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British Empire in World War II
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Propaganda poster promoting the joint war effort of the British Empire and Commonwealth, 1939.
[show]
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British Empire Campaigns
of World War II
Campaigns fought exclusively or largely by British Empire forces
Europe
Arctic
Battle of the Barents Sea
Evacuation of Norway
Occupation of Iceland
Evacuation of Spitsbergen
Occupation of Faroe Islands
Balkan Campaign
Reinforcement of Greece
Battle of Crete
Battle of the Mediterranean
Siege of Malta
Malta Convoys
Western Europe
British Expeditionary Force
Dunkirk evacuation
Battle of Britain
The Blitz
Evacuation of Gibraltar
Invasion of Normandy
Clearing the Channel Coast
Liberation of Belgium
Liberation of Netherlands
Africa
East Africa Campaign
Conquest of British Somaliland
Capture of Italian Somaliland
Recapture of British Somaliland
North African Campaign
Italian invasion of Egypt
Occupation of Libya
Southern Africa
Occupation of Madagascar
West Africa
Battle of Dakar
Far East
Defence of Hong Kong
Malayan Campaign
Fall of Singapore
India
Japanese conquest of Burma
Invasion of India
Recapture of Burma
Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean disaster
Indian Ocean retreat
Evacuation of British Somaliland
Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands
Indian Ocean strike
Middle East
Invasion of Iraq
Invasion of Southern Iran
Invasion of Lebanon
Invasion of Syria
Americas
Battle of the Atlantic
Battle of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
Newfoundland Escort Force
Mid-Ocean Escort Force
Western Local Escort Force
Western Approaches Escort Force
When the United Kingdom declared war on Nazi Germany at the outset of World War II it controlled to varying degrees numerous crown colonies, protectorates and the Indian Empire. It also maintained unique political ties to four semi-independent Dominions—Australia, Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand[1]—as part of the Commonwealth.[2] In 1939 the British Commonwealth was a global superpower, with direct or de facto political and economic control of 25% of the world's population, and 30% of its land mass.
The contribution of the British Empire and Commonwealth in terms of manpower and materiel was critical to the Allied war effort. From September 1939 to mid-1942 Britain led Allied efforts in almost every global military theatre. Commonwealth forces (United Kingdom, Colonial, Imperial and Dominion), totalling close to 15 million serving men and women, fought the German, Italian, Japanese and other Axis armies, air forces and navies across Europe, Africa, Asia, and in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic, Indian, Pacific and Arctic Oceans. Commonwealth forces fought in Britain, and across Northwestern Europe in the effort to slow or stop the Axis advance. Commonwealth airforces fought the Luftwaffe to a standstill over Britain, and its armies fought and destroyed Italian forces in North and East Africa and occupied several overseas colonies of German-occupied European nations. Following successful engagements against Axis forces, Commonwealth troops invaded and occupied Libya, Italian Somaliland, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and Madagascar.
The Commonwealth defeated, held back or slowed the Axis powers for three years while mobilizing their globally integrated economy, military, and industrial infrastructure to build what became, by 1942, the most extensive military apparatus of the war. These efforts came at the cost of 150,000 military deaths, 400,000 wounded, 100,000 prisoners, over 300,000 civilian deaths, and the loss of 70 major warships, 39 submarines, 3,500 aircraft, 1,100 tanks and 65,000 vehicles. During this period the Commonwealth built an enormous military and industrial capacity. Britain became the nucleus of the Allied war effort in Europe, and hosted governments in exile in London to rally support in occupied Europe for the Allied effort. Canada delivered almost $4 billion in direct financial aid to the United Kingdom, and Australia and New Zealand began shifting to domestic production[clarification needed] to provide material aid to US forces in the Pacific. Following the US entry into the war in December 1941, the Commonwealth and United States coordinated their military efforts and resources globally. As the scale of the US military involvement and industrial production increased, the US undertook command of many theatres, relieving Commonwealth forces for duty elsewhere, and expanding the scope and intensity of Allied military efforts.[3][4][5]
However, it also proved difficult to co-ordinate the defence of far-flung colonies and Commonwealth countries from simultaneous attacks by the Axis Powers. In part this was exacerbated by disagreements over priorities and objectives, as well as the deployment and control of joint forces. The governments of Britain and Australia, in particular, turned to the United States for support. Although the British Empire and the Commonwealth countries all emerged from the war as victors, and the conquered territories were returned to British rule, the costs of the war and the nationalist fervour that it had stoked became a catalyst for the decolonisation which took place in the following decades.
Contents
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1 Pre-war plans for defence
2 Declaration of war against Germany
3 Empire and Commonwealth contribution
3.1 Finances
4 Crisis in the Mediterranean
5 Fall of Singapore
6 India
7 Victory
8 Aftermath
9 Military histories of the British Empire, Colonies and Dominions
10 See also
10.1 Homefront
10.2 Major military formations and units
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 Further reading
13.1 Army
13.2 Royal Navy
13.3 Air war
14 External links
Pre-war plans for defence[edit]
From 1923, defence of British colonies and protectorates in East Asia was centred on the "Singapore strategy". This made the assumption that Britain could send a fleet to its naval base in Singapore within two or three days of a Japanese attack, while relying on France to provide assistance in Asia via its colony in Indochina and, in the event of war with Italy, to help defend British territories in the Mediterranean.[6] Pre-war planners did not anticipate the fall of France: Nazi occupation, the loss of control over the Channel, and the employment of French Atlantic ports as forward bases for U-boats directly threatened Britain itself, forcing a significant reassessment of naval defence priorities.
During the 1930s, a triple threat emerged for the British Commonwealth in the form of right-wing, militaristic governments in Germany, Italy and Japan.[7] Germany threatened Britain itself, while Italy and Japan's imperial ambitions looked set to clash with the British imperial presence in the Mediterranean and East Asia respectively. However, there were differences of opinion within the UK and the Dominions as to which posed the most serious threat, and whether any attack would come from more than one power at the same time.
Declaration of war against Germany[edit]
Sir Robert Menzies broadcasting to Australia the news of the outbreak of war, 1939
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Two days later, on 3 September, after a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. Britain's declaration of war automatically committed India, the Crown colonies, and the protectorates, but the 1931 Statute of Westminster had granted autonomy to the Dominions so each decided their course separately.
Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies immediately joined the British declaration on 3 September, believing that it applied to all subjects of the Empire and Commonwealth. New Zealand followed suit simultaneously, at 9.30 pm on 3 September (local time), after Peter Fraser consulted the Cabinet; although as Chamberlain's broadcast was drowned by static, the Cabinet (led by Fraser as Prime Minister Mickey Savage was terminally ill) delayed until the Admiralty announced to the fleet a state of war, then backdated the declaration to 9.30 pm. South Africa took three days to make its decision (on 6 September), as the Prime Minister General J. B. M. Hertzog favoured neutrality but was defeated by the pro-war vote in the Union Parliament, led by General Jan Smuts, who then replaced Hertzog. Canadian Prime Minister Mackenzie King declared support for Britain on the day of the British declaration, but also stated that it was for Parliament to make the formal declaration, which it did so one week later on 10 September. The Irish Free State, which had been a dominion until 1937, remained neutral[8]
Empire and Commonwealth contribution[edit]
British Empire and Commonwealth forms of government and production c 1940
Kenya Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve 1945
While the war was initially intended to be limited, resources were mobilized quickly, and the first shots were fired almost immediately. Just hours after the Australian declaration of war, a gun at Fort Queenscliff fired across the bows of a ship as it attempted to leave Melbourne without required clearances.[9] On 10 October 1939, an aircraft of No. 10 Squadron RAAF based in England became the first Commonwealth air force unit to go into action when it undertook a mission to Tunisia.[10] The first Canadian convoy of 15 ships bearing war goods departed Halifax just six days after the nation declared war, with two destroyers HMCS St. Laurent and HMCS Saguenay.[11] A further 26 convoys of 527 ships sailed from Canada in the first four months of the war,[12] and by 1 January 1940 Canada had landed an entire division in Britain.[13] On 13 June 1940 Canadian troops deployed to France in an attempt to secure the southern flank of the British Expeditionary Force in Belgium. As the fall of France grew imminent, Britain looked to Canada to rapidly provide additional troops to strategic locations in North America, the Atlantic and Caribbean. Following the Canadian destroyer already on station from 1939, Canada provided troops from May 1940 to assist in the defence of the British Caribbean colonies, with several companies serving throughout the war in Bermuda, Jamaica, the Bahamas and British Guiana. Canadian troops were also sent to the defence of the colony of Newfoundland, on Canada's east coast, the closest point in North America to Germany. Fearing the loss of a land link[clarification needed] to the British Isles, Canada was also requested to also occupy Iceland, which it did from June 1940 to the spring of 1941, following the initial British invasion.[14]
From mid-June 1940, following the rapid German invasions and occupations of Poland, Denmark, Norway, France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, the British Commonwealth was the main opponent of Germany and the Axis, until the entry into the war of the Soviet Union in June 1941. During this period Australia, India, New Zealand and South Africa provided dozens of ships and several divisions for the defence of the Mediterranean, Greece, Crete, Lebanon and Egypt, where British troops were outnumbered four to one by the Italian armies in Libya and Ethiopia.[15][16] Canada delivered a further 2nd Canadian Infantry Division, pilots for two air squadrons, and several warships to Britain to face a possible invasion from the continent.
In December 1941, Japan launched, in quick succession, attacks on British Malaya, the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, and Hong Kong.
Substantial financial support was provided by Canada to the UK and Commonwealth dominions, in the form of over $4 billion in aid through the Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid and the War Appropriation Act. Over the course of the war over 1.6 million Canadians served in uniform (out of a prewar population of 11 million), in almost every theatre of the war, and by war's end the country had the third-largest navy and fourth-largest air force in the world. By the end of the war, almost a million Australians had served in the armed forces (out of a population of under 7 million), whose military units fought primarily in Europe, North Africa, and the South West Pacific.
The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (also known as the "Empire Air Training Scheme") was established by the governments of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the UK resulting in:
joint training at flight schools in Canada, Southern Rhodesia, Australia and New Zealand;[17]
formation of new squadrons of the Dominion air forces, known as "Article XV squadrons" for service as part of Royal Air Force operational commands, and;
in practice, the pooling of RAF and Dominion air force personnel, for posting to both RAF and Article XV squadrons.
Finances[edit]
Britain borrowed everywhere it could and made heavy purchases of munitions and supplies in India and Canada during the war, as well as other parts of the Empire and neutral countries. Canada also made gifts. Britain's sterling balances around the world amounted to ₤3.4 billion in 1945 or the equivalent of about $US 200 billion in 2016 dollars.[18] However, Britain treated this as a long-term loan with no interest and no specified repayment date. Just when the money would be made available by London was an issue, for the British treasury was nearly empty by 1945. [19]
Crisis in the Mediterranean[edit]
Second Officer Kalyan Sen and Chief Officer Margaret L Cooper, Women's Royal Indian Naval Service, 1945
In June 1940, France surrendered to invading German forces, and Italy joined the war on the Axis side, causing a reversal of the Singapore strategy. Winston Churchill, who had replaced Neville Chamberlain as British Prime Minister the previous month (see Norway debate), ordered that the Middle East and the Mediterranean were of a higher priority than the Far East to defend.[20] Australia and New Zealand were told by telegram that they should turn to the United States for help in defending their homeland should Japan attack:[21]
Without the assistance of France we should not have sufficient forces to meet the combined German and Italian navies in European waters and the Japanese fleet in the Far East. In the circumstances envisaged, it is most improbable that we could send adequate reinforcements to the Far East. We should therefore have to rely on the United States of America to safeguard our interests there.[22]
Commonwealth forces played a major role in North and East Africa following Italy's entry to the war, participating in the invasion of Italian Libya and Somaliland, but were forced to retreat after Churchill diverted resources to Greece and Crete.[23]
Fall of Singapore[edit]
Main article: Fall of Singapore
The Battle of Singapore was fought in the South-East Asian theatre of World War II when the Empire of Japan invaded the Allied stronghold of Singapore. Singapore was the major British military base in South East Asia and nicknamed the "Gibraltar of the East". The fighting in Singapore lasted from 31 January 1942 to 15 February 1942.
It resulted in the fall of Singapore to the Japanese, and the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history.[24] About 80,000 British, Australian and Indian troops became prisoners of war, joining 50,000 taken by the Japanese in the Malayan campaign. Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the ignominious fall of Singapore to the Japanese the "worst disaster" and "largest capitulation" in British history.[25]
India[edit]
Further information: British Raj
Serious tension erupted over American support for independence for India, a proposition Churchill vehemently rejected.[26][27] For years Roosevelt had encouraged Britain's disengagement from India. The American position was based on principled opposition to colonialism.[28] The politically active Indian population was deeply divided.[29] One element was so insistent on the explosion of the British, that it sided with Germany and Japan, and formed the Indian National Army (INA) from Indian prisoners of war. It fought as part of the Japanese invasion of Burma and eastern India. There was a large pacifist element, which rallied to Gandhi's call for abstention from the war; he said that violence in every form was evil.[30] There was a high level of religious tension between the Hindu majority and the Muslims minority. For the first time the Muslim community became politically active, giving strong support for the British war effort. Over 2 million Indians volunteered for military service, including a large Muslim contingent. The British were sensitive to demands of the Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, since it needed Muslim soldiers in India and Muslim support all across the Middle East. London used the religious tensions in India as a justification to continue its rule, saying it was needed to prevent religious massacres of the sort that did happen in 1947. The imperialist element in Britain was strongly represented in the Conservative party; Churchill himself had long been its leading spokesman. On the other hand, Attlee and the Labour Party favoured independence and had close ties to the Congress Party. The British cabinet sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India with a specific peace plan offering India the promise of dominion status after the war. Congress demanded independence immediately and the Cripps mission failed. Roosevelt gave support to Congress, sending his representative Louis Johnson to help negotiate some sort of independence. Churchill was outraged, refused to cooperate with Roosevelt on the issue, and threatened to resign as prime minister of Roosevelt pushed too hard. Roosevelt pulled back. In 1942 when the Congress Party launched a Quit India Movement of non-violent civil disobedience, the Raj police immediately arrested tens of thousands of activists (including Gandhi, holding them for the duration. Meanwhile, wartime disruptions caused severe food shortages in eastern India; hundreds of thousands died of starvation. To this day a large Indian element blames Churchill for the Bengal famine of 1943.[31] In terms of the war effort, India became a major base for American supplies sent to India, and Lend Lease operations boosted the local economy. The 2 million Indian soldiers were a major factor in British success in the Middle East. Muslim support for the British war effort proved decisive in the British decision to partition the Raj, forming of the new state of Pakistan.[32]
Victory[edit]
Main articles: Victory in Europe Day and Victory over Japan Day
The front page of The Montreal Daily Star announcing the German surrender. May 7, 1945
On 8 May 1945, the World War II Allies formally accepted the unconditional surrender of the armed forces of Nazi Germany and the end of Adolf Hitler's Third Reich. The formal surrender of the occupying German forces in the Channel Islands was not until 9 May 1945. On 30 April Hitler committed suicide during the Battle of Berlin, and so the surrender of Germany was authorized by his replacement, President of Germany Karl Dönitz. The act of military surrender was signed on 7 May in Reims, France, and ratified on 8 May in Berlin, Germany.
In the afternoon of 15 August 1945, the Surrender of Japan occurred, effectively ending World War II. On this day the initial announcement of Japan's surrender was made in Japan, and because of time zone differences it was announced in the United States, Western Europe, the Americas, the Pacific Islands, and Australia/New Zealand on 14 August 1945. The signing of the surrender document occurred on 2 September 1945.
Aftermath[edit]
By the end of the war in August 1945, British Commonwealth forces were responsible for the civil and/or military administration of a number of non-Commonwealth territories, occupied during the war, including Eritrea, Libya, Madagascar, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Italian Somaliland, Syria, Thailand and portions of Germany, Austria and Japan. Most of these military administrations were handed over to old European colonial authorities or to new local authorities soon after the end of the hostilities. Commonwealth forces administered occupation zones in Japan, Germany and Austria until 1955. World War II confirmed that Britain was no longer the great power it had once been, and that it had been surpassed by the United States on the world stage. Canada, Australia and New Zealand moved within the orbit of the United States. The image of imperial strength in Asia had been shattered by the Japanese attacks, and British prestige there was irreversibly damaged.[33] The price for India's entry to the war had been effectively a guarantee for independence, which came within two years of the end of the war, relieving Britain of its most populous and valuable colony. The deployment of 150,000 Africans overseas from British colonies, and the stationing of white troops in Africa itself led to revised perceptions of the Empire in Africa.[34]
Military histories of the British Empire, Colonies and Dominions[edit]
The contributions from individual colonies, protectorates and dominions to the war effort were extensive and global. Further information about their involvement can be found in the military histories of the individual colonies and dominions listed below.
United Kingdom
Aden
Ascension
Australia
Barbados
Basutoland
Bechuanaland
Bermuda
British Cameroons
British Guiana
British Honduras
British Leeward Islands
British Malaya
British Solomon Islands
British Somaliland
British Windward Islands
Protectorate of Brunei
Burma
Canada
Cayman Islands
Ceylon
Cyprus
Dominica
Egypt
Falkland Islands
Fiji
Gambia
Gibraltar
Gilbert and Ellice Islands
Gold Coast
Grenada
Guernsey
Hong Kong
India
Jamaica
Jersey
Kenya
Malta
Mandatory Palestine
Mauritius
Nauru
Nepal
Newfoundland
New Guinea
New Hebrides
New Zealand
Nigeria
Norfolk Island
North Borneo
Northern Rhodesia
Nyasaland
Papua
St Helena
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent
Sarawak
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Singapore
South Africa
South West Africa
Southern Rhodesia
Straits Settlements
Sudan
Tanganyika
Tonga Protectorate
Trinidad and Tobago
Turks and Caicos
Uganda Protectorate
Western Samoa
Zanzibar
British Military Administration (Borneo)
British Military Administration (Eritrea)
British Military Administration of Italian Somaliland
British Military Administration (Libya)
British Military Administration (Malaya)
British Military Administration (Somalia)
See also[edit]
British Empire portal
World War II portal
Homefront[edit]
Australian home front during the Second World War
Christmas Island Mutiny and Battle
Gibraltar evacuation in the Second World War
British home front during the Second World War
Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands
Japanese occupation of British Borneo
Japanese occupation of Burma
Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
Japanese occupation of Malaya
Japanese occupation of Nauru
Japanese occupation of Singapore
German occupation of the Channel Islands
Major military formations and units[edit]
List of British Empire corps of the Second World War
List of British Empire divisions in the Second World War
List of British Empire brigades of the Second World War
East Africa Command
Far East Command
India Command
Malaya Command
Middle East Command
Persia and Iraq Command
West Africa Command
Pacific Fleet
Eastern Fleet
Home Fleet
Mediterranean Fleet
Reserve Fleet
Bomber Command
Ferry Command
Fighter Command
RAF Squadrons
British Commonwealth Air Training Plan
British Commonwealth Occupation Force
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ireland was also technically a dominion but operated largely as a republic and remained neutral during the war)
Jump up ^ The term was popularised during World War I and became official after the Balfour Declaration in 1926. W. David McIntyre, 1999, "The Commonwealth"; in Robin Winks (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography, Oxford University Press, p. 558.
Jump up ^ History of the Second World War (104 volumes), Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London 1949 to 1993
Jump up ^ Stacey, C P. (1970)
Jump up ^ Edgerton, David (2011)
Jump up ^ Louis, p. 315
Jump up ^ Brown, p. 284
Jump up ^ Brown, pp. 307–9
Jump up ^ McKernan (1983). p. 4.
Jump up ^ Stephens (2006). pp. 76–79.
Jump up ^ Byers, A.R., ed. (1986). The Canadians at War 1939–45. Westmount, QC: The Readers' Digest Association. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-88850-145-5.
Jump up ^ Hague, 2000
Jump up ^ Byers, p.26
Jump up ^ Stacey 1970
Jump up ^ McIntyre pp. 336–7
Jump up ^ Grey (2008). pp. 156–164.
Jump up ^ Brown, p. 310
Jump up ^ See "Pounds Sterling to Dollars: Historical Conversion of Currency"
Jump up ^ Marcelo de Paiva Abreu, "India as a creditor: sterling balances, 1940-1953." (Department of Economics, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, 2015) online
Jump up ^ Louis, p. 335
Jump up ^ McIntyre p. 339
Jump up ^ Brown, p. 317
Jump up ^ McIntyre p. 337
Jump up ^ Smith, Colin (2006). Singapore Burning: Heroism and Surrender in World War II. Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-101036-3. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Churchill, Winston (1986). The Hinge of Fate, Volume 4. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, p. 81. ISBN 0395410584
Jump up ^ William Roger Louis, Imperialism at Bay: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire, 1941-1945 (1978).
Jump up ^ Andrew N. Buchanan, "The War Crisis and the Decolonization of India, December 1941–September 1942: A Political and Military Dilemma." Global War Studies 8#2 (2011): 5-31.
Jump up ^ Kenton J. Clymer, "Franklin D. Roosevelt, Louis Johnson, India, and Anticolonialism: Another Look." Pacific Historical Review 57#3 (1988): 261-284. online
Jump up ^ Yasmin Khan, The Raj at War: A People's History of India's Second World War (2016)
Jump up ^ Arthur Herman (2008). Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry That Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age. pp. 472–539.
Jump up ^ John Hickman, "Orwellian Rectification: Popular Churchill Biographies and the 1943 Bengal Famine." Studies in History 24#2 (2008): 235-243.
Jump up ^ Eric S. Rubin, "America, Britain, and Swaraj: Anglo-American Relations and Indian Independence, 1939–1945," India Review" (Jan–March 2011) 10#1 pp 40–80
Jump up ^ McIntyre, p. 341
Jump up ^ McIntyre, p. 342
Bibliography[edit]
Brown, Judith (1998). The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924679-3.
Bryce, Robert Broughton (2005). Canada and the cost of World War II. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2938-0.
Butler, J.R.M. et al. Grand Strategy (6 vol 1956–60), official overview of the British war effort; Volume 1: Rearmament Policy; Volume 2: September 1939 – June 1941; Volume 3, Part 1: June 1941 – August 1942; Volume 3, Part 2: June 1941 – August 1942; Volume 4: September 1942 – August 1943; Volume 5: August 1943 – September 1944; Volume 6: October 1944 – August 1945
Chartrand, René; Ronald Volstad (2001). Canadian Forces in World War II. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-302-0
Copp, J. T; Richard Nielsen (1995). No price too high: Canadians and the Second World War. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ISBN 0-07-552713-8.
Edgerton, David. Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources, and Experts in the Second World War (Oxford University Press; 2011) 445 pages
Hague, Arnold: The allied convoy system 1939–1945 : its organization, defence and operation. St.Catharines, Ontario : Vanwell, 2000.
Jackson, Ashley (2006). The British Empire and the Second World War. London: Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 978-1852854171.
Louis, Wm. Roger (2006). Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-84511-347-0.
McIntyre, W. Donald (1977). The Commonwealth of Nations. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-0792-3.
Morton, Desmond (1999). A military history of Canada (4th ed.). Toronto: McClelland and Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-6514-0.
Mulvey, Paul. The British Empire in World War II. Academic.edu.
Roberts, Andrew. Masters and Commanders – How Roosevelt, Churchill, Marshall and Alanbrooke Won the War in the West (2008)
Stacey, C P. (1970) Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada, 1939–1945 Queen's Printer, Ottawa (Downloadable PDF) ISBN D2-5569
Stewart, Andrew (2008). Empire Lost: Britain, the Dominions and the Second World War. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-1847252449.
Further reading[edit]
Butler, J.R.M. et al. Grand Strategy (6 vol 1956–60), official overview of the British war effort; Volume 1: Rearmament Policy; Volume 2: September 1939 – June 1941; Volume 3, Part 1: June 1941 – August 1942; Volume 3, Part 2: June 1941 – August 1942; Volume 4: September 1942 – August 1943; Volume 5: August 1943 – September 1944; Volume 6: October 1944 – August 1945
Churchill, Winston. The Second World War (6 vol 1947–51), classic personal history with many documents
Edgerton, David. Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources, and Experts in the Second World War (Oxford University Press; 2011) 445 pages
Harrison, Mark Medicine and Victory: British Military Medicine in the Second World War (2004). ISBN 0-19-926859-2
Hastings, Max. Winston's War: Churchill, 1940–1945 (2010)
Khan, Yasmin. The Raj at War: A People's History of India's Second World War (2015)
Raghavan, Srinath. India's War: World War II and the Making of Modern South Asia (2016)
Roberts, Andrew. Masters and Commanders – How Roosevelt, Churchill, Marshall and Alanbrooke Won the War in the West (2008)
Army[edit]
Allport, Alan. Browned Off and Bloody-Minded: The British Soldier Goes to War, 1939–1945 (Yale UP, 2015)
Atkinson, Rick. The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943–1944 (2008) excerpt and text search
Buckley, John. British Armour in the Normandy Campaign 1944 (2004)
D'Este, Carlo. Decision in Normandy: The Unwritten Story of Montgomery and the Allied Campaign (1983). ISBN 0-00-217056-6.
Ellis, L.F. The War in France and Flanders, 1939–1940 (HMSO, 1953) online
Ellis, L.F. Victory in the West, Volume 1: Battle of Normandy (HMSO, 1962)
Ellis, L.F. Victory in the West, Volume 2: Defeat of Germany (HMSO, 1968)
Fraser, David. And We Shall Shock Them: The British Army in World War II (1988). ISBN 978-0-340-42637-1
Graham, Dominick. Tug of War: The Battle for Italy 1943–1945 (2004)
Hamilton, Nigel. Monty: The Making of a General: 1887–1942 (1981); Master of the Battlefield: Monty's War Years 1942–1944 (1984); Monty: The Field-Marshal 1944–1976 (1986).
Lamb, Richard. War In Italy, 1943–1945: A Brutal Story (1996)
Thompson, Julian. The Imperial War Museum Book of the War in Burma 1942–1945 (2004)
Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh. Dunkirk: Fight to the Last Man (2008)
Royal Navy[edit]
Barnett, Corelli. Engage the Enemy More Closely: The Royal Navy in the Second World War (1991)
Marder, Arthur. Old Friends, New Enemies: The Royal Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy, vol. 2: The Pacific War, 1942–1945 with Mark Jacobsen and John Horsfield (1990)
Roskill, S. W. The White Ensign: British Navy at War, 1939–1945 (1960). summary
Roskill, S. W. War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 1: The Defensive London: HMSO, 1954; War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 2: The Period of Balance, 1956; War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 3: The Offensive, Part 1, 1960; War at Sea 1939–1945, Volume 3: The Offensive, Part 2, 1961. online vol 1; online vol 2
Air war[edit]
Bungay, Stephen. The Most Dangerous Enemy: The Definitive History of the Battle of Britain (2nd ed. 2010)
Collier, Basil. Defence of the United Kingdom (HMSO, 1957) online
Fisher, David E, A Summer Bright and Terrible: Winston Churchill, Lord Dowding, Radar, and the Impossible Triumph of the Battle of Britain (2005) excerpt online
Hastings, Max. Bomber Command (1979)
Hansen, Randall. Fire and Fury: The Allied Bombing of Germany, 1942–1945 (2009)
Hough, Richard and Denis Richards. The Battle of Britain (1989) 480 pp
Messenger, Charles, "Bomber" Harris and the Strategic Bombing Offensive, 1939–1945 (1984), defends Harris
Overy, Richard. The Battle of Britain: The Myth and the Reality (2001) 192 pages excerpt and text search
Richards, Dennis, et al. Royal Air Force, 1939–1945: The Fight at Odds – Vol. 1 (HMSO 1953), official history vol 1 online edition vol 2 online edition; vol 3 online edition
Shores, Christopher F. Air War for Burma: The Allied Air Forces Fight Back in South-East Asia 1942–1945 (2005)
Terraine, John. A Time for Courage: The Royal Air Force in the European War, 1939–1945 (1985)
Verrier, Anthony. The Bomber Offensive (1969), British
Webster, Charles and Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 1939–1945 (HMSO, 1961), 4 vol. Important official British history
Wood, Derek, and Derek D. Dempster. The Narrow Margin: The Battle of Britain and the Rise of Air Power 1930–40 (1975) online edition
External links[edit]
Checklist of official histories
Britain in World War II
[show]
v
t
e
British Empire battles of the Second World War
Africa
East Africa
Conquest of British Somaliland
Capture of Italian Somaliland
Recapture of British Somaliland
Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia
North Africa
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Precipitation (chemistry)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the chemical phenomenon. For other uses, see Precipitation (disambiguation).
"Precipitate" redirects here. For other uses, see Precipitate (disambiguation).
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Chemical Precipitation
Precipitation is the creation of a solid from a solution. When the reaction occurs in a liquid solution, the solid formed is called the 'precipitate'. The chemical that causes the solid to form is called the 'precipitant'. Without sufficient force of gravity (settling) to bring the solid particles together, the precipitate remains in suspension. After sedimentation, especially when using a centrifuge to press it into a compact mass, the precipitate may be referred to as a 'pellet'. Precipitation can be used as a medium. The precipitate-free liquid remaining above the solid is called the 'supernate' or 'supernatant'. Powders derived from precipitation have also historically been known as 'flowers'. When the solid appears in the form of cellulose fibers which have been through chemical processing, the process is often referred to as regeneration.
Sometimes the formation of a precipitate indicates the occurrence of a chemical reaction. If silver nitrate solution is poured into a solution of sodium chloride, a chemical reaction occurs forming a white precipitate of silver chloride. When potassium iodide solution reacts with lead(II) nitrate solution, a yellow precipitate of lead(II) iodide is formed.
Precipitation may occur if the concentration of a compound exceeds its solubility (such as when mixing solvents or changing their temperature). Precipitation may occur rapidly from a supersaturated solution.
In solids, precipitation occurs if the concentration of one solid is above the solubility limit in the host solid, due to e.g. rapid quenching or ion implantation, and the temperature is high enough that diffusion can lead to segregation into precipitates. Precipitation in solids is routinely used to synthesize nanoclusters.[1]
An important stage of the precipitation process is the onset of nucleation. The creation of a hypothetical solid particle includes the formation of an interface, which requires some energy based on the relative surface energy of the solid and the solution. If this energy is not available, and no suitable nucleation surface is available, supersaturation occurs.
Contents
[hide]
1 Applications
2 Representation using chemical equations
3 Precipitate colors
4 Anion/cation analysis
5 Digestion
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Applications[edit]
Crystals of meso-tetratolylporphyrin from a reflux of propanoic acid precipitate on cooling
Copper from a wire is displaced by silver in a silver nitrate solution it is dipped into, and solid silver precipitates out.
Precipitation reactions can be used for making pigments, removing salts from water in water treatment, and in classical qualitative inorganic analysis.
Precipitation is also useful to isolate the products of a reaction during workup. Ideally, the product of the reaction is insoluble in the reaction solvent. Thus, it precipitates as it is formed, preferably forming pure crystals. An example of this would be the synthesis of porphyrins in refluxing propionic acid. By cooling the reaction mixture to room temperature, crystals of the porphyrin precipitate, and are collected by filtration:[2]
Precipitation may also occur when an antisolvent (a solvent in which the product is insoluble) is added, drastically reducing the solubility of the desired product. Thereafter, the precipitate may easily be separated by filtration, decanting, or centrifugation. An example would be the synthesis of chromic tetraphenylporphyrin chloride: water is added to the DMF reaction solution, and the product precipitates.[3] Precipitation is also useful in purifying products: crude bmim-Cl is taken up in acetonitrile, and dropped into ethyl acetate, where it precipitates.[4] Another important application of an antisolvent is in ethanol precipitation of DNA.
In metallurgy, precipitation from a solid solution is also a useful way to strengthen alloys; this process is known as solid solution strengthening.
Representation using chemical equations[edit]
See also: solubility product
An example of a precipitation reaction: Aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO3) is added to a solution containing potassium chloride (KCl), the precipitation of a white solid, silver chloride (AgCl), is observed. (Zumdahl, 2005)
AgNO 3 + KCl ⟶ AgCl ↓ + KNO 3 {\displaystyle {\ce {{AgNO3}+ KCl -> AgCl (v) + KNO3}}}
The silver chloride (AgCl) has formed a solid, which is observed as a precipitate.
This reaction can be written emphasizing the dissociated ions in a combined solution. This is known as the ionic equation.
Ag + + NO 3 − + K + + Cl − ⟶ AgCl ↓ + K + + NO 3 − {\displaystyle {\ce {{Ag+}+{NO3^{-}}+{K+}+{Cl^{-}}->AgCl(v)+{K+}+NO3^{-}}}}
A final way to represent a precipitate reaction is known as a net ionic reaction. In this case, any spectator ions (those that do not contribute to the reaction) are left out of the formula completely. This simplifies the above equations to the following:
Ag + + Cl − ⟶ AgCl ↓ {\displaystyle {\ce {{Ag+}+ Cl^- -> AgCl (v)}}}
Precipitate colors[edit]
Green and reddish brown stains on a limestone core sample, respectively corresponding to precipitates of oxides/hydroxides of Fe2+
and Fe3+
.
Many compounds containing metal ions produce precipitates with distinctive colors. The following are typical colors for various metals. However, many of these compounds can produce colors very different from those listed.
Gold black
Chromium Deep green, murky green, orange, purple, yellow, brown
Cobalt Pink
Copper Blue
Iron(II) Green
Iron(III) Reddish brown
Manganese Pale pink
Nickel Green
Lead Yellow

Other compounds generally form white precipitates.
Anion/cation analysis[edit]
See also: Qualitative inorganic analysis
Precipitate formation is useful in the detection of the type of cation in a salt. To do this, an alkali first reacts with the unknown salt to produce a precipitate that is the hydroxide of the unknown salt. To identify the cation, the color of the precipitate and its solubility in excess are noted. Similar processes are often used in sequence – for example, a barium nitrate solution will react with sulfate ions to form a solid barium sulfate precipitate, indicating that it is likely that sulfate ions are present.
Digestion[edit]
Digestion, or precipitate ageing, happens when a freshly formed precipitate is left, usually at a higher temperature, in the solution from which it precipitates. It results in cleaner and bigger particles. The physico-chemical process underlying digestion is called Ostwald ripening.
See also[edit]
Coprecipitation
Salting in
Salting out
Effervescence
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dhara, S. (2007). "Formation, Dynamics, and Characterization of Nanostructures by Ion Beam Irradiation". Critical Reviews in Solid State and Materials Sciences. 32 (1): 1–50. Bibcode:2007CRSSM..32....1D. doi:10.1080/10408430601187624.
Jump up ^ A. D. Adler; F. R. Longo; J. D. Finarelli; J. Goldmacher; J. Assour; L. Korsakoff (1967). "A simplified synthesis for meso-tetraphenylporphine". J. Org. Chem. 32 (2): 476–476. doi:10.1021/jo01288a053.
Jump up ^ Alan D. Adler; Frederick R. Longo; Frank Kampas; Jean Kim (1970). "On the preparation of metalloporphyrins". Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry. 32 (7): 2443. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(70)80535-8.
Jump up ^ Dupont, J., Consorti, C., Suarez, P., de Souza, R. (2004). "Preparation of 1-Butyl-3-methyl imidazolium-based Room Temperature Ionic Liquids". Organic Syntheses. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) ; Collective Volume, 10, p. 184
Further reading[edit]
Zumdahl, Steven S. (2005). Chemical Principles (5th ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-37206-7.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solid precipitation.
Precipitation reactions of certain cations
Digestion Instruments
A Thesis on pattern formation in precipitation reactions
Authority control
NDL: 00573050
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War Machine (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
War Machine
Film poster
Directed by
David Michôd
Produced by
Brad Pitt
Dede Gardner
Jeremy Kleiner
Ted Sarandos
Ian Bryce
Written by
David Michôd
Based on
The Operators
by Michael Hastings
Starring
Brad Pitt
Emory Cohen
RJ Cyler
Topher Grace
Anthony Michael Hall
Anthony Hayes
John Magaro
Scoot McNairy
Will Poulter
Alan Ruck
Lakeith Stanfield
Josh Stewart
Meg Tilly
Tilda Swinton
Ben Kingsley
Tim Downie
Music by
Nick Cave
Warren Ellis
Cinematography
Dariusz Wolski
Edited by
Peter Sciberras
Production
company
Plan B Entertainment
New Regency
RatPac Entertainment
Blue-Tongue Films
Distributed by
Netflix
Release date
May 24, 2017 (2017-05-24) (High Street Phoenix)
May 26, 2017 (2017-05-26) (United States)
Running time
122 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$60 million[1]
War Machine is a 2017 American satirical war film directed and written by David Michôd, based on the nonfiction book The Operators by Michael Hastings. It is a fictionalized version of the events in the book based on United States Army General Stanley McChrystal.[2]
The film stars Brad Pitt, Anthony Michael Hall, Anthony Hayes, Topher Grace, Will Poulter, Tilda Swinton and Ben Kingsley. It was released on Netflix on May 26, 2017.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Filming
4 Release
4.1 Marketing
4.2 Critical response
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
In the summer of 2009, four-star General Glen McMahon (Brad Pitt), having won renown for his effective leadership in Iraq, is sent to Afghanistan to prepare an assessment so that the government can end the ongoing war.[4][5] He is given wide latitudes to write it, on the sole condition that he not request more troops. McMahon and his staff, particularly his right hand man Major General Greg Pulver (Anthony Michael Hall), are united in their belief that the war can be won, and decide to recommend that President Obama authorize a surge of 40,000 additional troops to secure Helmand province in order to stabilize the country. However, the Secretary of State (Sian Thomas) informs McMahon that his report will not be reviewed until after the upcoming presidential election.
Captain Badi Basim (Aymen Hamdouchi), a member of the Afghan National Army, joins McMahon's staff as a "representative" of the Afghan people. He arrives, however, in civilian clothes as he would rather not wear his uniform, which he has in a bag, outside the compound near his home as he walked. Meanwhile, McMahon is informed that, due to alleged irregularities in the counting of votes, a runoff election will have to be held, delaying the review of the assessment further. Fed up, McMahon secretly leaks the assessment to the Washington Post and organizes an interview with 60 Minutes, during which he reveals that, in the last seventy days, he has only been granted one meeting with the President. In response, the government announces that they will send 30,000 troops to Afghanistan, and that all U.S. and coalition forces in the country will leave in 18 months. To gather the remaining 10,000 troops needed for his strategy to work, McMahon and his men head to Paris to negotiate with the other coalition nations.
In Paris, McMahon learns that the President is passing through, and wishes to meet with him. The ambassador to Afghanistan (Alan Ruck) warns McMahon that he needs to understand his position: if he continues to anger the President, he will be fired for insubordination. The President, however, merely shakes his hand as he climbs aboard Air Force One due to time constraints, and McMahon and his staff attend a dinner in McMahon's honor, accompanied by Rolling Stone writer Sean Cullen (Scoot McNairy), who intends to write a feature story about his performance for an upcoming issue. The next day, during their anniversary dinner, McMahon's wife Jeanie confronts him about how much time he's spending fighting abroad instead of being with his family back home.
While on route to Berlin with McMahon's staff to continue negotiations, Cullen observes their behavior and concludes that they are arrogant and seem to care little about the growing public perception that the war is costly and wasteful. At a conference to discuss his strategy, McMahon is confronted by a German official (Tilda Swinton) who is skeptical of his approach and suggests that McMahon's plans would only lead to more losses. Nevertheless, both the Germans and the French agree to furnish the troops needed for his planned offensive, codenamed "Operation Moshtarak", to begin, with Afghan President Hamid Karzai's (Ben Kingsley) approval.
The operation launches, but soon runs into trouble when several civilians are accidentally killed against McMahon's instructions. When he holds a public meeting to explain the incident, the crowd grows hostile and demands that he and his troops leave. Worse, McMahon learns that Cullen's article has been published, and paints a negative picture of him and his staff as openly speaking against the President and mishandling the war effort. Knowing that he will be fired for his actions, McMahon returns to Washington and later takes a job as a civilian consultant.
In the aftermath, Cullen ponders the consequences of his article, noting that he wished the fall of McMahon would finally convince the government to stop invading foreign countries and end the war in Afghanistan. Instead, however, the government simply assigns a new general to replace McMahon: General Bob White (Russell Crowe).
Cast[edit]
McMahon's Entourage
Brad Pitt as General Glen McMahon,[6] a character based on General Stanley McChrystal.[7] He is portrayed as an accomplished general with degrees from West Point and Yale[8] brought in to bring a resolution to the conflict in Afghanistan.
Anthony Hayes[9] as Lieutenant Commander Pete Duckman, a Navy SEAL and member of McMahon's staff, possibly based on Navy SEAL David Silverman.
Emory Cohen[10] as Sgt. Willy Dunne, General McMahon's body man.
RJ Cyler as USAF Tech Sgt. Andy Moon, information technology support assistant.[11]
Daniel Betts as USN Rear Admiral Simon Ball, McMahon's Senior Public Affairs Officer.
Topher Grace as Matt Little, a former lobbyist turned McMahon's civilian media adviser.[12]
Anthony Michael Hall as Major General Greg Pulver, ISAF Director of Intelligence,[13] loosely based on Lt. General Michael Flynn.
John Magaro as Colonel Cory Staggart, an Army Ranger and General McMahon's executive officer.[14]
Aymen Hamdouchi as Captain Badi Basim, a scholarly Afghan National Army officer who becomes General McMahon's aide-de-camp.
Scoot McNairy[15] as Sean Cullen, a cynical journalist for Rolling Stone who accompanies McMahon and his staff and acts as narrator throughout the film, loosely based on author Michael Hastings.
Meg Tilly as Jeanie McMahon,[16] McMahon's wife.
U.S. Diplomats
Sian Thomas as United States Secretary of State Edith May, based on Hillary Rodham Clinton
Alan Ruck as Pat McKinnon, United States Ambassador to Afghanistan, loosely based on Karl Eikenberry.
Nicholas Jones as Dick Waddle, loosely based on Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan Richard Holbrooke.
Griffin Dunne as Ray Canucci, a United States Department of State senior official.
Politicians
Ben Kingsley as President Hamid Karzai[17]
Reggie Brown as President Barack Obama
Tilda Swinton as a German politician
Combat Marines
Will Poulter as Sgt. Ricky Ortega, a Marine Corps infantry squad leader.[18]
Lakeith Stanfield as Cpl. Billy Cole, a disillusioned Marine and member of Ortega's squad.[19]
Josh Stewart as Captain Dick North, a Marine Corps officer.
Other
Rufus Wright as British Army Lt. Col. Frank Groom
Georgina Rylance as Lydia Cunningham, 60 Minutes journalist.
Russell Crowe[20] as General Bob White (uncredited), General Glen McMahon's replacement similar to David Petraeus.
Production[edit]
On April 27, 2012, it was announced that New Regency and Plan B Entertainment had acquired the film adaptation rights to the 2011 best seller non-fiction book The Operators by Michael Hastings.[21] On April 14, 2014, David Michôd was hired to write and direct the film based on the war in Afghanistan.[7] Brad Pitt was attached to star as General Stanley McChrystal and produce the film along with his Plan B partners Dede Gardner and Jeremy Kleiner, while the film would be financed by New Regency and RatPac Entertainment.[7]
On June 8, 2015, Netflix acquired the distribution rights to the film which was re-titled War Machine, while Ian Bryce also came on board to produce the film along with others.[22] On June 17, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that there had been a budget issue between New Regency and RatPac with producers of Plan B, and thus Netflix had stepped in to buy the distribution rights for $60 million.[1]
On August 4, 2015, Emory Cohen was cast in the film to play a member of Gen. McChrystal's staff.[10] On August 10, 2015, Topher Grace joined the film to play Gen. Stanley McChrystal's civilian press adviser.[12] On August 11, 2015, John Magaro signed on to play Cory Burger, a special ops soldier and close advisor to General McMahon.[14] On August 14, 2015, Scoot McNairy joined the cast of the film.[15] On August 19, 2015, Anthony Michael Hall was added to the cast to play General Hank Pulver, loosely based on General Mike Flynn.[13] On August 20, 2015, Keith Stanfield signed on to the film.[19] The same day, Will Poulter also joined the cast for an unspecified role.[18] On August 25, Anthony Hayes joined the film.[9] On October 23, 2015, TheWrap revealed that RJ Cyler had also joined the film.[11] Alan Ruck was spotted filming.[23] Meg Tilly was also spotted but her casting was not then officially confirmed.[16] It was later reported Ben Kingsley and Tilda Swinton had been cast.[24]
Filming[edit]
Principal photography on the film began in mid-October 2015 in London.[25][26][27] Later on October 19, filming began in Abu Dhabi, the city was transformed into Kabul, streets into a military fortress, an old building as an American Embassy in Kabul, and a street as a Palestinian border crossing.[28][29] Filming also took place at the Abu Dhabi International Airport in November.[29] Some scenes were also filmed at the Dunsfold Aerodrome in Surrey, England.[23] In mid-November 2015, while final scenes were being shot, actors were spotted filming in Ras al-Khaimah and the city's old neighborhood was transformed into Pakistani villages and a military base-camp.[30]
Release[edit]
The film was released on Netflix on May 26, 2017.[31]
Marketing[edit]
Brad Pitt visited Mumbai to promote the film and attended a special screening at PVR High Street Phoenix on May 24, 2017.[32] He also met Indian superstar Shah Rukh Khan to promote War Machine.
Critical response[edit]
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 54% based on 73 reviews, and an average rating of 5.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "War Machine's uneven execution keeps its fact-based story from cleanly hitting its targets, but those flaws are frequently offset by sharp wit and solid acting."[33] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a 56 out of 100 score, based on 30 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[34]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b McClintock, Pamela (June 17, 2015). "Whoa: Netflix Actually Paid $60M for Brad Pitt's Politically Charged Military Satire". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ McGinley, Michael (May 3, 2017). "Brad Pitt Talks Divorce, Quitting Drinking, and Becoming a Better Man". GQ. Retrieved May 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Brad Pitt prepares for battle in shahid's.com 'War Machine' trailer". CNET.
Jump up ^ Grow, Kory (March 30, 2017). "See Brad Pitt Play Runaway General in 'War Machine' Trailer". Rolling Stone. Retrieved April 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Crothers, Jennifer (31 March 2017). "The trailer for Brad Pitt's Netflix film War Machine is here". The Mirror. Retrieved April 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "EXCLUSIVE: Brad Pitt Looks Like a Ken Doll on the Set of Upcoming Netflix Drama 'War Machine' -- See the Pics!". etonline.com. Retrieved May 6, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fleming Jr, Mike (April 14, 2014). "New Regency Taps Brad Pitt, David Michod To Tell Gen. Stanley McChrystal Afghan Story 'The Operators'". Deadline.com. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mancini, Vince. "Brad Pitt And David Michôd's 'War Machine' Is An Absurd, Tragicomic Home Run".
^ Jump up to: a b Kroll, Justin (August 25, 2015). "'Animal Kingdom' Actor Anthony Hayes Joins 'War Machine' With Brad Pitt (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b A. Lincoln, Ross (August 4, 2015). "Joey King Will Be 'Going In Style'; Emory Cohen Enlists In Netflix's 'War Machine'". Deadline.com. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Sneider, Jeff (October 23, 2015). "'Power Rangers' Movie Adds 'Me and Earl and the Dying Girl' Star RJ Cyler as Blue Ranger". thewrap.com. Retrieved November 17, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b McNary, Dave (August 10, 2015). "Topher Grace Joins Brad Pitt In Netflix Black Comedy 'War Machine'". Variety. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Busch, Anita (August 19, 2015). "Anthony Michael Hall Joins Brad Pitt In Netflix's 'War Machine'". Deadline.com. Retrieved August 20, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b A. Lincoln, Ross (August 11, 2015). "John Magaro Joins 'War Machine'; Jason Fuchs Moves To 'La La Land'". Deadline.com. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Fleming Jr, Mike (August 14, 2015). "Scoot McNairy Joins Brad Pitt In Netflix's 'War Machine'". Deadline.com. Retrieved August 16, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Evry, Max (November 20, 2015). "Brad Pitt in Set Photos from Netflix's War Machine". comingsoon.net. Retrieved November 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Ben Kingsley teaches Patricia Clarkson how to drive in new dramedy". Toronto Sun. Retrieved May 6, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b McNary, Dave (August 20, 2015). "Will Poulter Joins Brad Pitt in Netflix's 'War Machine'". Variety. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Sneider, Jeff (August 20, 2015). "'Straight Outta Compton's Keith Stanfield Joins Brad Pitt's Netflix Movie 'War Machine' (Exclusive)". thewrap.com. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Drew (26 May 2017). "Director David Michôd on Why Netflix's 'War Machine' Could Never Be Made at a Studio". Movie Fone. Retrieved 26 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Abrams, Rachel (April 27, 2012). "New Regency, Plan B dial 'Operators'". Variety. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Fleming Jr, Mike (June 8, 2015). "Game Changer! Netflix Lands 'War Machine', Brad Pitt's Next Star Vehicle". Deadline.com. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Brad Pitt pictured in full military gear as he heads to work to film scenes for movie War Machine at Dunsfold Aerodrome". The Daily Mail. November 13, 2015. Retrieved November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Netflix Acquires Charlie McDowell's 'The Discovery' Starring Rooney Mara, Robert Redford and Jason Segel". Netflix. June 13, 2016. Retrieved June 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ FOX-Leonard, Boudicca (October 17, 2015). "Brad Pitt looks GREY-t as silver fox on London set of new film War Machine". Daily Mirror. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Silver fox Brad Pitt debuts dyed grey hairdo as he brings twins Knox and Vivienne along to the set of satirical comedy War Machine in London". The Daily Mail. October 18, 2015. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Brad Pitt Is the Ultimate Silver Fox on the Set of War Machine (Move Over, Clooney!)". usmagazine.com. October 19, 2015. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Sheridan, Wade (October 15, 2015). "Brad Pitt's Netflix original movie 'War Machine' to start production in Abu Dhabi". upi.com. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Quiet Abu Dhabi street transforms into War Machine film set". thenational.ae. October 21, 2015. Retrieved October 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "RAK becomes celebrity zone as Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie fly down to the emirate". thenational.ae. November 14, 2015. Retrieved November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Brad Pitt prepares for battle in Netflix's 'War Machine' trailer". CNET.
Jump up ^ "Brad Pitt is in Mumbai to attend War Machine screening, to meet Shah Rukh Khan". The Indian Express. 24 May 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "War Machine (2017)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved August 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "War Machine reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved August 15, 2017.
External links[edit]
War Machine on Netflix
War Machine on IMDb
War Machine at Rotten Tomatoes
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values: Category:Films based on non-fiction books

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values: Category:War in Afghanistan (2001–2014) films

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values: آلة حرب (فيلم) – Arabic

values: War Machine (pel·lícula de 2017) – Catalan

values: ماشین جنگ (فیلم) – Persian

values: ウォー・マシーン: 戦争は話術だ! – Japanese

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