text:
Post and lintel
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Post and lintel construction of the World Heritage Monument site Airavatesvara Temple, India
Leinster House in Dublin retains columns under a pediment for aesthetic reasons; the similar façade at the White House at least holds up a porch
Timber frame of a modern building under construction, also using trusses
Stonehenge, an example of Neolithic architecture post and lintel construction.
In architecture, post and lintel (also called prop and lintel or a trabeated system) is a building system where strong horizontal elements are held up by strong vertical elements with large spaces between them. This is usually used to hold up a roof, creating a largely open space beneath, for whatever use the building is designed for. The horizontal elements are called by a variety of names including lintel, header, architrave or beam, and the supporting vertical elements may be called columns, pillars, or posts. The use of wider elements at the top of the post, called capitals, to help spread the load, is common to many traditions.
The trabeated system is a fundamental principle of Neolithic architecture, Ancient Indian architecture, Ancient Greek architecture and Ancient Egyptian architecture. Other trabeated styles are the Persian, Lycian, Japanese, traditional Chinese, and ancient Chinese architecture, especially in northern China,[1] and nearly all the Indian styles. The traditions are represented in North and Central America by Mayan architecture, and in South America by Inca architecture. In all or most of these traditions, certainly in Greece and India, the earliest versions developed using wood, which were later translated into stone for larger and grander buildings.[2] Timber framing, also using trusses, remains common for smaller buildings such as houses to the modern day.
The biggest disadvantage to a post and lintel construction is the limited weight that can be held up, and the small distances required between the posts. Ancient Roman architecture's development of the arch allowed for much larger structures to be constructed. The arcuated system spreads larger loads more effectively, and replaced the post and lintel trabeated system in most larger buildings and structures, until the introduction of steel girder beams in the industrial era. As with the Roman temple portico front and its descendents in later classical architecture, trabeated features were often retained in parts of buildings as an aesthetic choice. The classical orders of Greek origin were in particular retained in buildings designed to impress, even though they usually had little or no structural role.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Lintel beams
2 Engineering
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Lintel beams[edit]
Further information: Beam (structure)
In architecture, a post-and-lintel or trabeated system refers to the use of horizontal beams or lintels which are borne up by columns or posts. The name is from the Latin trabs, beam; influenced by trabeatus, clothed in the trabea, a ritual garment.
A noteworthy example of a trabeated system is in Volubilis, from the Roman era, where one side of the Decumanus Maximus is lined with trabeated elements, while the opposite side of the roadway is designed in arched style.[4]
In India the style was used originally for wooden construction, but later the technique was adopted for stone structures for decorated load-bearing and purely ornamented non-structural purposes.
Engineering[edit]
Post and lintel construction is one of four ancient structural methods of building, the others being the corbel, arch-and-vault, and truss.[5]
There are two main force vectors acting upon the post and lintel system: weight carrying compression at the joint between lintel and post, and tension induced by deformation of self-weight and the load above between the posts. The two posts are under compression from the weight of the lintel (or beam) above. The lintel will deform by sagging in the middle because the underside is under tension and the topside is under compression.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Post and Beam and Lintels.
Architrave - structural lintel or beam resting on columns-pillars
Atalburu - Basque decorative lintel
Dolmen - Neolithic megalithic tombs with structural stone lintels
Dougong - traditional Chinese structural element
I-beam - steel lintels and beams
Marriage stone - decorative lintel
Timber framing - post and beam systems
Structural design
Opus caementicium
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Post and lintel is the main structural system in Northern China, the southern traditional timber buildings which use a column-and-tie structural system. "Structural Mechanism Of Southern Chinese Traditional Timber Frame Buildings" SCIENCE CHINA Technological Sciences.2011, Vol 54(7) http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1112427956/structural-mechanism-of-southern-chinese-traditional-timber-frame-buildings/
Jump up ^ Summerson, 13-14
Jump up ^ Summerson, 19-21
Jump up ^ C. Michael Hogan, Volubilis, Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham (2007)
Jump up ^ L. Sprague De Camp, Ancient Engineers: Technology & Invention from the Earliest Times to the Renaissance (U.S.A.: Barnes and Noble, 1993 edition), 35.
References[edit]
Summerson, John, The Classical Language of Architecture, 1980 edition, Thames and Hudson World of Art series, ISBN 0500201773
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Pre-installed software
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Pre-installed software (also known as bundled software)[1] is software already installed and licensed on a computer or smartphone bought from an original equipment manufacturer (OEM).[2] The operating system is usually pre-installed, but because it is a general requirement, this term is used for additional software apart from the bare necessary amount, usually from other sources (or the operating system vendor).
Unwanted pre-installed software (also known as crapware[3][4][5] or bloatware[6][7][8][9][10]) can include major security vulnerabilities, like Superfish, which installs a root certificate to inject advertising into encrypted Google search pages, but leaves computers vulnerable to serious cyberattacks that breach the security used in banking and finance websites.[11][12]
Some free download websites use unwanted software bundling that similarly installs unwanted software.
Contents
[hide]
1 Unwanted software
1.1 On smartphones
2 Wanted pre-installed software
3 See also
4 References
Unwanted software[edit]
Often new PCs come with pre-installed software which the manufacturer was paid to include but is of dubious value to the purchaser. Most of these programs are included without the user's knowledge, and have no instructions on how to opt-out or remove them.[13]
A Microsoft executive mentioned that within the company these applications were dubbed craplets (a portmanteau of crap and applet).[14][15] He was saying that the experience of people buying a new Windows computer can be damaged by poorly designed, uncertified third-party applications installed by vendors. He stated that the antitrust case against Microsoft prevented the company from stopping the pre-installation of these programs by OEMs. Walt Mossberg, technology columnist for The Wall Street Journal, condemned "craplets" in two columns published in April 2007, and suggested several possible strategies for removing them.[15][16] According to Ars Technica, most unwanted programs are installed by OEMs who receive payment from the authors of the software. At the 2007 Consumer Electronics Show, Dell defended this practice, stating that it keeps costs down, and implying that systems might cost significantly more to the end user if these programs were not pre-installed.[1]
Some system vendors and retailers will offer, for an additional charge, to remove unwanted pre-installed software from a newly purchased computer; retailers, in particular, will tout this service as a "performance improvement." In 2008, Sony Corporation announced a plan to charge end users US$50 for the service; Sony subsequently decided to drop the charge for this service and offer it for free after many users expressed outrage.[6] Microsoft Store similarly offers a range of "Signature Edition" computers sold in a similar state, also including extended warranty and support packages through Microsoft.[17]
On smartphones[edit]
The practice is not limited to personal computers; mobile phones typically come with pre-loaded software provided by its manufacturer or service provider; similarly to their PC equivalents, they are sometimes tied to account management or other premium services offered by the provider. The practice was extended to smartphones via Android devices, as carriers often bundle apps provided by themselves and third-party developers with the device and, furthermore, install them into the System partition, making it so that they cannot be completely removed from the device without performing unsupported modifications to its firmware.[18][7][19][8] Some of these apps may run in the background, consuming battery life, and may also duplicate functionality already provided by the phone itself; for example, Verizon Wireless has bundled phones with a redundant text messaging app known as "Messages+" (which is set as the default SMS app in lieu of the stock messaging app or Google Hangouts), and VZ Navigator (a subscription service redundant to the free Google Maps service).[8][9]
Android 4.0 attempted to address these issues by allowing users to "disable" apps—which hides them from application menus and prevents them from running. However, this does not remove the software from the device entirely, and they still consume storage unless they are removed via irregular means.[19][9][10] In April 2014, South Korea implemented new regulatory guidelines for the mobile phone industry, requiring non-essential apps bundled on a smartphone to be user-removable.[20] Android 5.0 allows carrier-bundled apps to be installed directly from Google Play Store during initial device setup, which install in the same way as user-downloaded apps and can be uninstalled normally.[21]
Apple has also faced criticism on recent versions of iOS for including an increasing number of non-removable apps, such as Apple Watch and Apple Music, the latter consuming space through a large cache of streamed music.[22]
Wanted pre-installed software[edit]
Some businesses choose to purchase hardware and software together in bulk as a turnkey solution with commonly used software included, such as operating systems and word processors.[2]
Pre-installed software commonly suffers from one or more of the following problems:
It is usually licensed for use only on the computer on which it was pre-installed, and is not transferable to other computers.[2]
Its functionality is often time limited in an effort to get the user to purchase the "full" version.
It often does not come with any media, should the user need to reinstall it.
It sometimes modifies or replaces the default browser or system settings, in an effort to target specific advertisements to the user; or may otherwise contain functionality the user might consider to be malware.
It often consumes system resources, even if not actively being run by the user, adversely affecting system responsiveness and startup time.
It is sometimes difficult or impossible for users to remove, such as via the standard uninstall utility provided by the system.
Its purpose may be to install further unwanted programs without permission, or re-install them after the user successfully gets rid of them.
It may consume bandwidth which a phone company can charge for (especially on a phone device), yet not let the user know they are being cheated of some of their bandwidth. This may be a side effect of analytics or music downloads single unwanted apps are sending, but installing several dozen of these unwanted apps can drive the bandwidth costs up for a segment of users which wouldn't have happened without the unknown, uninstallable, unwanted apps.
See also[edit]
Bundled software
Product bundling
Bundleware
Shovelware
Tying (commerce)
Application software
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Fisher, Ken (2007-01-11). "$60 to keep crapware off of a Windows PC?". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Pre-installed on a new computer", a Microsoft article
Jump up ^ Melanie Pinola (November 21, 2012). "Here's all the crapware that comes with new Windows 8 PCs". IT World. Retrieved 2013-01-24.
Jump up ^ Justin James (December 5, 2012). "Five apps for crapware cleanup". TechRepublic. Retrieved 2013-01-24.
Jump up ^ Jared Newman (Jan 15, 2013). "Lucrative Windows crapware market is exactly why we need app stores". PCWorld. Retrieved 2013-01-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Rob Beschizza (2008-03-21). "Breaking: Sony won't charge $50 to remove bloatware". Wired. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bloatware Creeps Into Android Phones". Wired. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Friday Rant: The Ever-Sorrier State of Android Bloatware". Time. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Samsung Galaxy S5 Bloatware Removal Guide". Laptop Magazine. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Here’s how Verizon’s Android bloatware might become the best ever". BGR. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "U.S. government urges Lenovo customers to remove Superfish software". Reuters. February 20, 2015. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Alert: Lenovo "Superfish" Adware Vulnerable to HTTPS Spoofing". United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team. February 20, 2015. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ "PUP Criteria". https://www.malwarebytes.org/pup/. Malwarebytes. External link in |website= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Khan, Saleem (2007-01-10). "'Craplets' could damage Vista launch: Microsoft exec". CBC News. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Mossberg, Walter S. (2007-04-05). "Using Even New PCs Is Ruined by a Tangle of Trial Programs, Ads". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
Jump up ^ Mossberg, Walter S. (2007-04-12). "Ways You Can Avoid Getting Junk Programs on Your New Computer". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
Jump up ^ "Microsoft's Signature Edition laptops deliver the 'clean PC' experience you really want". PC World. Retrieved 16 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "LG G Vista (Verizon Wireless)". PC Magazine. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Want to protect your Android phone? Here's how to kill its crapware.". IT World. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "South Korea rules pre-installed phone bloatware must be deletable". ZDNet. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Transcript: Ars talks to Android execs about Lollipop and the Nexuses". Ars Technica. Retrieved 20 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Apple Music's Worst Feature? You Can't Delete It". Wired. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
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