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History of manga
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Chōjū-giga (12th century), traditionally attributed to a monk-artist Kakuyū (Toba Sōjo)
Image of bathers from the Hokusai manga.
The history of manga is said to originate from scrolls dating back to the 12th century, and it is believed they represent the basis for the right-to-left reading style. The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century. Manga is a Japanese term that can be translated as "comic"; Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical events following World War II versus the role of pre-war, Meiji, and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art.
One view represented by other writers such as Frederik L. Schodt, Kinko Ito, and Adam L. Kern, stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions, including pre-war, Meiji, and pre-Meiji culture and art.[1][2][3][4] The other view, emphasizes events occurring during and after the Allied occupation of Japan (1945–1952), and stresses that manga was strongly shaped by United States cultural influences, including US comics brought to Japan by the GIs and by images and themes from US television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney).[5][1] According to Sharon Kinsella, the booming Japanese publishing industry helped create a consumer-oriented society in which publishing giants like Kodansha could shape popular taste.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Before World War II
2 After World War II
2.1 Shōjo manga
2.2 Shōjo manga and ladies' Comics from 1975 to today
2.3 Shōnen, seinen, and seijin manga
2.3.1 Sex and women's roles in manga for males
2.4 Gekiga
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
5.1 Bibliography
6 External links
Before World War II[edit]
Manga is said to originate from scrolls dating back to the 12th and 13th centuries. During the Edo period (1603-1867), another book of drawings, Toba Ehon, embedded the concept of manga.[6] The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century[7] with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook Shiji no yukikai (1798),[8][9] and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's Manga hyakujo (1814) and the celebrated Hokusai Manga books (1814–1834) containing assorted drawings from the sketchbooks of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai who lived from 1760–1849.[10] Rakuten Kitazawa (1876–1955) first used the word "manga" in the modern sense.[11]
Japanese wood block illustration from 19th century
Writers stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. They include Frederik L. Schodt,[1][12] Kinko Ito,[2] Adam L. Kern,[3][4] and Eric Peter Nash.[13] Schodt points to the existence in the 13th century of illustrated picture scrolls like Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga that told stories in sequential images with humor and wit.[1] Schodt also stresses continuities of aesthetic style and vision between ukiyo-e and shunga woodblock prints and modern manga (all three fulfill Eisner's criteria for sequential art).[14] While there are disputes over whether Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga or Shigisan-engi was the first manga, both scrolls date back to about the same time period. However others like Isao Takahata, Studio Ghibli co-founder and director, contends there is no linkage with the scrolls and modern manga.[15]
Schodt and Nash also see a particularly significant role for kamishibai, a form of street theater where itinerant artists displayed pictures in a light box while narrating the story to audiences in the street.[1][13] Torrance has pointed to similarities between modern manga and the Osaka popular novel between the 1890s and 1940, and argues that the development of widespread literacy in Meiji and post-Meiji Japan helped create audiences for stories told in words and pictures.[16] Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-WWII history as driven in part by consumer enthusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new genres and markets, e.g., for girls' (shōjo) manga in the late 1960s and for Ladies Comics (redisu) in the 1980s.[2]
Hokusai Manga (early 19th century)
Kern has suggested that kibyoshi, picture books from the late 18th century, may have been the world's first comic books.[3] These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.[3] Although Kern does not believe that kibyoshi were a direct forerunner of manga, for Kern the existence of kibyoshi nonetheless points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium.[4] The first recorded use of the term "manga" to mean "whimsical or impromptu pictures" comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern points out, predates Katsushika Hokusai's better known Hokusai Manga usage by several decades.[10][17]
Similarly, Inoue sees manga as being a mixture of image- and word-centered elements, each pre-dating the Allied occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-centered or "pictocentric" art ultimately derives from Japan's long history of engagement with Chinese graphic art,[citation needed] whereas word-centered or "logocentric" art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-war Japanese nationalism for a populace unified by a common written language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.[18]
The roots of the wide-eyed look commonly associated with manga dates back to shōjo magazine illustrations during the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The most important illustrators associated with this style at the time were Yumeji Takehisa and particularly Jun'ichi Nakahara, who, influenced by his work as a doll creator, frequently drew female characters with big eyes in the early 20th century. This had a significant influence on early manga, particularly shōjo manga, evident in the work of influential manga artists such as Makoto Takahashi and Riyoko Ikeda.[19]
However, other writers such as Takashi Murakami have stressed events after WWII, but Murakami sees Japan's surrender and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in this view, lost its previously virile confidence in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute (kawaii) images.[20] However, Takayumi Tatsumi sees a special role for a transpacific economic and cultural transnationalism that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts, which was, for Tatsumi the crucible in which modern manga have developed.[21]
For Murakami and Tatsumi, trans-nationalism (or globalization) refers specifically to the flow of cultural and subcultural material from one nation to another.[20][21] In their usage, the term does not refer to international corporate expansion, nor to international tourism, nor to cross-border international personal friendships, but to ways in which artistic, aesthetic, and intellectual traditions influence each other across national boundaries.[20][21] An example of cultural trans-nationalism is the creation of Star Wars films in the US, their transformation into manga by Japanese artists, and the marketing of Star Wars manga to the US.[22] Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the US to Japan.[23] Wong also sees a major role for trans-nationalism in the recent history of manga.[24]
Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities between the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-WWII innovation and trans-nationalism.
After World War II[edit]
After World War II, Japanese artists subsequently gave life to their own style during the occupation (1945–1952) and post-occupation years (1952-early 1960s), when a previously militaristic and ultranationalist Japan was rebuilding its political and economic infrastructure.[1][Note 1] Although Allied occupation censorship policies specifically prohibited art and writing that glorified war and Japanese militarism,[1] those policies did not prevent the publication of other kinds of material, including manga. Furthermore, the 1947 Japanese Constitution (Article 21) prohibited all forms of censorship.[25] One result was the growth of artistic creativity in this period.[1] In the forefront of this period are two manga series and characters that influenced much of the future history of manga. These are Osamu Tezuka's Mighty Atom (Astro Boy in the United States; begun in 1951) and Machiko Hasegawa's Sazae-san (begun in 1946).
Astro Boy was both a superpowered robot and a naive little boy.[26] Tezuka never explained why Astro Boy had such a highly developed social conscience nor what kind of robot programming could make him so deeply affiliative.[26] Both seem innate to Astro Boy, and represent a Japanese sociality and community-oriented masculinity differing very much from the Emperor-worship and militaristic obedience enforced during the previous period of Japanese imperialism.[26] Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere as an icon and hero of a new world of peace and the renunciation of war, as also seen in Article 9 of the Japanese constitution.[25][26] Similar themes occur in Tezuka's New World and Metropolis.[1][26]
By contrast, Sazae-san (meaning "Ms. Sazae") was drawn starting in 1946 by Machiko Hasegawa, a young woman artist who made her heroine a stand-in for millions of Japanese men and especially women rendered homeless by the war.[1][27] Sazae-san does not face an easy or simple life, but, like Astro Boy, she too is highly affiliative and is deeply involved with her immediate and extended family. She is also a very strong character, in striking contrast to the officially sanctioned Neo-Confucianist principles of feminine meekness and obedience to the "good wife, wise mother" (ryōsai kenbo, りょうさいけんぼ; 良妻賢母) ideal taught by the previous military regime.[28][29][30] Sazae-san faces the world with cheerful resilience,[27][31] what Hayao Kawai calls a "woman of endurance."[32] Sazae-san sold more than 62 million copies over the next half century.[33]
Tezuka and Hasegawa were also both stylistic innovators. In Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots.[1] More critically, Tezuka synchronised the placement of panel with the reader's viewing speed to simulate moving pictures. Hence in manga production as in film production, the person who decides the allocation of panels (Komawari) is credited as the author while most drawing are done by assistants. This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists.[1] Hasegawa's focus on daily life and on women's experience also came to characterize later shōjo manga.[27][31][34]
Between 1950 and 1969, increasingly large audiences for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, shōnen manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls.[1][35] Up to 1969, shōjo manga was drawn primarily by adult men for young female readers.[1][36]
Two very popular and influential male-authored manga for girls from this period were Tezuka's 1953-1956 Ribon no Kishi (Princess Knight or Knight in Ribbons) and Mitsuteru Yokoyama 1966 Mahōtsukai Sarii (Little Witch Sally).[1] Ribon no Kishi dealt with the adventures of Princess Sapphire of a fantasy kingdom who had been born with male and female souls, and whose sword-swinging battles and romances blurred the boundaries of otherwise rigid gender roles.[1] Sarii, the pre-teen princess heroine of Mahōtsukai Sarii,[Note 2] came from her home in the magical lands to live on Earth, go to school, and perform a variety of magical good deeds for her friends and schoolmates.[37] Yokoyama's Mahōtsukai Sarii was influenced by the US TV sitcom Bewitched,[38] but unlike Samantha, the main character of Bewitched, a married woman with her own daughter, Sarii is a pre-teenager who faces the problems of growing up and mastering the responsibilities of forthcoming adulthood. Mahōtsukai Sarii helped create the now very popular mahō shōjo or "magical girl" subgenre of later manga.[37] Both series were and still are very popular.[1][37]
Shōjo manga[edit]
In 1969, a group of women manga artists later called the Year 24 Group (also known as Magnificent 24s) made their shōjo manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born).[39][40] The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Oshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Ryoko Yamagishi[27] and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga.[1][27] Thereafter, shōjo manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.[1][35][36]
In 1971, Ikeda began her immensely popular shōjo manga Berusaiyu no Bara (The Rose of Versailles), a story of Oscar François de Jarjayes, a cross-dressing woman who was a Captain in Marie Antoinette's Palace Guards in pre-Revolutionary France.[1][27][41][42] In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille. Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities [28][29][30] as in her 1975 They Were Eleven, a shōjo science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.[43]
These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine's inner experiences and feelings, shōjo manga are "picture poems"[44] with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time.[1][27][35][36][45] All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of shōjo manga up to the present day.[34][41]
Shōjo manga and ladies' Comics from 1975 to today[edit]
In the following decades (1975–present), shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.[46] Major subgenres have included romance, superheroines, and "Ladies Comics" (in Japanese, redisu レディース, redikomi レヂィーコミ, and josei 女性 じょせい), whose boundaries are sometimes indistinguishable from each other and from shōnen manga.[12][27]
In modern shōjo manga romance, love is a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization.[47] Japanese manga/anime critic Eri Izawa defines romance as symbolizing "the emotional, the grand, the epic; the taste of heroism, fantastic adventure, and the melancholy; passionate love, personal struggle, and eternal longing" set into imaginative, individualistic, and passionate narrative frameworks.[48] These romances are sometimes long narratives that can deal with distinguishing between false and true love, coping with sexual intercourse, and growing up in a complex world, themes inherited by subsequent animated versions of the story.[35][47][49] These "coming of age" or Bildungsroman themes occur in both shōjo and shōnen manga.[Note 3][Note 4][51]
In the Bildungsroman, the protagonist must deal with adversity and conflict,[51] and examples in shōjo manga of romantic conflict are common. They include Miwa Ueda's Peach Girl,[52][53] Fuyumi Soryo's Mars,[54] and, for mature readers, Moyoco Anno's Happy Mania,[36][55] Yayoi Ogawa's Tramps Like Us, and Ai Yazawa's Nana.[56][57] In another shōjo manga Bildungsroman narrative device, the young heroine is transported to an alien place or time where she meets strangers and must survive on her own (including Hagio Moto's They Were Eleven,[58] Kyoko Hikawa's From Far Away,[59] Yû Watase's Fushigi Yûgi: The Mysterious Play, and Chiho Saito's The World Exists For Me[60]).
Yet another such device involves meeting unusual or strange people and beings, for example, Natsuki Takaya's Fruits Basket[61]—one of the most popular shōjo manga in the United States[62]—whose orphaned heroine Tohru must survive living in the woods in a house filled with people who can transform into the animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Harako Iida's Crescent Moon, heroine Mahiru meets a group of supernatural beings, finally to discover that she herself too has a supernatural ancestry when she and a young tengu demon fall in love.[63]
With the superheroines, shōjo manga continued to break away from neo-Confucianist norms of female meekness and obedience.[12][35] Naoko Takeuchi's Sailor Moon (Bishōjo Senshi Sēramūn: "Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon") is a sustained, 18-volume narrative about a group of young heroines simultaneously heroic and introspective, active and emotional, dutiful and ambitious.[64][65] The combination proved extremely successful, and Sailor Moon became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats.[64][66] Another example is CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth, whose three young heroines, Hikaru, Umi, and Fuu, are magically transported to the world of Cephiro to become armed magical warriors in the service of saving Cephiro from internal and external enemies.[67]
The superheroine subgenre also extensively developed the notion of teams (sentai) of girls working together,[68] like the Sailor Senshi in Sailor Moon, the Magic Knights in Magic Knight Rayearth, and the Mew Mew girls from Mia Ikumi's Tokyo Mew Mew.[69] By today, the superheroine narrative template has been widely used and parodied within the shōjo manga tradition (e.g., Nao Yazawa's Wedding Peach[70] and Hyper Rune by Tamayo Akiyama[71]) and outside that tradition, e.g., in bishōjo comedies like Kanan's Galaxy Angel.[72]
In the mid-1980s and thereafter, as girls who had read shōjo manga as teenagers matured and entered the job market, shōjo manga elaborated subgenres directed at women in their 20s and 30s.[46] This "Ladies Comic" or redisu-josei subgenre has dealt with themes of young adulthood: jobs, the emotions and problems of sexual intercourse, and friendships or love among women.[46][73][74][75][76]
Redisu manga retains many of the narrative stylistics of shōjo manga but has been drawn by and written for adult women.[77] Redisu manga and art has been often, but not always, sexually explicit, but sexuality has characteristically been set into complex narratives of pleasure and erotic arousal combined with emotional risk.[12][73][74] Examples include Ryō Ramiya's Luminous Girls,[78] Masako Watanabe's Kinpeibai[79] and the work of Shungicu Uchida[80] Another subgenre of shōjo-redisu manga deals with emotional and sexual relationships among women (akogare and yuri),[81] in work by Erica Sakurazawa,[82] Ebine Yamaji,[83] and Chiho Saito.[84] Other subgenres of shōjo-redisu manga have also developed, e.g., fashion (oshare) manga, like Ai Yazawa's Paradise Kiss[85][86] and horror-vampire-gothic manga, like Matsuri Hino's Vampire Knight,[87] Kaori Yuki's Cain Saga,[88] and Mitsukazu Mihara's DOLL,[89] which interact with street fashions, costume play ("cosplay"), J-Pop music, and goth subcultures in complex ways.[90][91][92]
By the start of the 21st century, manga for women and girls thus represented a broad spectrum of material for pre- and early teenagers to material for adult women.
Shōnen, seinen, and seijin manga[edit]
Manga for male readers can be characterized in different ways. One is by the age of its intended audience: boys up to 18 years old (shōnen manga) and young men 18 to 30 years old (seinen manga).[93] Another approach is by content, including action-adventure often involving male heroes, slapstick humor, themes of honor, and sometimes explicit sexuality.[94][Note 5] Japanese uses different kanji for two closely allied meanings of "seinen"—青年 for "youth, young man" and 成年 for "adult, majority"—the second referring to sexually overt manga aimed at grown men and also called seijin ("adult," 成人) manga.[95][Note 6][96] Shōnen, seinen, and seijin manga share many features in common.
Boys and young men were among the earliest readers of manga after World War II.[97] From the 1950s on, shōnen manga focused on topics thought to interest the archetypical boy: sci-tech subjects like robots and space travel, and heroic action-adventure.[98][99] Shōnen and seinen manga narratives often portray challenges to the protagonist’s abilities, skills, and maturity, stressing self-perfection, austere self-discipline, sacrifice in the cause of duty, and honorable service to society, community, family, and friends.[97][100]
Manga with solitary costumed superheroes like Superman, Batman, and Spider-Man did not become popular as a shōnen genre.[97] An exception is Kia Asamiya's Batman: Child of Dreams, released in the US by DC Comics and in Japan by Kodansha. However, lone heroes occur in Takao Saito's Golgo 13 and Koike and Kojima's Lone Wolf and Cub. Golgo 13 is about an assassin who puts his skills to the service of world peace and other social goals,[101] and Ogami Itto, the swordsman-hero of Lone Wolf and Cub, is a widower caring for his son Daigoro while he seeks vengeance against his wife's murderers. However, Golgo and Itto remain men throughout and neither hero ever displays superpowers. Instead, these stories "journey into the hearts and minds of men" by remaining on the plane of human psychology and motivation.[102]
Many shōnen manga have science fiction and technology themes. Early examples in the robot subgenre included Tezuka’s Astro Boy (see above) and Fujiko F. Fujio’s 1969 Doraemon, about a robot cat and the boy he lives with, which was aimed at younger boys.[103] The robot theme evolved extensively, from Mitsuteru Yokoyama's 1956 Tetsujin 28-go to later, more complex stories where the protagonist must not only defeat enemies, but learn to master himself and cooperate with the mecha he controls.[104] Thus, in Neon Genesis Evangelion by Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, Shinji struggles against the enemy and against his father, and in Vision of Escaflowne by Katsu Aki, Van not only makes war against Dornkirk’s empire but must deal with his complex feelings for Hitomi, the heroine.
Sports themes are also popular in manga for male readers.[97] These stories stress self-discipline, depicting not only the excitement of sports competition but also character traits the hero needs to transcend his limitations and to triumph.[97] Examples include boxing (Tetsuya Chiba’s 1968-1973 Tomorrow's Joe[105] and Rumiko Takahashi's 1987 One-Pound Gospel) and basketball (Takehiko Inoue’s 1990 Slam Dunk[106]).
Supernatural settings have been another source of action-adventure plots in shõnen and some shõjo manga in which the hero must master challenges. Sometimes the protagonist fails, as in Tsugumi Ohba and Takeshi Obata's Death Note, where protagonist Light Yagami receives a notebook from a Death God (shinigami) that kills anyone whose name is written in it, and, in a shōjo manga example, Hakase Mizuki's The Demon Ororon, whose protagonist abandons his demonic kingship of Hell to live and die on earth. Sometimes the protagonist himself is supernatural, like Kohta Hirano's Hellsing, whose vampire hero Alucard battles reborn Nazis hellbent on conquering England, but the hero may also be (or was) human, battling an ever-escalating series of supernatural enemies (Hiromu Arakawa's Fullmetal Alchemist, Nobuyuki Anzai's Flame of Recca, and Tite Kubo's Bleach).
Military action-adventure stories set in the modern world, for example, about WWII, remained under suspicion of glorifying Japan’s Imperial history[97] and have not become a significant part of the shōnen manga repertoire.[97] Nonetheless, stories about fantasy or historical military adventure were not stigmatized, and manga about heroic warriors and martial artists have been extremely popular.[97] Some are serious dramas, like Sanpei Shirato's The Legend of Kamui and Rurouni Kenshin by Nobuhiro Watsuki, but others contain strongly humorous elements, like Akira Toriyama's Dragon Ball.
Although stories about modern war and its weapons do exist, they deal as much or more with the psychological and moral problems of war as they do with sheer shoot-'em-up adventure.[97] Examples include Seiho Takizawa's Who Fighter, a retelling of Joseph Conrad's story Heart of Darkness about a renegade Japanese colonel set in WWII Burma, Kaiji Kawaguchi's The Silent Service, about a Japanese nuclear submarine, and Motofumi Kobayashi's Apocalypse Meow, about the Vietnam War told in talking animal format. Other battle and fight-oriented manga are complex stories of criminal and espionage conspiracies to be overcome by the protagonist, such as City Hunter by Hojo Tsukasa, Fist of the North Star by Tetsuo Hara, and in the shōjo manga From Eroica with Love by Yasuko Aoike, a long-running crime-espionage story combining adventure, action, and humor (and another example of how these themes occur across genres).
For manga critics Koji Aihara and Kentaro Takekuma,[107] such battle stories endlessly repeat the same mindless themes of violence, which they sardonically label the "Shonen Manga Plot Shish Kebob", where fights follow fights like meat skewered on a stick.[108] Other commentators suggest that fight sequences and violence in comics serve as a social outlet for otherwise dangerous impulses.[109] Shōnen manga and its extreme warriorship have been parodied, for example, in Mine Yoshizaki's screwball comedy Sgt. Frog (Keroro Gunso), about a platoon of slacker alien frogs who invade the Earth and end up free-loading off the Hinata family in Tokyo.[110]
Sex and women's roles in manga for males[edit]
In early shōnen manga, men and boys played all the major roles, with women and girls having only auxiliary places as sisters, mothers, and occasionally girlfriends. Of the nine cyborgs in Shotaro Ishinomori's 1964 Cyborg 009, only one is female, and she soon vanishes from the action. Some recent shōnen manga virtually omit women, e.g., the martial arts story Baki the Grappler by Itagaki Keisuke and the supernatural fantasy Sand Land by Akira Toriyama. However, by the 1980s, girls and women began to play increasingly important roles in shōnen manga, for example, Toriyama's 1980 Dr. Slump, whose main character is the mischievous and powerful girl robot Arale Norimaki.
The role of girls and women in manga for male readers has evolved considerably since Arale. One class is the pretty girl (bishōjo).[Note 7] Sometimes the woman is unattainable, but she is always an object of the hero's emotional and sexual interest, like Belldandy from Oh My Goddess! by Kōsuke Fujishima and Shao-lin from Guardian Angel Getten by Minene Sakurano.[111] In other stories, the hero is surrounded by such girls and women, as in Negima by Ken Akamatsu and Hanaukyo Maid Team by Morishige.[112] The male protagonist does not always succeed in forming a relationship with the woman, for example when Bright Honda and Aimi Komori fail to bond in Shadow Lady by Masakazu Katsura. In other cases, a successful couple's sexual activities are depicted or implied, like Outlanders by Johji Manabe.[113] In still other cases, the initially naive and immature hero grows up to become a man by learning how to deal and live with women emotionally and sexually, like Yota in Video Girl Ai by Masakazu Katsura, Train Man in Train Man: Densha Otoko by Hidenori Hara, and Makoto in Futari Ecchi by Katsu Aki.[114][115] In poruno- and eromanga (seijin manga), often called hentai manga in the US, a sexual relationship is taken for granted and depicted explicitly, as in work by Toshiki Yui [116] and in Were-Slut by Jiro Chiba and Slut Girl by Isutoshi.[117] The result is a range of depictions of boys and men from naive to very experienced sexually.
Heavily armed female warriors (sentō bishōjo) represent another class of girls and women in manga for male readers.[Note 8] Some sentō bishōjo are battle cyborgs, like Alita from Battle Angel Alita by Yukito Kishiro, Motoko Kusanagi from Masamune Shirow's Ghost in the Shell, and Chise from Shin Takahashi's Saikano. Others are human, like Attim M-Zak from Hiroyuki Utatane's Seraphic Feather, Johji Manabe's Karula Olzen from Drakuun, and Alita Forland (Falis) from Sekihiko Inui's Murder Princess.[118]
As of 2013 national censorship laws and local ordinances remain in Japan and the public response to the publication of manga with sexual content or the depiction of nudity has been mixed. Series have an audience and sell well but their publication also encounters opposition. In the early 1990s the opposition resulted in the creation of Harmful manga lists and a shift in the publishing industry. By this time large publishers had created a general manga demand but the corollary is that they were also susceptible to public opinion in their markets. Faced with criticism from certain segments of the population and under pressure from industry groups to self-regulate, major publishing houses discontinued series, such as Angel and 1+2=Paradise, while smaller publication companies, not as susceptible to these forces, were able to fill the void.[5][119]
With the relaxation of censorship in Japan after the early 1990s, a wide variety of explicitly drawn sexual themes appeared in manga intended for male readers that correspondingly occur in English translations.[96] These depictions range from mild partial nudity through implied and explicit sexual intercourse through bondage and sadomasochism (SM), zoophilia (bestiality), incest, and rape.[120] In some cases, rape and lust murder themes came to the forefront, as in Urotsukidoji by Toshio Maeda[121] and Blue Catalyst from 1994 by Kei Taniguchi,[122] but these extreme themes are not commonplace in either untranslated or translated manga.[96][123]
Gekiga[edit]
Main article: Gekiga
Gekiga literally means "drama pictures" and refers to a form of aesthetic realism in manga.[124][125] Gekiga style drawing is emotionally dark, often starkly realistic, sometimes very violent, and focuses on the day-in, day-out grim realities of life, often drawn in gritty and unpretty fashions.[124][126] Gekiga arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left-wing student and working class political activism[124][127] and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Yoshihiro Tatsumi with existing manga.[128][129] Examples include Sampei Shirato's 1959-1962 Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments (Ninja Bugeichō), the story of Kagemaru, the leader of a peasant rebellion in the 16th century, which dealt directly with oppression and class struggle,[130] and Hiroshi Hirata's Satsuma Gishiden, about uprisings against the Tokugawa shogunate.[131]
As the social protest of these early years waned, gekiga shifted in meaning towards socially conscious, mature drama and towards the avant-garde.[125][129][132] Examples include Koike and Kojima's Lone Wolf and Cub[133] and Akira, an apocalyptic tale of motorcycle gangs, street war, and inexplicable transformations of the children of a future Tokyo. Another example is Osamu Tezuka's 1976 manga MW, a bitter story of the aftermath of the storage and possibly deliberate release of poison gas by U.S. armed forces based in Okinawa years after World War II.[134] Gekiga and the social consciousness it embodies remain alive in modern-day manga. An example is Ikebukuro West Gate Park from 2001 by Ira Ishida and Sena Aritou, a story of street thugs, rape, and vengeance set on the social margins of the wealthy Ikebukuro district of Tokyo.[135]
See also[edit]
Book: Anime and Manga
History of comics
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This section draws primarily on the work of Frederik Schodt (1986, 1996, 2007) and of Paul Gravett (2004). Time-lines for manga history are available in Mechademia, Gravett, and in articles by Go Tchiei 1998.
Jump up ^ Sarii is the Japanese spelling and pronunciation of the English-language name "Sally." The word mahōtsukai literally means "magic operator," someone who can use and control magic. It does not mean "witch" or "magical girl" (which is mahō shōjo in Japanese), because tsukai is not a gendered word in Japanese. This use of an English-language name with a Japanese descriptive word is an example of transnationalism in Tatsumi's sense.
Jump up ^ "The transformation into a superhero is in fact an allegory of becoming an adult."[50]
Jump up ^ In German, Bildung means "education" and Roman means "novel," hence a Bildungsroman is a novel about the education of the protagonist in "the ways of the world."
Jump up ^ In another system of classification, shōnen, seinen, and seijin manga—indeed, all genres of manga—are defined by the intended audience or demographic of the magazine where the manga originally appeared, regardless of content of the specific manga. This magazine-of-origin system is used by the English-language Wikipedia in its Template:Infobox animanga when assigning demographic labels to manga. For a list of magazine demographics, see http://users.skynet.be/mangaguide/magazines.html, but note that that website does not use magazine audience or demographic for classifying manga, nor is this approach discussed by either Thompson (2007) or Brenner (2007).
Jump up ^ The French Wikipedia manga article uses the terms seinen and seijin to denote manga for adult men. Accessed 2007-12-28.
Jump up ^ For multiple meanings of bishōjo, see Perper & Cornog (2002), pp. 60–63.
Jump up ^ For the sentō bishōjo, translated as "battling beauty," see Kotani, Mari. 2006. "Metamorphosis of the Japanese girl: The girl, the hyper-girl, and the battling beauty." Mechademia: An Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:162-170. See also William O. Gardner. 2003. Attack of the Phallic Girls: Review of Saitô Tamaki. Sentō bishōjo no seishin bunseki (Fighting Beauties: A Psychoanalysis). Tokyo: Ôta Shuppan, 2000. at http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/review_essays/gardner88.htm. Accessed 2007-12-28.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Schodt (1986)
^ Jump up to: a b c Ito, Kinko. 2004. "Growing up Japanese reading manga." International Journal of Comic Art, 6:392-401.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kern (2006)
^ Jump up to: a b c Kern (2007)
^ Jump up to: a b c Kinsella, Sharon 2000. Adult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2318-4.
Jump up ^ Kageyama, Y. "A SHORT HISTORY OF JAPANESE MANGA". Retrieved 1 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Prohl & Nelson 2012, p. 596,McCarthy 2014, p. 6
Jump up ^ "Santō Kyōden's picturebooks".
Jump up ^ "Shiji no yukikai(Japanese National Diet Library)".
^ Jump up to: a b Bouquillard & Marquet 2007 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Hokusai" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Shimizu 1985, pp. 53–54, 102–103
^ Jump up to: a b c d Schodt (1996)
^ Jump up to: a b Nash, Eric Peter. 2009. Manga kamishibai: the art of Japanese paper theater. Abrams. ISBN 081095303X.
Jump up ^ Eisner, Will. 1985. Comics & Sequential Art. Tamarac, Fl: Poorhouse Press. ISBN 978-0-9614728-1-8.
Jump up ^ "Yomiuri Newspaper Discusses History's First Manga". Yomiuri Shimbun. Anime News Network. 2008-01-03. Retrieved 2009-01-20.
Jump up ^ Torrance, Richard. 2005. "Literacy and literature in Osaka, 1890-1940." Journal of Japanese Studies, 31(1):27-60. Web version: http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v031/31.1torrance.html Accessed 2007-09-16.
Jump up ^ Kern (2006), pp. 139-144, Fig. 3.3
Jump up ^ Inoue, Charles Shirō. 1996. "Pictocentrism—China as a source of Japanese modernity." In Sumie Jones, editor. 1996. Imaging/Reading Eros. Bloomington, IN: East Asian Studies Center, Indiana University. pp. 148-152. ISBN 0-9653281-0-4.
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=j1LLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA24
^ Jump up to: a b c Murakami, Takashi (2005). Little Boy: the Arts of Japan's Exploding Subculture. New York: Japan Society. ISBN 0-913304-57-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tatsumi, Takayumi (2006). Full Metal Apache: Transactions between Cyberpunk Japan and Avant-Pop America. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-3774-6.
Jump up ^ "Phantom Goes Manga". StarWars.com. January 5, 2000. Archived from the original on October 11, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
Jump up ^ Condry, Ian (2006). Hip-Hop Japan: Rap and the Path of Cultural Globalization. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-3892-0.
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^ Jump up to: a b The Japanese constitution is in the Kodansha encyclopedia "Japan: Profile of a Nation, Revised Edition" (1999, Tokyo: Kodansha) on pp. 692-715. Article 9: page 695; article 21: page 697. ISBN 4-7700-2384-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Schodt (2007)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Gravett (2004), p. 8
^ Jump up to: a b Uno, Kathleen S. 1993. "The death of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother'." In: Andrew Gordon (editor) Postwar Japan as History. Berkeley, CA: University of California. pp. 293-322. ISBN 0-520-07475-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Ohinata, Masami 1995 "The mystique of motherhood: A key to understanding social change and family problems in Japan." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 199-211. ISBN 978-1-55861-094-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Yoshizumi, Kyoko 1995 "Marriage and family: Past and present." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 183-197. ISBN 978-1-55861-094-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Lee, William (2000). "From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-0561-0.
Jump up ^ Kawai, Hayao. 1996. The Japanese Psyche: Major Motifs in the Fairy Tales of Japan. Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications. Chapter 7, pp. 125-142.
Jump up ^ Hasegawa, Machiko; Schodt, Frederik L. (1997). "Forward". The Wonderful World of Sazae-San. Tokyo: Kodansha International (JPN). ISBN 978-4-7700-2075-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Sanchez, Frank (1997-2003). "Hist 102: History of Manga." http://www.animeinfo.org/animeu/hist102.html. AnimeInfo. Accessed on 2007-09-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Toku (2005). See also http://www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html. Accessed 2007-09-22.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Thorn, Matt (July–September 2001). "Shôjo Manga—Something for the Girls". The Japan Quarterly. 48 (3). Retrieved 2007-09-22.
^ Jump up to: a b c Yoshida, Kaori (2002). "Evolution of Female Heroes: Carnival Mode of Gender Representation in Anime". Western Washington University. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Melissa (June 27, 2006). "Bewitched by Magical Girls". FPS Magazine. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
Jump up ^ Gravett (2004), pp. 78–80
Jump up ^ Lent (2001), pp. 9–10
^ Jump up to: a b Tchiei, Goo (1998). "Shojo Manga: A Unique Genre". Retrieved 2007-09-22.
Jump up ^ Shamoon, Deborah. 2007. "Revolutionary romance: The Rose of Versailles and the transformation of shojo manga." Mechademia: An Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and Fan Arts. 2:3-17.
Jump up ^ Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) Four Shojo Stories. San Francisco: Viz Media. ISBN 1-56931-055-6. Original story published 1975; US edition 1996.
Jump up ^ Schodt (1986), p. 88
Jump up ^ McCloud, Scott. 1993. Understanding Comics. New York: Paradox Press. pp. 77-82.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ōgi, Fusami 2004. "Female subjectivity and shōjo (girls) manga (Japanese comics): shōjo in Ladies' Comics and Young Ladies' Comics." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(4):780-803.
^ Jump up to: a b Drazen, Patrick 2003. Anime Explosion!: the What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge.
Jump up ^ Izawa, Eri 2000 ."The romantic, passionate Japanese in anime: A look at the hidden Japanese soul." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 138-153. ISBN 978-0-7656-0561-0. Accessed 2007-09-23.
Jump up ^ Schodt (1996), p. 14
Jump up ^ From Graillat, Ludovic 2006-2007 "America vs. Japan: the Influence of American Comics on Manga." Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media, volume 10. Accessed 2007-09-23.
^ Jump up to: a b Moretti, Franco 1987. The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture. London: Verso. ISBN 1-85984-298-4.
Jump up ^ Beveridge, Chris (2007-05-14). "Peach Girl Vol. #1 (also w/box) (of 6)". Anime on DVD. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Peach Girl Volume 1". Tokyopop. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "MARS Volume 1". Tokyopop. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Happy Mania Volume 1". Tokyopop. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ Aoki, Deb. "Nana by Ai Yazawa - Series Profile and Story Summary". About.com. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ Bertschy, Zac (December 26, 2005). "NANA G.novel 1". Anime News Network. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ Randall, Bill. "Three By Moto Hagio". The Comics Journal. Archived from the original on 2007-08-08. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ King, Patrick. "From Far Away Vol. 2". Anime Fringe. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "The World Exists for Me Volume 2". Tokyopop. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Fruits Basket Volume 1". Tokyopop. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Top 50 Manga Properties for Spring 2007: Fruits Basket." ICv2 Guide to Manga, Number 45, pp. 6, 8.
Jump up ^ "Crescent Moon Volume 1". Tokyopop. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Allison, Anne 2000. "Sailor Moon: Japanese superheroes for global girls." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 259-278. ISBN 978-0-7656-0561-0.
Jump up ^ Grigsby, Mary 1999 "The social production of gender as reflected in two Japanese culture industry products: Sailormoon and Crayon Shinchan." In: John A. Lent, editor Themes and Issues in Asian Cartooning: Cute, Cheap, Mad, and Sexy. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. pp. 183-210. ISBN 0-87972-780-2.
Jump up ^ Schodt (1996), p. 92
Jump up ^ "Magic Knight Rayearth I Volume 1". Tokyopop. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ Poitras, Gilles 2001. Anime Essentials: Everything a Fan Needs to Know. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge. ISBN 1-880656-53-1.
Jump up ^ "Tokyo Mew Mew Volume 1". Tokyopop. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Wedding Peach". Viz Media. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Liann (November 20, 2004). "RIGHT TURN ONLY!! Sugar Rush". Anime News Network. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Galaxy Angel". Broccoli Books. Archived from the original on 2007-07-07. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Ito, Kinko 2002. "The world of Japanese 'Ladies Comics': From romantic fantasy to lustful perversion." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(1):68-85.
^ Jump up to: a b Ito, Kinko 2003. "Japanese Ladies' Comics as agents of socialization: The lessons they teach." International Journal of Comic Art, 5(2):425-436.
Jump up ^ Jones, Gretchen 2002. "'Ladies' Comics': Japan's not-so-underground market in pornography for women." U.S.-Japan Women's Journal (English Supplement), Number 22, pp. 3-31.
Jump up ^ Shamoon, Deborah. 2004. "Office slut and rebel flowers: The pleasures of Japanese pornographic comics for women." In: Linda Williams (editor) Porn Studies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 77-103. ISBN 0-8223-3312-0.
Jump up ^ Schodt (1996), pp. 124-129
Jump up ^ Ryō Ramiya (no date) "Luminous Girls." Tokyo: France Shoin Comic House. ISBN 4-8296-8201-9.
Jump up ^ Toku (2005), p. 59
Jump up ^ Schodt (1996), pp. 173-177
Jump up ^ Bando, Kishiji (no date) "Shoujo Yuri Manga Guide." Accessed 2007-09-23.
Jump up ^ Font, Dillon. "Erica Sakurazawa's Nothing But Loving You". Anime Fringe. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Fan translations of Ebine Yamaji's yuri mangas [sic]". The Gay Comics List. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ Perper, Timothy & Martha Cornog 2006. "In the Sound of the Bells: Freedom and Revolution in Revolutionary Girl Utena." Mechademia: An Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:183-186.
Jump up ^ Masanao, Amano 2004. Manga Design. Koln, Germany: Taschen GMBH. pp. 526-529. ISBN 3-8228-2591-3.
Jump up ^ Paradise Kiss: http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1044 Accessed 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Vampire Knight by Matsuri Hino". Shojo Beat. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ Cain by Kaori Yuki: http://www.shojobeat.com/manga/gc/bio.php Accessed 2007-09-26.
Jump up ^ DOLL: http://www.tokyopop.com/shop/1277/DollSoftcover/1.html Accessed 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ Shoichi Aoki. 2001. Fruits. New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0-7148-4083-1.
Jump up ^ Winge, Theresa 2006. "Costuming the imagination: Origins of anime and manga cosplay." Mechademia: An Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:65-76.
Jump up ^ Macias, Patrick, Evers, Izumi, and Nonaka, Kazumi (illustrator). 2004.Japanese Schoolgirl Inferno: Tokyo Teen Fashion Subculture Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0-8118-5690-4.
Jump up ^ Thompson (2007), pp. xxiii-xxiv. See also the opening sections of Un poil de culture - Une introduction à l'animation japonaise. 11/07/2007. http://www.metalchroniques.fr/guppy/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=437 Accessed 2007-12-25.
Jump up ^ Brenner (2007), pp. 31–34
Jump up ^ Schodt (1996), p. 95
^ Jump up to: a b c Perper & Cornog (2002)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Schodt (1986), pp. 68–87
Jump up ^ Schodt (1986), Chapter 3
Jump up ^ Gravett (2004), pp. 52–73
Jump up ^ Brenner (2007), p. 31
Jump up ^ Golgo: http://www.viz.com/products/products.php?series_id=411. review: http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/golgo-13-gn-4. Accessed 2007-12-28.
Jump up ^ See http://www.darkhorse.com/reviews/archive.php?theid=215 for the quoted phrase. Accessed 2007-12-28.
Jump up ^ Schodt (1996), pp. 216–220
Jump up ^ Schodt, Frederik L. 1988. Robots of the Imagination. In Inside the Robot Kingdom: Japan, Mechatronics, and the Coming Robotopia. Chapter 4, pp. 73-90. Tokyo:Kodansha International.
Jump up ^ Schodt (1986), pp. 84–85
Jump up ^ Masanao Amano, editor. 2004. Manga Design. Köln:Taschen. pp. 92-95. ISBN 3-8228-2591-3. http://www.shonenjump.com/news/newsroom/dunk_sj.php; http://comipress.com/article/2006/12/15/1160. Accessed 2007-12-24.
Jump up ^ Aihara & Takekuma (2002), pp. 53-63
Jump up ^ Aihara & Takekuma (2002), illustration on p. 59
Jump up ^ Berek-Lewis, Jason. July 13, 2005. Comics in an Age of Terror. http://www.brokenfrontier.com/columns/details.php?id=308 Accessed 2007-12-25.
Jump up ^ Sgt. Frog: http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1214/SgtFrog/2.html ; review: http://eyeonanime.co.uk/panda.php?mi=7&p=d&reviewid2=41. Accessed 2007-12-28.
Jump up ^ Guardian Angel Getten, by Sakurano Minene. Raijin Graphic Novels/Gutsoon! Entertainment, Vols. 1-4, 2003-2004.
Jump up ^ Negima, by Ken Akamatsu. Del Rey/Random House, Vols. 1-15, 2004-2007; Hanaukyo Maid Team, by Morishige. Studio Ironcat, Vols. 1-3, 2003-2004.
Jump up ^ Outlanders: http://www.angelfire.com/anime/mangatemple/outlanders.html.
Jump up ^ Train Man: Densha Otoko, Hidenori Hara. Viz, Vols. 1-3, 2006.
Jump up ^ Perper, Timothy and Martha Cornog. 2007. "The education of desire: Futari etchi and the globalization of sexual tolerance." Mechademia: An Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and Fan Arts, 2:201-214.
Jump up ^ Toshiki Yui: http://lambiek.net/artists/y/yui_toshiki.htm; http://www.yui-toshiki.com/shed/. Accessed 2007-12-28.
Jump up ^ Slut Girl, by Isutoshi. Eros Comix, Nos. 1-6, 2000; http://www.fantagraphics.com/cart/showcat.cgi?Category=Comics+Erotica&SubCategory=Mangerotica&PageNo=10; Were-Slut, by Jiro Chiba. Eros Comix, Nos. 1-8, 2001-2002; http://www.fantagraphics.com/cart/showcat.cgi?Category=Comics+Erotica&SubCategory=Mangerotica&PageNo=12. Accessed 2007-12-28.
Jump up ^ Drakuun: https://web.archive.org/web/20080206232322/http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Towers/9607/manabe/drakuunindex.html. Accessed 2007-12-28.
Jump up ^ Takeuchi, Osamu (April 5, 2002) [first published March 30, 1995]. 戦後マンガ50年史 [50 Years of Post-War Manga] (in Japanese) (5th ed.). Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo. pp. 174, 181ff. ISBN 978-4480052018. Retrieved December 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ Perper, Timothy and Martha Cornog 2003 "Sex, love, and women in Japanese comics." In Robert T. Francoeur and Raymond Noonan, editors. The Comprehensive International Encyclopedia of Sexuality. New York: Continuum. pages 663-671. Section 8D in http://kinseyinstitute.org/ccies/jp.php. Accessed 2007-12-28.
Jump up ^ Clements, Jonathan. 1998. "'Tits and Tentacles': Sex, Horror, and the Overfiend." In McCarthy, Helen & Jonathan Clements. 1998. The Erotic Anime Movie Guide. Chapter 4, pp. 58-81.
Jump up ^ Taniguchi, Kei. 1994. "Blue Catalyst." San Antonio, TX: Emblem (Antarctic Press), Numbers 6-8.
Jump up ^ Smith, Toren. 1991. "Miso Horny: Sex in Japanese Comics." The Comics Journal, No. 143, pp. 111-115.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schodt (1986), pp. 68–73
^ Jump up to: a b Gravett (2004), pp. 38–42
Jump up ^ Gravett, Paul. "Gekiga: The Flipside of Manga". Retrieved 2007-12-20.
Jump up ^ Isao (2001)
Jump up ^ Isao (2001), pp. 147–149
^ Jump up to: a b Nunez, Irma (September 24, 2006). "Alternative Comics Heroes: Tracing the Genealogy of Gekiga.". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
Jump up ^ Schodt (1986), pp. 70–71
Jump up ^ Hirata: http://www.darkhorse.com/search/search.php?frompage=userinput&sstring=Hirata&x=11&y=9 Accessed 2007-12-19.
Jump up ^ Takeo, Udagawa (2007-10-15). "Home Manga Zombie: Manga Zombie - Preface". Comi Press. Retrieved 2007-12-19.
Jump up ^ Schodt (1986), p. 72
Jump up ^ Flinn, Tom (2008). "MW". ICv2 (50). pp. 17–18.
Jump up ^ Pfaender, Fabien. "IWGP, t.1". planetebd.com. Retrieved 2007-12-20.
Bibliography[edit]
Aihara, 1Koji; Takekuma, Kentaro (2002) [1990]. Even a Monkey Can Draw Manga. San Francisco, CA: Viz. ISBN 9781569318638.
Brenner, Robin E. (2007). Understanding Manga and Anime. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited/Greenwood. ISBN 9781591583325.
Gravett, Paul (2004). Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics. New York, NY: Harper Design. ISBN 1-85669-391-0.
Isao, Shimizu (2001). "Red Comic Books: The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga". In Lent, John A. Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2471-6.
Kern, Adam (2006). Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-02266-1.
Kern, Adam, ed. (2007). "Symposium: Kibyoshi: The World's First Comicbook?". International Journal of Comic Art. 9 (1): 1–486.
Lent, John A., ed. (2001). "Red Comic Books: The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga". Illustrating Asia: Comics, Humor Magazines, and Picture Books. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2471-6.
Perper, Timothy; Cornog, Martha (2002). "Eroticism for the masses: Japanese manga comics and their assimilation into the U.S.". Sexuality and Culture. 6 (1): 3–126. doi:10.1007/s12119-002-1000-4.
Schodt, Frederik L. (1986). Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0-87011-752-7.
Schodt, Frederik L. (1996). Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1-880656-23-5.
Schodt, Frederik L. (2007). The Astro Boy Essays: Osamu Tezuka, Mighty Atom, and the Manga/Anime Revolution. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1-933330-54-9.
Thompson, Jason (2007). Manga: The Complete Guide. Del Rey. ISBN 978-0-345-48590-8.
Toku, Masami, ed. (2005). Shojo Manga: Girl Power!. Chico, CA: Flume Press/California State University Press. ISBN 1-886226-10-5.
External links[edit]
A History of Manga
A complete Hokusai Book, Hokusai Manga Vol 12 in Touch & Turn format
Junichi Nakahara from Shōjo Manga to Fashion (中原淳一 )
Junichi Nakahara – the godfather of manga?
Manga's story starts with kamishibai
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Olé, Olé, Olé
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Olé, Olé, Olé" (from Spanish: "Olé, Olé, Olé") is a chant associated with various meanings.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin
2 Use in music
3 In other sports
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Origin[edit]
The Olé chant was invented by the Spanish. The word "olé" itself, being a Spanish interjection mostly associated with flamenco and the bullfighting and of last centuries, but also with other sports after the 19th century.[1] It was chanted when individuals seemed to rise above themselves in performance.
The chant is frequently used by Welsh rugby union team (Ospreys) and football games around the world (for example by the supporters of the Republic of Ireland national football team[2][3]), and can be heard in Montreal Canadiens hockey games when the team is winning by a significant margin.[4]
In Argentina, sometimes the name of a person the people could be cheering to is added at the end; e.g.: "Olé, olé olé olé, Die-go, Die-go! (referring to Diego Armando Maradona).
In Chile it's common to say it in soccer games to encourage the team; e.g.: "Olé, olé, olé, olé, Chi-le, Chi-le!"
In South African rugby and cricket games the chant is performed whenever the home side is deemed to be in a position of ascendancy or victory is within grasp.
Use in music[edit]
"Olé, Olé, Olé (The Name of the Game)"
Single by The Fans
Released
1987
Genre
Pop
Label
ZYX Records
Songwriter(s)
Armath – Deja
Producer(s)
Roland Verlooven
In 1946, "Ole Ole Ole Ole" was first heard on film on the show I Love Lucy by Dezi Arnaz during his song to Babalu-Aye, an Africa deity. The song was written by Margarita Lecuona in 1939.
In 1985, Hans Kusters, the head of the Belgian label Hans Kusters Music, asked music producer Roland Verlooven and singer Grand Jojo to "write a song for the Belgian football champs Anderlecht called “Anderlecht Champion”".[5] It was composed by Armath (an alias of Roland Verlooven[6]) and Deja, and recorded both in French and Dutch by the Belgian singer Grand Jojo, along with the players of R.S.C. Anderlecht, and released that year by Disques Vogue.
A year later, he and Walter Capiau recorded another version, "E Viva Mexico", which introduced the chorus "Olé, Olé, Olé, Olé, We are the champions". This now represented support for the national Belgian team who did well during the World Cup in Mexico (reaching semi-finals).
Both of the versions used a slightly different variation of the chant, which probably was also originated in Spain[verification needed]. This chant was the basis for many versions to be recorded by many other artists.
Tony Marshall sang a German cover in 1986: "Wir sind die Champions (olé, olé, olé)".
In 1987, Roland Verlooven produced a more internationally popular version of the chant, "Olé, Olé, Olé (The Name of the Game)" by a group known as "The Fans",[7] and published by Hans Kusters Music. It was released in Spain by Discos Games, and in Germany by ZYX Records. The Japanese version, in 1987 and released again in 1993 by The Waves as The Name Of The Game/We Are The Champ, sold 1 million records in Japan and received a gold record.
Next year (1988) the Czech songwriter František Ringo Čech wrote the Czech lyrics for the Olé, Olé, Olé (The Name of the Game) which was then recorded as music video and sung by choir of famous Czech football players including Antonín Panenka, František Veselý and others.[8]
In 1998, Chumbawamba recorded the hit "Top of the World (Olé, Olé, Olé)".
In 1999, it was used in the chorus of "¡Olé!" by the Bouncing Souls on their album Hopeless Romantic.
In 2009 it was recorded by Overtone and used in the 2009 film Invictus.
In 2014, Brazilian superstar Carlinhos Brown used it in a World Cup inspired song Brasil Brasil (Ole Ole).
The chant is sung frequently by the audience, composed mostly of youth and young adults, at the end of Hillsong Young & Free songs such as When The Fight Calls.
In other sports[edit]
The chant is idolized by Conor McGregor fans in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). The origins of the single word Olé are traced back to Spanish bullfighting and is most prominently known as a chant of approval during a soccer/football/futbol match first invented by Mexican Soccer League fans in the way it is globally now known and chanted. It is commonly adorned by Irish fans towards any of their national representatives, as a show of support and kinship. It rose to popularity in Ireland during the country's successful run at the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy, where the phrase made up the chorus to Put 'Em Under Pressure, the official song for the national team's campaign.
The chant is also used in ice hockey in Canada. Especially with regards to the Montreal Canadiens hockey club. In the United States, the chant has been used at American football games. The chant is also common at WWE events taking place in Europe, in Montreal or in the U.S. with a large European crowd, such as the April 8th, 2013 edition of WWE Raw at the Izod Center in East Rutherford, New Jersey the night after WrestleMania 29, as well as the March 30, 2015 edition of Raw emanating from the SAP Center in San Jose, California, the night after WrestleMania 31. The chant was repeatedly heard throughout the May 4, 2015 telecast of WWE Raw that took place at the Bell Centre in Montreal, thereby establishing the arena as one of the loudest crowds in WWE.[9]
In tennis, Argentinian player Juan Martin del Potro normally receives the chant during hard fought points in a match.
New York Mets fans have adapted the chant from "Olé" to "José" and use it to cheer for José Reyes. Toronto Blue Jays fans similarly used the chant for José Bautista and Cleveland Indians fans use it for Jose Ramirez.
More recently in NXT, the cheer has become associated with Sami Zayn, who used the Bouncing Souls song as his entrance music when he performed as El Generico. Zayn is also a resident of Montreal, where the chant is popular.
The cheer is also widely used by supporters of college soccer in the United States and led to the creation of a mascot at the University of California, Santa Barbara, simply named Olé.[10]
The chant is used by Welsh rugby union team Ospreys. The fans sing "ole, ole ole ole, Ospreys, Ospreys!"
When Wisconsin Badgers football scores a field goal, fans sing this chant because of the field goal kicker's-Rafael Gaglianone-home nation of Brasil.
See also[edit]
Olé (sports newspaper)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Desde el vestuario realista salían voces cantarinas de los jugadores que se apuntaban al clarnor popular: «Campeones hobe, hobe, hobe». Lo de hobe se puede traducir por el mejor en la lengua vasca"
Jump up ^ Fitzgerald, Thomas S.; Rojas, Diana & Shuman, Marah (1994-06-19). "A Great Day for the Irish as Italy is Defeated, 1–0". The Record (Bergen County, NJ). Banging on bodhran drums, the Irish were on their feet – an hour before game time. They chanted, "Ole, ole," their national soccer cheer, imported from Spain
Jump up ^ Doyle, John (June 7, 2002). "Green Army conquering with smiles". The Globe and Mail.
Jump up ^ http://montreal.ctv.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20100420/mtl_habslose_100420/20100420/
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20080514201924/http://www.hanskustersmusic.com/home/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=26
Jump up ^ http://www.discogs.com/artist/Roland+Verlooven
Jump up ^ http://www.discogs.com/artist/Fans%2C+The The Fans Discography at Discogs
Jump up ^ "Karel Vágner, František R. Čech: Olé, olé, olé, olé (1988)". Retrieved 21 August 2016. (music video on YouTube)
Jump up ^ http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1597510-wwe-raw-live-results-reaction-and-analysis-post-wrestlemania-29-show
Jump up ^ http://ucsbgauchos.cstv.com/genrel/blank_ole00.html
External links[edit]
Anderlecht Champion at The Originals
Ole, Allah and all Claim for the etymology of olé from Allaah (Allah, God) and lack of evidence
Oley!! short film on Hudud Law
[hide]
v
t
e
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