΝΛΗ
ΦΘΗΕΑΥΤΩΙΑΙΤΙΟΣΕΣ
ΤΑΙΔΙΑΤΟΕΞΑΚΟΛΟΥ
ΘΕΙΝΘΑΝΑΤΟΝ
Translation: "Let no foreigner enter within the parapet and the partition which surrounds the Temple precincts. Anyone caught [violating] will be held accountable for his ensuing death." Today, the stone is preserved in Istanbul's Museum of Antiquities.
In 1936 a fragment of a similar Temple warning inscription was found. After 1967, archaeologists found that the wall extended all the way around the Temple Mount and is part of the city wall near the Lions' Gate. Thus, the Western Wall is not the only remaining part of the Temple Mount. Currently, Robinson's Arch (named after American Edward Robinson) remains as the beginning of an arch that spanned the gap between the top of the platform and the higher ground farther away. This had been used by the priests as an entrance. Commoners had entered through the still-extant, but now plugged, gates on the southern side which led through colonnades to the top of the platform. One of these colonnades is still extant and reachable through the Temple Mount. The Southern wall was designed as a grand entrance. Recent archeological digs have found thousands of mikvehs (ceremonial bathtubs) for the ritual purification of the worshipers, as well as a grand stairway leading to the now blocked entrance. Inside the walls, the platform was supported by a series of vaulted archways, now called Solomon's Stables, which still exist and whose current renovation by the Waqf is extremely controversial. The temple itself was constructed of imported white marble that gleamed in the daylight.
On September 25, 2007, Yuval Baruch, archaeologist with the Israeli Antiquities Authority announced the discovery of a quarry compound which may have provided King Herod with the stones to build his Temple on the Temple Mount. Coins, pottery and an iron stake found proved the date of the quarrying to be about 19 BCE. Archaeologist Ehud Netzer confirmed that the large outlines of the stone cuts is evidence that it was a massive public project worked by hundreds of slaves.[31]
The Magdala stone is thought to be a representation of the Second Temple carved before its destruction in the year 70.[32]
Magdala Stone
Bar Kokhba tetradracm showing the Jerusalem Temple façade 132–135 CE
Arch of Titus showing spoils of Jerusalem Temple
The upper corner of Herod's temple colonnade with ancient Hebrew inscription
The Warning Inscription found in 1871
A copy of the inscription found in 1871
Fragment of Second Temple Warning
The Trumpeting Place inscription, a stone (2.43 × 1 m) with Hebrew inscription "To the Trumpeting Place" excavated by Benjamin Mazar at the southern foot of the Temple Mount is believed to be a part of the Second Temple.
Second Temple Judaism[edit]
Main article: Second Temple Judaism
The period between the construction of the Second Temple in 515 BCE and its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE witnessed major historical upheavals and significant religious changes that would affect most subsequent Abrahamic religions. The origins of the authority of scripture, of the centrality of law and morality in religion, of the synagogue and of apocalyptic expectations for the future all developed in the Judaism of this period.
See also[edit]
Herodian architecture
Jerusalem stone
List of artifacts significant to the Bible
List of megalithic sites
Replicas of the Jewish Temple
Temple of Peace, Rome
Timeline of Jewish history
Archaeological remnants of the Jerusalem Temple
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Albright, William (1963). The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra: An Historical Survey. HarperCollins College Division. ASIN 0061301027. ISBN 0-06-130102-7. CS1 maint: ASIN uses ISBN (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Temple, The Second". Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.
Jump up ^ Paul Cartledge, Peter Garnsey, Erich S. Gruen (editors), Hellenistic Constructs: Essays In Culture, History, and Historiography, p. 92 (University of California Press, 1997). ISBN 0-520-20676-2
Jump up ^ Ezra 2:65
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Easton, Matthew George (1897). "Temple, the Second". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
Jump up ^ Ezra 2
Jump up ^ Maimonides. "Mishneh Torah, Sefer Avodah, Beis Habechirah, Chapter 4, Halacha 1". Retrieved 2013-05-20.
Jump up ^ Ezra 1:7–11
Jump up ^ Goldwurm, Hersh. History of the Jewish people: the Second Temple era, Mesorah Publications, 1982. Appendix: Year of the Destruction, p. 213. ISBN 0-89906-454-X
Jump up ^ De Bellis Antiquitatis (DBA) The Battle of Panion (200 BC) Archived 2009-12-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews[permanent dead link] Jewish War i. 34
^ Jump up to: a b Lester L. Grabbe (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. pp. 19–20, 26–29. ISBN 9780567552488.
^ Jump up to: a b Secrets of Jerusalem's Temple Mount, Leen Ritmeyer, Kathleen Ritmeyer, 1998
^ Jump up to: a b Flavius Josephus: The Jewish War
Jump up ^ The History Channel cited the 16.5 depth 567 ton estimate in "Lost Worlds of King Herod"
Jump up ^ Dan Bahat: Touching the Stones of our Heritage, Israeli ministry of Religious Affairs, 2002
Jump up ^ "Modern Marvels: Bible tech" History channel
Jump up ^ Gospel of John 2:20
Jump up ^ Beasley-Murray, G. (1999). Word biblical commentary: John (2 ed., Vol. 36). Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson.
Jump up ^ Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. p. 249
Jump up ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.
Jump up ^ "Israel Antiquities Authority".
Jump up ^ In verse 14 of Ephesians 2:11–18
Jump up ^ Luke 4:9
Jump up ^ Josephus, War 5.5.2; 198; m. Mid. 1.4
Jump up ^ Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993.
Jump up ^ Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus, Interrupted, HarperCollins, 2009. ISBN 0-06-117393-2
Jump up ^ Rome, By Bruce Johnston in. "Colosseum 'built with loot from sack of Jerusalem temple'".
Jump up ^ Alföldy, Géza (1995). "Eine Bauinschrift aus dem Colosseum". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 109: 195–226. JSTOR 20189648.
Jump up ^ Simmons, Shraga. "Tisha B'Av – Ninth of Av". Retrieved 2013-05-20.
Jump up ^ Gaffney, Sean (2007-09-24). "USATODAY.com, Report: Herod's Temple quarry found". Usatoday.com. Retrieved 2013-08-31.
Jump up ^ Kershner, Isabel (8 December 2015). "A Carved Stone Block Upends Assumptions About Ancient Judaism". New York Times. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Second Jewish temple in Jerusalem.
Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem[permanent dead link] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple, The Second
4 Enoch: The Online Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism
Jerusalem Videos The Southern & Western walls in Jerusalem – The Temple Mount
Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem[permanent dead link] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Temple Mount Photos The Temple Mount photos including sites below the Mount itself, off limits to any non-Muslims
Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Herod and the Herodian Dynasty[permanent dead link] The Jewish History Resource Center – Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple of Herod
PBS Frontline: Temple Culture
Picture gallery of a model of the temple
Resources > Second Temple and Talmudic Era > Second Temple Jerusalem[permanent dead link] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Jewish Encyclopedia: Temple, The Second
4 Enoch: The Online Encyclopedia of Second Temple Judaism
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This page was last edited on 6 January 2018, at 01:18.
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