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Kruger National Park
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Kruger National reserve
IUCN category II (national park)
Burchell's zebra in a Kruger landscape
Location of the park (red area) in South Africa
Location
Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces, South Africa
Nearest city
Nelspruit (southern)
Phalaborwa (central)
Coordinates
24°0′41″S 31°29′7″E / 24.01139°S 31.48528°E / -24.01139; 31.48528Coordinates: 24°0′41″S 31°29′7″E / 24.01139°S 31.48528°E / -24.01139; 31.48528
Area
19,485 km2 (7,523 sq mi)[1][2][3]
Established
31 May 1926[4][5](1898)
Visitors
1,336,981 (in 2004)
Governing body
South African National Parks
www.sanparks.org/parks/kruger/
Kruger National Park is one of the largest game reserves in Africa. It covers an area of 19,485 square kilometres (7,523 sq mi) in the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in northeastern South Africa, and extends 360 kilometres (220 mi) from north to south and 65 kilometres (40 mi) from east to west. The administrative headquarters are in Skukuza. Areas of the park were first protected by the government of the South African Republic in 1898, and it became South Africa's first national park in 1926.
To the west and south of the Kruger National Park are the two South African provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga. In the north is Zimbabwe, and to the east is Mozambique. It is now part of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, a peace park that links Kruger National Park with the Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, and with the Limpopo National Park in Mozambique.
The park is part of the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere an area designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as an International Man and Biosphere Reserve (the "Biosphere").[6]
The park has nine main gates allowing entrance to the different camps.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Pre-Reserve (–1898)
1.2 Sabi Game Reserve (1898–1926)
1.3 Kruger National Park (1926–1946)
1.4 1946–1994
1.5 1994–present
2 Location and geography
3 Climate
4 Flora and fauna
4.1 Vegetation
4.1.1 Thorn trees and red bush-willow veld
4.1.2 Knob-thorn and marula veld
4.1.3 Red bush-willow and mopane veld
4.1.4 Shrub mopane veld
4.2 Birds
4.3 Mammals
4.4 Reptiles
4.5 Amphibians and fish
5 Anti-poaching measures
5.1 Poachers
5.2 Rhino horn
5.3 Ivory stocks
5.4 Other
6 Accommodation and facilities
6.1 Rest camps
6.2 Designated private lodges
6.3 Bushveld camps
6.4 Restaurants
7 Gates to the Kruger Park
8 Wilderness trails
9 Gallery
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Kruger National Park
Pre-Reserve (–1898)[edit]
The area that the park covers today was part of the last wild frontier in the eastern half of Transvaal before the Second Anglo-Boer War. Paul Kruger, President of the Republic of South Africa at the time, proclaimed the area, which was inhabited by the Tsonga people, a sanctuary for the protection of its wildlife. Today it is against the law to farm or hunt animals in that area. James Stevenson Hamilton noted many kraals along the Sabi River and also further north beyond the Letaba River[7] although the north was sparsely populated compared to the south. Many of the local natives were employed by Railway companies trying to connect Pretoria and Maputo during the end of the 19th century. The proclaimed area, called Makuleke, was returned to the Tsonga people in 1998. Since then the Kruger National Park has paid royalties to the Tsonga, which is collected as a tribal fee from tourists.
Sabi Game Reserve (1898–1926)[edit]
In 1895, Jakob Louis van Wyk introduced in the Volksraad of the old South African Republic a motion to create the game reserve. The area proposed extended from the Olifants River to the Sabi River in the north. That motion, introduced together with another Volksraad member by the name of R. K. Loveday, and accepted for discussion in September 1895 by a majority of one vote, resulted in the proclamation by Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic (South African Republic), on 26 March 1898, of a "Government Wildlife Park." This park would later be known as the Sabi Game Reserve.
The park was initially created to control hunting[8] and protect the diminished number of animals in the park.
James Stevenson-Hamilton became the first warden of the reserve in 1902.[8] The reserve was located in the southern one-third of the modern park.[9] Shingwedzi Reserve, named after the Shingwedzi River and now in northern Kruger National Park, was proclaimed in 1903.[10] During the following decades all the native tribes were removed from the reserve and during the 1960s the last were removed at Makuleke in the Pafuri triangle. In 1926, Sabie Game Reserve, the adjacent Shingwedzi Game Reserve, and farms were combined to create Kruger National Park.[11]
During 1923, the first large groups of tourists started visiting the Sabie Game Reserve, but only as part of the South African Railways' popular "Round in Nine" tours. The tourist trains used the Selati railway line between Komatipoort on the Mozambican border and Tzaneen in Limpopo Province. The tour included an overnight stop at Sabie Bridge (now Skukuza) and a short walk, escorted by armed rangers, into the bush. It soon became a highlight of the tour and it gave valuable support for the campaign to proclaim the Sabie Game Reserve as a national park.[12][13]
Kruger National Park (1926–1946)[edit]
After the proclamation of the Kruger National Park in 1926, the first three tourist cars entered the park in 1927, jumping to 180 cars in 1928 and 850 cars in 1929.[5]
Warden James Stevenson-Hamilton retired on 30 April 1946, after 44 years as warden of the Kruger Park and its predecessor, the Sabi Sabi Game Reserve.
1946–1994[edit]
Plaque in the park. Now and then people do get killed, however, this is extremely rare.
Stevenson-Hamilton was replaced by Colonel J. A. B. Sandenbergh of the South African Air Force.[12] During 1959, work commenced to completely fence the park boundaries. Work started on the southern boundary along the Crocodile River and in 1960 the western and northern boundaries were fenced, followed by the eastern boundary with Mozambique. The purpose of the fence was to curb the spread of diseases, facilitate border patrolling and inhibit the movement of poachers.[12]
The Makuleke area in the northern part of the park was forcibly taken from the Makuleke people by the government in 1969 and about 1500 of them were relocated to land to the south so that their original tribal areas could be integrated into the greater Kruger National Park.[14][15]
1994–present[edit]
In 1996 the Makuleke tribe submitted a land claim for 19,842 hectares (198.42 km2) in the northern part of the Kruger National Park.[16] The land was given back to the Makuleke people, however, they chose not to resettle on the land but to engage with the private sector to invest in tourism, thus resulting in the building of several game lodges.[17][18]
In the late 1990s, the fences between the Kruger Park and Klaserie Game Reserve, Olifants Game Reserve and Balule Game Reserve were dropped and incorporated into the Greater Kruger Park with 40 000 hectares added to the Reserve.
In 2002, Kruger National Park, Gonarezhou National Park in Zimbabwe, and Limpopo National Park in Mozambique were incorporated into a peace park, the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park.[11]
Location and geography[edit]
Geography of the Kruger National Park
Olifants River
Luvuvhu and Limpopo rivers at Crookes Corner in Pafuri triangle
The park lies in the north-east of South Africa,[9] in the eastern parts of Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces. Phalaborwa, Limpopo is the only town in South Africa that borders the Kruger National Park. It is one of the largest national parks in the world, with an area of 19,485 square kilometres (7,523 sq mi). The park is approximately 360 kilometres (220 mi) long,[9] and has an average width of 65 kilometres (40 mi).[11] At its widest point, the park is 90 kilometres (56 mi) wide from east to west.[9]
To the north and south of the park two rivers, the Limpopo and the Crocodile respectively, act as its natural boundaries. To the east the Lebombo Mountains separate it from Mozambique. Its western boundary runs parallel with this range, roughly 65 kilometres (40 mi) distant. The park varies in altitude between 200 metres (660 ft) in the east and 840 metres (2,760 ft) in the south-west near Berg-en-Dal. The highest point in the park is here, a hill called Khandzalive. Several rivers run through the park from west to east, including the Sabie, Olifants, Crocodile, Letaba, Luvuvhu and Limpopo Rivers.
See also: Makuleke and Lanner Gorge
Climate[edit]
Skukuza
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
94
33
21
96
32
20
66
31
19
38
29
15
14
28
10
11
26
6
11
26
6
8
27
9
28
29
13
40
30
16
63
31
18
92
32
20
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: SAWS[19]
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
3.7
91
70
3.8
90
68
2.6
88
66
1.5
84
59
0.6
82
50
0.4
79
43
0.4
79
43
0.3
81
48
1.1
84
55
1.6
86
61
2.5
88
64
3.6
90
68
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
The climate of the Kruger National Park and Lowveld is subtropical. Summer days are humid and hot. The rainy season is from September until May. The Kruger National Park website lists September and October as the driest periods, culminating in rains late in October. The dry winter season is the ideal time to visit this region for various reasons. There is less chance of contracting malaria and the days are milder. Viewing wildlife is more rewarding as the vegetation is more sparse and animals are drawn to the waterholes to drink every morning and evening.
Flora and fauna[edit]
Vegetation[edit]
Plants life in the park consists of four main areas:
Natural landscape for much of the Park
Thorn trees and red bush-willow veld[edit]
This area lies between the western boundary and roughly the centre of the park south of the Olifants River. Combretums, such as the red bush-willow (Combretum apiculatum), and Acacia species predominate while there are a great number of marula trees (Sclerocarya caffra). The Acacias are dominant along the rivers and streams, the very dense Nwatimhiri bush along the Sabie River between Skukuza and Lower Sabie being a very good example.
Knob-thorn and marula veld[edit]
South of the Olifants River in the eastern half of the park, this area provides the most important grazing-land. Species such as red grass (Themeda triandra) and buffalo grass (Panicum maximum) predominate while the knob-thorn (Acacia nigrescens), leadwood (Combretum imberbe) and marula (Sclerocarya caffra) are the main tree species.
Red bush-willow and mopane veld[edit]
This area lies in the western half of the park, north of the Olifants River. The two most prominent species here are the red bush-willow (Combretum apiculatum) and the mopane tree (Colophospermum mopane).
Shrub mopane veld[edit]
Shrub mopane covers almost the entire north-eastern part of the park.
There are a number of smaller areas in the park which carry distinctive vegetation such as Pretoriuskop where the sickle bush and the silver cluster-leaf (Terminalia sericea) are prominent. The sandveld communities near Punda Maria are equally definitive, with a wide variety of unique species.
Birds[edit]
Out of the 517 species of birds found at Kruger, 253 are residents, 117 non-breeding migrants, and 147 nomads. Some of the larger birds require large territories or are sensitive to habitat degradation. Six of these species, which are by and large restricted to Kruger and other extensive conservation areas, have been assigned to a fanciful grouping called the "Big Six Birds".[20] They are the lappet-faced vulture, martial eagle, saddle-billed stork, kori bustard, ground hornbill and the reclusive Pel's fishing owl, which is localized and seldom seen. There are between 25 and 30 breeding pairs of saddle-billed storks in the park, besides a handful of non-breeding individuals.[20] In 2012 178 family groups of ground hornbills roamed the park and 78 nests were known, of which 50% were active.[21]
Mammals[edit]
Mammals
A male Southern African lion
Elephant crossing a road
Leopard
A cheetah at Kruger National Park.
All the Big Five game animals are found at Kruger National Park, which has more species of large mammals than any other African game reserve (at 147 species). There are webcams set up to observe the wildlife.[22]
The park stopped culling elephants in 1994 and tried translocating them, but by 2004 the population had increased to 11,670 elephants, by 2006 to approximately 13,500, by 2009 to 11,672, and by 2012 to 16,900. The park's habitats can only sustain about 8,000 elephants. The park started an attempt at using contraception in 1995, but has stopped that due to problems with delivering the contraceptives and upsetting the herds.
Kruger supports packs of the endangered African wild dog, of which there are thought to be only about 400 in the whole of South Africa.[23]
Wildlife Population As of 2009[update]
Species
Count (2009)
Count (2010)[24]
Black Rhinoceros 350 590-660
Blue Wildebeest 9,612 11,500
Burchell's zebra 17,797 26,500
Bushbuck 500 500
Cape buffalo 27,000 37,500
Eland 300 460
Elephant 11,672 13,700
Giraffe 5,114 9,000
Greater Kudu 5,798 9,500
Hippopotamus 3,000 3,100
Impala 150,000 120,000
Lichtenstein’s Hartebeest 50
Mountain Reedbuck 150
Nyala 300
Roan Antelope 90
Sable Antelope 290
Warthog 3,500
Waterbuck 5,000 5,500
White Rhinoceros 7,000 to 12,000[25] 10,500
African wild dog 150
Cheetah 120 120
Crocodile 4,420
Leopard 2,000 1,000
Lion 2,800 1,600
Spotted hyena 2,000 3,500
Pride of lions in Kruger National Park
Reptiles[edit]
Kruger houses 114 species of reptile, including black mamba, african rock pythons, and 3000 crocodiles.
Amphibians and fish[edit]
Thirty-three species of amphibians are found in the Park,[26] as well as 50 fish species. A Zambesi shark, Carcharhinus leucas, also known as the bull shark, was caught at the confluence of the Limpopo and Luvuvhu Rivers in July 1950. Zambezi sharks tolerate fresh water and can travel far up rivers like the Limpopo.[27]
Anti-poaching measures[edit]
Kruger is not exempt from the threat of poaching that many other African countries have faced. Many poachers are in search of ivory from rhino and elephant tusks.[28] The park's anti-poaching unit consists of 650[29] SANParks game rangers, assisted by the SAPS and the SANDF (including the SAAF). As of 2013, the park is equipped with two drones borrowed from Denel and two Aérospatiale Gazelle helicopters, donated by the RAF to augment its air space presence.[30][31] Automated movement sensors relay intrusions along the Mozambique border to a control center,[32] and a specialist dog unit has been introduced.[33] Buffer zones have been established along the border with Mozambique,[34] from where many poachers have infiltrated the park, as an alternative to costly new fences.[35] The original 150 km long fences were dropped in 2002 to establish the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park.[29][36] The national anti-poaching committee oversees all activities and coordinates interested parties.[37][38]
Poachers[edit]
Kruger's big game poachers operate with night vision instruments and large caliber rifles, fitted with suppressors and sophisticated telescopic sights.[39][40] They are mostly Mozambique citizens that initiate their carefully planned incursions from the Mozambique border region.[39][41][42] In 2012 some 200 poachers were apprehended,[43] while about 30 were killed in skirmishes.[44][45]
In July 2012, a Kruger game ranger and policeman were the first to die in an anti-poaching operation,[46] while other employees reported intimidation by poachers.[47][48][49][50] A Kruger personnel strike affected some anti-poaching operations,[51] and a few employees have been directly implicated.[47][52][53][54][55] Rangers in and around the park have been pressured or blackmailed by poaching syndicates to provide intelligence on the whereabouts of rhinos and anti-poaching operations.[56]
In December 2012, Kruger started using a Seeker II drone against rhino poachers. The drone was loaned to the South African National Parks authority by its manufacturer Denel Dynamics, South Africa.[57][58]
In February 2018, a head belonging to a suspected poacher appeared in Kruger National Park near Hoedspruit, with the body dragged off and eaten by lions, it is assumed. Officials had assumed at first that it was the head of a park employee that had gone missing days before, but it was later determined the man was, in fact, a suspected poacher after the park employee had been found alive. The head belonging to the suspected poacher had been found in an area highly trafficked by lions, along with a loaded hunting rifle.
Rhino horn[edit]
Poachers mostly operate at or near full moon[42][59][60] and make no distinction between white and black rhinos.[48][61] Losses of black rhino are however low due to their reclusive and aggressive nature.[62] With rhino horn fetching around $66,000 (and up to $82,000) per kilogram,[42][49][62][63][64] the CITES ban on the trade in rhino horn has proved largely ineffectual.[65][66] The second horn is sometimes hacked from the skull to obtain about 100 ml of moisture that is sold locally as traditional medicine.[62]
Poaching related to rhino horn escalated in the 21st century with 949 rhinos killed in Kruger in the first twelve years (2001 to 2012),[30] and over 520 in 2013 alone.[67][68] A planned memorandum of agreement between South Africa and Vietnam, in addition to the one with China,[35] are seen as necessary milestones in stemming the tide,[69][70] while negotiations with Thailand have not yet started.[71] The amount of rhino horn held in storage is not publicly known.[72] Since 2009 some Kruger rhinos have been fitted with invisible tracing devices in their bodies and horns which enable officials to locate their carcasses and to track the smuggled horns by satellite.[73] South Africa's 22,000 white and black rhinos, of which 12,000 are found in Kruger, represent some 93% of these species' world population.[48][66]
Ivory stocks[edit]
Kruger experienced significant elephant poaching in the 1980s,[73] which has since abated. It holds over 48 tons of ivory in storage. According to Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), it is allowed to sell 30 tons.
Following approval by CITES, 47 metric tons of stockpiled ivory from Kruger were auctioned on 6 November 2008. The sale fetched approximately US$6.7 million which will be used towards increasing anti-poaching activity. The average price for the 63 lots on auction was US$142/kg.
Other[edit]
It is foreseen that the placement of wire traps to procure meat would eventually become the most challenging form of poaching.[74] A scheme has been proposed to reward adjacent communities with the proceeds of game sales in return for their cooperation in game preservation.[74] The larger communities include Bosbokrand, Acornhoek, Hazyview, Hoedspruit, Komatipoort, Malelane, Marloth Park, Nelspruit and Phalaborwa.[66]
Accommodation and facilities[edit]
The Kruger National Park has 21 rest camps, as well as two private lodge concessions, and 15 designated private safari lodges. The concessions are parcels of land operated by private companies in partnership with communities, who outsource the operation of private lodges. Camping in the park has become popular with tourists and backpackers because it is much less expensive, and open to anyone, requiring no special permission to partake.[75]
Rest camps[edit]
Mopani's view over Pioneer Dam.
Orpen Rest Camp.
A tent in Tamboti Tented Camp.
Bateleur Bushveld Camp
Berg-en-Dal Camp
Biyamiti Bushveld Camp
Boulders Bush Camp
Balule Camp, near Olifants Camp
Crocodile Bridge Camp
Letaba Camp
Lower Sabie Camp
Malelane Camp
Maroela Camp, near Orpen
Mopani Camp
Olifants Camp
Orpen Camp
Pretoriuskop Camp
Punda Maria Camp
Roodewal Bush Lodge
Satara Camp
Shimuwini Bushveld Camp
Shingwedzi Camp
Sirheni Bushveld Camp
Skukuza Camp
Talamati Bushveld Camp
Tamboti Tented Camp, near Orpen
Tsendze Rustic Camp
[76]
Designated private lodges[edit]
Camp Shawu near Crocodile Bridge Gate
Camp Shonga near Crocodile Bridge Gate
Hamiltons Tented Camp
Hoyo Hoyo Tsonga Lodge
Imbali Safari Lodge
Jocks Safari Lodge & Spa
Lukimbi Safari Lodge
Pafuri Camp, near Pafuri Gate
Plains Camp
Rhino Post Camp
Shishangeni Lodge near Crocodile Bridge Gate
Singita Lebombo Lodge
Singita Sweni Lodge
The Outpost Lodge, near Pafuri Gate
Tinga Game Lodges
[77]
Bushveld camps[edit]
See also: Bushveld
Bateleur Bushveld Camp
Biyamiti Bushveld Camp
Shimuwini Bushveld Camp
Sirheni Bushveld Camp
Talamati Bushveld Camp
Restaurants[edit]
On 30 October 2013, South African National Parks (SANParks) announced the establishment of franchise restaurants in several rest camps.
Mugg & Bean restaurants have been established at Lower Sabie, Olifants and Letaba rest camps. Wimpy restaurants have been established at Pretoriuskop and Satara rest camps. Skukuza's Selati Station Grill House has been replaced by Ciao! and Skukuza’s main camp restaurant and take away will be run by Cattle Baron and Bistro.[78]
This decision was controversial, with some people welcoming the improvement in food services, and others viewing the introduction of franchises as detracting from the purpose of the Kruger Park.[79][80]
Gates to the Kruger Park[edit]
North & South Gates
Kruger National Park
Pafuri Gate (northernmost entrance to the park)
Crocodile Bridge (a southern entrance to the park)
A signpost in the park
The Kruger Park has the following gates:
Name
Road
From Town
Coordinates
Crocodile Bridge Gate on the extension of Rissikstreet from Komatipoort 25°21′30″S 31°53′37″E / 25.35833°S 31.89361°E / -25.35833; 31.89361 (Crocodile Bridge Gate)
Malelane Gate on the R570 off the N4 near Malelane 25°27′43″S 31°31′59″E / 25.46194°S 31.53306°E / -25.46194; 31.53306 (Malelane Gate)
Numbi Gate on the R569 road from Hazyview 25°9′19″S 31°11′51″E / 25.15528°S 31.19750°E / -25.15528; 31.19750 (Numbi Gate)
Phabeni Gate on the road off the R536 from Hazyview 25°01′30″S 31°14′29″E / 25.02500°S 31.24139°E / -25.02500; 31.24139 (Phabeni Gate)
Paul Kruger Gate on the R536 road from Hazyview 24°58′53″S 31°29′7″E / 24.98139°S 31.48528°E / -24.98139; 31.48528 (Paul Kruger Gate)
Orpen Gate on the R531 road from Klaserie 24°28′33″S 31°23′27″E / 24.47583°S 31.39083°E / -24.47583; 31.39083 (Orpen Gate)
Phalaborwa Gate on the R71 road from Phalaborwa 23°56′44″S 31°9′54″E / 23.94556°S 31.16500°E / -23.94556; 31.16500 (Phalaborwa Gate)
Punda Maria Gate on the R524 road from Thohoyandou 22°44′18″S 31°0′33″E / 22.73833°S 31.00917°E / -22.73833; 31.00917 (Punda Maria Gate)
Pafuri Gate on the R525 road from Musina 22°24′1″S 31°2′29″E / 22.40028°S 31.04139°E / -22.40028; 31.04139 (Pafuri Gate)
Wilderness trails[edit]
Nine different trails are on offer in the Kruger National Park. Some are overnight and they last several days in areas of wilderness virtually untouched by humans. There are no set trails in the wilderness areas; a visitor walks along paths made by animals or seeks out new routes through the bush.
Gallery[edit]
Elephant family at an artificial water hole
Male giraffes necking
Two lionesses having a break after an unsuccessful hunt
A greater kudu bull
See also[edit]
South Africa portal
Kruger to Canyons Biosphere
Abel Chapman
Battle at Kruger
Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park
Lower Sabie
Makuleke
Protected areas of South Africa
Skukuza
Kruger National Park in the 1960s (a timeline of events)
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^ Jump up to: a b "Kruger-heining terug?: Regering wil renosterstropers só uit wildtuin hou". Beeld. 17 January 2012. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Viljoen, Buks (14 December 2012). "Stropers: R100 000 vir inligting". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (7 November 2012). "Oë in die lug teen park se stropers". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (11 November 2012). "'Wildtuin is slagveld'". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Viljoen, Buks (24 October 2012). "Honde deel van stryd teen stropers". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (26 June 2012). "Kruger: Staat sê ja vir 2 buffers: Sones sal ook help om stropery te keer". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Tempelhoff, Elise (30 March 2012). "Nee vir draad tussen wildtuin, buurland". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Heining kan skans bied teen stropers". Beeld. 18 January 2012. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Jani Meyer, Jani Meyer (25 September 2012). "Dragtige koei, nog 7 renosters gestroop". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Elise Tempelhoff, Elise Tempelhoff (27 June 2012). "Stropery: Minister moet bedank, eis groep". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Buks Viljoen, Buks Viljoen (15 February 2012). "Stropers raak ál beter, meer waaghalsig". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (22 December 2012). "Stropers slaan veral híér toe: Gebied van SANParke loop meeste deur". Volksblad. Archived from the original on 29 April 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Viljoen, Buks (29 November 2012). "SANW gryp báie meer aan grens". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Viljoen, Buks (12 January 2011). "5 renosterstropers in Krugerwildtuin doodgeskiet". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (1 November 2012). "Twee doodgeskiet wat glo wil stroop". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Viljoen, Buks (13 January 2012). "2 stropers doodgeskiet". Beeld. Archived from the original on 19 February 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (9 October 2012). "Stroper geskiet in wildtuin, 1 gewond". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (25 July 2012). "Skietery in Kruger eis twee: Wildtuin is 'n 'oorlogsone'". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Viljoen, Buks (28 March 2012). "'Verkeerslid help met stropery': Hof hoor hoe vier beplan". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c South Africa's 18,780 white and 1,916 black rhinos were still increasing in 2012, see: Otto, Hanti (5 April 2012). "Minister is 'optimisties' oor stropery". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Viljoen, Buks (5 April 2012). "Veldwag met dood gedreig in 4 se saak". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Viljoen, Buks (14 April 2012). "Horings: Vroue vas oor hulle dreig". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Viljoen, Buks (9 February 2012). "Afgetredes ingeroep om te help in wildtuin". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Viljoen, Buks (1 March 2012). "Vier van Kruger vas oor stropery: Voertuie uitgesnuffel". Beeld. Archived from the original on 19 February 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Viljoen, Buks (2 March 2012). "Vier bly in Skukuza-selle". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Viljoen, Buks, Jody Nel (27 July 2011). "Wildtuin-veldwagter vas weens renosterstropery". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Viljoen, Buks (5 December 2006). "Húlle slaan nié bokke dood, sê drie van wildtuin". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Groenewald, Yolandi (23 August 2016). "Poaching syndicates target Kruger rangers". Oxpeckers. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Conway-Smith, Erin (11 January 2013) South Africa sics drones on rhino poachers Global Post, Retrieved 19 March 2013
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, Fay (16 March 2013). "Animal activists to use drones in fight against illegal hunting". The Times. p. 17. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Louw-Carstens, Marietie (10 April 2012). "Hy hoor stropers se byle: Nr. 164 by haar kalf geskiet, gestroop". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Carnie, Tony (22 January 2014). "11 poachers killed in rhino war". iol news. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Otto, Hanti (25 April 2012). "Hy kyk renoster in oë". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Viljoen, Buks (4 December 2012). "Toeriste kry gestroopte swartrenoster in Kruger". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Hoeders van die horing". Beeld. 19 May 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (23 August 2013). "Kommentaar en ontleding: Stroop vir terreur-geld". Beeld. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (13 June 2012). "245 renosters al vanjaar gestroop; 161 in arres". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cilliers, Susan (13 August 2012). "5 gestroop in één park: Nuwe plan nodig vir renosters, sê kenners". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "4 rhino poachers killed, 17 arrested in Kruger Park". City Press. SAPA. 23 November 2013. Archived from the original on 27 November 2013. Retrieved 27 November 2013.
Jump up ^ More than 476 Kruger rhinos poached in 2013. See: De Sakutin, Stephane (25 October 2013). "Over 100 rhinos poached in S.Africa in past month". Yahoo! News, South Africa. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "SA, Viëtnam teken gou oor renosters". Beeld. 23 October 2012. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Zwecker, Wolfram (11 November 2012). "Hof waarsku smokkelaars met vonnis: 'Bly weg uit SA!'". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Elise Tempelhoff, Elise Tempelhoff (9 April 2012). "Interpol se hulp ingeroep teen renosterstropery". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Tempelhoff, Elise (30 March 2012). "Nee vir draad tussen wildtuin, buurland". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Coetzee, Cobus (28 November 2009). "'Aanslag' op renosters in Krugerwildtuin se visier: Elektroniese skyfies in lyf en horings ingespan teen wilddiefstal". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Swart, Magda (13 November 2012). "Radikale reddingsplan". Beeld. Archived from the original on 16 May 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Kruger National Park Camping". Kruger National Park Camping. Retrieved 9 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Kruger National Park Rest Areas". Kruger National Park Rest Areas. Retrieved 9 January 2013. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "Kruger Park Accommodations". Kruger National Park Accommodations. Retrieved 9 January 2013.
Jump up ^ https://exploreknp.wordpress.com/tag/mugg-and-bean/
Jump up ^ http://www.news24.com/Travel/MyTravels/Kruger-mall-water-park-and-a-cinema-next-20131101
Jump up ^ http://www.fin24.com/Companies/TravelAndLeisure/Kruger-Park-closes-as-eateries-move-in-20131216
External links[edit]
Find more aboutKruger National Parkat Wikipedia's sister projects
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text:
Two Treatises of Government
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Two Treatises of Government
Title page from the first edition
Author
John Locke
Country
England
Language
English
Subject
Political philosophy
Publisher
Awnsham Churchill
Publication date
1689
(dated 1690)
Media type
Print
Part of a series on
John Locke
Social contract
Limited government
Tabula rasa
State of nature
Right to property
Labor theory of property
Lockean proviso
Works
(listed chronologically)
Fundamental Constitutions
of Carolina
A Letter Concerning Toleration
Two Treatises of Government
An Essay Concerning
Human Understanding
Some Thoughts
Concerning Education
Of the Conduct of
the Understanding
People
Robert Filmer
Thomas Hobbes
1st Earl of Shaftesbury
David Hume
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Adam Smith
Immanuel Kant
Thomas Jefferson
Related topics
Empiricism
Classical liberalism
Polish Brethren
v
t
e
Two Treatises of Government (or Two Treatises of Government: In the Former, The False Principles, and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer, and His Followers, Are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter Is an Essay Concerning The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil Government) is a work of political philosophy published anonymously in 1689 by John Locke. The First Treatise attacks patriarchalism in the form of sentence-by-sentence refutation of Robert Filmer's Patriarcha, while the Second Treatise outlines Locke's ideas for a more civilized society based on natural rights and contract theory.
This publication contrasts former political works by Locke himself. In Two Tracts on Government, written in 1660, Locke defends a very conservative position; however Locke never published it.[1] In 1669 Locke co-authored the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina, which endorses aristocracy, slavery and serfdom.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical context
2 Publication history
3 Main ideas
4 First Treatise
5 Second Treatise
5.1 State of nature
5.2 Conquest and slavery
5.3 Property
5.4 Representative government
5.5 Right of revolution
6 Reception and influence
6.1 Britain
6.2 North America
7 Controversies regarding interpretation
8 References
9 External links
Historical context[edit]
King James II of England (VII of Scotland) was overthrown in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians and the stadtholder of the Dutch Republic William III of Oranje-Nassau (William of Orange), who as a result ascended the English throne as William III of England. This is known as the Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688. Locke claims in the "Preface" to the Two Treatises that its purpose is to justify William III's ascension to the throne, though Peter Laslett suggests that the bulk of the writing was instead completed between 1679–1680 (and subsequently revised until Locke was driven into exile in 1683).[4] According to Laslett, Locke was writing his Two Treatises during the Exclusion Crisis, which attempted to prevent James II from ever taking the throne in the first place. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, Locke's mentor, patron and friend, introduced the bill, but it was ultimately unsuccessful. Richard Ashcraft, following in Laslett's suggestion that the Two Treatises were written before the Revolution, objected that Shaftesbury's party did not advocate revolution during the Exclusion Crisis. He suggests that they are instead better associated with the revolutionary conspiracies that swirled around what would come to be known as the Rye House Plot.[5] Locke, Shaftesbury and many others were forced into exile; some, such as Sidney, were even executed for treason. Locke knew his work was dangerous—he never acknowledged his authorship within his lifetime.
Publication history[edit]
The only edition of the Treatises published in America during the 18th century (1773)
Two Treatises was first published, anonymously, in December 1689 (following printing conventions of the time, its title page was marked 1690). Locke was unhappy with this edition, complaining to the publisher about its many errors. For the rest of his life, he was intent on republishing the Two Treatises in a form that better reflected his meaning. Peter Laslett, one of the foremost Locke scholars, has suggested that Locke held the printers to a higher "standard of perfection" than the technology of the time would permit.[6] Be that as it may, the first edition was indeed replete with errors. The second edition was even worse, and finally printed on cheap paper and sold to the poor. The third edition was much improved, but Locke was still not satisfied.[7] He made corrections to the third edition by hand and entrusted the publication of the fourth to his friends, as he died before it could be brought out.[8]
The Two Treatises begin with a Preface announcing what Locke hopes to achieve, but he also mentions that more than half of his original draft, occupying a space between the First and Second Treatises, has been irretrievably lost.[9] Peter Laslett maintains that, while Locke may have added or altered some portions in 1689, he did not make any revisions to accommodate for the missing section; he argues, for example, that the end of the First Treatise breaks off in mid-sentence.[10]
In 1691 Two Treatises was translated into French by David Mazzel, a French Huguenot living in the Netherlands. This translation left out Locke's "Preface," all of the First Treatise, and the first chapter of the Second Treatise (which summarised Locke's conclusions in the First Treatise). It was in this form that Locke's work was reprinted during the 18th century in France and in this form that Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau were exposed to it.[11] The only American edition from the 18th century was printed in 1773 in Boston; it, too, left out all of these sections. There were no other American editions until the 20th century.[12]
Main ideas[edit]
Two Treatises is divided into the First Treatise and the Second Treatise. The original title of the Second Treatise appears to have been simply "Book II," corresponding to the title of the First Treatise, "Book I." Before publication, however, Locke gave it greater prominence by (hastily) inserting a separate title page: "An Essay Concerning the True Original, Extent and End of Civil Government."[13] The First Treatise is focused on the refutation of Sir Robert Filmer, in particular his Patriarcha, which argued that civil society was founded on a divinely sanctioned patriarchalism. Locke proceeds through Filmer's arguments, contesting his proofs from Scripture and ridiculing them as senseless, until concluding that no government can be justified by an appeal to the divine right of kings.
The Second Treatise outlines a theory of civil society. Locke begins by describing the state of nature, a picture much more stable than Thomas Hobbes' state of "war of every man against every man," and argues that all men are created equal in the state of nature by God. From this, he goes on to explain the hypothetical rise of property and civilization, in the process explaining that the only legitimate governments are those that have the consent of the people. Therefore, any government that rules without the consent of the people can, in theory, be overthrown.
First Treatise[edit]
Title page from Filmer's Patriarcha (1680)
The First Treatise is an extended attack on Sir Robert Filmer's Patriarcha. Locke's argument proceeds along two lines: first, he undercuts the Scriptural support that Filmer had offered for his thesis, and second he argues that the acceptance of Filmer's thesis can lead only to slavery (and absurdity). Locke chose Filmer as his target, he says, because of his reputation and because he "carried this Argument [jure divino] farthest, and is supposed to have brought it to perfection" (1st Tr., § 5).
Filmer's text presented an argument for a divinely ordained, hereditary, absolute monarchy. According to Filmer, the Biblical Adam in his role as father possessed unlimited power over his children and this authority passed down through the generations. Locke attacks this on several grounds. Accepting that fatherhood grants authority, he argues, it would do so only by the act of begetting, and so cannot be transmitted to one's children because only God can create life. Nor is the power of a father over his children absolute, as Filmer would have it; Locke points to the joint power parents share over their children outlined in the Bible. In the Second Treatise Locke returns to a discussion of parental power. (Both of these discussions have drawn the interest of modern feminists such as Carole Pateman.)
Filmer also suggested that Adam's absolute authority came from his ownership over all the world. To this, Locke rebuts that the world was originally held in common (a theme that will return in the Second Treatise). But, even if it were not, he argues, God's grant to Adam covered only the land and brute animals, not human beings. Nor could Adam, or his heir, leverage this grant to enslave mankind, for the law of nature forbids reducing one's fellows to a state of desperation, if one possesses a sufficient surplus to maintain oneself securely. And even if this charity were not commanded by reason, Locke continues, such a strategy for gaining dominion would prove only that the foundation of government lies in consent.
Locke intimates in the First Treatise that the doctrine of divine right of kings (jure divino) will eventually be the downfall of all governments. In his final chapter Locke asks, "Who heir?" If Filmer is correct, there should be only one rightful king in all the world—the heir of Adam. But since it is impossible to discover the true heir of Adam, no government, under Filmer's principles, can require that its members obey its rulers. Filmer must therefore say that men are duty-bound to obey their present rulers. Locke writes:
I think he is the first Politician, who, pretending to settle Government upon its true Basis, and to establish the Thrones of lawful Princes, ever told the World, That he was properly a King, whose Manner of Government was by Supreme Power, by what Means soever he obtained it; which in plain English is to say, that Regal and Supreme Power is properly and truly his, who can by any Means seize upon it; and if this be, to be properly a King, I wonder how he came to think of, or where he will find, an Usurper. (1st Tr., § 79)
Locke ends the First Treatise by examining the history told in the Bible and the history of the world since then; he concludes that there is no evidence to support Filmer's hypothesis. According to Locke, no king has ever claimed that his authority rested upon his being the heir of Adam. It is Filmer, Locke alleges, that is the innovator in politics, not those who assert the natural equality and freedom of man.
Second Treatise[edit]
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In the Second Treatise Locke develops a number of notable themes. It begins with a depiction of the state of nature, wherein individuals are under no obligation to obey one another but are each themselves judge of what the law of nature requires. It also covers conquest and slavery, property, representative government, and the right of revolution.
State of nature[edit]
Locke defines the state of nature thus:
To properly understand political power and trace its origins, we must consider the state that all people are in naturally. That is a state of perfect freedom of acting and disposing of their own possessions and persons as they think fit within the bounds of the law of nature. People in this state do not have to ask permission to act or depend on the will of others to arrange matters on their behalf. The natural state is also one of equality in which all power and jurisdiction is reciprocal and no one has more than another. It is evident that all human beings—as creatures belonging to the same species and rank and born indiscriminately with all the same natural advantages and faculties—are equal amongst themselves. They have no relationship of subordination or subjection unless God (the lord and master of them all) had clearly set one person above another and conferred on him an undoubted right to dominion and sovereignty.[14][15]
The work of Thomas Hobbes made theories based upon a state of nature popular in 17th-century England, even as most of those who employed such arguments were deeply troubled by his absolutist conclusions. Locke's state of nature can be seen in light of this tradition. There is not and never has been any divinely ordained monarch over the entire world, Locke argues. However, the fact that the natural state of humanity is without an institutionalized government does not mean it is lawless. Human beings are still subject to the laws of God and nature. In contrast to Hobbes, who posited the state of nature as a hypothetical possibility, Locke takes great pains to show that such a state did indeed exist. Actually, it still exists in the area of international relations where there is not and is never likely to be any legitimate overarching government (i.e., one directly chosen by all the people subject to it). Whereas Hobbes stresses the disadvantages of the state of nature, Locke points to its good points. It is free, if full of continual dangers (2nd Tr., § 123). Finally, the proper alternative to the natural state is not political dictatorship/tyranny but democratically elected government and the effective protection of basic human rights to life, liberty, and property under the rule of law.
Nobody in the natural state has the political power to tell others what to do. However, everybody has the right to authoritatively pronounce justice and administer punishment for breaches of the natural law. Thus, men are not free to do whatever they please. "The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one: and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that... no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions" (2nd Tr., § 6). The specifics of this law are unwritten, however, and so each is likely to misapply it in his own case. Lacking any commonly recognised, impartial judge, there is no way to correct these misapplications or to effectively restrain those who violate the law of nature.
The law of nature is therefore ill enforced in the state of nature.
IF man in the state of nature be so free, as has been said; if he be absolute lord of his own person and possessions, equal to the greatest, and subject to no body, why will he part with his freedom? Why will he give up this empire, and subject himself to the dominion and control of any other power? To which it is obvious to answer, that though in the state of nature he hath such a right, yet the enjoyment of it is very uncertain, and constantly exposed to the invasion of others: for all being kings as much as he, every man his equal, and the greater part no strict observers of equity and justice, the enjoyment of the property he has in this state is very unsafe, very unsecure. This makes him willing to quit a condition, which, however free, is full of fears and continual dangers: and it is not without reason, that he seeks out, and is willing to join in society with others, who are already united, or have a mind to unite, for the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties and estates, which I call by the general name, property. (2nd Tr., § 123)
It is to avoid the state of war that often occurs in the state of nature, and to protect their private property that men enter into civil or political society, i.e., state of society.
Conquest and slavery[edit]
Ch. 4 ("Of Slavery") and Ch. 16 ("Of Conquest") are sources of some confusion: the former provides a justification for slavery, the latter, the rights of conquerors. Because the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina provided that a master had perfect authority over his slaves, some[who?] have taken these chapters to be an apology for the institution of slavery in Colonial America.
Most Locke scholars[who?] roundly reject this reading, as it is directly at odds with the text. The extent of Locke's involvement in drafting the Fundamental Constitutions is a matter of some debate, but even attributing full culpability for its contents and for his having profited from the Atlantic slave trade, the majority of experts will concede that Locke may have been a hypocrite in this matter, but are adamant that no part of the Two Treatises can be used to provide theoretical support for slavery by bare right of conquest.
In the rhetoric of 17th-century England, those who opposed the increasing power of the kings claimed that the country was headed for a condition of slavery. Locke therefore asks, facetiously, under what conditions such slavery might be justified. He notes that slavery cannot come about as a matter of contract (which became the basis of Locke's political system). To be a slave is to be subject to the absolute, arbitrary power of another; as men do not have this power even over themselves, they cannot sell or otherwise grant it to another. One that is deserving of death, i.e., who has violated the law of nature, may be enslaved. This is, however, but the state of war continued (2nd Tr., § 24), and even one justly a slave therefore has no obligation to obedience.
In providing a justification for slavery, he has rendered all forms of slavery as it actually exists invalid. Moreover, as one may not submit to slavery, there is a moral injunction to attempt to throw off and escape it whenever it looms. Most scholars take this to be Locke's point regarding slavery: submission to absolute monarchy is a violation of the law of nature, for one does not have the right to enslave oneself.
The legitimacy of an English king depended on (somehow) demonstrating descent from William the Conqueror: the right of conquest was therefore a topic rife with constitutional connotations. Locke does not say that all subsequent English monarchs have been illegitimate, but he does make their rightful authority dependent solely upon their having acquired the people's approbation.
Locke first argues that, clearly, aggressors in an unjust war can claim no right of conquest: everything they despoil may be retaken as soon as the dispossessed have the strength to do so. Their children retain this right, so an ancient usurpation does not become lawful with time. The rest of the chapter then considers what rights a just conqueror might have.
The argument proceeds negatively: Locke proposes one power a conqueror could gain, and then demonstrates how in point of fact that power cannot be claimed. He gains no authority over those that conquered with him, for they did not wage war unjustly: thus, whatever other right William may have had in England, he could not claim kingship over his fellow Normans by right of conquest. The subdued are under the conqueror's despotical authority, but only those who actually took part in the fighting. Those who were governed by the defeated aggressor do not become subject to the authority of the victorious aggressor. They lacked the power to do an unjust thing, and so could not have granted that power to their governors: the aggressor therefore was not acting as their representative, and they cannot be punished for his actions. And while the conqueror may seize the person of the vanquished aggressor in an unjust war, he cannot seize the latter's property: he may not drive the innocent wife and children of a villain into poverty for another's unjust acts. While the property is technically that of the defeated, his innocent dependents have a claim that the just conqueror must honour. He cannot seize more than the vanquished could forfeit, and the latter had no right to ruin his dependents. (He may, however, demand and take reparations for the damages suffered in the war, so long as these leave enough in the possession of the aggressor's dependants for their survival).
In so arguing, Locke accomplishes two objectives. First, he neutralises the claims of those who see all authority flowing from William I by the latter's right of conquest. In the absence of any other claims to authority (e.g., Filmer's primogeniture from Adam, divine anointment, etc.), all kings would have to found their authority on the consent of the governed. Second, he removes much of the incentive for conquest in the first place, for even in a just war the spoils are limited to the persons of the defeated and reparations sufficient only to cover the costs of the war, and even then only when the aggressor's territory can easily sustain such costs (i.e., it can never be a profitable endeavour). Needless to say, the bare claim that one's spoils are the just compensation for a just war does not suffice to make it so, in Locke's view.
Property[edit]
In the Second Treatise, Locke claims that civil society was created for the protection of property.[16] In saying this, he relies on the etymological root of "property," Latin proprius, or what is one's own, including oneself (cf. French propre). Thus, by "property" he means "life, liberty, and estate." By saying that political society was established for the better protection of property, he claims that it serves the private (and non-political) interests of its constituent members: it does not promote some good that can be realised only in community with others (e.g., virtue).
For this account to work, individuals must possess some property outside of society, i.e., in the state of nature: the state cannot be the sole origin of property, declaring what belongs to whom. If the purpose of government is the protection of property, the latter must exist independently of the former. Filmer had said that, if there even were a state of nature (which he denied), everything would be held in common: there could be no private property, and hence no justice or injustice (injustice being understood as treating someone else's goods, liberty, or life as if it were one's own). Thomas Hobbes had argued the same thing. Locke therefore provides an account of how material property could arise in the absence of government.
He begins by asserting that each individual, at a minimum, "owns" himself; this is a corollary of each individual's being free and equal in the state of nature. As a result, each must also own his own labour: to deny him his labour would be to make him a slave. One can therefore take items from the common store of goods by mixing one's labour with them: an apple on the tree is of no use to anyone—it must be picked to be eaten—and the picking of that apple makes it one's own. In an alternate argument, Locke claims that we must allow it to become private property lest all mankind have starved, despite the bounty of the world. A man must be allowed to eat, and thus have what he has eaten be his own (such that he could deny others a right to use it). The apple is surely his when he swallows it, when he chews it, when he bites into it, when he brings it to his mouth, etc.: it became his as soon as he mixed his labour with it (by picking it from the tree).
This does not yet say why an individual is allowed to take from the common store of nature. There is a necessity to do so to eat, but this does not yet establish why others must respect one's property, especially as they labour under the like necessity. Locke assures his readers that the state of nature is a state of plenty: one may take from communal store if one leaves a) enough and b) as good for others, and since nature is bountiful, one can take all that one can use without taking anything from someone else. Moreover, one can take only so much as one can use before it spoils. There are then two provisos regarding what one can take, the "enough and as good" condition and "spoilage."
Gold does not rot. Neither does silver, or any other precious metal or gem. They are, moreover, useless, their aesthetic value not entering into the equation. One can heap up as much of them as one wishes, or take them in trade for food. By the tacit consent of mankind, they become a form of money (one accepts gold in exchange for apples with the understanding that someone else will accept that gold in exchange for wheat). One can therefore avoid the spoilage limitation by selling all that one has amassed before it rots; the limits on acquisition thus disappear.
In this way, Locke argues that a full economic system could, in principle, exist within the state of nature. Property could therefore predate the existence of government, and thus society can be dedicated to the protection of property.
Representative government[edit]
Locke did not demand a republic. Rather, Locke felt that a legitimate contract could easily exist between citizens and a monarchy, an oligarchy or some mixed form (2nd Tr., sec. 132). Locke uses the term Common-wealth to mean "not a democracy, or any form of government, but any independent community" (sec. 133) and "whatever form the Common-wealth is under, the Ruling Power ought to govern by declared and received laws, and not by extemporary dictates and undetermined resolutions." (sec 137)
Locke does, however, make a distinction between an executive (e.g. a monarchy), a "Power always in being" (sec 144) that must perpetually execute the law, and the legislative that is the "supreme power of the Common-wealth" (sec 134) and does not have to be always in being. (sec 153) Furthermore, governments are charged by the consent of the individual, "i.e. the consent of the majority, giving it either by themselves, or their representatives chosen by them." (sec 140)
His notions of people's rights and the role of civil government provided strong support for the intellectual movements of both revolutions.
Right of revolution[edit]
The concept of the right of revolution was also taken up by John Locke in Two Treatises of Government as part of his social contract theory. Locke declared that under natural law, all people have the right to life, liberty, and estate; under the social contract, the people could instigate a revolution against the government when it acted against the interests of citizens, to replace the government with one that served the interests of citizens. In some cases, Locke deemed revolution an obligation. The right of revolution thus essentially acted as a safeguard against tyranny.
Locke affirmed an explicit right to revolution in Two Treatises of Government: “whenever the Legislators endeavor to take away, and destroy the Property of the People, or to reduce them to Slavery under Arbitrary Power, they put themselves into a state of War with the People, who are thereupon absolved from any farther Obedience, and are left to the common Refuge, which God hath provided for all Men, against Force and Violence. Whensoever therefore the Legislative shall transgress this fundamental Rule of Society; and either by Ambition, Fear, Folly or Corruption, endeavor to grasp themselves, or put into the hands of any other an Absolute Power over the Lives, Liberties, and Estates of the People; By this breach of Trust they forfeit the Power, the People had put into their hands, for quite contrary ends, and it devolves to the People, who have a Right to resume their original Liberty.” (sec. 222) [17]
Reception and influence[edit]
Britain[edit]
Although the Two Treatises would become well known in the second half of the 18th century, they were somewhat neglected when published. Between 1689 and 1694, around 200 tracts and treatises were published concerning the legitimacy of the Glorious Revolution. Three of these mention Locke, two of which were written by friends of Locke.[18] When Hobbes published the Leviathan in 1651, by contrast, dozens of texts were immediately written in response to it. As Mark Goldie explains: "Leviathan was a monolithic and unavoidable presence for political writers in Restoration England in a way that in the first half of the eighteenth the Two Treatises was not."[19]
While the Two Treatises did not become popular until the 1760s, ideas from them did start to become important earlier in the century. According to Goldie, "the crucial moment was 1701" and "the occasion was the Kentish petition." The pamphlet war that ensued was one of the first times Locke's ideas were invoked in a public debate, most notably by Daniel Defoe.[20] Locke's ideas did not go unchallenged and the periodical The Rehearsal, for example, launched a "sustained and sophisticated assault” against the Two Treatises and endorsed the ideology of patriarchalism.[21] Not only did patriarchalism continue to be a legitimate political theory in the 18th century, but as J. G. A. Pocock and others have gone to great lengths to demonstrate, so was civic humanism and classical republicanism. Pocock has argued that Locke's Two Treatises had very little effect on British political theory; he maintains that there was no contractarian revolution. Rather, he sees these other long-standing traditions as far more important for 18th-century British politics.[22]
In the middle of the 18th century, Locke's position as a political philosopher suddenly rose in prominence. For example, he was invoked by those arguing on behalf of the American colonies during the Stamp Act debates of 1765–66.[23] Marginalized groups such as women, Dissenters and those campaigning to abolish the slave trade all invoked Lockean ideals. But at the same time, as Goldie describes it, "a wind of doubt about Locke's credentials gathered into a storm. The sense that Locke's philosophy had been misappropriated increasingly turned to a conviction that it was erroneous.”[24] By the 1790s Locke was associated with Rousseau and Voltaire and being blamed for the American and French Revolutions as well as for the perceived secularisation of society.[25] By 1815, Locke's portrait was taken down from Christ Church, his alma mater (it was later restored to a position of prominence, and currently hangs in the dining hall of the college).
North America[edit]
Locke's influence during the American Revolutionary period is disputed. While it is easy to point to specific instances of Locke's Two Treatises being invoked, the extent of the acceptance of Locke's ideals and the role they played in the American Revolution are far from clear. The Two Treatises are echoed in phrases in the Declaration of Independence and writings by Samuel Adams that attempted to gain support for the rebellion. Of Locke's influence Thomas Jefferson wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical & Moral sciences".[26][27] The colonists frequently cited Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, which synthesised Lockean political philosophy with the common law tradition. Louis Hartz, writing at the beginning of the 20th century, took it for granted that Locke was the political philosopher of the revolution.
This view was challenged by Bernard Bailyn and Gordon S. Wood, who argued that the revolution was not a struggle over property, taxation, and rights, but rather "a Machiavellian effort to preserve the young republic's 'virtue' from the corrupt and corrupting forces of English politics."[28] Garry Wills, on the other hand, maintains that it was neither the Lockean tradition nor the classical republican tradition that drove the revolution, but instead Scottish moral philosophy, a political philosophy that based its conception of society on friendship, sensibility and the controlled passions.[28] Thomas Pangle and Michael Zuckert have countered, demonstrating numerous elements in the thought of more influential founders that have a Lockean pedigree.[29] They argue that there is no conflict between Lockean thought and classical Republicanism.[30][31][32][33]
Controversies regarding interpretation[edit]
Locke’s political philosophy is often compared and contrasted with Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan. The motivation in both cases is self-preservation with Hobbes arguing the need of an absolute monarch to prevent the war of “all against all” inherent in anarchy while Locke argues that the protection of life, liberty, and property can be achieve by a parliamentary process that protects, not violates, one’s rights.
Leo Strauss and C. B. Macpherson stress the continuity of thought. In their view Locke and Hobbes describe an atomistic man largely driven by a hedonistic materialistic acquisitiveness. Strauss’ Locke is little more than Hobbes in “sheep’s clothing.”[34] C. B. Macpherson argued in his Political Theory of Possessive Individualism that Locke sets the stage for unlimited acquisition and appropriation of property by the powerful creating gross inequality. Government is the protector of interests of capitalists while the “labouring class [are] not considered to have an interest.”[35][36]
Unlike Macpherson, James Tully finds no evidence that Locke specifically advocates capitalism. In his A Discourse on Property, Tully describes Locke’s view of man as a social dependent, with Christian sensibilities, and a God-given duty to care for others. Property, in Tully’s explanation of Locke, belong to the community as the public commons but becomes “private” so long as the property owner, or more correctly the “custodian,” serves the community.[37] Zuckert believes Tully is reading into Locke rights and duties that just aren’t there.[38] Huyler finds that Locke explicitly condemned government privileges for rich, contrary to Macpherson’s pro-capitalism critique, but also rejected subsidies to aid the poor, in contrast to Tully’s social justice apologetics.[39]
The Cambridge School of political thought, led principally by Quentin Skinner, J. G. A. Pocock, Richard Ashcraft, and Peter Laslett, uses a historical methodology to situate Locke in the political context of his times. But they also restrict his importance to those times.[40] Ashcraft’s Locke takes the side of the burgeoning merchant class against the aristocracy.[41] Neal Wood puts Locke on the side of the agrarian interests, not the manufacturing bourgeoisie.[42]
Jerome Huyler and Michael. P. Zuckert approach Locke in the broader context of his oeuvre and historical influence. Locke is situated within changing religious, philosophical, scientific, and political dimensions of 17th century England. Objecting to the use of the contemporary concept of economic man to describe Locke’s view of human nature, Huyler emphases the “virtue of industriousness” of Locke’s Protestant England. Productive work is man’s earthly function or calling, ordained by God and required by self-preservation. The government’s protection of property rights insures that the results of industry, i.e. “fruits of one’s labor,” are secure. Locke’s prohibition of ill-gotten gains, whether for well-connected gentry or the profligate, is not a lack of Locke’s foresight to the problems in the latter stages of liberalism but an application of equal protection of the law to every individual.[31]
Richard Pipes argues that Locke holds a labor theory of value that leads to the socialist critique that those not engaging in physical labor exploit wage earners.[43] Huyler, relying on Locke’s Essays on the Law of Nature shows that reason is the most fundamental virtue, underwrites all productive virtue, and leads to human flourishing or happiness in an Aristotelean sense.[44]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Britannica, John Locke.
Jump up ^ Armitage, David Armitage, D. (2004). John Locke, Carolina, and the two treatises of government. Political Theory, 32(5), 602–27.
Jump up ^ Walbert, D. (2008). A little kingdom in Carolina.
Jump up ^ Laslett, "Introduction," 59–61.
Jump up ^ Ashcraft, Revolutionary Politics.
Jump up ^ Laslett, Peter. "Introduction." Two Treatises of Government. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1988), 9.
Jump up ^ See Two Treatises of Government: In The Former the False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer and His Followers, are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter is An Essay Concerning the True Original Extent and End of Civil Government (3 ed.). London: Awnsham and John Churchill. 1698. Retrieved 20 November 2014. via Google Books
Jump up ^ Laslett, "Introduction," 8–9.
Jump up ^ Locke, John. Two Treatises of Government. Ed. Peter Laslett. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1988), 137.
Jump up ^ Laslett, "English Revolution," 42.
Jump up ^ Laslett, "Introduction," 12–13.
Jump up ^ Laslett, "Introduction," 14–15.
Jump up ^ Laslett, 266.
Jump up ^ Two Treatises On Government: A Translation Into Modern English, ISR/Google Books, 2009, p. 70.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Second Treatise, Sec. 85
Jump up ^ Powell, Jim (1 August 1996): "John Locke: Natural Rights to Life, Liberty, and Property". In: The Freemann. Foundation for Economic Education, Irvington, New York.
Jump up ^ Goldie, Mark. “Introduction.” The Reception of Locke's Politics. 6 vols. London: Pickering & Chatto (1999), xxii.
Jump up ^ Goldie, "Introduction," xxii.
Jump up ^ Goldie, "Introduction," xxxi.
Jump up ^ Goldie, "Introduction," xxiv.
Jump up ^ Goldie, "Introduction," xxviii.
Jump up ^ Goldie, "Introduction," xxxv.
Jump up ^ Goldie, "Introduction, xxxviii.
Jump up ^ Goldie, "Introduction," xxxviii.
Jump up ^ "The Letters of Thomas Jefferson: 1743–1826 Bacon, Locke, and Newton". Retrieved 2009-07-12. Bacon, Locke and Newton, whose pictures I will trouble you to have copied for me: and as I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical & Moral sciences.
Jump up ^ http://explorer.monticello.org/text/index.php?id=82&type=4 Jefferson called Bacon, Newton, and Locke, who had so indelibly shaped his ideas, "my trinity of the three greatest men the world had ever produced"
^ Jump up to: a b Goldie, "Introduction," liii.
Jump up ^ Pangle, Spirit of Modern Republicanism; Zuckert, Launching Liberalism, Natural Rights Republic.
Jump up ^ Zuckert 1994, chpt. 7–10
^ Jump up to: a b Huyler 1995, chpt. 4,5
Jump up ^ Michael P. Zuckert (2005). Ellen Frankel Paul; Fred D. Miller Jr.; Jeffrey Paul, eds. Natural Rights Liberalism from Locke to Nozick. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-61514-3.
Jump up ^ Holly Brewer (2005). By Birth Or Consent: Children, Law, and the Anglo-American Revolution in Authority. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2950-1.
Jump up ^ Huyler 1995, pp. 13, 130
Jump up ^ Huyler 1995, pp. 102, 120
Jump up ^ Macpherson 1962, p. 228
Jump up ^ Huyler 1995, pp. 130–35
Jump up ^ Zuckert 1994, p. 367
Jump up ^ Huyler 1995, pp. 162–71
Jump up ^ Huyler 1995, p. 42
Jump up ^ Ashcraft 1986
Jump up ^ Huyler 1995, pp. 104–05
Jump up ^ Pipes, Richard (1999). Property and Freedom. Knopf. p. 36. ISBN 978-0375404986.
Jump up ^ Huyler 1995, chpt. 3
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Ashcraft, Richard (1987), Locke's Two Treatises of Government, Boston: Unwin Hyman
Dunn, John (1969), The Political Thought of John Locke:An Historical Account of the Argument of the 'Two Treatises of Government', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-5210-7408-7
Huyler, Jerome (1995), Locke in America: The Moral Philosophy of the Founding Era, Lawrence: University Press Of Kansas, ISBN 978-0-7006-1108-9
Laslett, Peter (1956). "The English Revolution and Locke's 'Two Treatises of Government'". Cambridge Historical Journal. 12 (1): 40–55. JSTOR 3021052.
Laslett, Peter (1988), Locke: Two Treatises of Government, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-5213-5448-6
Macpherson, C. B. (1962), Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 978-0-1988-1084-1
Pangle, Thomas L. (1988), The Spirit of Modern Republicanism, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-2266-4540-7
Strauss, Leo (1953), Natural Right and History, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-2267-7694-1
Tully, James (1980), A Discourse on Property: John Locke and his Adversaries, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22830-1
Ward, Lee. (2010), John Locke and Modern Life. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521192804
Waldron, Jeremy (2002), God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-5218-1001-2
Zuckert, Michael. P. (1994), Natural Rights and the New Republicanism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-6910-3463-8
Zuckert, Michael. P. (2002), Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, ISBN 978-0-7006-1173-7
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Two Treatises of Government
"John Locke". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"John Locke: Political Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Two Treatises of Government Book I Book II
Second Treatise of Government by John Locke' at Project Gutenberg
Two Treatises of Civil Government public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Extensive Locke bibliography
John Locke, The Two Treatises of Civil Government (Hollis ed.) [1689] on The Online Library of Liberty
The Second Treatise of Civil Government, lightly edited for easier reading
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