text:
Jack Skellington
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Jack Skellington
First appearance
The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993)
Created by
Tim Burton
Voiced by
Chris Sarandon (speaking)[1]
Danny Elfman (singing in film)[1]
Jack Skellington is a character and the main protagonist of the 1993 film The Nightmare Before Christmas. Jack is the "Pumpkin King" of Halloween Town, a fantasy world based solely on the Halloween holiday.[2] Jack is voiced by Chris Sarandon.[1][3] Danny Elfman provided Jack's singing voice in the film, although Sarandon has sung as Jack in subsequent productions.
His overall appearance is a skeleton dressed in a black pin-striped suit and a bow tie that strongly resembles a black bat. Originally, his suit was meant to be completely black, but it blended with the background too well, so it was changed. At the beginning of the film, Jack makes his grand entrance by emerging out of a fire-breathing dragon-themed fountain. His last name is based on the word "skeleton". He has a ghost dog named Zero for a pet, who has a small glowing nose that looks like a jack-o'-lantern. He is adored by Sally, a rag doll created by Dr. Finklestein. The character is a popular design on bags, hats, clothing, umbrellas, belt buckles, pet collars and other items.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 In The Nightmare Before Christmas
2 In video games
2.1 The Nightmare Before Christmas: The Pumpkin King
2.2 The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge
2.3 Disney Universe
2.4 Kingdom Hearts series
2.4.1 Kingdom Hearts
2.4.2 Chain of Memories
2.4.3 Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days
2.4.4 Kingdom Hearts II
2.5 Disney Infinity
3 Attractions
4 Cameos
5 Toys
6 Reception
7 References
8 External links
In The Nightmare Before Christmas[edit]
See also: The Nightmare Before Christmas
Jack Skellington is the patron spirit of Halloween, portrayed as being on par with Santa Claus and the Easter Bunny within his own holiday. As a living skeleton, he is immortal and can remove parts of his body without harm, as is often demonstrated for comic relief. He is the most important of many Halloween spirits, with the implication that their job is to scare people in the real world on Halloween night.
Jack, as the "Pumpkin King" and Master of ceremonies, is in charge of Halloween Town's Halloween celebration. He is respected and even idolized by the other residents for his role, but he has grown weary of celebrating the same holiday endlessly and is depressed about it. The only one who understands Jack's feelings is a lonely ragdoll named Sally. She overhears his singing monologue and feels she can relate to his situation.
Jack discovers Christmas Town and decides that this new experience is what his life was missing. He makes preparations for his own Christmas celebration in Halloween Town and wants to impersonate Santa Claus in the real world. While his intentions are not malicious, Jack does not understand the true spirit of Christmas. Halloween Town plans to give the holidays a macabre make-over. Sally reveals to Jack a bad premonition, but Jack's basic nature is impulsiveness. He does not seem to register contradictory information. By the end of the film, he notices Sally and her determination to help him. He proves that love can be a part of his nature by calling Sally his "Dearest Friend", telling Sally that they were meant to be together, embracing his future with her and embracing her.
Jack follows the formula of a tragic hero, because he begins the story at a lofty position. In spite of all his fame and talent, he yearns for another side of life. While a desire for completeness is not a flaw, his impulsiveness proves to be. He tends to be enthusiastic and inclusive, and his charisma is enough to sway every member of Halloween Town except Sally. His selfish decisions lead to the near destruction of Christmas and himself. The strength of Jack's character is demonstrated by his will to correct his own mistakes.
The official film soundtrack CD contains an epilogue not in the film, stating that "many years later" Santa returned to Halloween Town to visit Jack, where he discovered that Jack had "four or five skeleton children at hand" who play together in a xylophone band.
In video games[edit]
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The Nightmare Before Christmas: The Pumpkin King[edit]
Jack Skellington has been shown to have an extreme hatred for Oogie Boogie as was proven when he spoke of this plan to Lock, Shock, and Barrel, stating to "leave that no account Oogie Boogie out of this!" He later finds out that Santa Claus and Sally have been kidnapped by the Boogie Man and are in his underground lair. While trying to save his friends, Jack manages to destroy Oogie and save Christmas.
The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge[edit]
Tired of using the same old themes over and over on Halloween, Jack Skellington goes to Doctor Finkelstein, who gives him the Soul Robber, an invention that changes shape. Jack decided to leave Halloween Town to get new ideas for Halloween frights. When Jack comes back to town, he finds that Oogie Boogie has been resurrected. Now Jack has to set things right again. Jack dances, fights, and sings in this game to attack Oogie Boogie's minions. Jack is portrayed as inept to some degree in this game.
Chris Sarandon did both the speaking and singing voice for Jack in this game.
Disney Universe[edit]
Jack Skellington features in the Nightmare Before Christmas downloadable expansion pack which includes Jack Skellington, Sally, Oogie-Boogie, Dr. Finklestein and the Mayor as in-game playable costumes. The downloadable content can be bought from console stores (e.g. the PlayStation Store). The package included the costumes of which some could be found in the downloaded level. Unlike the worlds originally in the game which all had 3 chapters, the Nightmare Before Christmas world only had 1 chapter called 'Halloween Graveyard'.
Kingdom Hearts series[edit]
Jack Skellington appears in four installments of the Kingdom Hearts video game series. He inhabits the world of Halloween Town, where the evil Heartless threatens its denizens. The games' main protagonists, Sora, Donald Duck and Goofy, befriend Jack and together they battle the Heartless, and also Oogie Boogie. In combat, Jack uses some of his scary powers with demonstrations of some magic, making him a formidable sorcerer.
Chris Sarandon reprises his role for the English version, and Masachika Ichimura provides Jack's Japanese voice.
Kingdom Hearts[edit]
Jack Skellington introduces himself to Sora, Goofy, and Donald Duck as the ruler of Halloween Town. Jack plans to use the heart that Finklestein created to control the seemingly docile Heartless to make a festival called "Heartless Halloween" so that Halloween can be frightening, but the idea fails when not only the first experiment cause the Heartless to go berserk, but Oogie Boogie steals the finished heart, and plans to use it to take over Halloween Town. At Oogie's manor, Jack, Sora, and the gang confront him. After Oogie is defeated, Jack finds out that Oogie uses dark orbs as his source of life, which Oogie combines himself with his manor to become a giant boss. Once the gang defeats Oogie once again, and his manor crumbles, revealing Halloween Town's keyhole. Jack is considerably shorter in this game than as he appeared in the movie, though he is still rather tall when compared to the game's main protagonists.
Chain of Memories[edit]
"Created" from Sora's memories of Halloween Town, when Jack Skellington wanted to ask Doctor Finkelstein what happened when he sniffs the potion that can bring "true memories", Heartless appeared. When Jack Skellington had found out that Oogie Boogie had stolen the Doc's potion, he must stop him before Oogie drinks the whole potion. They fail to reach him before he does, but they defeat him, as Oogie becomes overwhelmed with fear as a side effect of the potion. Sora becomes worried about what will happen when he discovers his true memories, but Jack reassures him that fear is a sign of a strong heart.
Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days[edit]
In this game, Roxas arrives at Halloween Town while Jack is in the middle of a brainstorming for Halloween. Jack is having trouble with thinking of things but gets inspiration when he sees Roxas leaving through a Dark Corridor. Time after time, Roxas' adventures through Halloween Town inspire Jack to create such things as balloons filled with spiders, exploding frost pumpkins, and Halloween lanterns. When Roxas is sent to find the source of a terrible drop in heartless population, he finds the town overrun with monsters called Tentaclaws. After seeing Roxas defeating the source of the Tentaclaws, the cannibalistic Leechgrave, Jack invents a terrifying scarecrowish version of Roxas as his centerpiece for that Halloween.
Kingdom Hearts II[edit]
Following the film loosely to some degree, out of reference, Jack tries to take Santa Claus's place again. To that end, Jack asks Sora and gang to help him be Santa's bodyguards. But after fighting the Heartless and Oogie Boogie, who has been resurrected by Maleficent, Santa explains to Jack that they each have a job to do with their respective holidays. Despite this, he begins to wear a Santa suit Sally sewed together for him. In the second trip to Halloween Town, Jack still wears the Santa suit, as he still longs to deliver Christmas presents and feels that it would be rude not to wear the suit Sally worked so hard on. Along with Sora and the gang, he helps defeat Doctor Finkelstein's experiment, who stole Christmas presents from Santa in search of a heart. As a reward for all his hard work and assistance, Santa brings Jack on a ride-along with him in his sleigh for a while. After Santa drops Jack off at Halloween Town, Jack learns the true meaning of Christmas by understanding the act of giving. He dances with Sally in the end, finally realizing all of the gifts she had given to him were all from the heart and wishes to give her something in return. She tells him that the nicest present she could ever ask for is just to be with Jack. Jack responds telling her that she does not even have to ask for that, meaning Jack feels the same way for her. During a cut scene in the end credits, he is shown to be wearing his original suit, suggesting he has taken Santa's previous advice to heart completely, and apparently begins presenting new ideas for next Halloween.
Disney Infinity[edit]
In the Disney Infinity video game series, Jack appears as part of the second wave of playable characters.
Attractions[edit]
Jack appears as a meetable character at several Walt Disney Parks and Resorts including Disneyland, Hong Kong Disneyland, Disneyland Paris and Walt Disney World. At Disneyland during the holidays, Haunted Mansion is taken over by the cast of The Nightmare Before Christmas and is turned into Haunted Mansion Holiday. Jack and other characters appear throughout the ride wearing Christmas attire. Additionally, Jack hosts the Halloween Screams fireworks show and the Frightfully Fun Parade.[5] Chris Sarandon provided the voice for the character in each instance.
Cameos[edit]
In Vincent, Jack appears as one of the phantasmic imaginisms of the titular character, during the final minutes of the short film.
During the opening scene of Sleepy Hollow, a scarecrow bearing a strong resemblance to the Pumpkin King scarecrow at the beginning of "This is Halloween" can be seen.
In the 2010 film Alice in Wonderland, Jack's face can be found on the Mad Hatter's bow tie.
In James and the Giant Peach, Jack makes a cameo as Captain Jack, an antagonist second to Aunt Sponge and Aunt Spiker, in the pirate scene. Upon discovering him, Centipede says "Uh, Skellington?".
A silhouette of Jack is shown in The Princess and the Frog as one of the shadows Dr. Facilier summons.
Jack Skellington's face made a cameo appearance on a doormat in the first volume of the graphic novel series Lenore, created by Roman Dirge.
Jack appears in an episode of The Critic in a short parody called "The Nightmare Before Chanukka", done in the same stop-motion animation style as the original movie. In this parody, Jack wears a red suit rather than his usual black and white striped one.
Jack also appears in Adult Swim's show Robot Chicken finding "Chanukka Town" and watches children open up presents, but finding out that it is just socks and pencils for their first day of Chanukka, he says to himself: "Wow, This Sucks..." Jack appears again on a sketch called "Grown Up Halloween" alongside the Mayor of Halloween Town.
Jack appears in the background in a South Park made-for-TV movie called "Imaginationland".
Jack also appears in the movie Coraline in the scene where the other mother cracks open an egg, Jack's head is the egg yolk.
Jack appears in the MAD episode "Kitchen Nightmares Before Christmas". He also makes a cameo appearance in the short it was paired with, "How I Met Your Mummy".
A parody of Jack Skellington, in the form of a character named The Pumpkin Guy, appears in the Tiny Toon Adventures episode "Tiny Toons' Night Ghoulery".
Jack appears in the movie Beetlejuice, in the scene when Beetlejuice comes out of the model town with a carousel-shaped hat on his head. Jack's head is at the top of the carousel. This may have been a coincidence though, as Beetlejuice was released in 1988 and The Nightmare Before Christmas was not released until 1993.
A Jack plush doll also made an appearance in Stocking's room in the anime Panty and Stocking.
Jack is included as one of many characters featured in Disney on Ice's production Let's Celebrate!. Mickey Mouse calls upon him to throw a Halloween party, which a number of Disney Villains find their way into. During his appearance, a medley of "Jack's Lament" and "What's This?" are performed, along with the film's opening number "This Is Halloween". Sarandon provided both the speaking and singing for Jack.
In Edward Scissorhands, also a Tim Burton film, during the opening scene, one of the cookie-cutter machines closely resembles Jack Skellington. Again, this may be a coincidence, as Edward Scissorhands was released in 1990.
On Family Guy, Peter declares that his sister Karen Griffin is ruining Thanksgiving the same way that director Tim Burton ruined the 4th of July in "Peter's Sister". A cutaway gag shows the residents of Halloween Town celebrating the 4th in the fictional film, Happy Fourth of July Jack Skellington. As they celebrate, Jack appears and notes that fat girls with black hair have tattoos of him.
Toys[edit]
Jack Skellington has been made into a Bendies figure, as well as a Funko Pop Vinyl figurine that also had a Day Of The Dead variant. He appeared in the Kingdom Hearts action figure collections, and was also released in Japan's REVOLTECH Sci-fi line in 2010, along with the Japanese monsters, Gamera and Gyaos.[6]
In 2016 a life-size Jack Skellington animatronic prop was released. The prop was six feet tall and sold exclusively at Spirit Halloween.[7]
Reception[edit]
Jamie Frater adds, "Jack is perfectly realized as the 'town hero' who seeks more in his life (or death, as it may be), a place we all find ourselves time to time."[8] UGO Networks listed Jack as one of their best heroes of all time.[9]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Lammers, Tim (October 29, 2013). "Sarandon remains proud of 'Nightmare Before Christmas' as film classic turns 20". Strictly Cinema. Retrieved September 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Nightmare Before Christmas". Retrieved 31 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Vladimir Bogdanov, Chris Woodstra, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, All Music Guide: The Experts Guide to the Best Recordings (Backbeat Books, 2001), 997.
Jump up ^ "The Nightmare Before Christmas Merchandise & Toys - Hot Topic". Retrieved 31 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Slater, Shawn (August 29, 2016). "The All-New 'Frightfully Fun Parade' Debuts During Mickey's Halloween Party at Disneyland Park". Disney Parks Blog. Retrieved September 25, 2016.
Jump up ^ Frederick J. Augustyn, Dictionary of Toys and Games in American Popular Culture (Haworth Press, 2004), 18.
Jump up ^ http://animatronichalloween.com/spirit-halloween-officially-announces-jack-skellington-for-halloween-2017/
Jump up ^ Jamie Frater, "Top Ten Kids' Movies Adults Will Love," The Ultimate Book of Top 10 Lists: A Mind-Boggling Collection of Fun, Fascinating and Bizarre Facts on Movies, Music, Sports, Crime, Celebrities, History, Trivia and More (Berkeley: Ulysses Press, 2010), 380.
Jump up ^ UGO Team (January 21, 2010). "Best Heroes of All Time". UGO Networks. Archived from the original on June 16, 2011. Retrieved April 3, 2011.
External links[edit]
Jack Skellington on IMDb
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StarLink corn recall
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The StarLink corn recalls occurred in the autumn of 2000, when over 300 food products were found to contain a genetically modified corn that had not been approved for human consumption.[1] It was the first-ever recall of a genetically modified food. The anti-GMO activist coalition Genetically Engineered Food Alert, which detected and first reported the contamination, was critical of the FDA for not doing its job. The recall of Taco Bell-branded taco shells, manufactured by Kraft Foods and sold in supermarkets, was the most publicized of the recalls. One settlement resulted in $60 million going to Taco Bell franchisees for lost sales due to the damage to the Taco Bell brand.
Contents
[hide]
1 StarLink corn
2 Product recalls
3 Aventis recall/buyback
4 Aftermath
5 Later incidents
6 See also
7 References
StarLink corn[edit]
StarLink is a genetically modified maize, containing two modifications: a gene for resistance to glufosinate, and a variant of the bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) protein called Cry9C.[2] Cry9C had not been used in a GM crop prior to StarLink, causing heightened regulatory scrutiny.[3] StarLink's creator, Plant Genetic Systems, which later became Aventis CropScience during the time of the incident,[4]:15–16 had applied to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to market StarLink for use in animal feed and in the human food supply.[4]:14 However, because the Cry9C protein lingers in the digestive system before breaking down, the EPA had concerns about its allergenicity, and PGS did not provide sufficient data to prove that Cry9C was not allergenic.[5]:3 As a result, PGS split its application into separate permits for use in food and use in animal feed only.[3][6] StarLink was approved by the EPA for use in animal feed only in May 1998. After the incident the company at first tried to get the application for human consumption approved, and then withdrew the product entirely from the market.[4]:15
The Garst Seed Company (part of the Advanta group) was licensed by Aventis to produce and sell StarLink seed in the US.[7]:8
Product recalls[edit]
A taco with a hard taco shell
In 2000, Genetically Engineered Food Alert was launched by seven organizations (Center for Food Safety, Friends of the Earth, Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, National Environmental Trust, Organic Consumers Association, Pesticide Action Network North America, and The State PIRGs) to lobby the FDA, Congress and companies to ban or stop using GMOs.[8][9][10] One of their activities was testing food for the presence of GMOs via a lab called Genetic ID, the vice president of which was Jeffrey M. Smith.[11][12]
On September 18, 2000, Genetically Engineered Food Alert released a statement that Genetic ID had conducted tests on "Taco Bell Home Originals" brand taco shells, made by Kraft Foods that had been purchased in a grocery store near Washington, DC, and had detected StarLink;[13] the story was reported on by The Washington Post.[4]:15[12] Kraft distributed the Taco Bell-branded taco shells under a 1996 license agreement with Taco Bell.[14]:54
Kraft had bought the shells from a Sabritas plant in Mexicali which used flour supplied from an Azteca mill plant in Plainview, Texas. The Texas mill used flour from six states supplied by elevators that did not segregate their genetically modified and conventionally-grown corn at the time. Kraft also suspended production of the recalled products.[15][16][17] “All of us — government, industry and the scientific community — need to work on ways to prevent this kind of situation from ever happening again,” said Betsy Holden, Kraft’s chief executive in September 2000. She also stated that food safety and legal compliance were Kraft's main priority.[18]
Safeway later announced it would recall its store brand taco shells at the recommendation of a consumer group on October 12, 2000. This was done as a precaution, and no StarLink was confirmed to be found in any of the products[19] On October 13 and 14, Mission Foods voluntary recalled about 300 products.[20][21] On October 22, 2000 it was reported that Kellogg's had shut down a plant as a precaution because they couldn't guarantee that StarLink corn flour had not been supplied to the plant.[22]
On October 26, 2000 StarLink corn was reported to be found in Japan and South Korea.[4]:20–21 The market and distribution network for corn in the US was thrown into disarray through 2001, as there were no existing means to segregate the grain;[23][24] the disarray eventually eased due to the Aventis' testing and buyback program discussed below.[25]
Aventis recall/buyback[edit]
In January 2001 under a written agreement with 17 US states,[26] Aventis initiated a program called the StarLink Enhanced Stewardship (SES) program, under which StarLink corn, buffer corn, and any corn stored in grain elevators that had become mixed with StarLink, would be bought by Aventis and directed to animal feed and non-food industrial use (e.g. ethanol production); the program included free kits to test for StarLink, and covered costs of cleaning equipment, transport, and storage facilities, as well as increased transportation costs.[27]:193–95 Aventis estimated the cost would be between $100 million to $1 billion.[28][29][30]
It was estimated that due to grain mixing StarLink corn could have existed in more than 50% of the US corn supply[2] and that overall, the StarLink incident depressed the price of US corn about 7% for about a year.[31]:533
Aftermath[edit]
Following the recalls, 51 people reported adverse effects to the FDA; these reports were reviewed by the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC), which determined that 28 of them were possibly related to StarLink.[32] The CDC studied the blood of these 28 individuals and concluded there was no evidence the reactions these people experienced were associated with hypersensitivity to the StarLink Bt protein.[33]
The EPA was criticized by Joseph Mendelson III of the Center for Food Safety, who said "Clearly they didn't do anything here until they became embarrassed."[34] The EPA and Aventis were also criticized for statements at the time of the recall that indicated they had no idea such a thing would happen.[35] "If there has been a violation of our licensing process, then we would have a very great concern," was attributed to Stephen Johnson of the EPA. Margaret Gadsby of Aventis was quoted with her earlier statement "We have difficulty imagining how our corn could end up in the human food supply."
The registration for the StarLink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000.[36]:7 In February 2001, it was announced that the president, general counsel, and vice president of market development for Aventis CropScience (US), had been fired in response to the recall.[37]
In June 2001 Tricon Global Restaurants, 20% owners of Taco Bell at the time, announced a $60 million settlement with some of the suppliers of the supermarket taco shells; under the terms of the settlement they could not disclose the identity of suppliers.[38] Tricon stated that the settlement would go to Taco Bell franchisees and Tricon would not receive any of it. Tricon also announced that it, along with the suppliers and franchisees, would initiate litigation against the parties responsible for StarLink entering the food chain.
In September 2001, a group of about 5,000 Taco Bell franchisees and a handful of taco shell suppliers brought a class-action lawsuit against Aventis, Garst Seed Co.; Gruma Corp., ("the largest producer and distributor of corn flour and tortillas in the United States; and Azteca Milling seeking damages.[39] This suit was voluntarily dismissed in December 2001.[40]:65
In 2002, Aventis, Garst, Kraft Foods, Azteca Foods, Azteca Milling, and Mission Foods settled a lawsuit brought by two people, and the grandmother of a third, who claimed to have had allergic reactions to StarLink, for $9 million.[41]
In 2002, nongovernmental organizations claimed that aid sent by the UN and the US to Central American nations also contained some StarLink corn. The nations involved, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala refused to accept the aid.[42]:96
In 2003, farmers who did not plant StarLink who had suffered economic losses due to depressed corn prices following the StarLink recalls settled a class-action lawsuit against Aventis and Advanta for $100 million.[43]
GeneWatch UK and Greenpeace International set up the GM Contamination Register in 2005 citing these recalls as one of the "highlights" of the register.[44]
The US corn supply was monitored by the Federal Grain Inspection Service for the presence of the StarLink Bt proteins from 2001 until 2010.[45][46]
Later incidents[edit]
In August 2013, StarLink corn was reported to be found again contaminating some foods in Saudi Arabia.[47]
See also[edit]
Genetically modified organism containment and escape
Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (US)
Genetically modified food controversies
Regulation of the release of genetically modified organisms
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Andrew Pollack for the New York Times. September 23, 2000 Kraft Recalls Taco Shells With Bioengineered Corn
^ Jump up to: a b Staff, Cornell Cooperative Extension, 2002. Genetically Engineered Foods: StarLink Corn in Taco Shells
^ Jump up to: a b Department of Soil and Crop Sciences at Colorado State University, Page last updated March 11, 2004 StarLink Corn
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Michael R. Taylor and Jody S. Tick of Resources for the Future, Pew Initiative on Food and Biotechnology. The StarLink Case: Issues for the Future
Jump up ^ "While EPA had no specific data to indicate that Cry9C was an allergen, the protein expressed in StarLink corn did exhibit certain characteristics (i.e. relative heat stability and extended time to digestion) that were common to known food allergens such as those found in peanuts, eggs, etc. EPA’s concern was that StarLink corn may be a human food allergen and in the absence of more definitive data, EPA has not made a decision whether or not to register the human food use." Staff, EPA. November 2000 Executive Summary: EPA Preliminary Evaluation of Information Contained in the October 25, 2000 Submission from Aventis Cropscience
Jump up ^ Plant Genetic Systems (America) Inc.: PP 7G4921 Federal Register Vol. 62, No. 228, November 26, 1997 pp 63169 bottom of middle column - 63170 right column; see especially p63169 top of right column
Jump up ^ Marion Nestle. Safe Food: The Politics of Food Safety University of California Press, 2010
Jump up ^ Internet Archive capture of Genetically Engineered Food Alert webpage, August 17, 2000
Jump up ^ Margot Roosevelt for Time Magazine. Monday, Jul. 31, 2000 Inside The Protests: Taking It To Main Street
Jump up ^ Staff, The Progress Report. New Coalition Acts Against GM Food Dangers
Jump up ^ Andrew Pollack for the New York Times. October 12, 2000 Safeway Recalls Taco Shells After Test Questions Corn Origin
^ Jump up to: a b Marc Kaufman for the Washington Post. September 18, 2000 Biotech Critics Cite Unapproved Corn in Taco Shells; Gene-Modified Variety Allowed Only for Animal Feed Because of Allergy Concerns
Jump up ^ Press Release Contaminant found in Taco Bell taco shells. Food safety coalition demands recall (press release) Washington, DC: Friends of the Earth, 2000. Available: 3 November 2001.
Jump up ^ Management Communication - A Case Analysis Approach, 5th Ed, James S. O'Rourke, IV
Jump up ^ Kraft Foods Press Release September 25, 2000 Press Release: USA: Kraft Foods announces voluntary recall of all Taco Bell Taco Shell products from grocery stores
Jump up ^ Fulmer, M. (September 23, 2000). "Taco Bell Recalls Shells That Used Bioengineered Corn". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 3, 2013.
Jump up ^ Staff, CNN October 18, 2000 ConAgra stops producing corn flour at Kansas mill as precaution against genetically modified grain
Jump up ^ Philip Brasher for ABC News. September 23, 2000. Kraft Recalls Biotech Taco Shells
Jump up ^ Staff, CNN. October 12, 2000 Safeway recalls its taco shells
Jump up ^ Staff, CNN. November 1, 2000 Scope of biotech corn product recall revealed: More than 300 items on FDA list
Jump up ^ Staff, CNN. November 1, 2000 FDA list of recalled products for "Tortillas, Shells, Tostadas, and Chips Recall #F-023/026-1"
Jump up ^ Staff, CNN October 22, 2000. Kellogg's plant stops production after engineered-corn scare
Jump up ^ David Barboza for the New York Times. December 11, 2000 Gene-Altered Corn Changes Dynamics Of Grain Industrypagewanted=all&src=pm
Jump up ^ WIlliam Lin, Gregory K. Price, and Edward Allen. StarLink: Impacts on the U.S. Corn Market and World Trade (2001). pp 46-54 in Feed Situation and Outlook Yearbook, April 2001 by United States Dept. of Agriculture Economic Research Service
Jump up ^ William Lin, Gregory K. Price, Edward W. Allen StarLink: Impacts on the U.S. corn market and world trade (2003) Agribusiness 01/2003; 19(4):473-488.
Jump up ^ Michael Howie for Feedstuffs. January 29, 2001 Aventis, states reach agreement over StarLink corn
Jump up ^ D. L. Uchtmann. StarLink: A Case Study of Agricultural Biotechnology regulation Drake Journal of Agricultural Law Vol. 7, 2002: 159-211
Jump up ^ Philip Brasher for ABC News. September 29, 2000. Biotech Company to Reimburse Farmers for Banned Corn
Jump up ^ Sarah Lueck, Amy Merrick, Joel Millman And Stephen D. Moore for the Wall Street Journal. November 3, 2000. Corn-Recall Cost Could Reach Into the Hundreds of Millions
Jump up ^ Note: Despite long searching, as of October 2013 editors could find no reliable source reporting on the actual cost of the StarLink buyback to Aventis. The task is complicated due to the sale of Aventis CropScience to Bayer in October 2001, in which Aventis agreed to retain liability for matters related to StarLink (CNN News, October 2, 2001), the subsequent merger of Sanofi and Aventis in 2004 (Sanofi company history, Official site), and the fact that Aventis and Sanofi are not US companies and their regulatory filings are not in English. In a financial regulatory filing submitted to the US Securities and Exchange Commission in March 2003, in which Aventis provided consolidated financial reporting for the years 2000-2002, Aventis described the sale of Aventis CropScience to Bayer and communicated that it had indemnified Bayer for all matters related to StarLink and other environmental liabilities and that the sale had netted Aventis €4.2B, and "This sale resulted in a gain for Aventis of €2.07 billion after provisions for indemnification related to the StarLink litigation, as well as environmental, tax, and product liability indemnification as stipulated in the Share Purchase Agreement between Aventis and Bayer."(Aventis Form F-20 for calendar years 2000-2002, F-43) Therefore Aventis seems to have reserved about €2.1B euros in 2003, which at that time was US$2.3B.
Jump up ^ Colin A. Carter and Aaron Smith Estimating the Market Effect of a Food Scare: The Case of Genetically Modified StarLink Corn. The Review of Economics and Statistics Aug., 2007 Vol. 89(3): 522-533
Jump up ^ Staff, EPA review committee. LLP Incidents
Jump up ^ CDC, National Center for Environmental Health. Investigation of Human Health Effects Associated with Potential Exposure to Genetically Modified Corn: A Report to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2001.
Jump up ^ Pollack, Andrew (September 4, 2001), Altered Corn Surfaced Earlier, New York: New York Times, p. 1, retrieved August 7, 2013
Jump up ^ Pollack, Andrew (September 4, 2001), Altered Corn Surfaced Earlier, New York: New York Times, p. 2, retrieved August 7, 2013
Jump up ^ Janet E. Carpenter and Leonard P. Gianessi, US National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy. 2001. Agricultural Biotechnology: Updated Benefit Estimates,
Jump up ^ Clark, A.; Martinson, J. (February 12, 2001). "Aventis chiefs in GM blunder sacked". The Guardian. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Taco Bell Rings up $60 Million for StarLink-Contaminated Shells, Louisville, KY: Virgo Publishing, June 12, 2001, retrieved August 7, 2013
Jump up ^ Associated Press, September 19, 2001. Taco Bell Sues Over StarLink Corn Fiasco
Jump up ^ Gruma Gruma Annual Report for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2002, Form 20-F
Jump up ^ Staff, Livestock Weekly. March 14, 2002 Judge Okays $9 Million Payoff In Lawsuit Over StarLink Corn
Jump up ^ Jennifer Clapp. Hunger in the Balance: The New Politics of International Food Aid. Cornell University Press, 2012 ISBN 9780801464409
Jump up ^ Staff, Farm and Dairy News. March 27, 2003 StarLink in class action settlement
Jump up ^ "First on-line worldwide register of GM contamination incidents launched today". genewatch.org. Retrieved 23 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "StarLink Corn Regulatory Information". Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). April 2008.
Jump up ^ http://www.usda.gov/documents/LLP%20Incidents%202.docx
Jump up ^ Elsanhoty, R. M.; Al-Turki, A. I.; Ramadan, M. F. (2013). "Prevalence of Genetically Modified Rice, Maize, and Soy in Saudi Food Products". Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 171 (4): 883. doi:10.1007/s12010-013-0405-x. PMID 23904260.
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Lowell Mills
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Lowell Mills refers to the many mills that operated in the city of Lowell, Massachusetts during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
Contents
[hide]
1 Context
2 History
3 See also
4 References
Context[edit]
Francis Cabot Lowell invented the first factory system "where people and machines were all under one roof." A series of mills and factories were built along the Merrimack River by the Boston Manufacturing Company, an organization founded in years prior by the man for whom the resulting city was named. Construction began in 1821, and the mills were at their peak roughly twenty years later. For the first time in the United States, these mills combined the textile processes of spinning and weaving under one roof, essentially eliminating the "putting-out system" in favor of mass production of high-quality cloth. The workforce at these factories was three-quarters women.
The Waltham-Lowell system, as it was called, was greatly impacted both by economic instability and by immigration. A minor depression in 1834 led to a sharp reduction in wages, which in turn produced organization of the female workers and two of the earliest examples of a successful strike. A feature of such organization was the magazines and newsletters put out by the girls, the most famous of which was the Lowell Offering. Then later, when the Panic of 1837 necessitated a true drop in wages, many Lowell girls were replaced by the lower paid Irish "biddies", or "bridges". By 1850 the majority of workers at Lowell factories were poor immigrants. One result of this large scale laying-off was that now there were many adult, single women in society, who were used to earning their own money. It was only sensible that they seek other positions (teaching, etc.) in which to make money; and by doing so they further contributed to the birth of the working man.
History[edit]
The Lowell mills opened in 1814. The Lowell experiment worked well at first. By the early 1830s, young unmarried women from rural New England comprised the majority of workers in Massachusetts textile mills. However, the factory owners soon became more interested in profit than in the welfare of their employees. In 1834 and 1836, they cut wages without reducing working hours.
The women responded by going out on strike and petitioning the Massachusetts state legislature to pass a law limiting the workday to 10 hours. Although this measure failed to pass, it convinced the owners that the female workers were too troublesome for their liking. Factory owners then turned to the impoverished and compliant Irish immigrants who were then pouring into Massachusetts.
See also[edit]
Lowell Mill Girls
Boston Manufacturing Company
Lowell, Massachusetts
References[edit]
The American Pageant, 13th Edition.
The American Journey, Early Years
The American Journey, To World War I
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lowell_Mills&oldid=812742661"
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Young's modulus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Rubber, a material with an extremely low Young's modulus
Young's modulus, also known as the elastic modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of a solid material. It is a mechanical property of linear elastic solid materials, and will be more or less dependent on temperature, depending on the material being considered. It defines the relationship between stress (force per unit area) and strain (proportional deformation) in a material. Young's modulus is named after the 19th-century British scientist Thomas Young. However, the concept was developed in 1727 by Leonhard Euler, and the first experiments that used the concept of Young's modulus in its current form were performed by the Italian scientist Giordano Riccati in 1782, pre-dating Young's work by 25 years.[1] The term modulus is the diminutive of the Latin term modus which means measure.
A solid material will deform when a load is applied to it. If it returns to its original shape after the load is removed, this is called elastic deformation. In the range where the ratio between load and deformation remains constant, the stress–strain curve is linear. Not many materials are linear and elastic beyond a small amount of deformation. A stiff material needs more force to deform compared to a soft material, and an infinite force would be needed to deform a perfectly rigid material, implying that it would have an infinite Young's modulus. Although such a material cannot exist, a material with a very high Young's modulus can be approximated as rigid.[2]
Material stiffness should not be confused with:
Strength: the strength of material is the amount of force it can withstand and still recover its original shape;
Geometric stiffness: the geometric stiffness is an external characteristic which depends on shape, e.g. the bending stiffness of an I beam is much higher than that of a rod made of the same steel, thus having the same rigidity, and same mass of material per length;
Hardness: the hardness of a material defines the relative resistance that its surface imposes against the penetration of a harder body;
Toughness: toughness is the amount of energy that a material can absorb before fracture.
Contents
[hide]
1 Technical
1.1 Units
1.1.1 United States
2 Usage
2.1 Linear versus non-linear
2.2 Directional materials
3 Calculation
3.1 Force exerted by stretched or contracted material
3.2 Elastic potential energy
3.3 Relation among elastic constants
4 Approximate values
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Technical[edit]
The technical definition is: the ratio of the stress (force per unit area) along an axis to the strain (ratio of deformation over initial length) along that axis in the range of stress in which Hooke's law holds.[3]
Units[edit]
Young's modulus is the ratio of stress (which has units of pressure) to strain (which is dimensionless), and so Young's modulus has units of pressure. Its SI unit is therefore the pascal (Pa or N/m2 or kg·m−1·s−2). The practical units used are megapascals (MPa or N/mm2) or gigapascals (GPa or kN/mm2).
United States[edit]
In United States customary units, it is expressed as pounds (force) per square inch (psi). The abbreviation ksi refers to kips per square inch. A "kip" is not an Imperial unit of force, it is an abbreviation, use to indicate 1000 pounds-force, making a ksi equal to 1000 psi.
Usage[edit]
The Young's modulus enables the calculation of the change in the dimension of a bar made of an isotropic elastic material under tensile or compressive loads. For instance, it predicts how much a material sample extends under tension or shortens under compression. The Young's modulus directly applies to cases of uniaxial stress, that is tensile or compressive stress in one direction and no stress in the other directions. Young's modulus is also used in order to predict the deflection that will occur in a statically determinate beam when a load is applied at a point in between the beam's supports. Other elastic calculations usually require the use of one additional elastic property, such as the shear modulus, bulk modulus or Poisson's ratio. Any two of these parameters are sufficient to fully describe elasticity in an isotropic material.
Linear versus non-linear[edit]
Young's modulus represents the factor of proportionality in Hooke's law, which relates the stress and the strain. However, Hooke's law is only valid under the assumption of an elastic and linear response. Any real material will eventually fail and break when stretched over a very large distance or with a very large force; however all solid materials exhibit nearly Hookean behavior for small enough strains or stresses. If the range over which Hooke's law is valid is large enough compared to the typical stress that one expects to apply to the material, the material is said to be linear. Otherwise (if the typical stress one would apply is outside the linear range) the material is said to be non-linear.
Steel, carbon fiber and glass among others are usually considered linear materials, while other materials such as rubber and soils are non-linear. However, this is not an absolute classification: if very small stresses or strains are applied to a non-linear material, the response will be linear, but if very high stress or strain is applied to a linear material, the linear theory will not be enough. For example, as the linear theory implies reversibility, it would be absurd to use the linear theory to describe the failure of a steel bridge under a high load; although steel is a linear material for most applications, it is not in such a case of catastrophic failure.
In solid mechanics, the slope of the stress–strain curve at any point is called the tangent modulus. It can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress–strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material.
Directional materials[edit]
Young's modulus is not always the same in all orientations of a material. Most metals and ceramics, along with many other materials, are isotropic, and their mechanical properties are the same in all orientations. However, metals and ceramics can be treated with certain impurities, and metals can be mechanically worked to make their grain structures directional. These materials then become anisotropic, and Young's modulus will change depending on the direction of the force vector. Anisotropy can be seen in many composites as well. For example, carbon fiber has a much higher Young's modulus (is much stiffer) when force is loaded parallel to the fibers (along the grain). Other such materials include wood and reinforced concrete. Engineers can use this directional phenomenon to their advantage in creating structures.
Calculation[edit]
Young's modulus E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress, σ ( ε ) {\displaystyle \sigma (\varepsilon )} , by the engineering extensional strain, ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } , in the elastic (initial, linear) portion of the physical stress–strain curve:
E ≡ σ ( ε ) ε = F / A Δ L / L 0 = F L 0 A Δ L {\displaystyle E\equiv {\frac {\sigma (\varepsilon )}{\varepsilon }}={\frac {F/A}{\Delta L/L_{0}}}={\frac {FL_{0}}{A\Delta L}}}
where
E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity)
F is the force exerted on an object under tension;
A is the actual cross-sectional area, which equals the area of the cross-section perpendicular to the applied force;
ΔL is the amount by which the length of the object changes (ΔL is positive if the material is stretched , and negative when the material is compressed);
L0 is the original length of the object.
Force exerted by stretched or contracted material[edit]
The Young's modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it exerts under specific strain.
F = E A Δ L L 0 {\displaystyle F={\frac {EA\Delta L}{L_{0}}}}
where F is the force exerted by the material when contracted or stretched by ΔL.
Hooke's law for a stretched wire can be derived from this formula:
F = ( E A L 0 ) Δ L = k x {\displaystyle F=\left({\frac {EA}{L_{0}}}\right)\Delta L=kx\,}
where it comes in saturation
k ≡ E A L 0 {\displaystyle k\equiv {\begin{matrix}{\frac {EA}{L_{0}}}\end{matrix}}\,} and x ≡ Δ L . {\displaystyle x\equiv \Delta L.\,}
But note that the elasticity of coiled springs comes from shear modulus, not Young's modulus.
Elastic potential energy[edit]
The elastic potential energy stored in a linear elastic material is given by the integral of the Hooke's law:
U e = ∫ k x d x = 1 2 k x 2 . {\displaystyle U_{e}=\int {kx}\,dx={\frac {1}{2}}kx^{2}.}
now by expliciting the intensive variables:
U e = ∫ E A Δ L L 0 d Δ L = E A L 0 ∫ Δ L d Δ L = E A Δ L 2 2 L 0 {\displaystyle U_{e}=\int {\frac {EA\Delta L}{L_{0}}}\,d\Delta L={\frac {EA}{L_{0}}}\int {\Delta L}\,d\Delta L={\frac {EA{\Delta L}^{2}}{2L_{0}}}}
This means that the elastic potential energy density (i.e., per unit volume) is given by:
U e A L 0 = E Δ L 2 2 L 0 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {U_{e}}{AL_{0}}}={\frac {E{\Delta L}^{2}}{2L_{0}^{2}}}}
or, in simple notation, for a linear elastic material: u e ( ε ) = ∫ E ε d ε = 1 2 E ε 2 {\displaystyle u_{e}(\varepsilon )=\int {E\,\varepsilon }\,d\varepsilon ={\frac {1}{2}}E{\varepsilon }^{2}} , since the strain is defined ε ≡ Δ L L 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon \equiv {\frac {\Delta L}{L_{0}}}} .
In a nonlinear elastic material the Young's modulus is a function of the strain, so the second equivalence no longer holds and the elastic energy is not a quadratic function of the strain:
u e ( ε ) = ∫ E ( ε ) ε d ε ≠ 1 2 E ε 2 {\displaystyle u_{e}(\varepsilon )=\int {E(\varepsilon )\,\varepsilon }\,d\varepsilon \neq {\frac {1}{2}}E{\varepsilon }^{2}}
Relation among elastic constants[edit]
For homogeneous isotropic materials simple relations exist between elastic constants (Young's modulus E, shear modulus G, bulk modulus K, and Poisson's ratio ν) that allow calculating them all as long as two are known:
E = 2 G ( 1 + ν ) = 3 K ( 1 − 2 ν ) . {\displaystyle E=2G(1+\nu )=3K(1-2\nu ).\,}
Approximate values[edit]
Influences of selected glass component additions on Young's modulus of a specific base glass
Young's modulus can vary somewhat due to differences in sample composition and test method. The rate of deformation has the greatest impact on the data collected, especially in polymers. The values here are approximate and only meant for relative comparison.
Approximate Young's modulus for various materials
Material
GPa
Mpsi
Rubber (small strain) 0.01–0.1[4] 1.45–6998145000000000000♠14.5×10−3
Low-density polyethylene[5] 0.11–0.86 1.6–6998650000000000000♠6.5×10−2
Diatom frustules (largely silicic acid)[6] 0.35–2.77 0.05–0.4
PTFE (Teflon) 0.5[4] 0.075
HDPE 0.8 0.116
Bacteriophage capsids[7] 1–3 0.15–0.435
Polypropylene 1.5–2[4] 0.22–0.29
Polycarbonate 2–2.4 0.29-0.36
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 2–2.7[4] 0.29–0.39
Nylon 2–4 0.29–0.58
Polystyrene, solid 3–3.5[4] 0.44–0.51
Polystyrene, foam[8] 0.0025–0.007 0.00036–0.00102
Medium-density fiberboard (MDF)[9] 4 0.58
Wood (along grain) 11[4] 1.60
Human Cortical Bone[10] 14 2.03
Glass-reinforced polyester matrix[11] 17.2 2.49
Aromatic peptide nanotubes[12][13] 19–27 2.76–3.92
High-strength concrete 30[4] 4.35
Amino-acid molecular crystals[14] 21–44 3.04–6.38
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (50/50 fibre/matrix, biaxial fabric) 30–50[15] 4.35–7.25
Hemp fiber[16] 35 5.08
Magnesium metal (Mg) 45[4] 6.53
Glass (see chart)[specify] 50–90[4] 7.25–13.1
Flax fiber[17] 58 8.41
Aluminum 69[4] 10
Mother-of-pearl (nacre, largely calcium carbonate)[18] 70 10.2
Aramid[19] 70.5–112.4 10.2–16.3
Tooth enamel (largely calcium phosphate)[20] 83 12
Stinging nettle fiber[21] 87 12.6
Bronze 96–120[4] 13.9–17.4
Brass 100–125[4] 14.5–18.1
Titanium (Ti) 110.3 16[4]
Titanium alloys 105–120[4] 15–17.5
Copper (Cu) 117 17
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (70/30 fibre/matrix, unidirectional, along fibre)[22] 181 26.3
Silicon Single crystal, different directions[23][24] 130–185 18.9–26.8
Wrought iron 190–210[4] 27.6–30.5
Steel (ASTM-A36) 209[4] 29
polycrystalline Yttrium iron garnet (YIG)[25] 193 28
single-crystal Yttrium iron garnet (YIG)[26] 200 29
Cobalt-chrome (CoCr)[27] 220–258 29
Aromatic peptide nanospheres[28] 230–275 33.4–40
Beryllium (Be)[29] 287 41.6
Molybdenum (Mo) 329–330[4][30][31] 47.7–47.9
Tungsten (W) 400–410[4] 58–59
Silicon carbide (SiC) 450[4] 65
Tungsten carbide (WC) 450–650[4] 65–94
Osmium (Os) 525–562[32] 76.1–81.5
Single-walled carbon nanotube 1,000+[33][34] 150+
Graphene (C) 1050[35] 152
Diamond (C) 1050–1210[36] 152–175
Carbyne (C)[37] 32100[38] 7007321000000000000♠4,660
See also[edit]
Bending stiffness
Deflection
Deformation
Flexural modulus
Hooke's law
Impulse excitation technique
List of materials properties
Yield (engineering)
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t "Elastic Properties and Young Modulus for some Materials". The Engineering ToolBox. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
Jump up ^ "Overview of materials for Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), Molded". Matweb. Archived from the original on January 1, 2011. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
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Jump up ^ "Polyester Matrix Composite reinforced by glass fibers (Fiberglass)". [SubsTech] (2008-05-17). Retrieved on 2011-03-30.
Jump up ^ Kol, N.; et al. (June 8, 2005). "Self-Assembled Peptide Nanotubes Are Uniquely Rigid Bioinspired Supramolecular Structures". Nano Letters. 5 (7): 1343–1346. Bibcode:2005NanoL...5.1343K. doi:10.1021/nl0505896.
Jump up ^ Niu, L.; et al. (June 6, 2007). "Using the Bending Beam Model to Estimate the Elasticity of Diphenylalanine Nanotubes". Langmuir. 23 (14): 7443–7446. doi:10.1021/la7010106.
Jump up ^ Azuri, I.; et al. (November 9, 2015). "Unusually Large Young's Moduli of Amino Acid Molecular Crystals". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 54 (46): 13566–13570. doi:10.1002/anie.201505813.
Jump up ^ "Composites Design and Manufacture (BEng) – MATS 324".
Jump up ^ Nabi Saheb, D.; Jog, JP. (1999). "Natural fibre polymer composites: a review". Advances in Polymer Technology. 18 (4): 351–363. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2329(199924)18:4<351::AID-ADV6>3.0.CO;2-X.
Jump up ^ Bodros, E. (2002). "Analysis of the flax fibres tensile behaviour and analysis of the tensile stiffness increase". Composite Part A. 33 (7): 939–948. doi:10.1016/S1359-835X(02)00040-4.
Jump up ^ A. P. Jackson,J. F. V. Vincent and R. M. Turner (1988). "The Mechanical Design of Nacre". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 234 (1277): 415–440. Bibcode:1988RSPSB.234..415J. doi:10.1098/rspb.1988.0056.
Jump up ^ DuPont (2001). "Kevlar Technical Guide": 9.
Jump up ^ M. Staines, W. H. Robinson and J. A. A. Hood (1981). "Spherical indentation of tooth enamel". Journal of Materials Science. 16 (9): 2551–2556. Bibcode:1981JMatS..16.2551S. doi:10.1007/bf01113595.
Jump up ^ Bodros, E.; Baley, C. (15 May 2008). "Study of the tensile properties of stinging nettle fibres (Urtica dioica)". Materials Letters. 62 (14): 2143–2145. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2007.11.034.
Jump up ^ Epoxy Matrix Composite reinforced by 70% carbon fibers [SubsTech]. Substech.com (2006-11-06). Retrieved on 2011-03-30.
Jump up ^ "Physical properties of Silicon (Si)". Ioffe Institute Database. Retrieved on 2011-05-27.
Jump up ^ E.J. Boyd; et al. (February 2012). "Measurement of the Anisotropy of Young's Modulus in Single-Crystal Silicon". Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems. 21 (1): 243–249. doi:10.1109/JMEMS.2011.2174415.
Jump up ^ Chou, H. M.; Case, E. D. (November 1988). "Characterization of some mechanical properties of polycrystalline yttrium iron garnet (YIG) by non-destructive methods". Journal of Materials Science Letters. 7 (11): 1217–1220. doi:10.1007/BF00722341.
Jump up ^ YIG properties
Jump up ^ "Properties of cobalt-chrome alloys – Heraeus Kulzer cara". Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ Adler-Abramovich, L.; et al. (December 17, 2010). "Self-Assembled Organic Nanostructures with Metallic-Like Stiffness". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 49 (51): 9939–9942. doi:10.1002/anie.201002037. PMID 20878815.
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Jump up ^ "Molybdenum: physical properties". webelements. Retrieved January 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Molybdenum, Mo" (PDF). Glemco. Retrieved January 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ D.K.Pandey; Singh, D.; Yadawa, P. K.; et al. (2009). "Ultrasonic Study of Osmium and Ruthenium" (PDF). Platinum Metals Rev. 53 (4): 91–97. doi:10.1595/147106709X430927. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
Jump up ^ L. Forro; et al. "Electronic and mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Y. H. Yang; Li, W. Z.; et al. (2011). "Radial elasticity of single-walled carbon nanotube measured by atomic force microscopy". Applied Physics Letters. 98 (4): 041901. Bibcode:2011ApPhL..98d1901Y. doi:10.1063/1.3546170.
Jump up ^ Fang Liu; Pingbing Ming & Ju Li. "Ab initio calculation of ideal strength and phonon instability of graphene under tension" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Spear and Dismukes (1994). Synthetic Diamond – Emerging CVD Science and Technology. Wiley, N.Y. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-471-53589-8.
Jump up ^ Owano, Nancy (Aug 20, 2013). "Carbyne is stronger than any known material". phys.org.
Jump up ^ Mingjie Liu, Vasilii I. Artyukhov, Hoonkyung Lee, Fangbo Xu and Boris I. Yakobson (Dec 2, 2013). "Carbyne From First Principles: Chain of C Atoms, a Nanorod or a Nanorope?" (PDF). arxiv.org. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Further reading[edit]
ASTM E 111, "Standard Test Method for Young's Modulus, Tangent Modulus, and Chord Modulus"
The ASM Handbook (various volumes) contains Young's Modulus for various materials and information on calculations. Online version (subscription required)
External links[edit]
Matweb: free database of engineering properties for over 115,000 materials
Young's Modulus for groups of materials, and their cost
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Elastic moduli for homogeneous isotropic materials
Bulk modulus ( K {\displaystyle K} )
Young's modulus ( E {\displaystyle E} )
Lamé's first parameter ( λ {\displaystyle \lambda } )
Shear modulus ( G , μ {\displaystyle G,\mu } )
Poisson's ratio ( ν {\displaystyle \nu } )
P-wave modulus ( M {\displaystyle M} )
[hide]Conversion formulas
Homogeneous isotropic linear elastic materials have their elastic properties uniquely determined by any two moduli among these; thus, given any two, any other of the elastic moduli can be calculated according to these formulas.
K = {\displaystyle K=\,} E = {\displaystyle E=\,} λ = {\displaystyle \lambda =\,} G = {\displaystyle G=\,} ν = {\displaystyle \nu =\,} M = {\displaystyle M=\,} Notes
( K , E ) {\displaystyle (K,\,E)} K {\displaystyle K} E {\displaystyle E} 3 K ( 3 K − E ) 9 K − E {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K(3K-E)}{9K-E}}} 3 K E 9 K − E {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3KE}{9K-E}}} 3 K − E 6 K {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K-E}{6K}}} 3 K ( 3 K + E ) 9 K − E {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K(3K+E)}{9K-E}}}
( K , λ ) {\displaystyle (K,\,\lambda )} K {\displaystyle K} 9 K ( K − λ ) 3 K − λ {\displaystyle {\tfrac {9K(K-\lambda )}{3K-\lambda }}} λ {\displaystyle \lambda } 3 ( K − λ ) 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3(K-\lambda )}{2}}} λ 3 K − λ {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda }{3K-\lambda }}} 3 K − 2 λ {\displaystyle 3K-2\lambda \,}
( K , G ) {\displaystyle (K,\,G)} K {\displaystyle K} 9 K G 3 K + G {\displaystyle {\tfrac {9KG}{3K+G}}} K − 2 G 3 {\displaystyle K-{\tfrac {2G}{3}}} G {\displaystyle G} 3 K − 2 G 2 ( 3 K + G ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K-2G}{2(3K+G)}}} K + 4 G 3 {\displaystyle K+{\tfrac {4G}{3}}}
( K , ν ) {\displaystyle (K,\,\nu )} K {\displaystyle K} 3 K ( 1 − 2 ν ) {\displaystyle 3K(1-2\nu )\,} 3 K ν 1 + ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K\nu }{1+\nu }}} 3 K ( 1 − 2 ν ) 2 ( 1 + ν ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K(1-2\nu )}{2(1+\nu )}}} ν {\displaystyle \nu } 3 K ( 1 − ν ) 1 + ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K(1-\nu )}{1+\nu }}}
( K , M ) {\displaystyle (K,\,M)} K {\displaystyle K} 9 K ( M − K ) 3 K + M {\displaystyle {\tfrac {9K(M-K)}{3K+M}}} 3 K − M 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K-M}{2}}} 3 ( M − K ) 4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3(M-K)}{4}}} 3 K − M 3 K + M {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K-M}{3K+M}}} M {\displaystyle M}
( E , λ ) {\displaystyle (E,\,\lambda )} E + 3 λ + R 6 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E+3\lambda +R}{6}}} E {\displaystyle E} λ {\displaystyle \lambda } E − 3 λ + R 4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E-3\lambda +R}{4}}} 2 λ E + λ + R {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2\lambda }{E+\lambda +R}}} E − λ + R 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E-\lambda +R}{2}}} R = E 2 + 9 λ 2 + 2 E λ {\displaystyle R={\sqrt {E^{2}+9\lambda ^{2}+2E\lambda }}}
( E , G ) {\displaystyle (E,\,G)} E G 3 ( 3 G − E ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {EG}{3(3G-E)}}} E {\displaystyle E} G ( E − 2 G ) 3 G − E {\displaystyle {\tfrac {G(E-2G)}{3G-E}}} G {\displaystyle G} E 2 G − 1 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E}{2G}}-1} G ( 4 G − E ) 3 G − E {\displaystyle {\tfrac {G(4G-E)}{3G-E}}}
( E , ν ) {\displaystyle (E,\,\nu )} E 3 ( 1 − 2 ν ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E}{3(1-2\nu )}}} E {\displaystyle E} E ν ( 1 + ν ) ( 1 − 2 ν ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E\nu }{(1+\nu )(1-2\nu )}}} E 2 ( 1 + ν ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E}{2(1+\nu )}}} ν {\displaystyle \nu } E ( 1 − ν ) ( 1 + ν ) ( 1 − 2 ν ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E(1-\nu )}{(1+\nu )(1-2\nu )}}}
( E , M ) {\displaystyle (E,\,M)} 3 M − E + S 6 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3M-E+S}{6}}} E {\displaystyle E} M − E + S 4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M-E+S}{4}}} 3 M + E − S 8 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3M+E-S}{8}}} E − M + S 4 M {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E-M+S}{4M}}} M {\displaystyle M}
S = ± E 2 + 9 M 2 − 10 E M {\displaystyle S=\pm {\sqrt {E^{2}+9M^{2}-10EM}}}
There are two valid solutions.
The plus sign leads to ν ≥ 0 {\displaystyle \nu \geq 0} .
The minus sign leads to ν ≤ 0 {\displaystyle \nu \leq 0} .
( λ , G ) {\displaystyle (\lambda ,\,G)} λ + 2 G 3 {\displaystyle \lambda +{\tfrac {2G}{3}}} G ( 3 λ + 2 G ) λ + G {\displaystyle {\tfrac {G(3\lambda +2G)}{\lambda +G}}} λ {\displaystyle \lambda } G {\displaystyle G} λ 2 ( λ + G ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda }{2(\lambda +G)}}} λ + 2 G {\displaystyle \lambda +2G\,}
( λ , ν ) {\displaystyle (\lambda ,\,\nu )} λ ( 1 + ν ) 3 ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda (1+\nu )}{3\nu }}} λ ( 1 + ν ) ( 1 − 2 ν ) ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda (1+\nu )(1-2\nu )}{\nu }}} λ {\displaystyle \lambda } λ ( 1 − 2 ν ) 2 ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda (1-2\nu )}{2\nu }}} ν {\displaystyle \nu } λ ( 1 − ν ) ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda (1-\nu )}{\nu }}} Cannot be used when ν = 0 ⇔ λ = 0 {\displaystyle \nu =0\Leftrightarrow \lambda =0}
( λ , M ) {\displaystyle (\lambda ,\,M)} M + 2 λ 3 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M+2\lambda }{3}}} ( M − λ ) ( M + 2 λ ) M + λ {\displaystyle {\tfrac {(M-\lambda )(M+2\lambda )}{M+\lambda }}} λ {\displaystyle \lambda } M − λ 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M-\lambda }{2}}} λ M + λ {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda }{M+\lambda }}} M {\displaystyle M}
( G , ν ) {\displaystyle (G,\,\nu )} 2 G ( 1 + ν ) 3 ( 1 − 2 ν ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2G(1+\nu )}{3(1-2\nu )}}} 2 G ( 1 + ν ) {\displaystyle 2G(1+\nu )\,} 2 G ν 1 − 2 ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2G\nu }{1-2\nu }}} G {\displaystyle G} ν {\displaystyle \nu } 2 G ( 1 − ν ) 1 − 2 ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2G(1-\nu )}{1-2\nu }}}
( G , M ) {\displaystyle (G,\,M)} M − 4 G 3 {\displaystyle M-{\tfrac {4G}{3}}} G ( 3 M − 4 G ) M − G {\displaystyle {\tfrac {G(3M-4G)}{M-G}}} M − 2 G {\displaystyle M-2G\,} G {\displaystyle G} M − 2 G 2 M − 2 G {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M-2G}{2M-2G}}} M {\displaystyle M}
( ν , M ) {\displaystyle (\nu ,\,M)} M ( 1 + ν ) 3 ( 1 − ν ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M(1+\nu )}{3(1-\nu )}}} M ( 1 + ν ) ( 1 − 2 ν ) 1 − ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M(1+\nu )(1-2\nu )}{1-\nu }}} M ν 1 − ν {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M\nu }{1-\nu }}} M ( 1 − 2 ν ) 2 ( 1 − ν ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M(1-2\nu )}{2(1-\nu )}}} ν {\displaystyle \nu } M {\displaystyle M}
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values: Edit section: Force exerted by stretched or contracted material

values: {\displaystyle F={\frac {EA\Delta L}{L_{0}}}}

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values: \varepsilon \equiv {\frac {\Delta L}{L_{0}}}

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values: Edit section: Relation among elastic constants

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values: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {9K(K-\lambda )}{3K-\lambda }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3(K-\lambda )}{2}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda }{3K-\lambda }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K\nu }{1+\nu }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3K(1-\nu )}{1+\nu }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E+3\lambda +R}{6}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E-3\lambda +R}{4}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2\lambda }{E+\lambda +R}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E-\lambda +R}{2}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E}{3(1-2\nu )}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {E\nu }{(1+\nu )(1-2\nu )}}}

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values: {\displaystyle S=\pm {\sqrt {E^{2}+9M^{2}-10EM}}}

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values: {\displaystyle \lambda +{\tfrac {2G}{3}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {G(3\lambda +2G)}{\lambda +G}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda }{2(\lambda +G)}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda (1+\nu )}{3\nu }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda (1-2\nu )}{2\nu }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda (1-\nu )}{\nu }}}

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values: {\displaystyle \nu =0\Leftrightarrow \lambda =0}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M+2\lambda }{3}}}

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values: {\tfrac {(M-\lambda )(M+2\lambda )}{M+\lambda }}

values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M-\lambda }{2}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\lambda }{M+\lambda }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2G\nu }{1-2\nu }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2G(1-\nu )}{1-2\nu }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M(1+\nu )}{3(1-\nu )}}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M(1+\nu )(1-2\nu )}{1-\nu }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M\nu }{1-\nu }}}

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values: {\displaystyle {\tfrac {M(1-2\nu )}{2(1-\nu )}}}

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