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2018 College Football Playoff National Championship
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2018 College Football Playoff National Championship
Alabama Crimson Tide Georgia Bulldogs
(12–1) (13–1)
SEC SEC
26 23
Head coach:
Nick Saban Head coach:
Kirby Smart
AP Coaches CFP
4 4 4
AP Coaches CFP
3 3 3
1
2
3
4
OT
Total
Alabama 0 0 10 10 6 26
Georgia 0 13 7 0 3 23
Date
January 8, 2018
Season
2017
Stadium
Mercedes-Benz Stadium
Location
Atlanta, Georgia
MVP
Offensive: #13 QB Tua Tagovailoa, Fr. Alabama
Defensive: #94 DT Da'Ron Payne, Jr. Alabama
Favorite
Alabama by 3.5
National anthem
Zac Brown Band
Referee
Dan Capron (Big Ten)[1]
Halftime show
Georgia Redcoat Marching Band
Million Dollar Band
Attendance
77,430
United States TV coverage
Network
ESPN/ESPN Radio/ESPN Deportes
Announcers
Chris Fowler, Kirk Herbstreit, Maria Taylor and Tom Rinaldi (ESPN)
Sean McDonough, Todd Blackledge, Holly Rowe and Ian Fitzsimmons (ESPN Radio)
College Football Playoff National Championship
< 2017 2019 >
The 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship was a college football bowl game that determined the national champion in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision for the 2017 season. The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Georgia Bulldogs 26–23 in overtime. Alabama overcame a 13–0 deficit at halftime. Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne were respectively named the offensive and defensive players of the game.
The College Football Playoff selection committee chose the semifinalists following the conclusion of the 2017 regular season. Alabama and Georgia advanced to the national championship after winning the semifinal games hosted by the Sugar Bowl and the Rose Bowl, respectively, on January 1, 2018. The championship game was played at Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia on January 8, 2018.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 2018 College Football Playoff
3 Teams
3.1 Alabama
3.2 Georgia
4 Game summary
4.1 Scoring summary
4.2 Statistics
5 Broadcasting
6 Dispute
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Background[edit]
The Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia was announced as the host site for the fourth College Football National Championship on November 4, 2015.[2]
2018 College Football Playoff[edit]
Semifinals Championship
January 1 – Sugar Bowl
Mercedes-Benz Superdome, New Orleans
1 Clemson 6
4 Alabama 24 January 8 – National Championship
Mercedes-Benz Stadium, Atlanta
4 Alabama (OT) 26
January 1 – Rose Bowl
Rose Bowl, Pasadena 3 Georgia 23
2 Oklahoma 48
3 Georgia (2OT) 54
This bracket:
view
talk
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The College Football Playoff (CFP) selected four teams to advance to the playoff: the Clemson Tigers, Oklahoma Sooners, Georgia Bulldogs, and Alabama Crimson Tide.[3]
Teams[edit]
Alabama[edit]
See also: 2017 Alabama Crimson Tide football team
The Alabama Crimson Tide defeated the Clemson Tigers in the 2018 Sugar Bowl by a score of 24–6 to reach the championship game. The Tide had a 12–1 season, becoming the SEC West Division co-champions with the Auburn Tigers. The Crimson Tide were coached by Nick Saban.[4]
Georgia[edit]
See also: 2017 Georgia Bulldogs football team
The Georgia Bulldogs defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in the 2018 Rose Bowl by a score of 54–48 in double overtime to reach the championship game. The Bulldogs had a 13–1 season claiming their 13th Southeastern Conference (SEC) championship with a win over Auburn Tigers, 28–7. The Bulldogs were coached by Kirby Smart.[5]
Game summary[edit]
After winning the coin toss, Alabama deferred to the second half and Georgia received the ball to begin the game. After two plays, quarterback Jake Fromm attempted a pass downfield and was intercepted by Tony Brown. Alabama began their first drive of the game, and, after eleven plays, that drive ended with kicker Andy Pappanastos missing a 40-yard field goal. The teams each had three-and-outs for the game's first two punts. During Georgia's ensuing drive, the quarter ended, with no score.[6]
After a failed third down conversion, on the second play of the second quarter, Georgia kicker Rodrigo Blankenship hit a 41-yard field goal to open the scoring and put Georgia in the lead by three. Alabama's ensuing drive went nowhere, as they gained four yards on three plays and punted. Georgia took the ball and drove down the field, and found themselves with a first and goal at the Alabama 10-yard-line; the Tide defense held, however, and the Bulldogs settled for a second field goal and took a 6–0 lead with just over seven and a half minutes until half. On Alabama's next drive, the Georgia defense held yet again and Alabama's JK Scott punted for the third time. Just prior to the punt, Georgia wide receiver Javon Wims was shown walking to the locker room, reportedly with a left shoulder injury. Both defenses then forced punts, and Georgia took back over with 1:19 remaining in the half on their own 31-yard-line. Nine plays later, on Alabama's 1-yard-line, Mecole Hardman took a direct snap, faked a handoff, and ran into the end zone for the game's first touchdown, putting Georgia up 13–0 going into halftime.[6]
Because they deferred the coin toss, Alabama received the ball first in the second half. They started their drive on their own 22-yard-line. Tua Tagovailoa, Alabama's backup quarterback, started the second half for the Tide; that drive quickly resulted in a three-and-out. The initial punt was blocked, but an offside call gave the Tide another chance to punt. Georgia started their drive on their own 36-yard-line, but punted on 4th & 17. Alabama took over on their own 44-yard-line.[6] The teams then traded touchdowns on consecutive drives; Alabama scored their first points of the game on a 6-yard pass from Tagovailoa to Ruggs, but Georgia immediately responded with an 80-yard touchdown connection from Fromm to Mecole Hardman, putting Georgia up 20–7. On the second play of Alabama's ensuing drive, Tagovailoa, while scrambling to the left, threw into traffic and was intercepted by Georgia's Deandre Baker. Up 13, the Bulldogs took over possession of the ball on Alabama's 39-yard-line. The Tide defense responded immediately, however, as Raekwon Davis intercepted a Jake Fromm pass on the first play of Georgia's drive, returning the pick to the UGA 40-yard-line. The Tide gained fifteen yards on six plays and kicker Andy Pappanastos avenged his earlier miss with a 43-yard field goal that put Bama within ten. The teams then traded punts. Just prior to Alabama's punt, it was announced that an Alabama defensive back, Kyriq McDonald, had collapsed on the sideline; the situation was described as a "serious medical emergency". He was loaded onto a medical stretcher awake and conscious. Georgia could not muster anything on offense that drive, and punted. The fourth quarter saw Tagovailoa lead the Tide to come back and tie the game at 20 with 3:49. With three seconds remaining in the game, Andy Pappanastos missed a potential game-winning 36-yard field goal to the left, sending the game to overtime.[6]
In overtime, Georgia scored on a 51-yard field goal. On Alabama's first offensive play in overtime, Tagovailoa was sacked for a 16-yard loss, but immediately followed that with a game-winning 41-yard touchdown pass to DeVonta Smith.[6] Tagovailoa was named the offensive player of the game, and Da'Ron Payne was named the defensive player of the game.[7]
Scoring summary[edit]
[hide]Scoring summary
Quarter
Time
Drive
Team
Scoring information
Score
Plays
Yards
TOP
Alabama
Georgia
2 14:14 14 55 7:40 Georgia 41-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 0 3
2 7:33 13 70 5:19 Georgia 27-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 0 6
2 0:07 9 69 1:12 Georgia Mecole Hardman 1-yard touchdown run, Rodrigo Blankenship kick good 0 13
3 8:52 7 56 1:59 Alabama Henry Ruggs III 6-yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa, Andy Pappanastos kick good 7 13
3 6:52 4 93 1:55 Georgia Mecole Hardman 80-yard touchdown reception from Jake Fromm, Rodrigo Blankenship kick good 7 20
3 5:20 6 15 1:06 Alabama 43-yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos 10 20
4 9:24 8 71 2:15 Alabama 30-yard field goal by Andy Pappanastos 13 20
4 3:49 8 66 3:21 Alabama Calvin Ridley 7-yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa, Andy Pappanastos kick good 20 20
OT 4 -9 Georgia 51-yard field goal by Rodrigo Blankenship 20 23
OT 2 25 Alabama DeVonta Smith 41-yard touchdown reception from Tua Tagovailoa 26 23
"TOP" = time of possession. For other American football terms, see Glossary of American football.
26
23
Statistics[edit]
1
2
3
4
OT
Total
No. 4 Crimson Tide 0 0 10 10 6 26
No. 3 Bulldogs 0 13 7 0 3 23
Statistics
Alabama
Georgia
First downs 20 22
Plays–yards 71–371 77–365
Rushes–yards 39–184 45–133
Passing yards 187 232
Passing: Comp–Att–Int 17–32–1 16–32–2
Time of possession 26:17 33:43
Sources: ESPN, StatBroadcast
Team
Category
Player
Statistics
Alabama Passing Tua Tagovailoa 14/24, 166 yds, 3 TD, 1 INT
Rushing Najee Harris 6 car, 64 yds
Receiving Calvin Ridley 4 rec, 32 yds, 1 TD
Georgia Passing Jake Fromm 16/32, 232 yds, 1 TD, 2 INT
Rushing Sony Michel 14 car, 98 yds
Receiving Riley Ridley 6 rec, 82 yds
Sources: ESPN, StatBroadcast
Broadcasting[edit]
The game was televised nationally by ESPN. On January 8, 2018, the network announced that its broadcast would feature a live performance by Kendrick Lamar during halftime. This performance was separate from the event proper at Mercedes-Benz Stadium (which featured a traditional halftime show with the marching bands of the participating teams), and originated from Centennial Olympic Park.[8]
Dispute[edit]
Following an undefeated season in the American Athletic Conference and their victory over the Auburn Tigers—who had beaten both the Alabama Crimson Tide and the Georgia Bulldogs in the regular season before losing to Georgia in the 2017 SEC Championship Game—in the 2018 Peach Bowl, the UCF Knights claimed to have won the national championship by virtue of being the only undefeated team in the FBS level of college football.[9] This claim, however, is not recognized by any major poll. The selection committee ranked UCF 12th at the end of the regular season, below a number of two-loss teams from the Power Five conferences, which left them out of the CFP.[3] UCF announced plans for a victory parade at Disney World[10] and to hang a national championship banner at their stadium to celebrate this achievement.[11] The school also paid national championship bonuses to all of its assistant coaches, many of whom left UCF after the Peach Bowl to follow head coach Scott Frost to his new head coaching job at Nebraska; Frost himself (who coached UCF in the game) did not receive such a bonus because he had already been paid all of the bonuses allowed by his UCF contract.[12]
The AP Poll ranked Alabama No. 1 in its final poll, receiving 57 first-place votes, while UCF was ranked No. 6 and received four first-place votes.[13] Alabama was unanimously ranked No. 1 in the Coaches Poll.[14]
See also[edit]
College football national championships in NCAA Division I FBS
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kirshner, Alex (January 8, 2018). "A Big Ten officiating crew is working the all-SEC National Championship". sbnation.com. SB Nation. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Alex Scarbrough (November 4, 2015). "Atlanta, Santa Clara and New Orleans land CFP title games for 2018–20". ESPN.com. Retrieved November 4, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Selection Committee Rankings: Final Top 25 Rankings" (PDF). College Football Playoff. December 3, 2017. Retrieved December 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Alabama's Sugar Bowl win against Clemson sets up all-SEC final: Final score, stats, analysis". nola.com. January 1, 2018. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Emerson, Seth (January 1, 2018). "Georgia to play for national championship after Rose Bowl win in 2 OT". ajc.com. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Hoffman, Benjamin; Drape, Joe; Tracy, Marc (January 8, 2018). "National Championship Game: Georgia vs. Alabama Live Score". The New York Times. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Perez, A.J. (January 9, 2018). "CFP players of the game: Alabama's Tua Tagovailoa and Da'Ron Payne". USA Today. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Kendrick Lamar to Perform at College Football Playoff Title Game". Billboard. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
Jump up ^ Baker, Matt (January 3, 2018). "UCF is really claiming a national championship". tampabay.com. Retrieved January 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ Rollins, Khadrice (January 2, 2018). "UCF Is Having a Parade at Disney World for National Championship Caliber Season". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Gartland, Dan (January 3, 2018). "UCF Is Hanging a National Championship Banner at Its Stadium". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved January 10, 2018.
Jump up ^ Chavez, Chris (January 3, 2018). "UCF AD Says Coaches Will Be Paid National Championship Bonuses". SI.com. Retrieved January 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ September 1, 2018 (January 9, 2018). "Alabama is No. 1 in final AP poll for 11th time; UCF 6th". Msn.com. Retrieved January 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ Kercheval, Ben (January 9, 2018). "Coaches Poll Top 25: Alabama unanimous No. 1, UCF finishes outside top five". CBSSports.com. Retrieved January 16, 2018.
External links[edit]
Media related to 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship at Wikimedia Commons
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Cuban War of Independence
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Cuban War of Independence

An estimated 200,000 Cubans died in Spanish concentration camps.[1]
Date
February 24, 1895–February 15, 1898
(2 years, 11 months, 3 weeks and 1 day)
Location
Cuba (Caribbean)
Result
Cuban victory
American Intervention; Expulsion of the Spanish colonial government during Spanish–American War (1898).
Treaty of Paris
United States Military Government in Cuba
Cuban independence
Belligerents
Spain
Spanish Cuba
Spanish Philippines
Cuban nationalists
United States
Commanders and leaders
Arsenio Linares
Manuel Macías
Ramón Blanco
Valeriano Weyler
Patricio Montojo
Pascual Cervera Máximo Gómez
Calixto García
José Martí †
Antonio Maceo †
Nelson A. Miles
William Shafter
George Dewey
William T. Sampson
Strength
196,000[2]:255 53,774 rebels[2]:308
28,000–60,000 US regulars and 200,000+ volunteers[2]:255
Casualties and losses
786 killed in action[2]:308
8,627 DOW[2]:308
53,313 dead from disease[2]:308
900 killed in action (1898)[2]:255
5,180 Cuban insurgents died in combat
3,437 Cuban insurgents dead from disease[3]
385 US soldiers died in combat
2,061 US soldiers dead from disease[4]
300,000 total Cubans dead[5][6] (most of them civilian fatalities in the concentration camps)[2]:308
[show]
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Part of a series on the
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Cuban War of Independence
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The Cuban War of Independence (Spanish: Guerra de Independencia cubana, 1895–98) was the last of three liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain, the other two being the Ten Years' War (1868–1878) and the Little War (1879–1880). The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the Spanish–American War, with United States forces being deployed in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands against Spain. Historians disagree as to the extent that United States officials were motivated to intervene for humanitarian reasons but agree that yellow journalism exaggerated atrocities attributed to Spanish forces against Cuban civilians.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 War
3 The Maine incident
4 The Spanish–American War
5 Peace
6 Analysis
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Background
During the years 1869–1888 of the so-called “Rewarding Truce”, lasting for 17 years from the end of the Ten Years' War in 1878, there were fundamental social changes in Cuban society. With the abolition of slavery in October 1886, freedmen joined the ranks of farmers and the urban working class. The economy could no longer sustain itself with the shift and changes; therefore, many wealthy Cubans lost their property, and joined the urban middle class. The number of sugar mills dropped and efficiency increased: only companies, and the most powerful plantation owners, remained in business followed by the Central Board of Artisans in 1879, and many more across the island.[7] After his second deportation to Spain in 1878, José Martí moved to the United States in 1881. There he mobilized the support of the Cuban exile community, especially in Ybor City (Tampa area) and Key West, Florida. His goal was revolution in order to achieve independence from Spain. Martí lobbied against the U.S. annexation of Cuba, which was desired by some politicians in both the U.S. and Cuba.
After deliberations with patriotic clubs across the United States, the Antilles and Latin America, “El Partido Revolucionario Cubano” (The Cuban Revolutionary Party) was in a state of pendency and was affected by a growing fear that the U.S. government would try to annex Cuba before the revolution could liberate the island from Spain”.[8] A new trend of aggressive U.S. “influence” was expressed by Secretary of State James G. Blaine's suggestion that all of Central and South America would some day fall to the U.S.:
“That rich island”, Blaine wrote on 1 December 1881, “the key to the Gulf of Mexico, is, though in the hands of Spain, a part of the American commercial system… If ever ceasing to be Spanish, Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination”.[9]
Blaine’s vision did not allow the existence of an independent Cuba. “Martí noticed with alarm the movement to annex Hawaii, viewing it as establishing a pattern for Cuba…” [8]
War
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
On December 25, 1894, three ships; the Lagonda, the Almadis and the Baracoa, set sail for Cuba from Fernandina Beach, Florida, loaded with soldiers and weapons. Two of the ships were seized by US authorities in early January, but the proceedings went ahead. Not to be dissuaded, on March 25, Martí presented the Manifesto of Montecristi, which outlined the policy for Cuba’s war of independence:
The war was to be waged by blacks and whites alike;
Participation of all blacks was crucial for victory;
Spaniards who did not object to the war effort should be spared,
Private rural properties should not be damaged; and
The revolution should bring new economic life to Cuba.
The insurrection began on February 24, 1895, with uprisings all across the island. In Oriente, the most important ones took place in Santiago, Guantánamo, Jiguaní, San Luis, El Cobre, El Caney, Alto Songo, Bayate, and Baire. The uprisings in the central part of the island, such as Ibarra, Jagüey Grande, and Aguada, suffered from poor coordination and failed; the leaders were captured, some of them deported and some executed. In the province of Havana, the insurrection was discovered before it was underway, and authorities detained its leaders. The insurgents further west in Pinar del Río were ordered by rebel leaders to wait.
On April 1 and 11, 1895, the main Mambi leaders landed on two expeditions in Oriente: Major General Antonio Maceo along with 22 members near Baracoa, and José Martí, Máximo Gómez and 4 other members in Playitas. Around that time, Spanish forces in Cuba numbered about 80,000, of which 20,000 were regular troops and 60,000 were Spanish and Cuban volunteer militia. The latter were a locally enlisted force that took care of most of the “guard and police” duties on the island. Wealthy landowners would “volunteer” a number of their slaves to serve in this force, which was under local control as militia and not under official military command. By December, Spain had sent 98,412 regular troops to the island, and the colonial government increased the Volunteer Corps to 63,000 men. By the end of 1897, there were 240,000 regulars and 60,000 irregulars on the island. The revolutionaries were far outnumbered.
The Mambises were named after the Negro Spanish officer, Juan Ethninius Mamby who joined the Dominican fight for independence in 1844. The Spanish soldiers referred to the insurgents in the Dominican Republic as “the men of Mamby” or “Mambies”. When Cuba’s first war of independence broke out in 1868, some of those same soldiers were assigned to Cuba; they brought along what by then become a derogatory Spanish slur for insurgents. The Cubans adopted the name with pride.
After the Ten Years' War, the government had forbidden possession of weapons by private individuals. From the beginning of the uprising, the rebels were hampered by the lack of suitable weapons. They compensated by using guerrilla-style fighting, based on quick raids and fades to the environment, the element of surprise, mounting their forces on fast horses, and using machetes against regular troops on the march. They acquired most of their weapons and ammunition in raids on the Spaniards. Between June 11, 1895, and November 30, 1897, out of sixty attempts to bring weapons and supplies to the rebels from outside the country, only one succeeded through the protection of the British. Twenty-eight ships were intercepted within U.S. territory; five were intercepted at sea by the U.S. Navy, and four by the Spanish Navy; two were wrecked; one was driven back to port by storm; the fate of another is unknown.
Martí was killed shortly after landing on May 19, 1895, at Dos Rios, but Máximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo fought on, taking the war to all parts of Oriente. By the end of June, all of Camagüey was at war. Based on new research in Cuban sources, historian John Lawrence Tone demonstrated that Gomez and Maceo were the first to force the civilian forces to choose sides. "Either they relocated to the east side of the islands, where the Cubans controlled the mountainous terrain, or they would be accused of supporting the Spanish and be subject to immediate trial and execution."[10] Continuing west, they were joined by 1868 war veterans, such as Polish internationalist General Carlos Roloff and Serafín Sánchez in Las Villas, who brought weapons, men and experience to the revolutionaries' arsenal.
In mid-September, representatives of the five Liberation Army Corps assembled in Jimaguayú, Camagüey to approve the “Jimaguayú Constitution.” They established a central government, which grouped the executive and legislative powers into one entity named “Government Council”, headed by Salvador Cisneros and Bartolomé Masó. After some time of consolidation in the three eastern provinces, the liberation armies headed for Camagüey and then Matanzas, outmaneuvering and deceiving the Spanish Army several times. They defeated Spanish Gen. Arsenio Martínez-Campos y Antón, who had gained victory in the Ten-Year War, and killed his most trusted general at Peralejo.
Campos tried the same strategy he had employed in the Ten Years' War, constructing a broad belt across the island, called the trocha, about 80 km long and 200 m wide. This defense line was to confine rebel activities to the eastern provinces. The belt was developed along a railroad from Jucaro in the south to Morón in the north. Campos built fortifications along this railroad at various points, and at intervals, 12 meters of posts and 400 meters of barbed wire. In addition, booby traps were placed at locations most likely to be attacked.
The rebels believed they had to take the war to the western provinces of Matanzas, Havana and Pinar del Rio, where the island's government and wealth were located. The Ten-Year War had failed because it had not managed to proceed beyond the eastern provinces. In a successful cavalry campaign overcoming the trochas, the revolutionaries invaded every province. Surrounding all larger cities and well-fortified towns, they arrived at the westernmost tip of the island on January 22, 1896, exactly three months after the invasion near Baraguá.
Campos was replaced by Gen. Valeriano Weyler. He reacted to the rebels' successes by introducing terror methods: periodic executions, mass exile of residents and forced concentration of them in certain cities or areas, and destruction of farms and crops. Weyler's methods reached their height on October 21, 1896, when he ordered all countryside residents and their livestock to gather within eight days in various fortified areas and towns occupied by his troops.
Death of Maceo in 1896
Hundreds of thousands of people had to leave their homes and were subjected to appalling and inhumane conditions in the crowded towns and cities. Together with the forced reconcentrations done by the rebels in the eastern provinces, it is estimated that 25 to 30 percent of the civilian population subjected to it died during the three years of warfare.[citation needed] Using a variety of sources, Tone estimates that civilian losses totaled 155,000 to 170,000 deaths, representing nearly 10 percent of the total population.[10]
Starting in the early 1880s, Spain had also suppressed an independence movement in the Philippines, which was intensifying. In effect, Spain was now fighting two wars, a heavy burden on its economy. In 1896 it turned down offers in secret negotiations by the United States to buy Cuba from Spain.
Maceo was killed December 7, 1896, in Havana province while returning from the west. As the war went on, the major obstacle to Cuban success was weapons supply. Although weapons and funding came from within the Cuban exile community and supporters in the United States, the supply operation violated American laws. These were enforced by the U.S. Coast Guard: of 71 attempted re-supply missions, only 27 got through; 5 were stopped by the Spanish, but 33 were stopped by the U.S. Coast Guard.
In 1897, the liberation army maintained a privileged position in Camagüey and Oriente, where the Spanish controlled only a few cities. Spanish Liberal leader Práxedes Mateo Sagasta admitted in May 1897: “After having sent 200,000 men and shed so much blood, we don’t own more land on the island than what our soldiers are stepping on”.[11] The rebel force of 3,000 defeated the Spanish in various encounters, such as the Battle of La Reforma, and forcing the surrender of Las Tunas on August 30. The Spaniards were kept on the defensive. Las Tunas had been guarded by over 1,000 well-armed and well-supplied men.
As stipulated at the Jimaguayü Assembly two years earlier, a second Constituent Assembly met in La Yaya, Camagüey, on October 10, 1897. The newly adopted constitution provided that military command was to be subordinated to civilian rule. The government was confirmed, naming Bartolomé Masó President and Domingo Méndez Capote Vice President.
Madrid decided to change its policy towards Cuba, and replaced Weyler. It also drew up a colonial constitution for Cuba and Puerto Rico, and installed a new government in Havana. But with half the country out of its control and the other half in arms, the colonial government was powerless and these changes were rejected by the rebels.
The Maine incident
Main article: USS Maine (ACR-1)
Wreckage of the Maine, 1898
The Cuban struggle for independence had captured the American imagination for years. Some newspapers had agitated for US intervention, especially because of its large financial investment, and featured sensational stories of Spanish atrocities against the native Cuban population, which were exaggerated for propaganda.
Such coverage continued after Spain had replaced Weyler and changed its policies. American public opinion was very much in favor of intervening on behalf of the Cubans.[12]
In January 1898, a riot by Cuban Spanish loyalists against the new autonomous government broke out in Havana. They destroyed the printing presses of four local newspapers that had published articles critical of Spanish Army atrocities. The U.S. Consul-General cabled Washington with fears for the lives of Americans living in Havana. In response, the battleship USS Maine was sent to Havana in the last week of January. On February 15, 1898, the Maine was rocked by an explosion, killing 258 of the crew and sinking the ship in the harbor. At the time, a military Board of Investigations decided that the Maine had exploded due to the detonation of a mine underneath the hull. However, later investigations decided that it was likely something inside the ship, though the cause of the explosion has not been clearly established to this day.[13]
In an attempt to appease the United States, the colonial government took two steps that had been demanded by President William McKinley: it ended forced relocation of residents from their homes and offered negotiations with the independence fighters. But the truce was rejected by the rebels.
The Spanish–American War
Main article: Spanish–American War
The sinking of the Maine sparked a wave of public indignation in the United States. Newspaper owners such as William R. Hearst leaped to the conclusion that Spanish officials in Cuba were to blame, and they widely publicized the conspiracy. Realistically, Spain could have had no interest in drawing the United States into the conflict.[14] Yellow journalism fueled American anger by publishing “atrocities” committed by Spain in Cuba. Hearst, when informed by Frederic Remington, whom he had hired to furnish illustrations for his newspaper, that conditions in Cuba were not bad enough to warrant hostilities, allegedly replied, “You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war”.[15] President McKinley, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed, and the business community opposed the growing public demand for war, which was lashed to fury by the yellow journalism. The American cry of the hour became, Remember the Maine, To Hell with Spain!
The decisive event was probably the speech of Senator Redfield Proctor, delivered on March 17, 1898, analyzing the situation and concluding that war was the only answer. The business and religious communities switched sides, leaving McKinley and Reed almost alone in their opposition to the war.[16][17] “Faced with a revved up, war-ready population, and all the editorial encouragement the two competitors could muster, the United States jumped at the opportunity to get involved and showcase its new steam-powered Navy”.[9]
On April 11, McKinley asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba for the purpose of ending the civil war there. On April 19, Congress passed joint resolutions (by a vote of 311 to 6 in the House and 42 to 35 in the Senate) supporting Cuban independence and disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, demanding Spanish withdrawal, and authorizing the president to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuban patriots gain independence from Spain. This was adopted by resolution of Congress and included the Teller Amendment, named after Colorado Senator Henry Moore Teller, which passed unanimously, stipulating that “the island of Cuba is, and by right should be, free and independent”.[14] The amendment disclaimed any intention on the part of the United States to exercise jurisdiction or control over Cuba for other than pacification reasons, and confirmed that the armed forces would be removed once the war is over. The amendment, pushed through at the last minute by anti-imperialists in the Senate, made no mention of the Philippines, Guam, or Puerto Rico. Congress formally declared war on April 25. The Senate and House passed the amendment April 19, McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20, and the ultimatum was forwarded to Spain. War was declared on April 20/21, 1898.
“It's been suggested that a major reason for the U.S. war against Spain was the fierce competition emerging between Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal”. Joseph E. Wisan wrote in an essay titled “The Cuban Crisis As Reflected In The New York Press”, published in “American Imperialism” in 1898: “In the opinion of the writer, the Spanish–American War would not have occurred had not the appearance of Hearst in New York journalism precipitated a bitter battle for newspaper circulation.” It has also been argued that the main reason the United States entered the war was its failed attempt to purchase Cuba from Spain.[9]
Further information: Propaganda of the Spanish–American War
Hostilities started hours after the declaration of war when a contingent of US Navy ships under Admiral William T. Sampson blockaded several Cuban ports. The Americans decided to invade Cuba and to start in Oriente, where the Cubans had almost absolute control. They cooperated by establishing a beachhead and protecting the U.S. landing in Daiquiri. The first U.S. objective was to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba in order to destroy Linares' army and Cervera's fleet. To reach Santiago, the Americans had to pass through concentrated Spanish defences in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney. Between June 22 and 24, 1898, the Americans landed under General William R. Shafter at Daiquirí and Siboney, east of Santiago, and established a base.
The port of Santiago became the main target of naval operations. The U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season, thus nearby Guantánamo Bay, with its excellent harbor, was chosen for this purpose and attacked on June 6 (1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay). The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3, 1898 was the largest naval engagement during the Spanish–American War, resulting in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron (Flota de Ultramar).
Resistance in Santiago consolidated around Fort Canosa,[18] All the while, major battles between Spaniards and Americans took place at Las Guasimas on June 24, El Caney and San Juan Hill on July 1, 1898, outside of Santiago.[19] after which the American advance ground to a halt. Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans forcibly began a bloody, strangling siege of the city[20] which eventually surrendered on July 16, after the defeat of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron. Thus, Oriente was under control of Americans, but U.S. General Nelson A. Miles would not allow Cuban troops to enter Santiago, claiming that he wanted to prevent clashes between Cubans and Spaniards. Thus, Cuban General Calixto García, head of the Mambi forces in the Eastern department, ordered his troops to hold their respective areas. He resigned over being excluded from entering Santiago, writing a letter of protest to General Shafter.[14]
Peace
After losing the Philippines and Puerto Rico, which had also been invaded by the United States, and with no hope of holding on to Cuba, Spain sued for peace on July 17, 1898.[21] On August 12, the United States and Spain signed a protocol of Peace, in which Spain agreed to relinquish all claim of sovereignty and title over Cuba.[22] On December 10, 1898, the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, which recognized Cuban independence.[23]
Although the Cubans had participated in the liberation efforts, the United States prevented Cuba from participating in the Paris peace talks and signing the treaty. The treaty set no time limit for U.S. occupation and the Isle of Pines was excluded from Cuba.[24] The treaty officially granted Cuba's independence, but U.S. General William R. Shafter refused to allow Cuban General Calixto García and his rebel forces to participate in the surrender ceremonies in Santiago de Cuba.[citation needed]
Analysis
Most Spanish historians argue that the insurgency could not have succeeded on its own. Cuban historians argue the Cubans were on the verge of winning in 1898 and needed no outside help.
See also
José Semidei Rodríguez
Juan Ríus Rivera
References
Jump up ^ "Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, Volume II: Since 1863, Concise Edition"
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Clodfelter (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015.
Jump up ^ Clodfelter, Michael, Warfare and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1618–1991
Jump up ^ Dept. of Defense, 1991 Information Please, World Almanac 1984
Jump up ^ Sheina, Robert L., Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899 (2003)
Jump up ^ COWP: Correlates of War Project, University of Michigan
Jump up ^ Navarro (1998). History of Cuba. Havana. pp. 55–57
^ Jump up to: a b Foner, Philip: The Spanish–Cuban–American War and the Birth of American Imperialism quoted in: [1], History of Cuba
^ Jump up to: a b c Spanish–Cuban–American War – History of Cuba
^ Jump up to: a b Krohn, Jonathan. (May 2008) Review: "Caught in the Middle" John Lawrence Tone. War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898 (2006), H-Net, accessed 26 December 2014
Jump up ^ Navarro, José Cantón 1998. History of Cuba. Havana. p69
Jump up ^ PBS, Crucible of Empire: The Spanish–American War, pbs.org, retrieved 2007-12-15
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2007-08-18. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c Navarro, José Cantón: History of Cuba, Havana, Cuba, 1998, p. 71
Jump up ^ W. Joseph Campbell (Summer 2000). "Not likely sent: The Remington–Hearst "telegrams"". Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly.
Jump up ^ Offner 1992 pp. 131–35
Jump up ^ Davis, Michelle Bray & Quimby, Rollin W. (1969), "Senator Proctor's Cuban Speech: Speculations on a Cause of the Spanish–American War", Quarterly Journal of Speech, 55 (2): 131–41, doi:10.1080/00335636909382938, ISSN 0033-5630.
Jump up ^ Daley#, L. 2000. El Fortin Canosa en la Cuba del 1898. in Los Ultimos Dias del Comienzo. Ensayos sobre la Guerra Hispano-Cubana-Estadounidense. B.E. Aguirre and E. Espina eds. RiL Editores, Santiago de Chile pp. 161–71.
Jump up ^ The Battles at El Caney and San Juan Hills, HomeOfHeroes.com.
Jump up ^ Daley 2000, pp. 161–71
Jump up ^ The Spanish–American War Centennial Website!, spanamwar.com, retrieved 2007-11-02
Jump up ^ Protocol of Peace Embodying the Terms of a Basis for the Establishment of Peace Between the Two Countries, Washington, D.C., August 12, 1898, retrieved 2007-10-30
Jump up ^ Treaty of peace between the United States and Spain, The Avalon project at Yale law School, December 10, 1898, archived from the original on November 6, 2007, retrieved 2007-10-30
Jump up ^ Navarro, José Cantón: History of Cuba, Havana, Cuba, 1998, p. 77
Further reading
Kagan, Robert, (2006) Dangerous Nation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf), pp. 357–416
Krohn, Jonathan. (May 2008) Review: "Caught in the Middle" John Lawrence Tone. War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898 (2006) [2], H-Net, May 2008
McCartney, Paul T. (2006) Power and Progress: American National Identity, the War of 1898, and the Rise of American Imperialism (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press), 87–142
Rice, Donald Tunnicliff. Cast in Deathless Bronze: Andrew Rowan, the Spanish–American War, and the Origins of American Empire. Morgantown WV: West Virginia University Press, 2016.
Silbey, David J. (2007) A War of Frontier and Empire: The Philippine–American War, 1899–1902 (New York: Hill and Wang), pp. 31–34.
Tone, John Lawrence. (2006) War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina excerpt and text search
Trask, David F. The War with Spain in 1898 (1996) ch 1 excerpt and text search
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