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Stand-your-ground law
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"Stand your ground" redirects here. For other uses, see Stand Your Ground (disambiguation).
A stand-your-ground law (sometimes called "line in the sand" or "no duty to retreat" law) is a justification in a criminal case, whereby defendants can "stand their ground" and use force without retreating, in order to protect and defend themselves or others against threats or perceived threats. An example is where there is no duty to retreat from any place where they have a lawful right to be, and that they may use any level of force if they reasonably believe the threat rises to the level of being an imminent and immediate threat of serious bodily harm and or death. One case describes "the 'stand your ground' law... a person has a right to expect absolute safety in a place they have a right to be, and may use deadly force to repel an unlawful intruder."[1]
Justification using stand-your-ground laws may be limited when "[the defendant] was engaged in illegal activities and not entitled to benefit from provisions of the 'stand your ground' law". This may be the case even if the illegal conduct the defendant was engaged in had nothing to do with the threat which instigated his use of deadly force. For instance, using an illegally obtained weapon in self defense to avoid being robbed and beaten is not justified by this law.[1]
The castle doctrine is a common law doctrine stating that persons have no duty to retreat in their home, or "castle", and may use reasonable force, including deadly force, to defend their property, person, or another. Outside of the abode, however, a person has a duty to retreat, if possible, before using deadly force. Castle doctrine and "stand-your-ground" laws are acceptable defenses for people who have been charged with criminal homicide.[2]
At common law, self-defense claims are not valid if the defendant could have safely retreated from danger (duty to retreat). The castle doctrine is an exception to this. It gives immunity from liability to individuals who acted in self-defense in the home even if they could have safely retreated from the threat and failed to do so. The duty to retreat is a legal requirement in some jurisdictions that a threatened person cannot stand one's ground and apply lethal force in self-defense, but must retreat to a place of safety instead.[3][better source needed] Deadly force or lethal force is force with the intent of serious bodily injury or death to another person. In most jurisdictions it is only accepted under conditions of extreme necessity and last resort.
Stand-your-ground laws eliminate the retreat requirement at any location the defendant has a legal right to be,[4] though this varies from state to state.
Contents
[hide]
1 United States
1.1 Laws
1.2 Controversy
1.3 Racial disparity
1.4 Crime
2 Other jurisdictions
2.1 England and Wales
2.2 Czech Republic
2.3 Germany
2.4 Ireland
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
United States[edit]
Laws[edit]
Stand your ground law by US jurisdiction
Stand-your-ground law
Stand-your-ground in practice
Stand-your-ground from within one's vehicle
Castle doctrine only; duty to retreat in public
Duty to retreat
The states that have legislatively adopted stand-your-ground laws are Alabama,[5] Alaska,[6] Arizona,[7] Florida,[8] Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa,[9] Kansas,[10] Kentucky, Louisiana,[7] Michigan,[7] Mississippi, Missouri,[11] Montana,[7] Nevada, New Hampshire,[7] North Carolina,[12] Oklahoma,[7] Pennsylvania,[13] South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee,[7] Texas,[14] Utah,[15] West Virginia[7], and Wyoming.[16]
The states that have adopted stand-your-ground in practice,[17] either through case law/precedent, jury instructions or by other means, are California,[18][19] Colorado,[20][21] Illinois, New Mexico, Oregon, Virginia,[22] and Washington.
States that have adopted stand-your-ground, but limit it to only when a person is within their vehicle, are North Dakota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
The states that have castle doctrine only with the duty to retreat in public are Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Nebraska, New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Island. This means that people can use deadly force in their home, car, or other form of abode but have to retreat in public.
Controversy[edit]
Stand-your-ground laws are frequently criticized and called "shoot first" laws by critics, including the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence.[23] In Florida, self-defense claims tripled in the years following enactment.[23][24] The law's critics argue that Florida's law makes it very difficult to prosecute cases against individuals who shoot others and then claim self-defense. The shooter can argue that he felt threatened, and in most cases, the only witness who could have argued otherwise is the deceased.[23] Before passage of the law, Miami police chief John F. Timoney called the law unnecessary and dangerous in that "[w]hether it's trick-or-treaters or kids playing in the yard of someone who doesn't want them there or some drunk guy stumbling into the wrong house, you're encouraging people to possibly use deadly physical force where it shouldn't be used."[25][26] This goes against the counter argument stating that implementing a duty-to-retreat places the safety of the criminal above a victim's own life.[27]
In Florida, a task force examining the law heard testimony that the law is "confusing".[28] Those testifying to the task force include Buddy Jacobs, a lawyer representing the Florida Prosecuting Attorney's Association. Jacobs recommended the law's repeal, feeling that modifying the law would not fix its problems. Florida governor Rick Scott plans his own investigation into the law.[28] In a July 16, 2013 speech in the wake of the jury verdict acquitting George Zimmerman of charges stemming from the shooting death of Trayvon Martin, Attorney General Eric Holder criticized stand-your-ground laws as "senselessly expand[ing] the concept of self-defense and sow[ing] dangerous conflict in our neighborhoods."[29] The defendant, George Zimmerman, claims he was restrained at the time of the shooting, thus allowing no option for retreat and making 'stand your ground' irrelevant to the case.[30] Florida's legislature is currently considering a bill that would allow people to show a gun or fire a warning shot during a confrontation without drawing a lengthy prison sentence.[31] There is a bill moving through Republican legislature that would require the prosecution to prove that the defendant's use of self-defense is not valid. If this passes, prosecutors will have to try a case twice at a hearing and a trial which would make it easier for defendants to argue against prosecution on the basis of their fears.[32]
Racial disparity[edit]
In 2012, in response to the Trayvon Martin case, the Tampa Bay Times compiled a report on the application of stand your ground, and also created a database of cases where defendants sought to invoke the law.[33][34][35] Their report found no racial disparity in Florida cases in the way in which defendants claiming self-defense under the law are treated, with white subjects being charged and convicted at the same rate as black subjects, and results of mixed-race cases were similar for both white victims of black attackers and black victims of white attackers.[33][35] Shooters of black attackers overall were more successful at using the law than shooters of white attackers, regardless of the race of the victim claiming self-defense, but analysis showed that black attackers were also more likely to be armed and to be involved in committing a crime, such as burglary, when shot.[33][34][35]
A Texas A&M study found that when whites use the stand-your-ground defense against black attackers they are more successful than when blacks use the defense against white attackers.[36] A paper from The Urban Institute which analysed FBI data found that in stand-your-ground states, the use of the defense by whites in the shooting of a black person is found to be justifiable 17 percent of the time, while the defense when used by blacks in the shooting of a white person is successful 1 percent of the time.[36][37] In non-stand-your-ground states, the shooting of a black person by a white is found justified approximately 9 percent of the time, while the shooting of a white person by a black is found justified approximately 1 percent of the time.[36][37] According to the Urban Institute, in Stand Your Ground states, white-on-black homicides are 354 percent more likely to be ruled justified than white-on-white homicides.[38] The paper's author noted that the data used do not detail the circumstances of the shooting, which could be a source of the disparity. They also noted that the total number of shootings in the FBI dataset of black victims by whites was 25.[39] A 2015 study found that cases with white victims are two times more likely to result in convictions under these laws than cases with black victims.[40]
The law relating to Native Americans has caused controversy due to the fact that state law supersedes reservation/tribal law. If a tribal member uses self-defense on their reservation, they will be protected in tribal court. This would not necessarily be the case if it was handled in federal court due to the state having different self-defense laws than the reservation. In other words, tribe members are protected in one place, but not the other. Due to the Supreme Court case Oliphant v. Suquamish in 1978, tribes were stripped of the right to arrest and prosecute non-Indians who commit crimes on Indian land.[41]
Crime[edit]
A 2018 RAND Corporation overview of existing research concluded that "there is moderate evidence that stand-your-ground laws may increase homicide rates and limited evidence that the laws increase firearm homicides in particular."[42] Justifiable homicides have been found to have increased by 8 percent in states with stand-your-ground laws.[36] Economist John Lott says that states adopting stand-your-ground/castle doctrine laws reduced murder rates by 9 percent and overall violent crime by 11 percent, and that occurs even after accounting for a range of other factors such as national crime trends, law enforcement variables (arrest, execution, and imprisonment rates), income and poverty measures, demographic changes, and the national average changes in crime rates from year-to-year and average differences across states.[43] One study found that the adoption of stand-your-ground laws caused a statistically significant increase in the raw homicide rate, and had only a very small positive effect on deterrence of crime. The authors of the study were unable to determine what percentage of the increase was justifiable homicide, due to the reporting of homicide to the FBI often lacking notation whether the homicide was justifiable or not.[44][45]
Another analysis of stand-your-ground laws by economists at Georgia State University, using monthly data from the U.S. Vital Statistics, found a significant increase in homicide and injury of whites, especially white males. They also analyzed data from the Health Care Utilization Project, which revealed significantly increased rates of emergency room visits and hospital discharges related to gun injuries in states which enacted these laws.[46]
In a 2007 National District Attorneys Association symposium, numerous concerns were voiced that the law could increase crime. This included criminals using the law as a defense for their crimes, more people carrying guns, and that people would not feel safe if they felt that anyone could use deadly force in a conflict. The report also noted that the misinterpretation of clues could result in use of deadly force when there was, in fact, no danger. The report specifically notes that racial and ethnic minorities could be at greater risk because of negative stereotypes.[47]
Florida's stand-your-ground law went into effect on October 1, 2005. Florida state representative Dennis Baxley, an author of the law, said that the violent crime rate has dropped since the enactment of the law, though he said there may be many reasons for the change. Others have argued that the law may lead to an increase in crime.[48] Violent crime data for 1995 – 2015 has been published by the Florida Department of Law Enforcement.[49]
In 2012, a study was published which found that after the Joe Horn shooting controversy in 2007 publicized Texas' stand-your-ground law, burglaries decreased significantly in Houston, but not in Dallas, over a 20-month period.[50]
A 2013 study in the Journal of Human Resources claims that Stand Your Ground laws in states across the U.S. contribute to 600 additional homicides a year. According to Mark Hoestra, co-author of the study: "We asked what happened to homicide rates in states that passed these laws between 2000 and 2010, compared to other states over the same time period. We found that homicide rates in states with a version of the Stand Your Ground law increased by an average of 8 percent over states without it—which translates to roughly 600 additional homicides per year. These homicides are classified by police as criminal homicides, not as justifiable homicides."[51] Although police officers make up for additional homicides, they are justified. These are not classified as murder because the officers are acting in the line of duty. Police are not required to retreat when acting in the line of duty.[52]
A 2015 study found that the adoption of Oklahoma's stand-your-ground law was associated with a decrease in residential burglaries, but also that the law had "the unintended consequence of increasing the number of non-residential burglaries."[53] In 2016, Mark Gius published a study that found that stand-your-ground laws were not associated with lower crime rates.[54]
A widely reported[55] 2016 study in the Journal of the American Medical Association compared homicide rates in Florida following the passage of its "stand your ground" self-defense law to the rates in four control states, New Jersey, New York, Ohio and Virginia, which have no similar laws. It found that the law was associated with a 24.4% increase in homicide and a 31.6% increase in firearm-related homicide, but no change in rates of suicide or suicide by firearm, between 2005 and 2014. It noted that, "[c]ircumstances unique to Florida may have contributed to our findings, including those that we could not identify," and "[o]ur study examined the effect of the Florida law on homicide and homicide by firearm, not on crime and public safety".[56][57] The study was criticized by gun rights advocate John Lott's Crime Prevention Research Center for studying only one state.[55] Gun enthusiast and attorney Andrew Branca, writing in National Review, criticized the study for not distinguishing between justifiable homicides and murder, and for relying solely on statutory laws while overlooking case law (i.e. Virginia) in determining the data set.[58] The study was praised by Duke University professor Jeffrey Swanson for its use of other states as controls, saying "[t]hey look at comparable trends in states that didn't pass the law and don't see the effect."[59]
Other jurisdictions[edit]
England and Wales[edit]
The common law jurisdiction of England and Wales has a stand-your-ground law rooted in the common law defence of using reasonable force in self-defence.
At English common law there is no duty to retreat before a person may use reasonable force against an attacker, nor need a person wait to be attacked before using such force, but one who chooses not to retreat, when retreat would be a safe and easy option, might find it harder to justify his use of force as 'reasonable'.
Any force used must be reasonable in the circumstances as the person honestly perceived them to be, after making allowance for the fact that some degree of excess force might still be reasonable in the heat of the moment.
It was once thought that in 'householder defence' cases, excessive force would be regarded as unreasonable only if "grossly disproportionate", but that view has twice been rejected by the courts. Grossly disproportionate force can never be reasonable, but lesser force might or might not be, depending on the circumstances. In R v Ray (2017) the Lord Chief Justice, giving the judgment of the Court of Appeal, said:
"If there is a threat of confrontation in the street, then the option to retreat may be important in determining whether the use of any force was reasonable. In the case of an intruder in the home, however, the option of retreat is unlikely to arise in many cases and therefore the degree of force used, although otherwise appearing to be disproportionate, might nonetheless be assessed as reasonable."
Czech Republic[edit]
Main article: Gun laws in the Czech Republic § Self defense with firearms
There is no explicit stand-your-ground or castle doctrine provision in the laws of the Czech Republic, however there is also no duty to retreat from an attack[60] and that has an effect similar to "stand your ground" provision. In order for a defense to be judged as legitimate, it may not be "manifestly disproportionate to the manner of the attack".[61]
Germany[edit]
German law allows self-defense against an unlawful attack.[62] If there is no other possibility for defense, it is generally allowed to use even deadly force without a duty to retreat.[63] However, there must not be an extreme imbalance ("extremes Missverhältnis") between the defended right and the chosen method of defense.[64] In particular, in case firearms are used, a warning shot must be given when defending a solely material asset.[65] If the self-defense was excessive, its perpetrator is not to be punished if he exceeded on account of confusion, fear or terror [66]. Nevertheless, due to the low circulation of firearms in Germany the impact of this law is not all that strong. Also, if the self-defense results in bodily harm to the attacker, there will always be criminal proceedings, and German judges are known to be rather meticulous in looking for reasons to count the defense as excessive, and the excess as not motivated by confusion, fear or terror.
Ireland[edit]
Under the terms of the Defence and the Dwelling Act, property owners or residents are entitled to defend themselves with force, up to and including lethal force. Any individual who uses force against a trespasser is not guilty of an offense if he or she honestly believes they were there to commit a criminal act and a threat to life. However, there is a further provision which requires that the reaction to the intruder is such that another reasonable person in the same circumstances would likely employ it. This provision acts as a safeguard against grossly disproportionate use of force, while still allowing a person to use force in nearly all circumstances.
The law was introduced in response to DPP v. Padraig Nally.
A person who uses such force as is permitted by section 2 in the circumstances referred to in that section shall not be liable in tort with respect to any injury, loss or damage arising from the use of such force.
The force used is only such as is reasonable in the circumstances as he or she believes them to be—
(i) to protect himself or herself or another person present in the dwelling from injury, assault, detention or death caused by a criminal act,
(ii) to protect his or her property or the property of another person from appropriation, destruction or damage caused by a criminal act, or
(iii) to prevent the commission of a crime or to effect, or assist in effecting, a lawful arrest.
It does not matter whether the person using the force had a safe and practicable opportunity to retreat from the dwelling before using the force concerned.
This law does not apply to force used against a member of An Garda Siochána (Irish Police) or anyone assisting them, or a person lawfully performing a function authorised by or under any enactment.
See also[edit]
Jury nullification
Proxemics, the study of human use of space and the effects that population density has on behavior, communication, and social interaction
Restorative justice
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Dawkins v. State, 252 P.3d 214 (Okla. 2011)
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Jump up ^ "Duty to Retreat". Wikipedia.
Jump up ^ Florida Statutes Title XLVI Chapter 776
Jump up ^ Ala. Code 13A-3-23(b): "A person who is justified under subsection (a) in using physical force, including deadly physical force, and who is not engaged in an unlawful activity and is in any place where he or she has the right to be has no duty to retreat and has the right to stand his ground."
Jump up ^ Eaton, Daysha (2013-06-20). "Parnell Signs Bills, Resolutions Supporting Gun Rights | Alaska Public Media". Alaskapublic.org. Retrieved August 23, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Martosko, David (April 1, 2012) "'Stand your ground' laws not just GOP policy, records show" The Daily Caller. Retrieved April 3, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Title XLVI Chapter 776: JUSTIFIABLE USE OF FORCE". The 2013 Florida Statutes. The Florida Legislature. Retrieved April 15, 2014.
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Florida 'Stand Your Ground' law could complicate Trayvon Martin teen shooting case". MSNBC. March 20, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Deaths Nearly Triple Since 'Stand Your Ground' Enacted". CBS Miami. 2011-03-20. Retrieved March 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ Goodnough, Abby. "Florida Expands Right to Use Deadly Force in Self-Defense". The New York Times. nytimes.com. Retrieved March 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ Goodman, Howard. "NRA's Behind-the-Scenes Campaign Encouraged 'Stand Your Ground' Adoption". Florida Center for Investigative Reporting. fcir.org. Retrieved March 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ Carmon, Irin (March 20, 2014). "Can Women Stand Their Ground? Depends On the Target". MSNBC.
^ Jump up to: a b "Trayvon Martin case: Florida task force told 'stand your ground' law confusing". TheGrio. April 6, 2012. Retrieved April 6, 2012.
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Jump up ^ Fair, Madison. "Dare defend: standing for stand your ground". Law and Psychology Review. 38. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Florida's stand your ground law". Tampa Bay Times. December 23, 2013. Retrieved July 14, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Hundley, Kris; Martin, Susan Taylor; Humburg, Connie (June 1, 2012). "Florida 'stand your ground' law yields some shocking outcomes depending on how law is applied". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved May 16, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Martin, Susan Taylor; Hundley, Kris; Humburg, Connie (June 2, 2012). "Race plays complex role in Florida's 'stand your ground' law". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved July 14, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Jonsson, Patrik (August 6, 2013). "Racial bias and 'stand your ground' laws: what the data show". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved May 3, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Roman, John K. "Race, Justifiable Homicide, and Stand Your Ground Laws: Analysis of FBI Supplementary Homicide Report Data" (PDF). http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/412873-stand-your-ground.pdf. The Urban Institute. Retrieved June 29, 2014. External link in |website= (help)
Jump up ^ Flatow, Nicole. "5 Disturbing Facts About The State Of Stand Your Ground". Retrieved 1 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "Is There Racial Bias in "Stand Your Ground" Laws?".
Jump up ^ Ackermann, Nicole; Goodman, Melody S.; Gilbert, Keon; Arroyo-Johnson, Cassandra; Pagano, Marcello (October 2015). "Race, law, and health: Examination of 'Stand Your Ground' and defendant convictions in Florida". Social Science & Medicine. 142: 194–201. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.08.012.
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Jump up ^ McClellan, Chandler; Tekin, Erdal (2017). "Stand Your Ground Laws, Homicides, and Injuries". Journal of Human Resources. 52 (3): 621–653. doi:10.3368/jhr.52.3.0613-5723R2.
Jump up ^ Jansen, Steven; Nugent-Borakove, M. Elaine. "Expansions to the Castle Doctrine: Implications for Policy and Practice" (PDF). National District Attorneys Association. Retrieved June 28, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Crime rates in Florida have dropped since 'stand your ground,' says Dennis Baxley". @politifact. Retrieved 2016-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Florida Department of Law Enforcement - Violent Crime". www.fdle.state.fl.us. Retrieved 2016-12-06.
Jump up ^ Ren, L.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, J. S. (27 December 2012). "The Deterrent Effect of the Castle Doctrine Law on Burglary in Texas: A Tale of Outcomes in Houston and Dallas". Crime & Delinquency. 61 (8): 1127–1151. doi:10.1177/0011128712466886.
Jump up ^ Coleman, Christina. "Kill At Will: Stand Your Ground Laws Contribute To 600 Additional Homicides A Year (DETAILS)". Retrieved 1 December 2014.
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Jump up ^ Gius, Mark (September 2016). "The relationship between stand-your-ground laws and crime: A state-level analysis". The Social Science Journal. 53 (3): 329–338. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2016.01.001.
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Jump up ^ "A study by the Journal of the American Medical Association suggests stand-your-ground laws result in more fatal shootings". The Economist. Retrieved 2017-01-11.
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Further reading[edit]
Palmer, Brian (July 16, 2013). "Do Other Countries Have 'Stand Your Ground' Laws? Or do they require you to slowly back away?". Slate. The Slate Group. Retrieved May 26, 2014.
Lithwick, Dahlia (February 25, 2014). "'Stand Your Ground' Nation: America used to value the concept of retreat. Now we just shoot". Slate. The Slate Group. Retrieved May 26, 2014.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stand-your-ground_law&oldid=833542341"
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Where the Red Fern Grows
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the film adaptations, see Where the Red Fern Grows (1974 film) and Where the Red Fern Grows (2003 film).
Where the Red Fern Grows
First edition hardback cover
Author
Wilson Rawls
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Children's novel
Publisher
Doubleday
Publication date
1961
Media type
Print (Hardcover)
Pages
245 pp
ISBN
0-440-22814-X
OCLC
39850615
Where the Red Fern Grows is a 1961 children's novel by Wilson Rawls about a boy who buys and trains two Redbone Coonhound hunting dogs.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Films
3 Background
4 Reception
5 See also
6 Footnotes
7 External links
Plot summary[edit]
When leaving work in Idaho's Snake River Valley, Billy Colman sees a pack of dogs attacking a stray coonhound. He takes the stray home to feed it. Once it has rested, Billy sets it free, knowing that it will return home.
The experience reminds Billy of his childhood in the Ozark Mountains of Oklahoma. He wants a dog, and his parents offer to get him a mongrel from a neighbor. He wants two coonhounds, but his parents tell him they cannot afford them. Billy finds a magazine ad for a Kentucky kennel which breeds Redbone Coonhounds and sells them for $25 each. He goes to work performing odd jobs and saves the $50 he needs with the help of his grandfather. Since it takes two years to do so, his grandfather writes to see if the kennel will honor the ad. They do, and the price has dropped so the two puppies only cost $40.
Billy's dogs are delivered to the freight depot in Tahlequah. His family does not have transportation, so he finds his own way to get to the depot and walks through the hills. He picks up his puppies, which are a male and a female. He buys a gift for each member of his family with his extra $10 before heading back home.
On the way back home, he spends the night in Robber's Cave in the Sparrow Hawk Mountains. There he builds a fire and plays with the puppies. While trying to sleep, he hears a noise that he realizes is the cry of a mountain lion. In the morning, he continues on. He comes to a sycamore tree and sees the names Dan and Ann carved inside a heart in the bark and decides to name the puppies Old Dan and Little Ann.
To train Old Dan and Little Ann, Billy traps a raccoon with the help of his grandfather and uses its pelt to teach them to hunt. During their training, their personalities become apparent: Old Dan is brave and strong, while Little Ann is very intelligent. Both are very loyal to each other and to Billy.
On the first night of hunting season, Billy takes Old Dan and Little Ann out for their first hunt. He promises them that if they tree a raccoon, he will do the rest. They tree one in a large sycamore, which Billy had previously nicknamed "The Big Tree". As he tries to call them off, they look at him sadly and he cuts the tree down, which takes him two days and costs him blistered hands. In the end, when he's about to give up his effort, Billy offers a short prayer for strength to continue. A strong wind starts to blow and the tree falls. Old Dan and Little Ann take the raccoon down.
Billy, Old Dan, and Little Ann go hunting almost every night and become well-known in the Ozarks. Billy and his grandfather make a bet with Rubin and Rainie Pritchard that Old Dan and Little Ann can tree the "ghost coon". It leads them on a long, complicated hunt, and Rubin and Rainie want to give up. When they finally have it treed, Billy refuses to kill it. Rubin then orders his dog, Old Blue, to attack Old Dan, who is smaller; and Rubin starts to beat Billy. Little Ann helps Old Dan, and together they injure Old Blue; Rubin runs to attack them with an axe, but he trips, falls on it and kills himself.
Billy's grandfather enters him into a championship coon hunt, putting him against experienced hunters and the finest dogs in the country. Before it starts, he enters Little Ann into a conformation contest, where she wins the silver cup. On the fourth night of the hunt, Old Dan and Little Ann tree three raccoons, making it to the final round. The sixth night, they tree one before a blizzard hits. Billy, his father, grandfather, and the judge lose sight of the dogs. When they finally find them, Billy's grandfather sprains his ankle. They build a fire, and when Billy's father chops down a tree, three raccoons jump out. Old Dan and Little Ann take two of them down, and chase the third to another tree. In the morning, the hunters find them covered with ice circling the tree. That raccoon wins them the championship, gold cup, and $300 of jackpot money.
One night Old Dan and Little Ann tree a mountain lion, and it attacks. Billy enters the fight with his axe, hoping to save his dogs, but they end up having to save him. Eventually, they kill the mountain lion, but Old Dan is badly wounded, and Billy finds his intestines in a bush. He dies late that night. Billy is heartbroken, and Little Ann loses the will to live, stops eating, and dies of grief a few days later on Old Dan's grave. Billy's father tries to tell him that it is all for the best, because with the money they received from winning the championship hunt, they can move to town. He goes to visit Old Dan and Little Ann's graves and finds a giant red fern between them. According to Native American legend, only an angel can plant one. He feels ready to move on knowing that his dogs are always going to be remembered.
Films[edit]
The novel was made into a 1974 film starring Stewart Petersen, James Whitmore, Beverly Garland, and Jack Ging.[2] It was followed by a sequel in 1992, which starred Wilford Brimley, Chad McQueen, Lisa Whelchel, and Karen Carlson.[3] The film was remade in 2003 and starred Joseph Ashton, Dabney Coleman, Ned Beatty and Dave Matthews.[2]
Background[edit]
In a talk given to a group of schoolteachers, Wilson Rawls related how he wrote the first version of the novel (along with five full novels, and hundreds of short stories and novelettes) during the years that he worked on construction in Mexico and Idaho. He rolled the manuscripts up and saved them in a trunk at his parents' home. When he met his fiancée, Sophie, he did not want her to know about his failed dreams of becoming a writer, so about a week before he got married he visited his parents and burned all his manuscripts. He then returned to Idaho and married Sophie. About three months later, he confessed to his wife that he had burned all his manuscripts and had always dreamed of being a writer. She encouraged him to rewrite one of his stories. He quit his job and wrote the novel in just three weeks. He said, "I had it memorized." [4] He would not let her read it until it was finished. He said, "I finished it on a Friday. I gave it to her Saturday morning and I went to town. I stayed in town all day. I knew she had time to read it. I called her on the phone. I just knew she was going to laugh at that writing...but when I called on the phone, she said, 'You get back out here to the house, I want to talk to you...this is the most wonderful dog and boy story I've ever heard in my life.'" [4] She encouraged him to lengthen the story, because she felt it was too short to be a novel but too long to be a short story. He went to work on lengthening the manuscript. He wrote it longhand with no punctuation. She then typed it up and submitted it to the Saturday Evening Post.[4][5]
The Saturday Evening Post rejected the manuscript in three weeks. Sophie then sent the manuscript to the Ladies' Home Journal. She believed that a woman editor at the Ladies' Home Journal would like the story. About four months later, Rawls received a letter from the Ladies' Home Journal saying that it was the wrong kind of story for their magazine, but they wanted to send it to the Saturday Evening Post. Upon the second submission to the Saturday Evening Post, it was accepted. It was first published in serialization in the Saturday Evening Post in 1961 under the title The Hounds of Youth.[4][5]
Doubleday then accepted the book for publication. Rawls said Doubleday then "broke my heart." They changed the title to Where the Red Fern Grows, and attempted to market it to adult readers. For about six years, it languished on shelves and failed to sell. Doubleday was going to put it out of print, but one agent named Mr. Breinholt from Salt Lake City fought for it and asked for just a few more months to market it. He got Rawls a speaking engagement at the University of Utah to a conference of over 5,000 reading teachers and librarians. Copies of it were made available to them. When they took it back to their schools, the children loved it, and orders began pouring in. Jim Trelease states, "Each year since then, it has sold more copies than the previous year."[4]
Reception[edit]
Although sales of the novel began slowly, by 1974 over 90,000 copies had been sold.[6] In 2001, Publishers Weekly estimated that it had sold 6,754,308 copies.[7] Today Where the Red Fern Grows is required reading in many American schools.[8] One critic said it will please adults as well as children.[9]
I remember crying so much through this book, and even today I tear up thinking of Old Dan and Little Ann. I also loaned this to my [then] children’s librarian, because the library copy was always out. I even marked the pages, “Get out tissue here.”
—  DeAnn Okamura
I love, love, love this book with all my heart and soul. My fourth grade teacher read it to me eons ago, and I’ve read it to two of my three boys. There’s something about weeping together uncontrollably that builds a community of readers…
—  Tess Alfonsin
[10]
There is a statue of Billy and his dogs at the Idaho Falls Public Library.[11]
Every year in Tahlequah Oklahoma there is a Red Fern festival. It is listed below in the links.
See also[edit]
List of Where the Red Fern Grows Characters
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Where the Red Fern Grows Discussion Guide | Scholastic.com
^ Jump up to: a b Where the Red Fern Grows (1974) on IMDb
Jump up ^ IMDb: Where the Red Fern Grows: Part Two
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Wilson Rawls, Dreams Can Come True, audio recording with commentary by Jim Trelease
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.trelease-on-reading.com/rawls.html
Jump up ^ https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&dat=19740216&id=bMdSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=AH4DAAAAIBAJ&pg=5192,3528282&hl=en
Jump up ^ "All-Time Bestselling Children's Books". PublishersWeekly.com. Retrieved 2017-01-29.
Jump up ^ https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&dat=19730929&id=3dBSAAAAIBAJ&sjid=G38DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6645,6875378&hl=en
Jump up ^ "The Catoosa County News - Google News Archive Search". news.google.com. Retrieved 2017-01-29.
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Children's Novels #34: Where the Red Fern Grows by Wilson Rawls". School Library Journal. Retrieved 2017-02-10.
Jump up ^ "Wilson Rawls". Idaho Falls Public Library. Retrieved 2017-02-10.
External links[edit]
Oracle Think Quest, Education Foundation: Where the Red Fern Grows.
SparkNotes: Where the Red Fern Grows.
http://www.redfernfestival.com
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Where_the_Red_Fern_Grows&oldid=818839735"
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Florence Cathedral
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Florence Cathedral
Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower
Il Duomo di Firenze
Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (Italian)
Cathedral Sanctae Mariae Floris (Latin)
Brunelleschi's Dome, the nave, and Giotto's Campanile of the Florence Cathedral as seen from Michelangelo Hill at night and day.
Florence Cathedral
Location in Florence, Italy
43°46′23.1″N 11°15′22.4″E / 43.773083°N 11.256222°E / 43.773083; 11.256222Coordinates: 43°46′23.1″N 11°15′22.4″E / 43.773083°N 11.256222°E / 43.773083; 11.256222
Location
Florence, Tuscany
Country
Italy
Denomination
Roman Catholic
Tradition
Latin Rite
Website
Duomo Firenze
History
Consecrated
1436
Architecture
Status
Cathedral, minor basilica
Architect(s)
Arnolfo di Cambio
Filippo Brunelleschi
Emilio De Fabris
Architectural type
Church
Style
Italian Gothic, Renaissance,
Gothic Revival
Groundbreaking
9 September 1296
Completed
1436
Specifications
Length
153 metres (502 ft)
Width
90 metres (300 ft)
Nave width
38 metres (125 ft)
Height
114.5 metres (376 ft)
Floor area
8,300 square metres (89,000 sq ft)
Materials
Marble, brick
Administration
Archdiocese
Archdiocese of Florence
Clergy
Archbishop
Giuseppe Betori
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name
Historic Centre of Florence
Type
Cultural
Criteria
i, ii, iii, iv, vi
Designated
1982 (6th session)
Reference no.
174
State Party
Italy
Region
Europe and North America
The Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (Italian pronunciation: [katteˈdraːle di ˈsanta maˈriːa del ˈfjoːre]; in English "Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower") is the main church of Florence, Italy. Il Duomo di Firenze, as it is ordinarily called, was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style with the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and completed structurally in 1436 with the dome engineered by Filippo Brunelleschi.[1] The exterior of the basilica is faced with polychrome marble panels in various shades of green and pink bordered by white and has an elaborate 19th-century Gothic Revival façade by Emilio De Fabris.
The cathedral complex, located in Piazza del Duomo, includes the Baptistery and Giotto's Campanile. These three buildings are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site covering the historic centre of Florence and are a major attraction to tourists visiting Tuscany. The basilica is one of Italy's largest churches, and until development of new structural materials in the modern era, the dome was the largest in the world. It remains the largest brick dome ever constructed.
The cathedral is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Florence, whose archbishop is currently Giuseppe Betori.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Exterior
2.1 Plan and structure
2.2 Dome
2.3 Façade
3 Main Portal
4 Interior
5 Crypt
6 Other burials
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
Florence Cathedral
Santa Maria del Fiore was built on the site of an earlier cathedral dedicated to Saint Reparata.[2] The ancient structure, founded in the early 5th century and having undergone many repairs, was crumbling with age, according to the 14th-century Nuova Cronica of Giovanni Villani,[3] and was no longer large enough to serve the growing population of the city.[3] Other major Tuscan cities had undertaken ambitious reconstructions of their cathedrals during the Late Medieval period, such as Pisa and particularly Siena where the enormous proposed extensions were never completed.
Giotto's bell tower (campanile)
The new church was designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and approved by city council in 1294. Di Cambio was also architect of the church of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio. He designed three wide naves ending under the octagonal dome, with the middle nave covering the area of Santa Reparata. The first stone was laid on September 9, 1296, by Cardinal Valeriana, the first papal legate ever sent to Florence. The building of this vast project was to last 140 years; Arnolfo's plan for the eastern end, although maintained in concept, was greatly expanded in size.
The Duomo, as if completed, in a fresco by Andrea di Bonaiuto, painted in the 1360s, before the commencement of the dome
After Arnolfo died in 1310, work on the cathedral slowed for thirty years. When the relics of Saint Zenobius were discovered in 1330 in Santa Reparata, the project gained a new impetus. In 1331, the Arte della Lana, the guild of wool merchants, took over patronage for the construction of the cathedral and in 1334 appointed Giotto to oversee the work. Assisted by Andrea Pisano, Giotto continued di Cambio's design. His major accomplishment was the building of the campanile. When Giotto died the January 8th of 1337, Andrea Pisano continued the building until work was halted due to the Black Death in 1348.
In 1349, work resumed on the cathedral under a series of architects, starting with Francesco Talenti, who finished the campanile and enlarged the overall project to include the apse and the side chapels. In 1359, Talenti was succeeded by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini (1360–1369) who divided the center nave in four square bays. Other architects were Alberto Arnoldi, Giovanni d'Ambrogio, Neri di Fioravante and Andrea Orcagna. By 1375, the old church Santa Reparata was pulled down. The nave was finished by 1380, and by 1418, only the dome remained incomplete.
Procession outside the cathedral during the 18th century
On 18 August 1418, the Arte della Lana announced an architectural design competition for erecting Neri's dome. The two main competitors were two master goldsmiths, Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi, the latter of whom was supported by Cosimo de Medici. Ghiberti had been the winner of a competition for a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistery in 1401 and lifelong competition between the two remained sharp. Brunelleschi won and received the commission.[4]
Ghiberti, appointed coadjutator, drew a salary equal to Brunelleschi's and, though neither was awarded the announced prize of 200 florins, was promised equal credit, although he spent most of his time on other projects. When Brunelleschi became ill, or feigned illness, the project was briefly in the hands of Ghiberti. But Ghiberti soon had to admit that the whole project was beyond him. In 1423, Brunelleschi was back in charge and took over sole responsibility.[5]
Work started on the dome in 1420 and was completed in 1436. The cathedral was consecrated by Pope Eugene IV on March 25, 1436, (the first day of the year according to the Florentine calendar). It was the first 'octagonal' dome in history to be built without a temporary wooden supporting frame. It was one of the most impressive projects of the Renaissance. During the consecration in 1436, Guillaume Dufay's motet Nuper rosarum flores was performed. The structure of this motet was strongly influenced by the structure of the dome.
The Duomo and Baptistery of St. John from Piazza del Duomo
The decoration of the exterior of the cathedral, begun in the 14th century, was not completed until 1887, when the polychrome marble façade was completed with the design of Emilio De Fabris. The floor of the church was relaid in marble tiles in the 16th century.
The exterior walls are faced in alternate vertical and horizontal bands of polychrome marble from Carrara (white), Prato (green), Siena (red), Lavenza and a few other places. These marble bands had to repeat the already existing bands on the walls of the earlier adjacent baptistery the Battistero di San Giovanni and Giotto's Bell Tower. There are two side doors: the Doors of the Canonici (south side) and the Door of the Mandorla (north side) with sculptures by Nanni di Banco, Donatello, and Jacopo della Quercia. The six side windows, notable for their delicate tracery and ornaments, are separated by pilasters. Only the four windows closest to the transept admit light; the other two are merely ornamental. The clerestory windows are round, a common feature in Italian Gothic.
During its long history, this cathedral has been the seat of the Council of Florence (1439), heard the preachings of Girolamo Savonarola and witnessed the murder of Giuliano di Piero de' Medici on Sunday, 26 April 1478 (with Lorenzo Il Magnifico barely escaping death), in the Pazzi conspiracy.
Exterior[edit]
Plan and structure[edit]
Plan of the church with various extension phases
The cathedral of Florence is built as a basilica, having a wide central nave of four square bays, with an aisle on either side. The chancel and transepts are of identical polygonal plan, separated by two smaller polygonal chapels. The whole plan forms a Latin cross. The nave and aisles are separated by wide pointed Gothic arches resting on composite piers.
The dimensions of the building are enormous: building area 8,300 square metres (89,340 square feet), length 153 metres (502 feet), width 38 metres (125 feet), width at the crossing 90 metres (300 feet). The height of the arches in the aisles is 23 metres (75 feet). The height of the dome is 114.5 metres (375.7 feet).[6]
Dome[edit]
By the beginning of the 15th century, after a hundred years of construction, the structure was still missing its dome. The basic features of the dome had been designed by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296. His brick model, 4.6 metres (15.1 ft) high, 9.2 metres (30.2 feet) long, was standing in a side aisle of the unfinished building, and had long been sacrosanct.[7] It called for an octagonal dome higher and wider than any that had ever been built, with no external buttresses to keep it from spreading and falling under its own weight.
External video
Smarthistory - Brunelleschi's Dome[8]
The commitment to reject traditional Gothic buttresses had been made when Neri di Fioravanti's model was chosen over a competing one by Giovanni di Lapo Ghini.[9] That architectural choice, in 1367, was one of the first events of the Italian Renaissance, marking a break with the Medieval Gothic style and a return to the classic Mediterranean dome. Italian architects regarded Gothic flying buttresses as ugly makeshifts. Furthermore, the use of buttresses was forbidden in Florence, as the style was favored by central Italy's traditional enemies to the north.[10] Neri's model depicted a massive inner dome, open at the top to admit light, like Rome's Pantheon, but enclosed in a thinner outer shell, partly supported by the inner dome, to keep out the weather. It was to stand on an unbuttressed octagonal drum. Neri's dome would need an internal defense against spreading (hoop stress), but none had yet been designed.
Dome seen from the Giotto's Campanile
The building of such a masonry dome posed many technical problems. Brunelleschi looked to the great dome of the Pantheon in Rome for solutions. The dome of the Pantheon is a single shell of concrete, the formula for which had long since been forgotten. Soil filled with silver coins had held the Pantheon dome aloft while its concrete set. This could not be the solution in the case of a dome this size and would put the church out of use. For the height and breadth of the dome designed by Neri, starting 52 metres (171 ft) above the floor and spanning 44 meters (144 ft), there was not enough timber in Tuscany to build the scaffolding and forms.[11] Brunelleschi chose to follow such design and employed a double shell, made of sandstone and marble. Brunelleschi would have to build the dome out of brick, due to its light weight compared to stone and being easier to form, and with nothing under it during construction. To illustrate his proposed structural plan, he constructed a wooden and brick model with the help of Donatello and Nanni di Banco, a model which is still displayed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo. The model served as a guide for the craftsmen, but was intentionally incomplete, so as to ensure Brunelleschi's control over the construction.
Interior of the dome
Brunelleschi's solutions were ingenious, such as his use of the catenary arch for support.[12] The spreading problem was solved by a set of four internal horizontal stone and iron chains, serving as barrel hoops, embedded within the inner dome: one at the top, one at the bottom, with the remaining two evenly spaced between them. A fifth chain, made of wood, was placed between the first and second of the stone chains. Since the dome was octagonal rather than round, a simple chain, squeezing the dome like a barrel hoop, would have put all its pressure on the eight corners of the dome. The chains needed to be rigid octagons, stiff enough to hold their shape, so as not to deform the dome as they held it together.[8]
The Duomo viewed from the heights of Piazzale Michelangelo
Each of Brunelleschi's stone chains was built like an octagonal railroad track with parallel rails and cross ties, all made of sandstone beams 43 centimetres (17 in) in diameter and no more than 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) long. The rails were connected end-to-end with lead-glazed iron splices. The cross ties and rails were notched together and then covered with the bricks and mortar of the inner dome. The cross ties of the bottom chain can be seen protruding from the drum at the base of the dome. The others are hidden. Each stone chain was supposed to be reinforced with a standard iron chain made of interlocking links, but a magnetic survey conducted in the 1970s failed to detect any evidence of iron chains, which if they exist are deeply embedded in the thick masonry walls. Brunelleschi also included vertical "ribs" set on the corners of the octagon, curving towards the center point. The Ribs, 13 feet (4 meters) deep, are supported by 16 concealed ribs radiating from center.[13] The ribs had slits to take beams that supported platforms, thus allowing the work to progress upward without the need for scaffolding.[14]
A circular masonry dome can be built without supports, called centering, because each course of bricks is a horizontal arch that resists compression. In Florence, the octagonal inner dome was thick enough for an imaginary circle to be embedded in it at each level, a feature that would hold the dome up eventually, but could not hold the bricks in place while the mortar was still wet. Brunelleschi used a herringbone brick pattern to transfer the weight of the freshly laid bricks to the nearest vertical ribs of the non-circular dome.[15][16][17][18]
Baptistery of St. John next to the cathedral
The outer dome was not thick enough to contain embedded horizontal circles, being only 60 centimetres (2 ft) thick at the base and 30 centimetres (1 ft) thick at the top. To create such circles, Brunelleschi thickened the outer dome at the inside of its corners at nine different elevations, creating nine masonry rings, which can be observed today from the space between the two domes. To counteract hoop stress, the outer dome relies entirely on its attachment to the inner dome and has no embedded chains.[19]
A modern understanding of physical laws and the mathematical tools for calculating stresses were centuries in the future. Brunelleschi, like all cathedral builders, had to rely on intuition and whatever he could learn from the large scale models he built. To lift 37,000 tons of material, including over 4 million bricks, he invented hoisting machines and lewissons for hoisting large stones. These specially designed machines and his structural innovations were Brunelleschi's chief contribution to architecture. Although he was executing an aesthetic plan made half a century earlier, it is his name, rather than Neri's, that is commonly associated with the dome.
Brunelleschi's ability to crown the dome with a lantern was questioned and he had to undergo another competition, even though there had been evidence that Brunelleschi had been working on a design for a lantern for the upper part of the dome. The evidence is shown in the curvature, which was made steeper than the original model.[20] He was declared the winner over his competitors Lorenzo Ghiberti and Antonio Ciaccheri. His design (now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo) was for an octagonal lantern with eight radiating buttresses and eight high arched windows. Construction of the lantern was begun a few months before his death in 1446. Then, for 15 years, little progress was possible, due to alterations by several architects. The lantern was finally completed by Brunelleschi's friend Michelozzo in 1461. The conical roof was crowned with a gilt copper ball and cross, containing holy relics, by Verrocchio in 1469. This brings the total height of the dome and lantern to 114.5 meters (375 ft). This copper ball was struck by lightning on 17 July 1600 and fell down. It was replaced by an even larger one two years later.
Cupola of the Dome
The commission for this bronze ball [atop the lantern] went to the sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio, in whose workshop there was at this time a young apprentice named Leonardo da Vinci. Fascinated by Filippo's [Brunelleschi's] machines, which Verrocchio used to hoist the ball, Leonardo made a series of sketches of them and, as a result, is often given credit for their invention.[21]
Leonardo might have also participated in the design of the bronze ball, as stated in the G manuscript of Paris "Remember the way we soldered the ball of Santa Maria del Fiore".[22]
The decorations of the drum gallery by Baccio d'Agnolo were never finished after being disapproved by no one less than Michelangelo.
A huge statue of Brunelleschi now sits outside the Palazzo dei Canonici in the Piazza del Duomo, looking thoughtfully up towards his greatest achievement, the dome that would forever dominate the panorama of Florence. It is still the largest masonry dome in the world.[23]
The building of the cathedral had started in 1296 with the design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was completed in 1469 with the placing of Verrochio's copper ball atop the lantern. But the façade was still unfinished and would remain so until the 19th century.
Façade[edit]
Façade
Façade of the cathedral
The original façade, designed by Arnolfo di Cambio and usually attributed to Giotto, was actually begun twenty years after Giotto's death.[citation needed] A mid-15th-century pen-and-ink drawing of this so-called Giotto's façade is visible in the Codex Rustici, and in the drawing of Bernardino Poccetti in 1587, both on display in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo. This façade was the collective work of several artists, among them Andrea Orcagna and Taddeo Gaddi. This original façade was completed in only its lower portion and then left unfinished. It was dismantled in 1587-1588 by the Medici court architect Bernardo Buontalenti, ordered by Grand Duke Francesco I de' Medici, as it appeared totally outmoded in Renaissance times. Some of the original sculptures are on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo, behind the cathedral. Others are now in the Berlin Museum and in the Louvre. The competition for a new façade turned into a huge corruption scandal. The wooden model for the façade of Buontalenti is on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo. A few new designs had been proposed in later years, but the models (of Giovanni Antonio Dosio, Giovanni de' Medici with Alessandro Pieroni and Giambologna) were not accepted. The façade was then left bare until the 19th century.
Main portal by Augusto Passaglia
Statue of Saint Reparata, to whom the previous cathedral was dedicated, in the main portal
In 1864, a competition held to design a new façade was won by Emilio De Fabris (1808–1883) in 1871. Work began in 1876 and was completed in 1887. This neo-gothic façade in white, green and red marble forms a harmonious entity with the cathedral, Giotto's bell tower and the Baptistery, but some think it is excessively decorated.
The whole façade is dedicated to the Mother of Christ.
Main Portal[edit]
The three huge bronze doors date from 1899 to 1903. They are adorned with scenes from the life of the Madonna. The mosaics in the lunettes above the doors were designed by Niccolò Barabino. They represent (from left to right): Charity among the founders of Florentine philanthropic institutions; Christ enthroned with Mary and John the Baptist; and Florentine artisans, merchants and humanists. The pediment above the central portal contains a half-relief by Tito Sarrocchi of Mary enthroned holding a flowered scepter. Giuseppe Cassioli sculpted the right-hand door.
On top of the façade is a series of niches with the twelve Apostles with, in the middle, the Madonna with Child. Between the rose window and the tympanum, there is a gallery with busts of great Florentine artists.
Interior[edit]
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Interior of the cathedral
Huge clock decorated by Paolo Uccello.
Dante and the Divine Comedy.
Trompe l'oeil of Niccolò da Tolentino.
Vasari's fresco begun in 1568, and completed by Federico Zuccari in 1579.
Detail under the dome.
The Last Judgement (detail) under the dome.
Tomb of Antonio d'Orso by Tino da Camaino.
The Gothic interior is vast and gives an empty impression. The relative bareness of the church corresponds with the austerity of religious life, as preached by Girolamo Savonarola.
Many decorations in the church have been lost in the course of time, or have been transferred to the Museum Opera del Duomo, such as the magnificent cantorial pulpits (the singing galleries for the choristers) of Luca della Robbia and Donatello.
As this cathedral was built with funds from the public, some important works of art in this church honour illustrious men and military leaders of Florence:
• Lorenzo Ghiberti had a large artistic impact on the cathedral. Ghiberti worked with Filippo Brunelleschi on the cathedral for eighteen years and had a large number of projects on almost the whole east end. Some of his works were the stained glass designs, the bronze shrine of Saint Zenobius and marble revetments on the outside of the cathedral.
Dante Before the City of Florence by Domenico di Michelino (1465). This painting is especially interesting because it shows us, apart from scenes of the Divine Comedy, a view on Florence in 1465, a Florence such as Dante himself could not have seen in his time.
Funerary Monument to Sir John Hawkwood by Paolo Uccello (1436). This almost monochrome fresco, transferred to canvas in the 19th century, is painted in terra verde, a color closest to the patina of bronze.
Equestrian statue of Niccolò da Tolentino by Andrea del Castagno (1456). This fresco, transferred on canvas in the 19th century, in the same style as the previous one, is painted in a color resembling marble. However, it is more richly decorated and gives more the impression of movement. Both frescoes portray the condottieri as heroic figures riding triumphantly. Both painters had problems when applying in painting the new rules of perspective to foreshortening: they used two unifying points, one for the horse and one for the pedestal, instead a single unifying point.
Busts of Giotto (by Benedetto da Maiano), Brunelleschi (by Buggiano - 1447), Marsilio Ficino, and Antonio Squarcialupi (a most famous organist). These busts all date from the 15th and the 16th centuries.
Above the main door is the colossal clock face with fresco portraits of four Prophets or Evangelists by Paolo Uccello (1443). This one-handed liturgical clock shows the 24 hours of the hora italica (Italian time), a period of time ending with sunset at 24 hours. This timetable was used until the 18th century. This is one of the few clocks from that time that still exist and are in working order.
The church is particularly notable for its 44 stained glass windows, the largest undertaking of this kind in Italy in the 14th and 15th century. The windows in the aisles and in the transept depict saints from the Old and the New Testament, while the circular windows in the drum of the dome or above the entrance depict Christ and Mary. They are the work of the greatest Florentine artists of their times, such as Donatello, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Paolo Uccello and Andrea del Castagno.
Christ crowning Mary as Queen, the stained-glass circular window above the clock, with a rich range of coloring, was designed by Gaddo Gaddi in the early 14th century.
Donatello designed the stained-glass window (Coronation of the Virgin) in the drum of the dome (the only one that can be seen from the nave).
The beautiful funeral monument of Antonio d'Orso (1323), bishop of Florence, was made by Tino da Camaino, the most important funeral sculptor of his time.
The monumental crucifix, behind the Bishop's Chair at the high altar, is by Benedetto da Maiano (1495–1497). The choir enclosure is the work of the famous Bartolommeo Bandinelli. The ten-paneled bronze doors of the sacristy were made by Luca della Robbia, who has also two glazed terracotta works inside the sacristy: Angel with Candlestick and Resurrection of Christ.
In the back of the middle of the three apses is the altar of Saint Zanobius, first bishop of Florence. Its silver shrine, a masterpiece of Ghiberti, contains the urn with his relics. The central compartment shows us one of his miracles, the reviving of a dead child. Above this shrine is the painting Last Supper by the lesser-known Giovanni Balducci. There was also a glass-paste mosaic panel The Bust of Saint Zanobius by the 16th-century miniaturist Monte di Giovanni, but it is now on display in the Museum Opera del Duomo.
Many decorations date from the 16th-century patronage of the Grand Dukes, such as the pavement in colored marble, attributed to Baccio d'Agnolo and Francesco da Sangallo (1520–26). Some pieces of marble from the façade were used, topside down, in the flooring (as was shown by the restoration of the floor after the 1966 flooding).
It was suggested that the interior of the 45 metre (147 ft) wide dome should be covered with a mosaic decoration to make the most of the available light coming through the circular windows of the drum and through the lantern. Brunelleschi had proposed the vault to glimmer with resplendent gold, but his death in 1446 put an end to this project, and the walls of the dome were whitewashed. Grand Duke Cosimo I de' Medici decided to have the dome painted with a representation of The Last Judgment. This enormous work, 3,600 metres² (38 750 ft²) of painted surface, was started in 1568 by Giorgio Vasari and Federico Zuccari and would last till 1579. The upper portion, near the lantern, representing The 24 Elders of Apoc. 4 was finished by Vasari before his death in 1574. Federico Zuccari and a number of collaborators, such as Domenico Cresti, finished the other portions: (from top to bottom) Choirs of Angels; Christ, Mary and Saints; Virtues, Gifts of the Holy Spirit and Beatitudes; and at the bottom of the cupola: Capital Sins and Hell. These frescoes are considered Zuccari's greatest work. But the quality of the work is uneven because of the input of different artists and the different techniques. Vasari had used true fresco, while Zuccari had painted in secco. During the restoration work, which ended in 1995, the entire pictorial cycle of The Last Judgment was photographed with specially designed equipment and all the information collected in a catalogue. All the restoration information along with reconstructed images of the frescos were stored and managed in the Thesaurus Florentinus computer system.[24][25]
Crypt[edit]
Tomb of Filippo Brunelleschi.
The cathedral underwent difficult excavations between 1965 and 1974. The archaeological history of this huge area was reconstructed through the work of Dr. Franklin Toker: remains of Roman houses, an early Christian pavement, ruins of the former cathedral of Santa Reparata and successive enlargements of this church. Close to the entrance, in the part of the crypt open to the public, is the tomb of Brunelleschi. While its location is prominent, the actual tomb is simple and humble. That the architect was permitted such a prestigious burial place is proof of the high esteem he was given by the Florentines.[citation needed]
Other burials[edit]
Zenobius of Florence
Conrad II of Italy
Giovanni Benelli
Filippo Brunelleschi
Giotto di Bondone
Pope Nicholas II
Pope Stephen IX
John Hawkwood
See also[edit]
Italy portal
Catholicism portal
Roman Catholic Marian churches
List of largest domes in the world
Santa Reparata, Florence
Inferno (Dan Brown novel)
History of Medieval Arabic and Western European domes
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Ermengem, Kristiaan Van. "Duomo di Firenze, Florence". A View On Cities. Retrieved 2016-02-05.
Jump up ^ Bartlett, pp. 36–37; according to Bartlett, the people of Florence continued to call the cathedral by its former name for some time after reconstruction.
^ Jump up to: a b Barlett, 36.
Jump up ^ Zucconi, Guido (1995). Florence: An Architectural Guide. San Giovanni Lupatoto, Vr, Italy: Arsenale Editrice srl. ISBN 88-7743-147-4.
Jump up ^ King, pp. 76–79.
Jump up ^ "Santa Maria Del Fiore Church (Dome) Firenze Italy". En.firenze-online.com. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
Jump up ^ King, p. 10
^ Jump up to: a b "Brunelleschi's Dome". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved December 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ King, p. 9.
Jump up ^ King, p. 7.
Jump up ^ PBS' The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance, Birth of a Dynasty (see https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9FFDJK8jmms at the 20:15 mark)
Jump up ^ The Secrets of the Florentine Dome: The Secrets of the Florentine Dome, accessdate: January 25, 2017
Jump up ^ Stevenson, Niel (2007) Architecture Explained. ISBN 0756628687. pp. 36–37.
Jump up ^ King, pp. 70–73.
Jump up ^ King, p. 97.
Jump up ^ Mueller, Tom (February 10, 2014). "Mystery of Florence's Cathedral Dome May Be Solved". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 31 December 2014.
Jump up ^ NationalGeographic.com 2014-02 Il Duomo Tom Mueller
Jump up ^ NationalGeographic.com 2014-02 Il Doumo Design Video
Jump up ^ King, pp. 105-107.
Jump up ^ Gartner, Peter, Filippo Brunelleschi 1377-1446, p 95.
Jump up ^ King, p. 69.
Jump up ^ Paolo Galluzzi, "Leonard de Vinci, engineer and architect", p. 50
Jump up ^ Figures vary. archINFORM gives a 45 m wide tambour, while Santa Maria del Fiore at Structurae gives a 43 m diameter of the cupola, others as little as 42 m.
Jump up ^ As referenced in "Cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore: il cantiere di restauro 1980-1995", a cura di Cristina Acidini Luchinat e Riccardo Dalla Negra published by Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato (Roma) in 1995 (ISBN 8824039561)
Jump up ^ Thesaurus Florentinus project page (in Italian), Soprintendenza ai Beni Architettonici e Paesaggisitici di Firenze, Ministero dei Beni Culturali
References[edit]
Bartlett, Kenneth R. (1992). The Civilization of the Italian Renaissance. Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company. ISBN 0-669-20900-7 (Paperback).
King, Ross (2000). Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented Architecture. London: Chatto & Windus.
Jepson, Tim (2001). The National Geographic Traveler, Florence & Tuscany. National Geographic Society. ISBN 90-215-9720-9.
Henry A. Millon (ed.) (1994). Italian Renaissance Architecture: from Brunelleschi to Michelangelo. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27921-7. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Montrésor, Carlo (2000). The Opera del Duomo, Museum in Florence. Mandragora.
Suro, Roberto (July 28, 1987). "Cracks in a Great Dome in Florence May Point to Impending Disaster". New York Times: C3. Retrieved 2010-02-26.
Tacconi, Marica S. Cathedral and Civic Ritual in Late Medieval and Renaissance Florence: The Service Books of Santa Maria del Fiore. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-81704-2
Wirtz, Rolf C. Kunst & Architektur, Florenz. Könemann, 2005. ISBN 3-8331-1576-9.
Cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore: il cantiere di restauro 1980-1995, a cura di Cristina Acidini Luchinat e Riccardo Dalla Negra. Istituto poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato (Roma). 1995. ISBN 88-240-3956-1. Library of Congress permalink
Devémy, Jean-François (2013). Sur les traces de Filippo Brunelleschi, l'invention de la coupole de Santa Maria del Fiore à Florence. Suresnes: Les Editions du Net. ISBN 978-2-312-01329-9. (in line presentation)
Gärtner, Peter J. (1998). Filippo Brunelleschi 1377-1446. Köln : Könemann. ISBN 3-8290-0241-6.
Further reading[edit]
"The Great Cathedral Mystery", PBS Nova TV documentary, February 12, 2014
Hunt, Don, "Secrets of the Duomo", Journal, Issue 2, 2014, International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers
Mueller, Tom, "Brunelleschi’s Dome: How did a hot-tempered goldsmith with no formal architectural training create the most miraculous edifice of the Renaissance?", National Geographic magazine, February 2014
Ricci, Massimo, Il genio di Brunelleschi e la costruzione della Cupola di Santa Maria del Fiore, Livorno : Casa Editrice Sillabe S.r.l., April 2014. (The genius of Filippo Brunelleschi and the construction of the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore). ISBN 978-88-8347-691-4. The book is the result of forty years of research on the secret technique with which Brunelleschi built the Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. Ricci makes the case for the dome being an inverted arch and uses a herringbone pattern (spina a pesce) for the dome's bricks.
Vereycken, Karel, "The Secrets of the Florentine Dome", Schiller Institute, 2013. (Translation from the French, "Les secrets du dôme de Florence", la revue Fusion, n° 96, Mai, Juin 2003)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Santa Maria del Fiore (Florence).
Official website
L'Opera del Duomo, Firenze
Brunelleschi's Dome - en
"The Cathedral". The Florence Art Guide. 2004. Retrieved July 14, 2006.
Museums in Florence - Cathedral and Giotto Belltower
Horner, Susan; Horner, Joanna (December 27, 2005). "Chapter III: The Cathedral - Exterior". Walks in Florence. Retrieved July 14, 2006.
NGM.NationalGeographic.com 2014- 02 Il Duomo 360 Panorama View Interactive
NGM.NationalGeographic.com 2014-02 Il Duomo Cutaway Interactive
ngm.nationalgeographic.com 2014-02 ll Duomo Piazza 360 degree panorama interactive
ngm.nationalgeographic.com 2014-02 Il Duomo Compared to other Domes Interactive
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values: Florence Cathedral is located in Florence

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Historic centre of Florence

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Giotto di Bondone

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Andrea Orcagna

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Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence

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Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence

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Basilica of Santa Maria Novella

values: Church of St. Mary of the Angels, Florence

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values: Museo Nazionale Alinari della Fotografia

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Museo delle Porcellane

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Squares of Florence

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values: كاتدرائية فلورنسا – Arabic

values: Санта-Марыя-дэль-Ф’ёрэ – Belarusian

values: Санта Мария дел Фиоре (Флоренция) – Bulgarian

values: Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore – Danish

values: Santa Maria del Fiore katedraal – Estonian

values: Catedral de Santa María del Fiore – Spanish

values: Katedralo Santa Maria del Fiore – Esperanto

values: کلیسای جامع فلورانس – Persian

values: Cathédrale Santa Maria del Fiore – French

values: 피렌체 대성당 – Korean

values: Սանտա Մարիա դել Ֆիորե – Armenian

values: Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore – Italian

values: סנטה מריה דל פיורה – Hebrew

values: サンタ・マリア・デル・フィオーレ大聖堂 – Japanese

values: Santa Maria del Fiore (Firenze) – Norwegian

values: Dòm ëd Santa Marìa dla Fior – Piedmontese

values: Санта-Мария-дель-Фьоре – Russian

values: Фирентинска катедрала – Serbian

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values: มหาวิหารฟลอเรนซ์ – Thai

values: Санта-Марія-дель-Фйоре – Ukrainian

values: 聖母百花聖殿 – Chinese

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