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How You Remind Me
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"How You Remind Me"
Single by Nickelback
from the album Silver Side Up
B-side
"Little Friend"
Released
August 21, 2001 (2001-08-21)
Format
CD
maxi CD
Recorded
June 2001 at Greenhouse Studios, Burnaby, British Columbia
Genre
Post-grunge[1]
Length
3:43
Label
Roadrunner
Songwriter(s)
Chad Kroeger
Mike Kroeger
Ryan Peake
Ryan Vikedal
Producer(s)
Rick Parashar
Nickelback
Nickelback singles chronology
"Worthy to Say"
(2000) "How You Remind Me"
(2001) "Too Bad"
(2002)
"Worthy to Say"
(2000) "How You Remind Me"
(2001) "Too Bad"
(2002)
Music video
"How You Remind Me" on YouTube
"How You Remind Me"
Nickelback's "How You Remind Me" from Silver Side Up
Problems playing this file? See media help.
"How You Remind Me" is a song by Canadian rock band Nickelback. It was released on August 21, 2001 as the lead single from their third studio album Silver Side Up (2001). A "Gold Mix" was made for latter editions of the single with the heavier guitars edited out of the chorus. Lead vocalist and guitarist Chad Kroeger wrote the song about his old girlfriend Jodi, with whom he had a dysfunctional relationship.[2] He referred to this song as the song that put Nickelback on the map when played at their concert in Sturgis, South Dakota, and is often considered to be their signature song.
"How You Remind Me" was named the number one most played song on U.S. radio of the 2000s decade by Nielsen Soundscan, being spun over 1.2 million times on U.S. airwaves since its release in 2001 to the end of 2009.[3] The song was named fourth on the Billboard Hot 100 Songs of the Decade and 75th in the UK decade-end chart.[4] It was nominated for the Kerrang! Award for Best Single. "How You Remind Me" was also rated the number one rock song and number 4 alternative song of the decade of the 2000s by Billboard. The song was featured in the music video game Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock.
Contents
[hide]
1 Music video
2 Chart performances and awards
3 Track listings
4 Release history
5 Charts
5.1 Weekly charts
5.2 Year-end charts
5.3 Decade-end charts
5.4 Chart successions
6 Certifications
7 Avril Lavigne version
7.1 Background
7.2 Track listing
7.3 Release history
8 References
9 External links
Music video[edit]
The music video for "How You Remind Me" featured Nickelback playing a small venue with focus on a female audience member. Chad Kroeger admitted to disliking the idea of a small venue performance at first, opting for a bigger scale arena concert; however, he found the outcome of the video satisfying.
In the video, Kroeger plays a man whose girlfriend (played by model Annie Henley) has left him and is still haunted by her memory. He still feels strongly for her, and sees her everywhere he goes. Whenever he imagines her touch, he feels a warm memory, indicated by the change in lighting in the video. As the music video progresses, he starts to get over her. At the end, she shows up and apparently asks him to forgive her. This is what he thought he had wanted all along, but suddenly he realizes that it isn't really what he wanted, and pushes her away. She is left with a broken heart and haunted by memories, as he had been at the beginning of the video.
Another version of the video exists, and has been played on some UK and Australian music channels. The video simply features the footage of the band playing from the main video, added to footage of the band's live performances and tour movies.
Chart performances and awards[edit]
Due to its high sales and massive airplay, "How You Remind Me" was ranked as the top single of 2002 by Billboard magazine. The single was certified Gold by the RIAA in 2005, for sales of over 500,000 copies, and by late 2010 it had sold around 860,000 copies total.[5] The song went on to rack up four Billboard Music Awards, four Juno Awards. "How You Remind Me" was the number one Most Played Song of 2002 in the United States, across all formats, according to Billboard Monitor. In 2003, the song was nominated for Grammy Award for Record of the Year. "How You Remind Me" was the number one song on the Billboard's 2002 Year-End Hot 100 Singles Chart, and VH1 ranked the song as the 16th Greatest Power Ballad.[6]
The song was listed at number 36 on Billboard's All Time Top 100.[7] The song also hit number one on the Kerrang! feature, 21st Century's Official 100 Rock Best Sellers. The song was the 75th best-selling single of the 2000s in the UK.[8] In Germany, it's not just the band's best-charting single by reaching number 3 on the German Singles Chart, it's also Nickelback's longest-staying single on that chart, namely a total of 30 weeks.[9] In 2011, Fuse TV named it the number one song of the decade. It was listed as number 9 at the Billboard Hot 100 top 100 Rock Songs of the last 50 years. Loudwire listed the song as number 30 on its list "Top 21st Century Hard Rock Songs".[10]
Track listings[edit]
CD single
"How You Remind Me" (Album version) — 3:45
"How You Remind Me" (Acoustic) — 3:39
"Little Friend" — 3:48
CD maxi
"How You Remind Me" (Gold Mix) — 3:45
"How You Remind Me" (LP Version) — 3:30
"Little Friend" — 3:48
"How You Remind Me" (Video)
Release history[edit]
Country
Release date
United States August 21, 2001 (2001-08-21)
United Kingdom March 25, 2002 (2002-03-25)
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (2001–05)
Peak
position
Argentina Top 20[11] 2
Australia (ARIA)[12] 2
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[13] 1
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[14] 2
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[15] 4
Brazil (ABPD)[16] 3
Canada (Nielsen SoundScan) 1
Chile Top 20[11] 11
Denmark (Tracklisten)[17] 1
Europe Official Top 100[11] 2
Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)[18] 18
France (SNEP)[19] 11
Germany (Official German Charts)[20] 3
Ireland (IRMA)[21] 1
Italy (FIMI)[22] 14
Netherlands (Dutch Top 40)[23] 7
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[24] 4
Norway (VG-lista)[25] 4
Portugal Top 20[11] 9
Romania (Romanian Top 100)[26] 13
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[27] 4
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[28] 3
UK Rock and Metal (Official Charts Company)[29] 1
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[30] 4
US Billboard Hot 100[31] 1
US Billboard Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks[32] 2
US Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks[31] 1
US Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks[31] 1
US Billboard Top 40 Mainstream[33] 1
Chart (2016)
Peak
position
Poland (Polish Airplay Top 100) [34] 87
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (2002)
Position
Australian Singles Chart[35] 48
Austrian Singles Chart[36] 6
Belgian (Flanders) Singles Chart[37] 17
Belgian (Wallonia) Singles Chart[38] 56
Dutch Top 40[39] 16
French Singles Chart[40] 98
Irish Singles Chart[41] 8
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[42] 31
Swiss Singles Chart[43] 13
UK Singles Chart[44] 12
US Billboard Hot 100 1
Decade-end charts[edit]
Chart (2000s)
Peak
position
UK Singles Chart 75
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 4
U.S. Billboard Rock Songs 1
U.S. Billboard Alternative Songs 4
U.S. Billboard Mainstream Top 40 3
Chart successions[edit]
Preceded by
"It's Been Awhile" by Staind Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks number-one single
15 September – 8 December 2001 Succeeded by
"My Sacrifice" by Creed
Preceded by
"Smooth Criminal" by Alien Ant Farm Billboard Modern Rock Tracks number-one single
22 September – 15 December 2001 Succeeded by
"In the End" by Linkin Park
Preceded by
"Family Affair" by Mary J. Blige Billboard Top 40 Mainstream number-one single
22 December 2001 – 23 February 2002 Succeeded by
"Hey Baby" by No Doubt featuring Bounty Killer
Preceded by
"U Got It Bad" by Usher Billboard Hot 100 number-one single
22 December 2001 – 12 January 2002 Succeeded by
"Always on Time" by Ja Rule featuring Ashanti
Preceded by
"L'Amour toujours" by Gigi D'Agostino Danish number-one single
25 January 2002 – 1 February 2002 Succeeded by
"Whenever, Wherever" by Shakira
Preceded by
"What If" by Kate Winslet
"Whenever, Wherever" by Shakira Austrian Singles Chart number-one single
10 February 2002
24 February 2002
Preceded by
"Unchained Melody" by Gareth Gates Irish IRMA number-one single
13 April 2002 – 11 May 2002 Succeeded by
"Here Come The Good Times"
by Ireland World Cup Squad
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
Australia (ARIA)[45]
2× Platinum 140,000^
Austria (IFPI Austria)[46]
Gold 20,000*
Belgium (BEA)[47]
Gold 25,000*
France (SNEP)[48]
Gold 250,000*
Germany (BVMI)[49]
Gold 250,000^
Italy (FIMI)[50]
Gold 25,000
Switzerland (IFPI Switzerland)[51]
Gold 20,000^
United Kingdom (BPI)[52]
Platinum 600,000^
United States (RIAA)[53]
Platinum 1,000,000^
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone
Avril Lavigne version[edit]
"How You Remind Me"
2-track CD edition cover
Promotional single by Avril Lavigne
from the album One Piece Film: Z and Avril Lavigne
A-side
"Bad Reputation"
Released
12 December 2012
Format
CD
digital download
Recorded
2012
Length
4:05
Label
Sony Japan
Epic
Songwriter(s)
Chad Kroeger
Mike Kroeger
Ryan Peake
Ryan Vikedal
"How You Remind Me" was recorded by Canadian singer-songwriter Avril Lavigne for the anime film One Piece Film: Z. It was reported on 17 October 2012 that Lavigne would be contributing two cover songs to the film: the latter track and a cover of Joan Jett's "Bad Reputation".[54] Lavigne later confirmed the new recording on 5 November 2012.[55] It was released on 11 December 2012 as a digital download from the One Piece Film: Z Original Soundtrack.[56] The 2-track promotional CD single was released on the next day, exclusive to Japan.[57]
The song was re-released on 19 December 2013 by iTunes Stores as a digital download promotional single for her self-titled fifth album.[58] Later, it was included in the Japan, Taiwan and China Tour Edition of the album as one of the bonus tracks.[59]
Background[edit]
Lavigne was in the studio with Kroeger working on her fifth studio album when she was asked to contribute a song to the film, but didn't have time to write another song during the studio sessions they had left. Kroeger later explained that it was Lavigne's idea to cover the song, stating:
"Avril jokingly suggested to cover a Nickelback song, but then we both figured it'd actually be a good idea to do "How You Remind Me". We recorded a version more similar to the original, but we both were not happy with it, thinking it needs its own spin. Avril then rearranged the song and we all liked it."
An audio-only video was put on Lavigne's official Vevo on 8 January 2013.[60]
Track listing[edit]
CD single[57]
"How You Remind Me" – 4:05
"Bad Reputation" – 2:42
Digital download[58]
"How You Remind Me" – 4:05
Release history[edit]
Country
Date
Format
Label
Ref.
Japan
December 12, 2012 (2012-12-12) CD Sony Japan [57]
United States
December 19, 2013 (2013-12-19) Digital download Epic [58]
Canada
[61]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ How You Remind Me Songfacts
Jump up ^ "Eminem Is The Best-Selling Artist Of The Decade - Music, Celebrity, Artist News". MTV. 2009-12-08. Retrieved 2012-02-22.
Jump up ^ Hot 100 Decade Songs
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 2010-12-26 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The Greatest | Show Cast, Episodes, Guides, Trailers, Web Exclusives, Previews". VH1.com. Retrieved 2012-02-22.
Jump up ^ "The Billboard Hot 100 All-Time Top Songs" (40-31)
Jump up ^ Radio 1 Chart of the Decade, as presented by DJ Nihal on December 29, 2009
Jump up ^ "Die ganze Musik im Internet: Charts, News, Neuerscheinungen, Tickets, Genres, Genresuche, Genrelexikon, Künstler-Suche, Musik-Suche, Track-Suche, Ticket-Suche". musicline.de. Retrieved 2012-02-22.
Jump up ^ Ramanand, L,z. "No. 30: Nickelback, 'How You Remind Me' – Top 21st Century Hard Rock Songs: Read More: No. 30: Nickelback, 'How You Remind Me' – Top 21st Century Hard Rock Songs". Loudwire. Retrieved 30 October 2015. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d http://top40-charts.com/songs/full.php?sid=1082&sort=chartid
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – Nickelback – How You Remind Me". ARIA Top 50 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Nickelback – How You Remind Me" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Nickelback – How You Remind Me" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Nickelback – How You Remind Me" (in French). Ultratop 50.
Jump up ^ "Brazil" (PDF). ABPD. October 6, 2001. Retrieved April 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Danishcharts.com – Nickelback – How You Remind Me". Tracklisten.
Jump up ^ "Nickelback: How You Remind Me" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland.
Jump up ^ "Lescharts.com – Nickelback – How You Remind Me" (in French). Les classement single.
Jump up ^ "Musicline.de – Nickelback Single-Chartverfolgung" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH.
Jump up ^ Irish Single Chart Irishcharts.ie Archived January 5, 2010, at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved 10 April 2008)
Jump up ^ "Italiancharts.com – Nickelback – How You Remind Me". Top Digital Download.
Jump up ^ "Nederlandse Top 40 – Nickelback" (in Dutch). Dutch Top 40.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Nickelback – How You Remind Me". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – Nickelback – How You Remind Me". VG-lista.
Jump up ^ "Romanian peak". Archived from the original on December 17, 2004. Retrieved 2012-03-03. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – Nickelback – How You Remind Me". Singles Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Nickelback – How You Remind Me". Swiss Singles Chart.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Billboard allmusic.com (Retrieved 10 April 2008)
Jump up ^ story "Billboard Adult Pop Songs" Check |url= value (help). Billboard.com. Retrieved October 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ story "BillBoard Pop Songs" Check |url= value (help). Billboard.com. Retrieved October 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Listy bestsellerów, wyróżnienia :: Związek Producentów Audio-Video". Polish Airplay Top 100. Retrieved August 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ 2002 Australian Singles Chart aria.com Archived July 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved August 8, 2008)
Jump up ^ 2002 Austrian Singles Chart Austriancharts.at Archived March 12, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved 8 August 2008)
Jump up ^ 2002 Belgian (Flanders) Singles Chart Ultratop.be Archived January 26, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved 8 August 2008)
Jump up ^ 2002 Belgian (Wallonia) Singles Chart Ultratop.be Archived April 17, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved 8 August 2008)
Jump up ^ "Single top 100 over 2002" (PDF) (in Dutch). Top40. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
Jump up ^ 2002 French Singles Chart Ifop.com Archived 2008-10-14 at the Wayback Machine. (Retrieved 8 August 2008)
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Jump up ^ "Gold-/Platin-Datenbank (Nickelback; 'How You Remind Me')" (in German). Bundesverband Musikindustrie. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
Jump up ^ "Italian single certifications – Nickelback – How You Remind Me" (in Italian). Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Official Swiss Charts and Music Community: Awards (Nickelback; 'How You Remind Me')". IFPI Switzerland. Hung Medien. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
Jump up ^ "British single certifications – Nickelback – How You Remind Me". British Phonographic Industry. Retrieved 8 August 2008. Enter How You Remind Me in the search field and then press Enter.
Jump up ^ "American single certifications – Nickelback – How You Remind Me". Recording Industry Association of America. Retrieved 8 August 2008. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Single, then click SEARCH
Jump up ^ "Canadian Singer Avril Lavigne Contributes One Piece Film Z Themes". Anime News Network. 2012-10-17. Retrieved 2012-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Twitter / AvrilLavigne". Twitter. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Avril Lavigne – How You Remind Me". Discogs. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c "How You Remind Me - Single by Avril Lavigne". US: iTunes Store. Archived from the original on February 8, 2015. Retrieved December 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ "艾薇儿 Avril Lavigne:同名专辑 中国巡演限量版 China Version(2CD 附中国巡演限量周边毛巾)". Amazon.cn. Retrieved March 4, 2014.
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Jump up ^ "How You Remind Me - Single by Avril Lavigne". Canada: iTunes Store. Archived from the original on February 8, 2015. Retrieved December 19, 2013.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"I'm Like a Bird" by Nelly Furtado Juno Award for Best Single
2002 Succeeded by
"Complicated" by Avril Lavigne
[show]
v
t
e
Nickelback
Chad Kroeger
Ryan Peake
Mike Kroeger
Daniel Adair
Brandon Kroeger
Mitch Guindon
Ryan Vikedal
Studio albums
Curb
The State
Silver Side Up
The Long Road
All the Right Reasons
Dark Horse
Here and Now
No Fixed Address
Feed the Machine
Compilations
Three-Sided Coin
The Best of Nickelback Volume 1
Extended plays
Hesher
Singles
"Fly"
"Leader of Men"
"Old Enough"
"Breathe"
"How You Remind Me"
"Too Bad"
"Never Again"
"Someday"
"Figured You Out"
"Feelin' Way Too Damn Good"
"Because of You"
"Photograph"
"Animals"
"Savin' Me"
"Far Away"
"Rockstar"
"If Everyone Cared"
"Side of a Bullet"
"Gotta Be Somebody"
"Something in Your Mouth"
"If Today Was Your Last Day"
"I'd Come for You"
"Burn It to the Ground"
"Never Gonna Be Alone"
"Shakin' Hands"
"This Afternoon"
"When We Stand Together"
"Bottoms Up"
"This Means War"
"Lullaby"
"Trying Not to Love You"
"Edge of a Revolution"
"What Are You Waiting For?"
"Million Miles an Hour"
"She Keeps Me Up"
"Satellite"
"Get 'Em Up"
"Dirty Laundry"
"Feed the Machine"
"Song on Fire"
Video albums
Live at Home
The Videos
Live at Sturgis 2006
Concert tours
The Long Road Tour
All the Right Reasons Tour
Dark Horse Tour
Here and Now Tour
No Fixed Address Tour
Feed the Machine Tour
Related articles
Awards and nominations
Discography
Songs
[show]
v
t
e
Avril Lavigne songs
Discography
Let Go
"Losing Grip"
"Complicated"
"Sk8er Boi"
"I'm with You"
My World
"Basket Case"
"Knockin' on Heaven's Door"
Under My Skin
"Take Me Away"
"Don't Tell Me"
"He Wasn't"
"My Happy Ending"
"Nobody's Home"
"Fall to Pieces"
"I Always Get What I Want"
The Best Damn Thing
"Girlfriend"
"The Best Damn Thing"
"When You're Gone"
"Hot"
"Keep Holding On"
Goodbye Lullaby
"What the Hell"
"Push"
"Wish You Were Here"
"Smile"
"Alice"
"Bad Reputation"
Avril Lavigne
"Rock n Roll"
"Here's to Never Growing Up"
"17"
"Let Me Go"
"Give You What You Like"
"Bad Girl"
"Hello Kitty"
"How You Remind Me"
Collaborations
"Wavin' Flag"
"Get Over Me"
Other songs
"Fly"
[show]
v
t
e
Billboard Year-End number one singles (2000–2019)
2000: "Breathe" – Faith Hill
2001: "Hanging by a Moment" – Lifehouse
2002: "How You Remind Me" – Nickelback
2003: "In da Club" – 50 Cent
2004: "Yeah!" – Usher featuring Lil Jon and Ludacris
2005: "We Belong Together" – Mariah Carey
2006: "Bad Day" – Daniel Powter
2007: "Irreplaceable" – Beyoncé
2008: "Low" – Flo Rida featuring T-Pain
2009: "Boom Boom Pow" – The Black Eyed Peas
2010: "Tik Tok" – Kesha
2011: "Rolling in the Deep" – Adele
2012: "Somebody That I Used to Know" – Gotye featuring Kimbra
2013: "Thrift Shop" – Macklemore & Ryan Lewis featuring Wanz
2014: "Happy" – Pharrell Williams
2015: "Uptown Funk" – Mark Ronson featuring Bruno Mars
2016: "Love Yourself" – Justin Bieber
2017: "Shape of You" – Ed Sheeran
Complete list
(1946–1959)
(1960–1979)
(1980–1999)
(2000–2019)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=How_You_Remind_Me&oldid=815002835"
Categories:
2001 singles
2002 singles
Nickelback songs
Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Billboard Mainstream Rock number-one singles
Billboard Alternative Songs number-one singles
Number-one singles in Austria
Number-one singles in Denmark
Irish Singles Chart number-one singles
Songs written by Chad Kroeger
Rock ballads
2000s ballads
Song recordings produced by Rick Parashar
Billboard Mainstream Top 40 (Pop Songs) number-one singles
Avril Lavigne songs
2001 songs
Songs written by Mike Kroeger
Songs written by Ryan Peake
Torch songs
Juno Award for Single of the Year singles
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Gastric acid
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed in the stomach and is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains of amino acids. Gastric acid is produced by cells in the lining of the stomach, which are coupled in feedback systems to increase acid production when needed. Other cells in the stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to buffer the fluid, ensuring that it does not become too acidic. These cells also produce mucus, which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. The pancreas further produces large amounts of bicarbonate and secretes bicarbonate through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.
The main constituent of gastric acid is hydrochloric acid which is produced by parietal cells (also called oxyntic cells) in the gastric glands in the stomach. Its secretion is a complex and relatively energetically expensive process. Parietal cells contain an extensive secretory network (called canaliculi) from which the hydrochloric acid is secreted into the lumen of the stomach. The pH of gastric acid is 1.5 to 3.5[1] in the human stomach lumen, the acidity being maintained by the proton pump H+/K+ ATPase. The parietal cell releases bicarbonate into the bloodstream in the process, which causes a temporary rise of pH in the blood, known as an alkaline tide.
The highly acidic environment in the stomach lumen causes proteins from food to lose their characteristic folded structure (or denature). This exposes the protein's peptide bonds. The gastric chief cells of the stomach secrete enzymes for protein breakdown (inactive pepsinogen, and in infancy rennin). Hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogen into the enzyme pepsin, which then helps digestion by breaking the bonds linking amino acids, a process known as proteolysis. In addition, many microorganisms have their growth inhibited by such an acidic environment, which is helpful to prevent infection.
Contents
[hide]
1 Secretion
2 Regulation of secretion
3 Neutralization
4 Role in disease
5 Pharmacology
6 History
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Secretion[edit]
A typical adult human stomach will secrete about 1.5 liters of gastric acid daily.[2] Gastric acid secretion happens in several steps. Chloride and hydrogen ions are secreted separately from the cytoplasm of parietal cells and mixed in the canaliculi. Gastric acid is then secreted into the lumen of the gastric gland and gradually reaches the main stomach lumen.[2] The exact manner in which the secreted acid reaches the stomach lumen is controversial, as acid must first cross the relatively pH neutral gastric mucus layer.
Chloride and sodium ions are secreted actively from the cytoplasm of the parietal cell into the lumen of the canaliculus. This creates a negative potential of -40 mV to -70 mV across the parietal cell membrane that causes potassium ions and a small number of sodium ions to diffuse from the cytoplasm into the parietal cell canaliculi.
The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid. This acid immediately dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions leave the cell through H+/K+ ATPase antiporter pumps.
At the same time, sodium ions are actively reabsorbed. This means that the majority of secreted K+ and Na+ ions return to the cytoplasm. In the canaliculus, secreted hydrogen and chloride ions mix and are secreted into the lumen of the oxyntic gland.
The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 mM in the canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of arterial blood, but almost exactly isotonic with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8,[3] but the acid is diluted in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3.
There is a small continuous basal secretion of gastric acid between meals of usually less than 10 mEq/hour.[4]
There are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate in order to digest a meal:[2]
The cephalic phase: Thirty percent of the total gastric acid secretions to be produced is stimulated by anticipation of eating and the smell or taste of food. This signalling occurs from higher centres in the brain through the vagus nerve (Cranial Nerve X). It activates parietal cells to release acid and ECL cells to release histamine. The vagus nerve (CN X) also releases gastrin releasing peptide onto G cells. Finally, it also inhibits somatostatin release from D cells.[5]
The gastric phase: About sixty percent of the total acid for a meal is secreted in this phase. Acid secretion is stimulated by distension of the stomach and by amino acids present in the food.
The intestinal phase: The remaining 10% of acid is secreted when chyme enters the small intestine, and is stimulated by small intestine distension and by amino acids. The duodenal cells release entero-oxyntin which acts on parietal cells without affecting gastrin.[5]
Regulation of secretion[edit]
Diagram depicting the major determinants of gastric acid secretion, with inclusion of drug targets for peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
Gastric acid production is regulated by both the autonomic nervous system and several hormones. The parasympathetic nervous system, via the vagus nerve, and the hormone gastrin stimulate the parietal cell to produce gastric acid, both directly acting on parietal cells and indirectly, through the stimulation of the secretion of the hormone histamine from enterochromaffine-like cells (ECL). Vasoactive intestinal peptide, cholecystokinin, and secretin all inhibit production.
The production of gastric acid in the stomach is tightly regulated by positive regulators and negative feedback mechanisms. Four types of cells are involved in this process: parietal cells, G cells, D cells and enterochromaffine-like cells. Besides this, the endings of the vagus nerve (CN X) and the intramural nervous plexus in the digestive tract influence the secretion significantly.
Nerve endings in the stomach secrete two stimulatory neurotransmitters: acetylcholine and gastrin-releasing peptide. Their action is both direct on parietal cells and mediated through the secretion of gastrin from G cells and histamine from enterochromaffine-like cells. Gastrin acts on parietal cells directly and indirectly too, by stimulating the release of histamine.
The release of histamine is the most important positive regulation mechanism of the secretion of gastric acid in the stomach. Its release is stimulated by gastrin and acetylcholine and inhibited by somatostatin.
Neutralization[edit]
In the duodenum, gastric acid is neutralized by sodium bicarbonate. This also blocks gastric enzymes that have their optima in the acid range of pH. The secretion of sodium bicarbonate from the pancreas is stimulated by secretin. This polypeptide hormone gets activated and secreted from so-called S cells in the mucosa of the duodenum and jejunum when the pH in the duodenum falls below 4.5 to 5.0. The neutralization is described by the equation:
HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2CO3
The carbonic acid rapidly equilibrates with carbon dioxide and water through catalysis by carbonic anhydrase enzymes bound to the gut epithelial lining,[6] leading to a net release of carbon dioxide gas within the lumen associated with neutralisation. In the absorptive upper intestine, such as the duodenum, both the dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid will tend to equilibrate with the blood, leading to most of the gas produced on neutralisation being exhaled through the lungs.
Role in disease[edit]
In hypochlorhydria and achlorhydria, there is low or no gastric acid in the stomach, potentially leading to problems as the disinfectant properties of the gastric lumen are decreased. In such conditions, there is greater risk of infections of the digestive tract (such as infection with Vibrio or Helicobacter bacteria).
In Zollinger–Ellison syndrome and hypercalcemia, there are increased gastrin levels, leading to excess gastric acid production, which can cause gastric ulcers.
In diseases featuring excess vomiting, patients develop hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (decreased blood acidity by H+ and chlorine depletion).
Pharmacology[edit]
The proton pump enzyme is the target of proton pump inhibitors, used to increase gastric pH (and hence decrease stomach acidity) in diseases that feature excess acid. H2 antagonists indirectly decrease gastric acid production. Antacids neutralize existing acid.
History[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2010)
The role of gastric acid in digestion was established in the 1820s and 1830s by William Beaumont on Alexis St. Martin, who, as a result of an accident, had a fistula (hole) in his stomach, which allowed Beaumont to observe the process of digestion and to extract gastric acid, verifying that acid played a crucial role in digestion.[7]
See also[edit]
Stomach
Digestion
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
Discovery and development of proton pump inhibitors
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marieb EN, Hoehn K (2010). Human anatomy & physiology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-9591-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dworken, Harvey J (2016). Human digestive system: gastric secretion. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.
Jump up ^ Guyton, Arthur C.; John E. Hall (2006). Textbook of Medical Physiology (11 ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. p. 797. ISBN 0-7216-0240-1.
Jump up ^ Page 192 in: Elizabeth D Agabegi; Agabegi, Steven S. (2008). Step-Up to Medicine (Step-Up Series). Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-7153-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Lecture, "Function of the Stomach and Small Intestine" Deakin University School of Medicine. October 15, 2012
Jump up ^ Lönnerholm, G.; Knutson, L.; Wistrand, P. J.; Flemström, G. (1989). "Carbonic anhydrase in the normal rat stomach and duodenum and after treatment with omeprazole and ranitidine". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 136 (2): 253–262. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1989.tb08659.x. PMID 2506730.
Jump up ^ Harré, R. (1981). Great Scientific Experiments. Phaidon (Oxford). pp. 39–47. ISBN 0-7148-2096-2.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gastric acid.
The Parietal Cell: Mechanism of Acid Secretion; Colorado State University
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Mosaic (web browser)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the browser produced by NCSA. For the browser that was later renamed, see Netscape Navigator.
NCSA Mosaic
NCSA Mosaic 3.0 for Microsoft Windows
Developer(s)
NCSA
Initial release
0.5 / January 23, 1993; 25 years ago (1993-01-23)[1]
Last release
3.0 / January 7, 1997; 21 years ago (1997-01-07)
Development status
Historical
Written in
C[2]
Platform
AmigaOS
Classic Mac OS
Unix
OpenVMS
Microsoft Windows
Available in
English
Type
Web browser
License
Proprietary
Website
www.ncsa.illinois.edu/enabling/mosaic
NCSA Mosaic, or simply Mosaic, is the web browser that popularized the World Wide Web and the Internet. It was also a client for earlier internet protocols such as File Transfer Protocol, Network News Transfer Protocol, and Gopher. The browser was named for its support of multiple internet protocols.[3] Its intuitive interface, reliability, Microsoft Windows port and simple installation all contributed to its popularity within the web, as well as on Microsoft operating systems.[4] Mosaic was also the first browser to display images inline with text instead of displaying images in a separate window.[5] While often described as the first graphical web browser, Mosaic was preceded by WorldWideWeb, the lesser-known Erwise[6] and ViolaWWW.
Mosaic was developed at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA)[5] at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign beginning in late 1992. NCSA released the browser in 1993,[7] and officially discontinued development and support on January 7, 1997.[8] However, it can still be downloaded from NCSA.[9]
Netscape Navigator was later developed by Netscape (originally known as Mosaic Communications Corporation), which employed many of the original Mosaic authors; however, it intentionally shared no code with Mosaic. Netscape Navigator's code descendant is Mozilla Firefox.[10] Starting in 1995 Mosaic lost market share to Netscape Navigator, and by 1997 only had a tiny fraction of users left, by which time the project was discontinued. Microsoft licensed Mosaic to create Internet Explorer in 1995.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Licensing
3 Immediate effect
4 Importance of Mosaic
5 End of Mosaic
6 Features
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Background[edit]
Mosaic 1.0 running under System 7.1, displaying the Mosaic Communications Corporation (later Netscape) website.
After trying ViolaWWW, David Thompson demonstrated it to the NCSA software design group; Marc Andreessen.[11] Andreessen and Eric Bina originally designed and programmed NCSA Mosaic for Unix's X Window System called xmosaic.[5][7][11][12] Then, in December 1991, the Gore Bill created and introduced by then Senator and future Vice President Al Gore was passed, which provided the funding for the Mosaic project. Development began in December 1992. Marc Andreessen announced the project on Jan 23, 1993.[13] The first alpha release (numbered 0.1a) was published in June 1993, and the first beta release (numbered 0.6b) followed quickly thereafter in September 1993. Version 1.0 for Microsoft Windows was released on November 11, 1993.[14][15] NCSA Mosaic for Unix (X-Windows) version 2.0 was released on November 10, 1993.[16] A port of Mosaic to the Commodore Amiga was available by October 1993. Ports to Microsoft Windows and Macintosh had already been released in September.[11] From 1994 to 1997, the National Science Foundation supported the further development of Mosaic.[17]
Marc Andreessen, the leader of the team that developed Mosaic, left NCSA and, with James H. Clark, one of the founders of Silicon Graphics, Inc. (SGI), and four other former students and staff of the University of Illinois, started Mosaic Communications Corporation. Mosaic Communications eventually became Netscape Communications Corporation, producing Netscape Navigator.
1994 saw the first commercial product to incorporate Mosaic: SCO Global Access, a modified version of its Open Desktop version of Unix that served as an Internet gateway.[18]
Spyglass, Inc. licensed the technology and trademarks from NCSA for producing their own web browser but never used any of the NCSA Mosaic source code.[19] Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic in 1995 for US$2 million, modified it, and renamed it Internet Explorer.[20] After a later auditing dispute, Microsoft paid Spyglass $8 million.[20][21] The 1995 user guide The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML, specifically states, in a section called Coming Attractions, that Internet Explorer "will be based on the Mosaic program".[22]:331 Versions of Internet Explorer before version 7 stated "Based on NCSA Mosaic" in the About box. Internet Explorer 7 was audited by Microsoft[citation needed] to ensure that it contained no Mosaic code, and thus no longer credits Spyglass or Mosaic.
Licensing[edit]
The licensing terms for NCSA Mosaic were generous for a proprietary software program. In general, non-commercial use was free of charge for all versions (with certain limitations). Additionally, the X Window System/Unix version publicly provided source code (source code for the other versions was available after agreements were signed). Despite persistent rumors to the contrary, however, Mosaic was never released as open source software during its brief reign as a major browser; there were always constraints on permissible uses without payment.
As of 1993[update], license holders included these:[23]
Amdahl Corporation
Fujitsu Limited (Product: Infomosaic, a Japanese version of Mosaic. Price: Yen5,000 (approx US$50)
Infoseek Corporation (Product: No commercial Mosaic. May use Mosaic as part of a commercial database effort)
Quadralay Corporation (Consumer version of Mosaic. Also using Mosaic in its online help and information product, GWHIS. Price: US$249)
Quarterdeck Office Systems Inc.
The Santa Cruz Operation Inc. (Product: Incorporating Mosaic into "SCO Global Access," a communications package for Unix machines that works with SCO's Open Server. Runs a graphical e-mail service and accesses newsgroups.)
SPRY Inc. (Products: A communication suite: Air Mail, Air News, Air Mosaic, etc. Also producing Internet In a Box with O'Reilly & Associates. Price: US$149–$399 for Air Series.)
Spyglass, Inc. (Product: Relicensing to other vendors. Signed deal with Digital Equipment Corp., which would ship Mosaic with all its machines.)
Immediate effect[edit]
Other browsers existed during this period, notably Erwise, ViolaWWW, MidasWWW and tkWWW. These browsers, however, did not have the same effect as Mosaic on public use of the Internet.[24]
In the October 1994 issue of Wired Magazine, Gary Wolfe notes in the article titled "The (Second Phase of the) Revolution Has Begun: Don't look now, but Prodigy, AOL, and CompuServe are all suddenly obsolete - and Mosaic is well on its way to becoming the world's standard interface":
When it comes to smashing a paradigm, pleasure is not the most important thing. It is the only thing. If this sounds wrong, consider Mosaic. Mosaic is the celebrated graphical "browser" that allows users to travel through the world of electronic information using a point-and-click interface. Mosaic's charming appearance encourages users to load their own documents onto the Net, including color photos, sound bites, video clips, and hypertext "links" to other documents. By following the links - click, and the linked document appears - you can travel through the online world along paths of whim and intuition. Mosaic is not the most direct way to find online information. Nor is it the most powerful. It is merely the most pleasurable way, and in the 18 months since it was released, Mosaic has incited a rush of excitement and commercial energy unprecedented in the history of the Net.[23]
Importance of Mosaic[edit]
Mosaic was the web browser that led to the Internet boom of the 1990s. Robert Reid underscores this importance stating, "while still an undergraduate, Marc wrote the Mosaic software ... that made the web popularly relevant and touched off the revolution".[25]:xlii Reid notes that Andreessen's team hoped:
... to rectify many of the shortcomings of the very primitive prototypes then floating around the Internet. Most significantly, their work transformed the appeal of the Web from niche uses in the technical area to mass-market appeal. In particular, these University of Illinois students made two key changes to the Web browser, which hyper-boosted its appeal: they added graphics to what was otherwise boring text-based software, and, most importantly, they ported the software from so-called Unix computers that are popular only in technical and academic circles, to the [Microsoft] Windows operating system, which is used on more than 80 percent of the computers in the world, especially personal and commercial computers.[25]:xxv
Mosaic is not the first web browser for Microsoft Windows; this is Thomas R. Bruce's little-known Cello. The Unix version of Mosaic was already famous before the Microsoft Windows and Mac versions were released. Other than displaying images embedded in the text rather than in a separate window, Mosaic's original feature set is not greater than of the browsers on which it was modeled, such as ViolaWWW.[5] But Mosaic was the first browser written and supported by a team of full-time programmers, was reliable and easy enough for novices to install, and the inline graphics reportedly proved immensely appealing. Mosaic is said to have made the Web accessible to the ordinary person for the first time and already had 53% market share in 1995.[26]
Reid also refers to Matthew K. Gray's website, Internet Statistics: Growth and Usage of the Web and the Internet, which indicates a dramatic leap in web use around the time of Mosaic's introduction.[25]:xxv
In addition, David Hudson concurs with Reid, noting that:
Marc Andreessen's realization of Mosaic, based on the work of Berners-Lee and the hypertext theorists before him, is generally recognized as the beginning of the web as it is now known. Mosaic, the first web browser to win over the Net masses, was released in 1993 and made freely accessible to the public. The adjective phenomenal, so often overused in this industry, is genuinely applicable to the... 'explosion' in the growth of the web after Mosaic appeared on the scene. Starting with next to nothing, the rates of the web growth (quoted in the press) hovering around tens of thousands of percent over ridiculously short periods of time were no real surprise.[27]:42
Ultimately, web browsers such as Mosaic became the killer applications of the 1990s. Web browsers were the first to bring a graphical interface to search tools the Internet's burgeoning wealth of distributed information services. A mid-1994 guide lists Mosaic alongside the traditional, text-oriented information search tools of the time, Archie and Veronica, Gopher, and WAIS[28] but Mosaic quickly subsumed and displaced them all. Joseph Hardin, the director of the NCSA group within which Mosaic was developed, said downloads were up to 50,000 a month in mid-1994.[29]
In November 1992, there were twenty-six websites in the world[30] and each one attracted attention. In its release year of 1993, Mosaic had a What's New page, and about one new link was being added per day. This was a time when access to the Internet was expanding rapidly outside its previous domain of academia and large industrial research institutions. Yet it was the availability of Mosaic and Mosaic-derived graphical browsers themselves that drove the explosive growth of the Web to over 10,000 sites by Aug 1995 and millions by 1998.[31] Metcalfe expressed the pivotal role of Mosaic this way:
In the Web's first generation, Tim Berners-Lee launched the Uniform Resource Locator (URL), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and HTML standards with prototype Unix-based servers and browsers. A few people noticed that the Web might be better than Gopher.
In the second generation, Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina developed NCSA Mosaic at the University of Illinois. Several million then suddenly noticed that the Web might be better than sex.
In the third generation, Andreessen and Bina left NCSA to found Netscape...
—  —Bob Metcalfe[32][33]
End of Mosaic[edit]
Mosaic's popularity as a separate browser began to lessen upon the release of Andreessen's Netscape Navigator in 1994. This was noted at the time in The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML: "Netscape Communications has designed an all-new WWW browser Netscape, that has significant enhancements over the original Mosaic program."[22]:332
By 1998 its user base had almost completely evaporated, being replaced by other web browsers. After NCSA stopped work on Mosaic, development of the NCSA Mosaic for the X Window System source code was continued by several independent groups. These independent development efforts include mMosaic (multicast Mosaic)[34] which ceased development in early 2004, and Mosaic-CK and VMS Mosaic.
VMS Mosaic, a version specifically targeting OpenVMS operating system, was one of the longest-lived efforts to maintain Mosaic. Using the VMS support already built-in in original version (Bjorn S. Nilsson ported Mosaic 1.2 to VMS in the summer of 1993),[35] developers incorporated a substantial part of the HTML engine from mMosaic, another defunct flavor of the browser.[36] the last (4.2) release[update], VMS Mosaic supported HTML 4.0, OpenSSL, cookies, and various image formats including GIF, JPEG, PNG, BMP, TGA, TIFF and JPEG 2000 image formats.[37] The browser works on VAX, Alpha, and Itanium platforms.[38]
Another long-lived version of Mosaic – Mosaic-CK, developed by Cameron Kaiser – saw its last release (version 2.7ck9) on July 11, 2010; a maintenance release with minor compatibility fixes (version 2.7ck10) was released on 9 January 2015, followed by another one (2.7ck11) in October 2015.[39] The stated goal of the project is "Lynx with graphics" and runs on Mac OS X, Power MachTen, Linux and other compatible Unix-like OSs.[39]
Features[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2010)
Mosaic is based on the libwww library[40][41][42] and thus supported a wide variety of Internet protocols included in the library: Archie, FTP, gopher, HTTP, NNTP, telnet, WAIS.[7]
See also[edit]
Comparison of web browsers
History of the World Wide Web
List of web browsers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Stewart, William. "Mosaic -- The First Global Web Browser". Retrieved 22 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "xmosaic 1.2 source code". NCSA. 1994-06-29. Retrieved 2009-06-02.
Jump up ^ Douglas Crockford (Sep 10, 2011). Crockford on JavaScript - Volume 1: The Early Years. YouTube. Event occurs at 1:35:50.
Jump up ^ Andreessen, Marc. "Mosaic -- The First Global Web Browser". Retrieved 2006-12-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Berners-Lee, Tim. "What were the first WWW browsers?". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ Holwerda, Thom (3 Mar 2009). "The World's First Graphical Browser: Erwise". OSNews. Retrieved 2009-06-02.
^ Jump up to: a b c Vetter, Ronald J. (October 1994). "Mosaic and the World-Wide Web" (PDF). North Dakota State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "Exhibits - Internet History - 1990's". Computer History Museum. 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
Jump up ^ "Mosaic FTP". NCSA. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Clark, Jim (1999). Netscape Time. St. Martin's Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c Berners-Lee, Tim. "A Brief History of the Web". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Andreessen, Marc; Bina, Eric (1994). "NCSA Mosaic: A Global Hypermedia System". Internet Research. Bingley, U.K.: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 4 (1): 7–17. doi:10.1108/10662249410798803. ISSN 1066-2243.
Jump up ^ "NCSA X Mosaic 0.5 released". Retrieved 2013-07-06.
Jump up ^ "The History of NCSA Mosaic". NCSA.
Jump up ^ "About NCSA Mosaic". NCSA. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ "NCSA Mosaic for X 2.0 available". Retrieved 2013-07-06.
Jump up ^ https://nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100274&org=NSF
Jump up ^ Mace, Scott (7 March 1994). "SCO brings Internet access to PCs". InfoWorld. p. 47.
Jump up ^ Sink, Eric (2003-05-15). "Memoirs From the Browser Wars". Eric Sink's Weblog. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
^ Jump up to: a b Thurrott, Paul (22 January 1997). "Microsoft and Spyglass kiss and make up". Archived from the original on 19 September 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Elstrom, Peter (22 January 1997). "MICROSOFT'S $8 MILLION GOODBYE TO SPYGLASS". Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Graham, Ian S. (1995). The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML (First ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-11849-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolfe, Gary (October 1994). "The (Second Phase of the) Revolution Has Begun". Wired Magazine. 2: 10. Retrieved January 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ "A Little History of the World Wide Web From 1960s to 1995". CERN. 2001-05-05. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c Reid, Robert H. (1997). Architects of the Web: 1000 Days That Built the Future of Business. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-17187-5.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, Andy; Jones, Steve (6 December 2000). "Which Way Now? Analysing and Easing Inadequacies in WWW Navigation". CiteSeerX 10.1.1.25.8504  .
Jump up ^ Hudson, David (1997). Rewired: A Brief and Opinionated Net History. Indianapolis: Macmillan Technical Publishing. ISBN 1-57870-003-5.
Jump up ^ Lucey, Sean (9 May 1994). "Internet tools help navigate the busy virtual highway". MacWeek: 51.
Jump up ^ Levitt, Jason (9 May 1994). "A Matter of Attribution: Can't Forget to Give Credit for Mosaic Where Credit is Due". Open Systems Today: 71.
Jump up ^ http://info.cern.ch/. Retrieved 2014-06-16. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Web Server Survey | Netcraft. News.netcraft.com. Retrieved on 2014-06-16.
Jump up ^ "InfoWorld". 17 (34). August 21, 1995.
Jump up ^ Roads and Crossroads of Internet History Chapter 4: Birth of the Web
Jump up ^ dauphin, Gilles (1996). "W3C mMosaic". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 2007-11-02.
Jump up ^ Nilsson, Bjorn (1993). "README.VMS". National Center for Supercomputing Applications. Retrieved 2007-11-02.
Jump up ^ NCSA and VMS Mosaic Version Information
Jump up ^ "OpenVMS.org - OpenVMS Community Portal (VMS Mosaic V4.2)". OpenVMS.org. 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-02.
Jump up ^ "Mosaic 4.0 freeware_readme.txt". Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. 2006. Retrieved 2007-11-02.
^ Jump up to: a b "Official Mosaic-CK homepage".
Jump up ^ Kahan, José (7 June 2002). "Change History of libwww". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Petrie, Charles; Cailliau, Robert (November 1997). "Interview Robert Cailliau on the WWW Proposal: "How It Really Happened."". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Kahan, José (5 August 1999). "Why Libwww?". Retrieved 15 June 2010.
Further reading[edit]
Tikka, Juha-Pekka (March 3, 2009). "The Greatest Internet Pioneers You Never Heard Of: The Story of Erwise and Four Finns Who Showed the Way to the Web Browser". Xconomy.
External links[edit]
Welcome to Mosaic Communications Corporation!
NCSA Mosaic 1.0 home page at Déjà Vu (dejavu.org)
Beyond the Web: Excavating the Real World Via Mosaic - early application of Mosaic
NCSA Mosaic for modern Linux systems at GitHub
NCSA Mosaic Archive
In The Beginning... - A history of the development effort for the Microsoft Windows version.
Mosaic archive on evolt.org
Mosaic for OpenVMS systems
VMS Mosaic home page at the Wayback Machine (archived November 17, 2013)
Mosaic-CK home page
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mosaic_(web_browser)&oldid=835972342"
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Mosaic – Danish
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Mosaic – Spanish
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Mosaic – Galician
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Mosaic – Italian
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Mosaic – Portuguese
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Mosaic – Romanian
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