text:
List of Telugu castes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Telugu society is nowadays officially classified into a number of groups, some of which align with the concept of caste.
Contents
[hide]
1 Forward Classes
2 Backward Classes
3 See also
4 References
Forward Classes
Forward castes do not qualify for government reservations. Those present in Andhra Pradesh are:[1][2]
Brahmin
Kamma
Kapu
Komati
Kshatriya
Reddy
Velama

Some communities within these groups are instead classified under other categories, as noted below.
Backward Classes
Some communities are classified as Other Backward Classes due to social, financial, educational, and/or political discrimination.[3]
Agnikulakshatriya Palli Vadabalija Bestha Jalari Gangavar Gangaputra Goondla Vanyakulakshtriya Vannekapu Vannereddi Pallikapu Pallireddi Nayyala Pattapu
Balasanthu, Bahurupi
Bandara
Budabukkala
Rajaka, Chakali, Vannar
Dasari (formerly engaged in Bhikshatana)
Dommara
Gangiredlavaru
Jangam whose traditional occupation is begging
Jogi
Katipapala
Korcha, Koracha
Medari or Mahendra
Mondivaru Mondibanda Banda
Nayi-Brahmin (Mangali, Mangala, Bhajanthri)
Vamsha Raj
Pamula
Pardhi (Mirshikari, Nirshikari )
Pambala
Peddammavandlu, Devaravandlu, Yellammavandlu, Mutyalammavandlu
Veeramushti (Neetikotala), Veerabhadreeya
Valmiki Boya (Boya Bedar, Kirataka Nishadi, Yellappi, Yellapu/Yellapondlu, Pedda Boya ) Talayari, Chunduvallu
Gudala
Kanjara-Bhatta
Kinthala Kalinga, Buragana Kalinga, Buragam Kalinga, Pandiri Kalinga, Kalinga
Kepmare or Reddika
Mondepatta Mondipatta
Nokkar
Pariki Muggula
Yata
Chopemari
Kaikadi
Joshinandiwala
Odde Oddilu Vaddi Vaddelu
Mandula
Mehtar (Muslim)
Kunapuli
Achukatlavandlu
Aryakshatriya, Chittari, Giniyar, Chitrakara, Nakhas
Devanga
Ediga Gowda (Gamalla, Kalalee ) Goundla Settibalija (of Visakhapatnam, East Godavari, West Godavari and Krishna District)
Dudekula, Laddaf, Pinjari or Noorbash
Gandla, Telikula, Devathilakula
Jandra
Kummara or Kulala or Salivahana
Karikalabhakthulu Kaikolan or Kaikola (Sengundam or Sengunther)
Karnabhakthulu
Kuruba or Kuruma
Nagavaddilu
Neelakanthi
Patkar (Khatri)
Perika (Perike Balija, Puragiri Kshatriya)
Nessi or Kurni
Padmasali (Sali, Saliyan, Pattusali, Senapathulu, Thogata Sali)
Srisayana (Segidi)
Swakulasali
Thogata, Thogati or Thogata Veerakshatriya
Viswabrahmin or Viswakarma (Ausula or Kamsali, Kammari, Kanchari, Vadla or Vadra or Vadrangi and Silpi)
Scheduled Castes converts to Christianity and their progeny
Agaru
Arekatika, Katika, Quresh (Muslim Butchers)
Atagara
Bhataraju
Chippolu (Mera)
Gavara
Godaba
Hatkar
Jakkala
Jingar
Kandra
Koshti
Kachi
Surya Balija (Kalavanthula), Ganika
Krishnabhalija (Dasari, Bukka, Bukka Ayavar)
Koppulavelama
Mathura
Mali (where they are not Scheduled Tribe)
Mudiraj, Mutrasi Tenugollu
Munnurukapu (Telangana)
Nagavasam (Nagavamsa)
Neeli (Nelli)
Pollinativelama (of Srikakulam & Visakhapatnam Districts)
Poosala
Passi
Rangarez or Bhavasara Kshatriya
Sadhuchetty
Satani (Chattadasrivaishnava, Chatadi)
Tammali
Turupu Kapu and Gajula Kapu of Srikakulam, Vizianagram & Visakhapatnam Districts who are subject to social customs of divorce & remarriages among their women
Uppara or Sagara
Vanjara (Vanjari)
Yadava (Golla)
Pala-Ekari
Ayyaraka
Nagaralu
Pondara
Lodh, Lodha, Lodhi
Kurakula
Kasi kapadi
Gajula Balija (who are traditionally associated with selling of Bangles)
Vannia Vanniar Vannikula-Kshatriya
Sarollu
Atirasa (of Polavaram, Gopalapuram, Koyyalagudem, Buttayagudem, Chagallu Mandals of West Godavari Distt. and Devipattanam, Korukonda and Gokavaram Mandals of East Godavari District)
Patra
Sikligar
Siddula
Gudia/Gudiya (confined to Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam Districts only)
Kurmi (confined to Telangana Region and also Krishna District only)
Budubunjala/ Bhunjwa/ Bhadbhunja (confined to Hyderabad and Ranga Reddy Districts only)
Lakkamari Kapu (confined to Telangana Region only)
See also
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
List of Scheduled Tribes in India#Andhra Pradesh
References
Jump up ^ Srinivasulu, K. "Caste, Class and Social Articulation in Andhra Pradesh: Mapping Differential Regional Trajectories" (PDF). Overseas Development Institute. p. 12.
Jump up ^ Vaugier-Chatterjee, Anne (2012), "Two Dominant Castes: The Socio-political System in Andhra Pradesh", in Jaffrelot, Christophe; Kumar, Sanjay, Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies, Routledge, p. 280, ISBN 978-1-136-51662-7
Jump up ^ "Central List Of Other Backward Classes".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Telugu_castes&oldid=825334364"
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Muscle relaxant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about skeletal muscle relaxants. For information on smooth muscle relaxants, see Antispasmodic.
A muscle relaxant is a drug that affects skeletal muscle function and decreases the muscle tone. It may be used to alleviate symptoms such as muscle spasms, pain, and hyperreflexia. The term "muscle relaxant" is used to refer to two major therapeutic groups: neuromuscular blockers and spasmolytics. Neuromuscular blockers act by interfering with transmission at the neuromuscular end plate and have no central nervous system (CNS) activity. They are often used during surgical procedures and in intensive care and emergency medicine to cause temporary paralysis. Spasmolytics, also known as "centrally acting" muscle relaxants, are used to alleviate musculoskeletal pain and spasms and to reduce spasticity in a variety of neurological conditions. While both neuromuscular blockers and spasmolytics are often grouped together as muscle relaxants,[1][2] the term is commonly used to refer to spasmolytics only.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Neuromuscular blockers
3 Spasmolytics
3.1 Terminology
3.2 Clinical use
3.3 Mechanism
4 Side effects
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The earliest known use of muscle relaxant drugs was by natives of the Amazon Basin in South America who used poison-tipped arrows that produced death by skeletal muscle paralysis. This was first documented in the 16th century, when European explorers encountered it. This poison, known today as curare, led to some of the earliest scientific studies in pharmacology. Its active ingredient, tubocurarine, as well as many synthetic derivatives, played a significant role in scientific experiments to determine the function of acetylcholine in neuromuscular transmission.[5] By 1943, neuromuscular blocking drugs became established as muscle relaxants in the practice of anesthesia and surgery.[6]
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of carisoprodol in 1959, metaxalone in August 1962, and cyclobenzaprine in August 1977.[7]
Other skeletal muscle relaxants of that type used around the world come from a number of drug categories and other drugs used primarily for this indication include orphenadrine (anticholinergic), chlorzoxazone, tizanidine (clonidine relative), diazepam, tetrazepam and other benzodiazepines, mephenoxalone, methocarbamol, dantrolene, baclofen, [8] Drugs once but no longer or very rarely used to relax skeletal muscles include meprobamate, barbiturates, methaqualone, glutethimide and the like; some subcategories of opioids have muscle relaxant properties, and some are marketed in combination drugs with skeletal and/or smooth muscle relaxants such as whole opium products, some ketobemidone, piritramide and fentanyl preparations and Equagesic.
Neuromuscular blockers[edit]
Detailed view of a neuromuscular junction:
1. Presynaptic terminal
2. Sarcolemma
3. Synaptic vesicle
4. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
5. Mitochondrion
Main article: Neuromuscular-blocking drug
Muscle relaxation and paralysis can theoretically occur by interrupting function at several sites, including the central nervous system, myelinated somatic nerves, unmyelinated motor nerve terminals, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, the motor end plate, and the muscle membrane or contractile apparatus. Most neuromuscular blockers function by blocking transmission at the end plate of the neuromuscular junction. Normally, a nerve impulse arrives at the motor nerve terminal, initiating an influx of calcium ions, which causes the exocytosis of synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine. Acetylcholine then diffuses across the synaptic cleft. It may be hydrolysed by acetylcholine esterase (AchE) or bind to the nicotinic receptors located on the motor end plate. The binding of two acetylcholine molecules results in a conformational change in the receptor that opens the sodium-potassium channel of the nicotinic receptor. This allows Na+
and Ca2+
ions to enter the cell and K+
ions to leave the cell, causing a depolarization of the end plate, resulting in muscle contraction.[9] Following depolarization, the acetylcholine molecules are then removed from the end plate region and enzymatically hydrolysed by acetylcholinesterase.[5]
Normal end plate function can be blocked by two mechanisms. Nondepolarizing agents, such as tubocurarine, block the agonist, acetylcholine, from binding to nicotinic receptors and activating them, thereby preventing depolarization. Alternatively, depolarizing agents, such as succinylcholine, are nicotinic receptor agonists which mimic Ach, block muscle contraction by depolarizing to such an extent that it desensitizes the receptor and it can no longer initiate an action potential and cause muscle contraction.[5] Both of these classes of neuromuscular blocking drugs are structurally similar to acetylcholine, the endogenous ligand, in many cases containing two acetylcholine molecules linked end-to-end by a rigid carbon ring system, as in pancuronium (a nondepolarizing agent).[5]
Chemical diagram of pancuronium, with red lines indicating the two acetylcholine "molecules" in the structure
Spasmolytics[edit]
Main article: antispasmodic
A view of the spinal cord and skeletal muscle showing the action of various muscle relaxants – black lines ending in arrow heads represent chemicals or actions that enhance the target of the lines, blue lines ending in squares represent chemicals or actions that inhibition the target of the line
The generation of the neuronal signals in motor neurons that cause muscle contractions are dependent on the balance of synaptic excitation and inhibition the motor neuron receives. Spasmolytic agents generally work by either enhancing the level of inhibition, or reducing the level of excitation. Inhibition is enhanced by mimicking or enhancing the actions of endogenous inhibitory substances, such as GABA.
Terminology[edit]
Because they may act at the level of the cortex, brain stem or spinal cord, or all three areas, they have traditionally been referred to as "centrally acting" muscle relaxants. However, it is now known not every agent in this class has CNS activity (e.g. dantrolene), so this name is inaccurate.[5]
Most sources still use the term "centrally acting muscle relaxant". According to MeSH, dantrolene is usually classified as a centrally acting muscle relaxant.[10] The World Health Organization, in its ATC, uses the term "centrally acting agents",[11] but adds a distinct category of "directly acting agents", for dantrolene.[12] Use of this terminology dates back to at least 1973.[13]
The term "spasmolytic" is also considered a synonym for antispasmodic.[14]
Clinical use[edit]
Spasmolytics such as carisoprodol, cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone, and methocarbamol are commonly prescribed for low back pain or neck pain, fibromyalgia, tension headaches and myofascial pain syndrome.[15] However, they are not recommended as first-line agents; in acute low back pain, they are not more effective than paracetamol or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),[16][17] and in fibromyalgia they are not more effective than antidepressants.[15] Nevertheless, some (low-quality) evidence suggests muscle relaxants can add benefit to treatment with NSAIDs.[18] In general, no high-quality evidence supports their use.[15] No drug has been shown to be better than another, and all of them have adverse effects, particularly dizziness and drowsiness.[15][17] Concerns about possible abuse and interaction with other drugs, especially if increased sedation is a risk, further limit their use.[15] A muscle relaxant is chosen based on its adverse-effect profile, tolerability, and cost.[19]
Muscle relaxants (according to one study) were not advised for orthopedic conditions, but rather for neurological conditions such as spasticity in cerebral palsy and multiple sclerosis.[15] Dantrolene, although thought of primarily as a peripherally acting agent, is associated with CNS effects, whereas baclofen activity is strictly associated with the CNS.
Muscle relaxants are thought to be useful in painful disorders based on the theory that pain induces spasm and spasm causes pain. However, considerable evidence contradicts this theory.[18]
In general, muscle relaxants are not approved by FDA for long-term use. However, rheumatologists often prescribe cyclobenzaprine nightly on a daily basis to increase stage 4 sleep. By increasing this sleep stage, patients feel more refreshed in the morning. Improving sleep is also beneficial for patients who have fibromyalgia.[20]
Muscle relaxants such as tizanidine are prescribed in the treatment of tension headaches.[21]
Diazepam and carisoprodol are not recommended for older adults, pregnant women, or people who suffer depression or for those with a history of drug or alcohol addiction.[22]
Mechanism[edit]
Because of the enhancement of inhibition in the CNS, most spasmolytic agents have the side effects of sedation, drowsiness and may cause dependence with long-term use. Several of these agents also have abuse potential, and their prescription is strictly controlled.[23][24][25]
The benzodiazepines, such as diazepam, interact with the GABAA receptor in the central nervous system. While it can be used in patients with muscle spasm of almost any origin, it produces sedation in most individuals at the doses required to reduce muscle tone.[5]
Baclofen is considered to be at least as effective as diazepam in reducing spasticity, and causes much less sedation. It acts as a GABA agonist at GABAB receptors in the brain and spinal cord, resulting in hyperpolarization of neurons expressing this receptor, most likely due to increased potassium ion conductance. Baclofen also inhibits neural function presynaptically, by reducing calcium ion influx, and thereby reducing the release of excitatory neurotransmitters in both the brain and spinal cord. It may also reduce pain in patients by inhibiting the release of substance P in the spinal cord, as well.[5][26]
Clonidine and other imidazoline compounds have also been shown to reduce muscle spasms by their central nervous system activity. Tizanidine is perhaps the most thoroughly studied clonidine analog, and is an agonist at α2-adrenergic receptors, but reduces spasticity at doses that result in significantly less hypotension than clonidine.[27] Neurophysiologic studies show that it depresses excitatory feedback from muscles that would normally increase muscle tone, therefore minimizing spasticity.[28][29] Furthermore, several clinical trials indicate that tizanidine has a similar efficacy to other spasmolytic agents, such as diazepam and baclofen, with a different spectrum of adverse effects.[30]
The hydantoin derivative dantrolene is a spasmolytic agent with a unique mechanism of action outside of the CNS. It reduces skeletal muscle strength by inhibiting the excitation-contraction coupling in the muscle fiber. In normal muscle contraction, calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum through the ryanodine receptor channel, which causes the tension-generating interaction of actin and myosin. Dantrolene interferes with the release of calcium by binding to the ryanodine receptor and blocking the endogenous ligand ryanodine by competitive inhibition. Muscle that contracts more rapidly is more sensitive to dantrolene than muscle that contracts slowly, although cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are depressed only slightly, most likely because the release of calcium by their sarcoplasmic reticulum involves a slightly different process. Major adverse effects of dantrolene include general muscle weakness, sedation, and occasionally hepatitis.[5]
Other common spasmolytic agents include: methocarbamol, carisoprodol, chlorzoxazone, cyclobenzaprine, gabapentin, metaxalone, and orphenadrine.
Side effects[edit]
Muscle relaxants are very powerful drugs which may produce negative effects, including heart failure and paralysis.[31] Patients most commonly report sedation as the main adverse effect of muscle relaxants. Usually, people become less alert when they are under the effects of muscle relaxant drugs. People are normally advised not to drive vehicles or operate heavy machinery while under muscle relaxants' effects.
Cyclobenzaprine produces confusion and lethargy, as well as anticholinergic side effects. When taken in excess or in combination with other substances, it may also be toxic. While the body adjusts to this medication, it is possible for patients to experience dry mouth, fatigue, lightheadedness, constipation or blurred vision. Some serious but unlikely side effects may be experienced, including mental or mood changes, possible confusion and hallucinations, and difficulty urinating. In a very few cases, very serious but rare side effects may be experienced: irregular heartbeat, yellowing of eyes or skin, fainting, abdominal pain including stomachache, nausea or vomiting, lack of appetite, seizures, dark urine, or loss of coordination.[32]
Patients taking carisoprodol for a prolonged time have reported dependence, withdrawal and abuse, although most of these cases were reported by patients who had had a history of addiction. These effects were also reported by patients who took it in combination with other drugs with abuse potential, and in fewer cases, there were reports of carisoprodol-associated abuse when used without other drugs with abuse potential.[33]
Common side effects eventually caused by metaxalone include dizziness, headache, drowsiness, nausea, irritability, nervousness, upset stomach and vomiting. Severe side effects may be experienced when consuming metaxalone, such as severe allergic reactions (rash, hives, itching, difficulty breathing, tightness in the chest, swelling of the mouth, face, lips, or tongue), chills, fever, and sore throat, may require medical attention. Other severe side effects include unusual or severe tiredness or weakness, as well as yellowing of the skin or the eyes.[34] When baclofen is administered intrathecally, it may cause CNS depression accompanied with cardiovascular collapse and respiratory failure. Tizanidine may lower blood pressure. This effect can be controlled by administering a low dose at the beginning and increasing it gradually.[35]
See also[edit]
Paralysis
Quaternary ammonium muscle relaxants
Caroverine
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition of Muscle relaxant." MedicineNet.com. (c) 1996–2007. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ "muscle relaxant." mediLexicon. (c) 2007. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Muscle relaxants." WebMD. Last Updated: February 15, 2006. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Skeletal Muscle Relaxant (Oral Route, Parenteral Route)." Mayo Clinic. Last Updated: April 1, 2007. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Miller, R.D. (1998). "Skeletal Muscle Relaxants". In Katzung, B.G. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology (7th ed.). Appleton & Lange. pp. 434–449. ISBN 0-8385-0565-1.
Jump up ^ Bowman WC (January 2006). "Neuromuscular block". Br. J. Pharmacol. 147 Suppl 1: S277–86. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706404. PMC 1760749  . PMID 16402115.
Jump up ^ "Brief History". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ "Brief History". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ Craig, C.R.; Stitzel, R.E. (2003). Modern Pharmacology with clinical applications. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 339. ISBN 0-7817-3762-1.
Jump up ^ Dantrolene at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Jump up ^ "M03B Muscle Relaxants, Centrally acting agents". ATC/DDD Index. WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology.
Jump up ^ "M03CA01 Dantrolene". ATC/DDD Index. WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology.
Jump up ^ Ellis KO, Castellion AW, Honkomp LJ, Wessels FL, Carpenter JE, Halliday RP (June 1973). "Dantrolene, a direct acting skeletal muscle relaxant". J Pharm Sci. 62 (6): 948–51. doi:10.1002/jps.2600620619. PMID 4712630.
Jump up ^ "Dorlands Medical Dictionary:antispasmodic".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f See S, Ginzburg R (2008). "Choosing a skeletal muscle relaxant". Am Fam Physician. 78 (3): 365–370. ISSN 0002-838X. PMID 18711953.
Jump up ^ Chou R, Qaseem A, Snow V, et al. (October 2007). "Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: a joint clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society". Ann. Intern. Med. 147 (7): 478–91. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-147-7-200710020-00006. PMID 17909209.
^ Jump up to: a b van Tulder MW, Touray T, Furlan AD, Solway S, Bouter LM (2003). Van Tulder, Maurits W, ed. "Muscle relaxants for non-specific low back pain". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD004252. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004252. PMID 12804507. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Beebe FA, Barkin RL, Barkin S (2005). "A clinical and pharmacologic review of skeletal muscle relaxants for musculoskeletal conditions". Am J Ther. 12 (2): 151–71. doi:10.1097/01.mjt.0000134786.50087.d8. PMID 15767833.
Jump up ^ See, S.; Ginzburg, R. (Feb 2008). "Skeletal muscle relaxants". Pharmacotherapy. 28 (2): 207–13. doi:10.1592/phco.28.2.207. PMID 18225966.
Jump up ^ "When Are Muscle Relaxers Prescribed For Arthritis Patients?". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Tension Headache
Jump up ^ "Muscle Relaxants". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ Rang, H.P.; Dale, M.M. (1991). "Drugs Used in Treating Motor Disorders". Pharmacology (2nd ed.). Churchill Livingston. pp. 684–705. ISBN 044304483X.
Jump up ^ Standaert, D.G.; Young, A.B. (2001). "Treatment Of Central Nervous System Degerative Disorders". In Goodman, L.S.; Hardman, J.G.; Limbird, L.E.; Gilman, A.G. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (10th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 550–568. ISBN 0071124322.
Jump up ^ Charney, D.S.; Mihic, J.; Harris, R.A. (2001). "Hypnotics and Sedatives". Goodman & Gilman's. pp. 399–427.
Jump up ^ Cazalets JR, Bertrand S, Sqalli-Houssaini Y, Clarac F (1998). "GABAergic control of spinal locomotor networks in the neonatal rat". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 860: 168–80. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09047.x. PMID 9928310.
Jump up ^ Young, R.R., ed. (1994). "Symposium: Role of tizanidine in the treatment of spasticity". Neurology. 44 (Suppl 9): 1. PMID 7970005.
Jump up ^ Bras H, Jankowska E, Noga B, Skoog B (1990). "Comparison of Effects of Various Types of NA and 5-HT Agonists on Transmission from Group II Muscle Afferents in the Cat". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 2 (12): 1029–39. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.1990.tb00015.x. PMID 12106064.
Jump up ^ Jankowska E, Hammar I, Chojnicka B, Hedén CH (2000). "Effects of monoamines on interneurons in four spinal reflex pathways from group I and/or group II muscle afferents". Eur. J. Neurosci. 12 (2): 701–14. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00955.x. PMID 10712650.
Jump up ^ Young RR, Wiegner AW (1987). "Spasticity". Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 219: 50–62. PMID 3581584.
Jump up ^ "The Effects of Muscle Relaxant Drugs Are Powerful". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ "Cyclobenzaprine-Oral". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ "Carisoprodolx". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ "Side Effects of Metaxalone – for the Consumer". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ "Precautions". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
External links[edit]
Skeletal Muscle Relaxants at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
[show]
v
t
e
Skeletal muscle relaxants (M03)
Peripherally acting
(primarily antinicotinic,
NMJ block)
Non-depolarizing
Curare alkaloids
Alcuronium
Dimethyltubocurarine
Tubocurarine
4° ammonium agents
ultra-short duration: Gantacurium
short duration: Mivacurium
Chandonium
intermediate duration: Atracurium
Cisatracurium
Fazadinium
Rocuronium
Vecuronium
long duration: Doxacurium
Dimethyltubocurarine
Pancuronium
Pipecuronium
Laudexium
Gallamine
unsorted: Hexafluronium (Hexafluorenium)
Depolarizing
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v
t
e
Pharmacology: major drug groups
Gastrointestinal tract/
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stomach acid
Antacids
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Proton pump inhibitors
Antiemetics
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and joints (M)
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NDL: 00565878
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Drawing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Drawing (disambiguation).
Pen and wash lion by Rembrandt in the Louvre
Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. Instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax colored pencils, crayons, charcoal, chalk, pastels, various kinds of erasers, markers, styluses, various metals (such as silverpoint) and electronic drawing.
A drawing instrument releases a small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, may be used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard or indeed almost anything. The medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas.[1] The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities.
In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering and technical drawing. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a finished work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman or a draughtsman.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 History
2.1 Drawing in communication
2.2 Drawing in manuscripts
2.3 Drawing in science
2.4 Drawing as artistic expression
3 Notable artists and draftsmen
4 Materials
5 Technique
6 Tone
7 Form and proportion
8 Perspective
9 Artistry
10 Process
11 Seven Ps of drawing
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
Overview[edit]
Galileo Galilei. Phases of the Moon. 1616.
Drawing is one of the major forms of expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface.[3] Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour,[4] while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks. Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support.
Drawing is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem-solving and composition. Drawing is also regularly used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called studies
Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
There are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, and free hand. There are also many drawing methods, such as line drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania (in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots), and tracing (drawing on a translucent paper, such as tracing paper, around the outline of preexisting shapes that show through the paper).
A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch.
In fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called "drawings" even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing.
History[edit]
Drawing in communication[edit]
Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression, with evidence for its existence preceding that of written communication.[5] It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invention of the written language,[5][6] demonstrated by the production of cave and rock paintings around 30,000 years ago (Art of the Upper Paleolithic).[7] These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts.[8] The sketches and paintings produced by Neolithic times were eventually stylised and simplified in to symbol systems (proto-writing) and eventually into early writing systems.
Drawing in manuscripts[edit]
Before the widespread availability of paper, 12th-century monks in European monasteries used intricate drawings to prepare illustrated, illuminated manuscripts on vellum and parchment. Drawing has also been used extensively in the field of science, as a method of discovery, understanding and explanation.
Drawing in science[edit]
In 1616, astronomer Galileo Galilei explained the changing phases of the moon through his observational telescopic drawings.[9] In 1924, geophysicist Alfred Wegener used illustrations to visually demonstrate the origin of the continents.[9]
Drawing as artistic expression[edit]
Drawing is used to express one's creativity, and therefore has been prominent in the world of art. Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic practice.[10] Initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings.[11] Following the widespread availability of paper in the 14th century, the use of drawing in the arts increased. At this point, drawing was commonly used as a tool for thought and investigation, acting as a study medium whilst artists were preparing for their final pieces of work.[12][13] The Renaissance brought about a great sophistication in drawing techniques, enabling artists to represent things more realistically than before,[14] and revealing an interest in geometry and philosophy.[15]
The invention of the first widely available form of photography led to a shift in the hierarchy of the arts.[16] Photography offered an alternative to drawing as a method for accurately representing visual phenomena, and traditional drawing practice was given less emphasis as an essential skill for artists, particularly so in Western society.[9]
Example of a typical drawing by American artist and notable draftsman, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Untitled (Axe/Rene) 1982. Basquiat produced over 1500 drawings and pushed the boundaries of drawing in the late 20th-century[17]
Notable artists and draftsmen[edit]
Drawing became significant as an art form around the late 15th century, with artists and master engravers such as Albrecht Dürer and Martin Schongauer (c. 1448-1491), the very first Northern engraver known by name. Schongauer came from Alsace, and was born into a family of goldsmiths. Albrecht Dürer, a master of the next generation, was also the son of a goldsmith.[18][19]
Old Master Drawings are often reflect the history of the country in which they were produced, and the fundamental characteristics of a nation at that time. In 17th-century Holland, a Protestant country, there were almost no religious artworks, and, with no King or court, most art was bought privately. Drawings of landscapes or genre scenes were often viewed not as sketches but as highly finished works of art. Italian drawings, however, show the influence of Catholicism and the Church, which played a major role in artistic patronage. The same is often true of French drawings, although in the 17th century the disciplines of French Classicism meant drawings were less Baroque than the more free Italian counterparts, which conveyed a greater sense of movement.[20]
In the 20th century Modernism encouraged "imaginative originality"[21] and some artists' approach to drawing became less literal, more abstract. World-renowned artists such as Pablo Picasso, Andy Warhol and Jean-Michel Basquiat helped challenge the status quo, with drawing being very much at the centre of their practice, and often re-interpreting traditional technique.[22]
Basquiat's drawings were produced in many different mediums, most commonly ink, pencil, felt-tip or marker, and oil-stick, and he drew on any surface that came to hand, such as doors, clothing, refrigerators, walls and baseball helmets.[23]
Modern-day artists such as Tracey Emin observe the legacy and importance of drawing, engraving and print making techniques in their vast array, passed down through millennia.
The centuries have produced a canon of notable artists and draftsmen, each with their own distinct language of drawing, including:
14th, 15th and 16th: Leonardo da Vinci[24] • Albrecht Dürer • Hans Holbein the Younger • Michelangelo • Pisanello • Raphael
17th: Claude • Jacques de Gheyn II • Guercino • Nicolas Poussin • Rembrandt • Peter Paul Rubens • Pieter Saenredam
18th: François Boucher • Jean-Honoré Fragonard • Giovanni Battista Tiepolo • Antoine Watteau
19th: Aubrey Beardsley • Paul Cézanne • Jacques-Louis David • Honoré Daumier • Edgar Degas • Théodore Géricault • Francisco Goya • Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres • Pierre-Paul Prud'hon • Odilon Redon • John Ruskin • Georges Seurat • Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec • Vincent van Gogh
20th: Max Beckmann • Jean Dubuffet • M. C. Escher • Arshile Gorky • George Grosz • Paul Klee • Oscar Kokoschka • Käthe Kollwitz • Alfred Kubin • André Masson • Alphonse Mucha • Jules Pascin • Pablo Picasso • Egon Schiele • Jean-Michel Basquiat • Andy Warhol • Frank Auerbach
21st: Tracey Emin • Banksy
Materials[edit]
The medium is the means by which ink, pigment or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastels, Conté, silverpoint), or use a fluid solvent or carrier (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink. Metalpoint drawing usually employs either of two metals: silver or lead.[25] More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint.
Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sold as individual sheets.[26] Papers vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper holds the drawing material better. Thus a coarser material is useful for producing deeper contrast.
Newsprint and typing paper may be useful for practice and rough sketches. Tracing paper is used to experiment over a half-finished drawing, and to transfer a design from one sheet to another. Cartridge paper is the basic type of drawing paper sold in pads. Bristol board and even heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, are used for drawing fine detail and do not distort when wet media (ink, washes) are applied. Vellum is extremely smooth and suitable for very fine detail. Coldpressed watercolor paper may be favored for ink drawing due to its texture.
Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer than wood pulp based paper such as newsprint, which turns yellow and becomes brittle much sooner.
The basic tools are a drawing board or table, pencil sharpener and eraser, and for ink drawing, blotting paper. Other tools used are circle compass, ruler, and set square. Fixative is used to prevent pencil and crayon marks from smudging. Drafting tape is used to secure paper to drawing surface, and also to mask an area to keep it free of accidental marks, such as sprayed or spattered materials and washes. An easel or slanted table is used to keep the drawing surface in a suitable position, which is generally more horizontal than the position used in painting.
Technique[edit]
Raphael, study for what became the Alba Madonna, with other sketches
Antoine Watteau, trois crayons technique
Almost all draftsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some handicapped individuals who draw with their mouth or feet.[27]
Prior to working on an image, the artist typically explores how various media work. They may try different drawing implements on practice sheets to determine value and texture, and how to apply the implement to produce various effects.
The artist's choice of drawing strokes affects the appearance of the image. Pen and ink drawings often use hatching – groups of parallel lines.[28] Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, form lighter tones – and controlling the density of the breaks achieves a gradation of tone. Stippling uses dots to produce tone, texture and shade. Different textures can be achieved depending on the method used to build tone.[29]
Drawings in dry media often use similar techniques, though pencils and drawing sticks can achieve continuous variations in tone. Typically a drawing is filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist draws from left to right to avoid smearing the image. Erasers can remove unwanted lines, lighten tones, and clean up stray marks. In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position.
Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder. The shape of the area to preserve can be painted with masking fluid or cut out of a frisket and applied to the drawing surface, protecting the surface from stray marks until the mask is removed.
Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on fixative to the surface. This holds loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevents it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can harm the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.
Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image.[30]
Tone[edit]
A pencil drawing with hatching and shading
Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image.
Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading and blending, the artist can use a blending stump, tissue, a kneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any combination of them. A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point.
Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling. A number of other methods produce texture. In addition to the choice of paper, drawing material and technique affect texture. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture is more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones close together. A light edge next to a dark background stands out to the eye, and almost appears to float above the surface.
Form and proportion[edit]
Proportions of the human body
Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions.
Variation of proportion with age
When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive volumes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic volumes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive volumes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. Drawing the underlying construction is a fundamental skill for representational art, and is taught in many books and schools. Its correct application resolves most uncertainties about smaller details, and makes the final image look consistent.[31]
A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.
Two-point perspective drawing
Perspective[edit]
Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, follows lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point. Typically this convergence point is somewhere along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures typically converge at a vanishing point.
When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a two-point perspective.[32] Converging the vertical lines to a third point above or below the horizon then produces a three-point perspective.
Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated. This reproduces the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground.
Chiaroscuro study drawing by William-Adolphe Bouguereau
Artistry[edit]
The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit. The artist plans element placement in the art to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating.
The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features.
When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed.
A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study.
Process[edit]
A person drawing the Barberini Faun in Munich
Individuals display differences in their ability to produce visually accurate drawings.[33] A visually accurate drawing is described as being "recognized as a particular object at a particular time and in a particular space, rendered with little addition of visual detail that can not be seen in the object represented or with little deletion of visual detail”.[34]
Investigative studies have aimed to explain the reasons why some individuals draw better than others. One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: perception of objects being drawn, ability to make good representational decisions, motor skills required for mark-making and the drawer's own perception of their drawing.[34] Following this hypothesis, several studies have sought to conclude which of these processes are most significant in affecting the accuracy of drawings.
Drawing process in the Academic Study of a Male Torso by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1801, National Museum, Warsaw)
Motor control
Motor control is an important physical component in the 'Production Phase' of the drawing process.[35] It has been suggested that motor control plays a role in drawing ability, though its effects are not significant.[34]
Perception
It has been suggested that an individual's ability to perceive an object they are drawing is the most important stage in the drawing process.[34] This suggestion is supported by the discovery of a robust relationship between perception and drawing ability.[36]
This evidence acted as the basis of Betty Edwards' how-to drawing book, Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain.[37] Edwards aimed to teach her readers how to draw, based on the development of the reader's perceptual abilities.
Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his book The Elements of Drawing.[38] He stated that "For I am nearly convinced, that once we see keenly enough, there is very little difficult in drawing what we see".
Visual memory
This has also been shown to influence one's ability to create visually accurate drawings. Short-term memory plays an important part in drawing as one’s gaze shifts between the object they are drawing and the drawing itself.[39]
Decision-making
Some studies comparing artists to non-artists have found that artists spend more time thinking strategically while drawing. In particular, artists spend more time on 'metacognitive' activities such as considering different hypothetical plans for how they might progress with a drawing.[40]
Seven Ps of drawing[edit]
Fundamental skills of drawing were described and analysed in the book Draw Like da Vinci [41] by the artist Susan Dorothea White. The 7 Ps are:
Perspective (graphical)
Proportion (see Proportion (architecture) and Body proportions)
Perception (motivated by passion)
Position (of the drawer)
Placement (on the page)
Planes
Priority (given to the parts of the drawing).
See also[edit]
Main article: Outline of drawing and drawings
Academy figure
Architectural drawing
Color theory
Composition
Contour drawing
Diagram
Digital illustration
Engineering drawing
Figure drawing
Generative art (computer-generated art)
GPS drawing
Graphic design
Illustration
Multi-Sketch
Pen
Sketch (drawing)
Subtractive drawing
Technical drawing
Traditional animation
Lettering template
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ www.sbctc.edu (adapted). "Module 6: Media for 2-D Art" (PDF). Saylor.org. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "the definition of draftsman". Retrieved 1 January 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.ucl.ac.uk/medical-education/publications/Reprints2010/2010-PACA-ArtStudentsWhoCannotDraw.pdf
Jump up ^ See grisaille and chiaroscuro
^ Jump up to: a b Tversky, B (2011). "Visualizing thought". Topics in Cognitive Science. 3 (3): 499–535. doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2010.01113.x.
Jump up ^ Farthing, S (2011). "The Bigger Picture of Drawing" (PDF).
Jump up ^ http://ttd2011.pressible.org/files/2012/05/Thinking-through-Drawing_Practice-into-Knowledge.pdf[year needed][page needed]
Jump up ^ Robinson, A (2009). Writing and script: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kovats, T (2005). The Drawing Book. London: Black Dog Publishing.
Jump up ^ Walker, J. F; Duff, L; Davies, J (2005). "Old Manuals and New Pencils". Drawing- The Process. Bristol: Intellect Books.
Jump up ^ See the discussion on erasable drawing boards and 'tafeletten' in van de Wetering, Ernst. Rembrandt: The Painter at Work.
Jump up ^ Burton, J. "Preface" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Chamberlain, R (2013). "Drawing Conclusions: An exploration of the cognitive and neuroscientific foundations of representational drawing".
Jump up ^ Davis, P; Duff, L; Davies, J (2005). "Drawing a Blank". Drawing – The Process. Bristol: Intellect Books. pp. 15–25.
Jump up ^ Simmons, S (2011). "Philosophical Dimension of Drawing Instruction" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Poe, E. A. (1840). The Daguerreotype. Classic Essays on Photography. New Haven, CN: Leete's Island Books. pp. 37–38.
Jump up ^ "Untitled (Axe/Rene) 1982 by Jean-Michel Basquiat". Curiator. Retrieved 2018-04-19.
Jump up ^ "Old Master prints and engravings | Christie's". Retrieved 2018-04-20.
Jump up ^ Hinrich Sieveking, "German Draughtsmanship in the Ages of Dürer and Goethe", British Museum. Accessed 20 February 2016
Jump up ^ "Old Master drawings | Christie's". Retrieved 2018-04-20.
Jump up ^ Duff, L; Davies, J (2005). Drawing – The Process. Bristol: Intellect Books.
Jump up ^ Gompertz, Will (2009-02-12). "My life in art: How Jean-Michel Basquiat taught me to forget about technique". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
Jump up ^ "a dictionary of basquiat". I-d. 2017-09-26. Retrieved 2018-04-20.
Jump up ^ ArtCyclopedia, February 2003, "Masterful Leonardo and Graphic Dürer". Accessed 20 February 2016
Jump up ^ lara Broecke, Cennino Cennini's Il Libro dell'Arte: a new English Translation and Commentary with Italian Transcription, Archetype 2015
Jump up ^ Mayer, Ralph. The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques. Viking. ISBN 0-670-83701-6.
Jump up ^ "The Amazing Art of Disabled Artists". Webdesigner Depot. 16 March 2010. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
Jump up ^ This is unrelated to the hatching system in heraldry that indicates tincture (i.e., the color of arms depicted in monochrome.)
Jump up ^ Guptill, Arthur L. (1930). Drawing with Pen and Ink. New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation.
Jump up ^ South, Helen, The Everything Drawing Book, Adams Media, Avon, MA, 2004, pp. 152–53, ISBN 1593372132
Jump up ^ Hale, Robert Beverly (1964). Drawing Lessons from the Great Masters (45th Anniversary ed.). Watson-Guptill Publications (published 2009). ISBN 978-0-8230-1401-9.
Jump up ^ Watson, Ernest W. (1978). Course in Pencil Sketching: Four Books in One. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. pp. 167–75. ISBN 0-442-29229-5.
Jump up ^ Ostrofsky, J (2011). "A Multi-Stage Attention Hypothesis of Drawing Ability" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b c d Cohen, D. J; Bennett, S. (1997). "Why can't most people draw what they see?". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 67 (6): 609–21. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.23.3.609.
Jump up ^ van Somers, P (1989). "A system for drawing and drawing-related neuropsychology". Cognitive Neuropsychology. 6: 117–64. doi:10.1080/02643298908253416.
Jump up ^ Cohen, D. J.; Jones, H. E. (2008). and jones - aca-2-1-8.pdf "How shape constanct related to drawing accuracy" Check |url= value (help) (PDF). The Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts. 2 (1): 8–19. doi:10.1037/1931-3896.2.1.8.
Jump up ^ Edwards, B (1989). Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain. New York, NY: Putnam. ISBN 978-1585429202.
Jump up ^ Ruskin, John (1857). The Elements of Drawing. Mineola, NY: Dover Publishcations Inc.
Jump up ^ McManus, I. C.; Chamberlain, R. S.; Loo, P.-K.; Rankin, Q.; Riley, H.; Brunswick, N. (2010). "Art students who cannot draw: exploring the relations between drawing ability, visual memory, accuracy of copying, and dyslexia" (PDF). Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts. 4: 18–30. doi:10.1037/a0017335.
Jump up ^ Fayena-Tawil, F.; Kozbelt, A.; Sitaras, S. (2011). "Think global, act local: A protocol analysis comparison of artists' and nonartists' cognitions, metacognitions, and evaluations while drawing". Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity and the Arts. 5: 135–45. doi:10.1037/a0021019.
Jump up ^ White, Susan D. (2006). Draw Like da Vinci. London: Cassell Illustrated, pp. 42–61. ISBN 9781844034444.
Further reading
Edwards, Betty. The New Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, HarperCollins Publishers Ltd; 3Rev Ed edition, 2001, ISBN 978-0-00-711645-4
Brommer, Gerald F. Exploring Drawing. Worcester, Massachusetts: Davis Publications. 1988.
Bodley Gallery, New York, N.Y., Modern master drawings, 1971, OCLC 37498294.
Holcomb, M. (2009). Pen and Parchment : Drawing in the Middle Ages. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Hillberry, J. D. Drawing Realistic Textures in Pencil, North Light Books, 1999, ISBN 0-89134-868-9.
Landa, Robin. Take a line for a walk: A Creativity Journal. Boston: Wadsworth, 2011. ISBN 978-1-111-83922-2
Lohan, Frank. Pen & Ink Techniques, Contemporary Books, 1978, ISBN 0-8092-7438-8.
Ruskin, J. (1857). The Elements of Drawing. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 978-1-453-84264-5
Spears, Heather. The Creative Eye. London: Arcturus. 2007. ISBN 978-0-572-03315-6.
World Book, Inc. The World Book Encyclopedia Volume 5, 1988, ISBN 0-7166-0089-7.
Drawing/Thinking: Confronting an Electronic Age, edited by Marc Treib, 2008, ISBN 0-415-77560-4
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Drawing.
Look up drawing in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiversity has learning resources about Drawing
Timeline of Drawing Development in Children
On Drawing, an essay about the craft of drawing, by artist Norman Nason. Archived from the original on April 25, 2012.
Art-Drawing
http://www.drawingforall.net/ Drawing lessons
Drawing Resources
Line and Form (1900) by Walter Crane at Project Gutenberg
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (a great drawing resource).
Leonardo da Vinci, Master Draftsman, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (a great drawing resource).
Drawing in the Middle Ages A summary of how drawing was used as part of the artistic process in the Middle Ages.
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interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-stq
display: none;

values: චිත්‍රය – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risba
Risba – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piirustus
Piirustus – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagguhit
Pagguhit – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: வரைதல் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: రేఖాచిత్రం – Telugu

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-te
display: none;

values: การวาดเส้น – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Расм – Tajik

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wa
display: none;

values: צייכענען – Yiddish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values:
https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desinia
Desinia – Lingua Franca Nova
lfn
lfn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Drawing rootpage-Drawing skin-vector action-view