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Coffee production in India
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Coffee forests in India
Coffee plantation in India
Coffee production in India is dominated in the hill tracts of South Indian states, with Karnataka accounting for 71%, followed by Kerala with 21% and Tamil Nadu (5% of overall production with 8,200 tonnes). Indian coffee is said to be the finest coffee grown in the shade rather than direct sunlight anywhere in the world.[1] There are about 250,000 coffee growers in the country; 98% of them are small growers.[2] As of 2009, Indian coffee made up just 4.5% of the global production. Almost 80% of Indian coffee is exported;[3] 70% is bound for Germany, Russia, Spain, Belgium, Slovenia, United States, Japan, Greece, Netherlands and France. Italy accounts for 29% of the exports. Most of the export is shipped through the Suez Canal.[1]
Coffee is grown in three regions of India with Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu forming the traditional coffee growing region, followed by the new areas developed in the non-traditional areas of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa in the eastern coast of the country and with a third region comprising the states of Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh of Northeastern India, popularly known as “Seven Sister States of India".[4]
Indian coffee, grown mostly in southern states under monsoon rainfall conditions, is also termed as “Indian monsooned coffee". Its flavour is defined as: "The best Indian coffee reaches the flavour characteristics of Pacific coffees, but at its worst it is simply bland and uninspiring”.[5] The two well known species of coffee grown are the Arabica and Robusta. The first variety that was introduced in the Baba Budan Giri hill ranges of Karnataka in the 17th century[6] was marketed over the years under the brand names of Kent and S.795.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Production
2.1 Background
2.2 Growing conditions
2.3 Processing
3 Varieties
4 Research and development
4.1 Regional research stations
5 Popularity
6 Coffee Board of India
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
Unripe Coffee Pods in Araku Valley, Andhra Pradesh
Coffee Plantation in Araku, Andhra Pradesh
Coffee growing has a long history that is attributed first to Ethiopia and then to Arabia (Yemen). The earliest history is traced to 875 AD according to the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, and the original source to Ethiopia (Abyssinia) from where it was brought to Arabia in the 15th century.[7]
In the Indian context, coffee growing started with an Indian Muslim saint, Baba Budan,[2][8] who, while returning from a pilgrimage to Mecca, smuggled seven coffee beans (by hiding them in his beard) from Yemen to Mysore in India.[7] He planted them on the Chandragiri Hills (1,829 metres (6,001 ft)), now named after the saint as Baba Budan Giri (‘Giri’ means “hill”) in Chikkamangaluru district. It was considered an illegal act to take out green coffee seed out of Arabia. As number seven is a sacrosanct number in Islamic religion, the saint’s act of carrying seven coffee beans was considered a religious act.[6] This was the beginning of coffee industry in India, and in particular, in the then state of Mysore, now part of the Karnataka State. This was an achievement of considerable bravery of Baba Budan considering the fact that Arabs had exercised strict control over its export to other countries by not permitting coffee beans to be exported in any form other than as in a roasted or boiled form to prevent germination.[9]
Systematic cultivation soon followed Baba Budan’s first planting of the seeds, in 1670, mostly by private native Indian owners and the first plantation was established in 1840 around Baba Budan Giri and its surrounding hills in Karnataka. It spread to other areas of Wynad (now part of Kerala), the Shevaroys and Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu. With British colonial presence taking strong roots in India in the mid 19th century, coffee plantations flourished for export. The culture of coffee thus spread to South India rapidly.
Initially, Arabica was popular. However, as result of serious infestation caused to this species by coffee rust, an alternative robust species of coffee, appropriately named as robusta and another hybrid between liberica and Arabica, a rust-tolerant hybrid variety of Arabica tree became popular. This is the most common variety of coffee that is grown in the country with Karnataka alone accounting for 70% of production of this variety.[8][9]
In 1942, the government decided to regulate the export of coffee and protect the small and marginal farmers by passing the Coffee VII Act of 1942, under which the Coffee Board of India got established, operated by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.[2] The government dramatically increased their control of coffee exports in India and pooled the coffees of its growers. In doing so, they reduced the incentives for farmers to produce high-quality coffee, so quality became stagnant.[2]
Over the last 50 years, coffee production in India has grown by over 15 percent.[10] From 1991, economic liberalisation took place in India, and the industry took full advantage of this and cheaper labour costs of production.[11] In 1993, a monumental Internal Sales Quota (ISQ) made the first step in liberalising the coffee industry by entitling coffee farmers to sell 30% of their production within India.[2] This was further amended in 1994 when the Free Sale Quota (FSQ) permitted large and small scale growers to sell between 70% and 100% of their coffee either domestically or internationally.[2] A final amendment in September 1996 saw the liberalisation of coffee for all growers in the country and a freedom to sell their produce wherever they wished.[2]
Production[edit]
Background[edit]
The main coffee producing states of India
Karnataka coffee beans
Like in Ceylon, coffee production in India declined rapidly from the 1870s and was massively outgrown by the emerging tea industry. The devastating coffee rust affected the output of coffee to the point that the costs of production saw coffee plantations in many parts replaced with tea plantations.[12] However, the coffee industry was not as affected by this disease as in Ceylon, and although overshadowed in scale by the tea industry, India was still one of the strongholds of coffee production in the British Empire along with British Guiana. In the period 1910–12, the area under coffee plantation was reported to be 203,134 acres (82,205 ha) in the southern states, and was mostly exported to England.
In the 1940s, Indian filter coffee, a sweet milky coffee made from dark roasted coffee beans (70%–80%) and chicory (20%–30%) became a commercial success. It was especially popular in the southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The most commonly used coffee beans are Arabica and Robusta grown in the hills of Karnataka (Kodagu, Chikkamagaluru and Hassan), Kerala (Malabar region) and Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris District, Yercaud and Kodaikanal).
Coffee production in India grew rapidly in the 1970s, increasing from 68,948 tonnes in 1971–72 to 120,000 tonnes in 1979–80 and grew by 4.6 percent in the 1980s.[13] It grew by more than 30 percent in the 1990s, rivalled only by Uganda in the growth of production.[14][15] By 2007, organic coffee was grown in about 2,600 hectares (6,400 acres) with an estimated production of about 1700 tonnes.[16] According to the 2008 statistics published by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the area of coffee green harvested in India was 342,000 hectares (850,000 acres),[17] with yield estimates of 7,660 hectogram/ha,[18] forming a total production estimate of 262,000 tonnes.[19]
There are approximately 250,000 coffee growers in India; 98% of them are small growers.[2] Over 90 percent of them are small farms consisting of 10 acres (4.0 ha) or fewer. According to published statistics for 2001–2002, the total area under coffee in India was 346,995 hectares (857,440 acres) with small holdings of 175,475 accounting for 71.2%. The area under large holding of more than 100 hectares (250 acres) was 31,571 hectares (78,010 acres) (only 9.1% of all holdings) only under 167 holdings. The area under less than 2 hectares (4.9 acres) holdings was 114,546 hectares (283,050 acres) (33% of the total area) among 138,209 holders.[2]
Size of holdings
Numbers (2001–2002)
Area of holding
Less than 10 ha 10 hectares (25 acres) 175,475 247,087 hectares (610,570 acres)
Between 10 and 100 ha and above 2833 99,908 hectares (246,880 acres)
Total 178,308 346,995 hectares (857,440 acres)
The most important areas of production are in the southern states of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu which accounted for over 92% of India's coffee production in the 2005–2006 growing season. In this same season, India exported over 440,000 pounds (200,000 kg) of coffee, with over 25% destined for Italy. Traditionally, India has been a noted producer of Arabica coffee but in the last decade robusta beans are growing substantially due to high yields, which now account for over 60 percent of coffee produced in India. The domestic consumption of coffee increased from 50,000 tonnes in 1995 to 94,400 tonnes in 2008.[20] According to the statistics provided by the Coffee Board of India, the estimated production of Robusta and Arabica coffee for the "Post Monsoon Estimation 2009–10" and "Post Blossom Estimation 2010–11" in different states accounted for a total of 308,000 tonnes and 289,600 tonnes, respectively.[21] As of 2010, between 70% and 80% of Indian grown coffee is exported overseas.[10][22]
Growing conditions[edit]
All coffee grown in India are grown in shade and commonly with two tiers of shade. Often inter-cropped with spices such as cardamom, cinnamon, clove, and nutmeg, the coffees gain aromatics from the inter-cropping, storage, and handling functions.[23] Growing altitudes range between 1,000 m (3,300 ft) to 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above sea level for Arabica (premier coffee), and 500 m (1,600 ft) to 1,000 m (3,300 ft) for Robusta (though of lower quality, it is robust to environment conditions).[2][16] Ideally, both Arabica and Robusta are planted in well drained soil conditions that favour rich organic matter that is slightly acidic (pH 6.0–6.5).[16] However, India's coffees tend to be moderately acidic which can lead to either a balanced and sweet taste, or a listless and inert one.[23] Slopes of Arabica tend to be gentle to moderate, while Robusta slopes are gentle to fairly level.[16]
Blooming and maturing
Coffee flower
Irrigated coffee plantation
Blooming is the time when coffee plants bloom with white flowers which last for about 3–4 days (termed "evanescent" period) before they mature into seeds. When coffee plantations are in full bloom it is a delightful sight to watch. The time period between blooming and maturing of the fruit varies appreciably with the variety and the climate; for the Arabica, it is about seven months, and for the Robusta, about nine months. The fruit is gathered by hand when it is fully ripe and red-purple in colour.[24][25][26]
Climatic conditions
Ideal climatic conditions to grow coffee are related to temperature and rainfall; temperatures in the range of 73 °F (23 °C) and 82 °F (28 °C) with rainfall incidence in the range of 60–80 inches (1.5–2.0 m) followed by a dry spell of 2–3 months suit the Arabica variety. Cold temperatures closer to freezing conditions are not suitable to grow coffee. Where the rainfall is less than 40 inches (1.0 m), providing irrigation facilities is essential. In the tropical region of the south Indian hills, these conditions prevail leading to coffee plantations flourishing in large numbers.[27] Relative humidity for Arabica ranges 70–80% while for Robusta it ranges 80–90%.[16]
Cobras on an Indian coffee plantation
Coffee diseases
The common disease to which the coffee plants are subjected to in India is on account of fungus growth. This fungus is called the Hemileia vastatrix, an endophytous that grows within the matter of the leaf; effective cure has not been discovered to eliminate this. The second type of disease is known as the coffee rot, which has caused severe damages during the rainy season, particularly to plantations in Karnataka. Pellicularia koleroga was the name given to this rot or rust, which turns the leaves into black colour due to the coverage by a slimy gelatinous film. It is now classified as Ceratobasidium noxium This causes the coffee leaves and the cluster of coffee berries to drop off to the ground.[8] Snakes such as cobras can also cause a nuisance to coffee plantations in India.
Processing[edit]
Processing of coffee in India is accomplished using two methods, dry processing and wet processing. Dry processing is the traditional method of drying in the sun which is favoured for its flavour producing characteristics. In the wet processing method, coffee beans are fermented and washed, which is the preferred method for improved yields. As to the wet processing, the beans are subject to cleaning to segregate defective seeds. The beans of different varieties and sizes are then blended to derive the best flavour. The next procedure is to roast either through roasters or individual roasters. Then the roasted coffee is ground to appropriate sizes.[1]
Varieties[edit]
Coffee on hills of Kaveri River in Kodagu District, Karnataka
Monsooned Malabar arabica, compared with green Yirgachefe beans from Ethiopia
The four main botanical cultivars of India's coffee include Kent, S.795, Cauvery, and Selection 9. In the 1920s, the earliest variety of Arabica grown in India was named Kent(s)[16] after the Englishman L.P. Kent, a planter of the Doddengudda Estate in Mysore.[28] Probably the most commonly planted Arabica in India and Southeast Asia is S.795,[29] known for its balanced cup and subtle flavour notes of mocca. Released during the 1940s, it is a cross between the Kents and S.288 varieties.[29] Cauvery, commonly known as Catimor, is a derivative of a cross between Caturra with Hybrido-de-Timor, while the award-winning Selection 9 is a derivative from the crossing between Tafarikela and Hybrido-de-Timor.[16] The dwarf and semi-dwarf hybrids of San Ramon and Caturra were developed to meet the demands for high density plantings.[30] The Devamachy hybrid (C. arabica and C. canephora) was first discovered around 1930 in India.[31]
The Indian Coffee Association's weekly auction includes such varieties as Arabica Cherry, Robusta Cherry, Arabica Plantation, and Robusta Parchment.[32]
Regional logos and brands include: Anamalais, Araku valley, Bababudangiris, Biligiris, Brahmaputra, Chikmagalur, Coorg, Manjarabad, Nilgiris, Pulneys, Sheveroys, Travancore, and Wayanad. There are also several specialty brands such as Monsooned Malabar AA, Mysore Nuggets Extra Bold, and Robusta Kaapi Royale.[16]
Workers in Kerala
Organic coffee
Organic coffee is produced without synthetic agro-chemicals and plant protection methods. A certification is essential by the accrediting agency for such coffee to market it (popular forms are of regular, decaffeinated, flavoured and instant coffee variety) as such since they are popular in Europe, United States and Japan. The Indian terrain and climatic conditions provide the advantages required for the growth of such coffee in deep and fertile forest soils under the two tier mixed shade using cattle manure, composting and manual weeding coupled with the horticultural operations practised in its various coffee plantations; small holdings is another advantage for such a variety of coffee. In spite of all these advantages, the certified organic coffee holdings in India, as of 2008, (there are 20 accredited certification agencies in India) was only in an area of 2,600 hectares (6,400 acres) with production estimated at 1700 tonnes. In order to promote growth of such coffee, the Coffee Board, based on field experiments, surveys and case studies has evolved many packages for adoption, supplemented with information guidelines and technical documents.[4]
Research and development[edit]
Coffee research and development efforts are well organised in India through its Coffee Research Institute, which is considered the premier research station in South East Asia. It is under the control of the Coffee Board of India, an autonomous body, under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, which was set up under an Act of the Parliament with the objective of promoting “research, development, extension, quality up gradation, market information, and the domestic and external promotion of Indian coffee.”[33] It was established near Balehonnur in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka, in the heartland of coffee plantations. Prior to establishing this institute, a temporary research unit was established in 1915 at Koppa primarily to evolve solutions to crop infestation by leaf diseases. This was followed by the field research station established by the then Government of Mysore, titled "Mysore Coffee Experimental Station," in 1925. This was handed over to the Coffee Board which was formed in 1942, and regular research started at this station from 1944. Dr L. C. Coleman is credited as the founder of coffee research in India.[34] The Coffee Board of India is an autonomous body, functioning under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India. The Board serves as a friend, philosopher and guide of the coffee industry in India. Set up under an Act of the Parliament of India in the year 1942, the Board focuses on research, development, extension, quality up gradation, market information, and the domestic and external promotion of Indian coffee.
Chikmagalur district, the headquarters of the Coffee Board of India, shown within the state of Karnataka
The research activities covered by the Institute constitute research in seven disciplines such as Agronomy, Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Botany, Entomology/Nematology, Plant Physiology, Biotechnology and Post Harvest Technology with the basic aim of increasing productivity and quality of coffee grown in India. The institute has 60 scientific and technical personnel involved in research activities. The institute has a well established farm land of 130.94 hectares (323.6 acres) for carrying out crop research, out of which 80.26 hectares (198.3 acres) are dedicated to coffee research (51.32 hectares (126.8 acres) of arabica and 28.94 hectares (71.5 acres) of robusta), 10 hectares (25 acres) are used for growing CXR, 12.38 hectares (30.6 acres) are apportioned for nurseries, roads and buildings, and the balance area of 12.38 hectares (30.6 acres) is a reserve area for future expansion. The research farm has a well established network of check dams that provides a regulated water source to the plantations which offer a wide range of shade tree species under which coffee is grown, and germplasm and exotic material from all the coffee growing countries including Ethiopia which is known as the home land of Arabica. In addition, crop diversification with crops such as pepper and areca are also part of income generating programmes of the institute.[34]
Part of the institute includes a research laboratory to carry out research in identified disciplines, as well as a stocked library with books and periodicals, not only on coffee but also on other crops. Training of personnel is an important activity of the institute. The training unit of the institute conducts regular training programs for estate managers and supervisory personnel of the coffee plantations and also for the extension officers of the Coffee Board. Recognised by UNDP and USDA, the training unit of the institute is providing training to foreign nationals on coffee cultivation in which personnel from Ethiopia, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Nestle Singapore have been trained.[34]
In addition, a Plant Tissue Culture & Biotechnology division, established in Mysore, is carrying out exclusive research in bio-technology and molecular biology to supplement/complement the conventional breeding programs in developing high yielding, pest and disease resistant varieties. The Coffee Board of India maintains a Quality Control Division in its head office in Bengaluru which plays an active role in collaborating with other research disciplines in upgrading the “quality of coffee in the cup.”[34]
Regional research stations[edit]
To cover research specific to each coffee growing region covering different agro-climatic conditions, the following five research stations are fully functional under the overall control of the Central Coffee Research Institute.[34][35]
Coffee Research Sub-station (CRSS), Chettalli in Kodagu district of Karnataka, was established in 1946. The sub-station has a well equipped laboratory and covers an area of 131 hectares (320 acres) out of which 80 hectares (200 acres) is exclusive to coffee research activities.[35]
Regional Coffee Research Station (RCRS), R.V. Nagar in Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh also covers the Orissa on the eastern coast. The research station, established in 1976 to cater to the development of coffee in non-traditional areas has an area of 30 hectares (74 acres) under coffee plantation. The objective of introducing coffee in this area was to wean away the tribal population from growing crops under the podu cultivation system (shifting cultivation) in the forest areas, not only to preserve the forest ecology but also to improve the economic condition of the tribal people of the region.[35]
Regional Coffee Research Station (RCRS), Chundale village in Wayanad district of Kerala was established primarily to develop appropriate technologies to suit the region where robusta is the dominant crop. Kerala is reckoned as the second largest coffee producing state in the country with robusta variety of coffee. The station covers an area of 116 hectares (290 acres) with 30 hectares (74 acres) of farm with an adequate laboratory support for research.[35]
Regional Coffee Research Station (RCRS), Thandigudi in Dindigul district of Tamil Nadu. The research station was established with the sole aim of evolving suitable practices for the cultivation of coffee area in Tamil Nadu which receives major rainfall (but scanty) during the Northeast monsoon, unlike the other regions of the country. This station is spread over an area of 12.5 hectares (31 acres) including a research farm of 6.5 hectares (16 acres) with laboratory facilities.[35]
Regional Coffee Research Station (RCRS), Diphu in Karbi Anglon district of Assam was established to support coffee plantations which were established in the Northeast region in 1980 to provide an alternate, economically viable agricultural practice to the shifting or jhum cultivation, widely practised by the tribals in the forested hills, which was a cause of concern to preserve the ecology of the region. This regional station is spread over an area of 25 hectares (62 acres).[35]
Popularity[edit]
Coffee latte
The India Coffee House chain was first started by the Coffee Board in early 1940s, during British rule. In the mid-1950s, the Board closed down the Coffee Houses, due to a policy change. However, the discharged employees then took over the branches, under the leadership of the then communist leader A. K. Gopalan and renamed the network as Indian Coffee House. The first Indian Coffee Workers Co-Operative Society was established in Bengaluru on 19 August 1957. The first Indian Coffee House was opened in New Delhi on 27 October 1957. Gradually, the Indian Coffee House chain expanded across the country, with branches in Pondicherry, Thrissur, Lucknow, Nagpur, Jabalpur, Mumbai, Kolkata, Tellicherry and Pune Tamil Nadu by the end of 1958. These coffee houses in the country are run by 13 cooperative societies, which are governed by managing committees elected from the employees. A federation of the co-operative societies is the national umbrella organisation to lead these societies.[36][37]
However, now Coffee bars have gained in popularity with other chains such as Barista; Café Coffee Day is the country's largest coffee bar chain.[38] In the Indian home, coffee consumption is greater in south India than elsewhere.[39]
Indian coffee has a good reputation in Europe for its less acidic and sweetness of character and thus widely used in Espresso Coffee, though Americans prefer African and South American coffee, which is a more acidic and brighter variety.[6]
Selection 9 was the winner of the Fine Cup Award for best Arabica at the 2002 Flavour of India – Cupping Competition.[16] In 2004, Indian Coffee with the brand name "Tata Coffee" had the distinction of winning three gold medals at the Grand Cus De Café Competition held in Paris.[6]
Coffee Board of India[edit]
The Coffee Board of India is an organisation managed by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry of the government of India to promote coffee production in India. The board was set up by an act of parliament in 1942. Until 1995 the Coffee Board marketed the coffee of many growers from a pooled supply, but after that time coffee marketing became a private-sector activity due to the economic liberalisation in India.[40]
The Coffee Board's traditional duties include the promotion, sale and consumption of coffee in India and abroad; conducting coffee research; financial assistance to establish small coffee growers; safeguarding working conditions for labourers, and managing the surplus pool of unsold coffee.[41]
See also[edit]
Coffee portal
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Media related to Coffee plantations in India at Wikimedia Commons
Coffee Board of India
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text:
Grey matter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Grey matter (disambiguation).
Grey matter
The formation of the spinal nerve from the dorsal and ventral roots. (Grey matter labeled at center right.)
Micrograph showing grey matter, with the characteristic neuronal cell bodies (dark shade of pink), and white matter with its characteristic fine meshwork-like appearance (left of image - lighter shade of pink). HPS stain.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Substantia grisea
Dorlands
/Elsevier
Grey matter
TA
A14.1.00.002
FMA
67242
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Grey matter (or gray matter) is a major component of the central nervous system, consisting of neuronal cell bodies, neuropil (dendrites and myelinated as well as unmyelinated axons), glial cells (astrocytes and oligodendrocytes), synapses, and capillaries. Grey matter is distinguished from white matter, in that it contains numerous cell bodies and relatively few myelinated axons, while white matter contains relatively few cell bodies and is composed chiefly of long-range myelinated axon tracts.[1] The colour difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin. In living tissue, grey matter actually has a very light grey colour with yellowish or pinkish hues, which come from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
4 History
4.1 Etymology
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
Grey matter refers to unmyelinated neurons and other cells of the central nervous system. It is present in the brain, brainstem and cerebellum, and present throughout the spinal cord.
Grey matter is distributed at the surface of the cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex) and of the cerebellum (cerebellar cortex), as well as in the depths of the cerebrum (thalamus; hypothalamus; subthalamus, basal ganglia – putamen, globus pallidus, nucleus accumbens; septal nuclei), cerebellar (deep cerebellar nuclei – dentate nucleus, globose nucleus, emboliform nucleus, fastigial nucleus), brainstem (substantia nigra, red nucleus, olivary nuclei, cranial nerve nuclei).
Grey matter in the spinal cord is known as the grey column which travels down the spinal cord distributed in three grey columns that are presented in an "H" shape. The forward-facing column is the anterior grey column, the rear-facing one is the posterior grey column and the interlinking one is the lateral grey column. The grey matter on the left and right side is connected by the grey commissure. The grey matter in the spinal cord consists of interneurons, as well as cell bodies.
Diagram of a spinal vertebra. The grey matter is in the central part of the spinal cord.
Cross-section of spinal cord with grey matter labelled.
Grey matter undergoes development and growth throughout childhood and adolescence.[3]
Function[edit]
Grey matter contains most of the brain's neuronal cell bodies. The grey matter includes regions of the brain involved in muscle control, and sensory perception such as seeing and hearing, memory, emotions, speech, decision making, and self-control.[4]
The grey matter in the spinal cord is split into three grey columns:
The anterior grey column contains motor neurons. These synapse with interneurons and the axons of cells that have travelled down the pyramidal tract. These cells are responsible for the movement of muscles.
The posterior grey column contains the points where sensory neurons synapse. These receive sensory information from the body, including fine touch, proprioception, and vibration. This information is sent from receptors of the skin, bones, and joints through sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the dorsal root ganglion. This information is then transmitted in axons up the spinal cord in spinal tracts, including the dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract and the spinothalamic tract.
The lateral grey column is the third column of the spinal cord.
The grey matter of the spinal cord can be divided into different layers, called Rexed laminae. These describe, in general, the purpose of the cells within the grey matter of the spinal cord at a particular location.
Interneurons present in the grey matter of the spinal cord
Rexed laminae groups the grey matter in the spinal cord according to its function.
Clinical significance[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2017)
High alcohol consumption has been correlated with significant reductions in grey matter volume.[5][6] Short-term cannabis use (30 days) is not correlated with changes in white or grey matter.[7] However, several cross-sectional studies have shown that repeated long-term cannabis use is associated with smaller grey matter volumes in the hippocampus, amygdala, medial temporal cortex, and prefrontal cortex, with increased grey matter volume in the cerebellum.[8][9][10] Long-term cannabis use also alters white matter integrity in an age-dependent manner,[11] with heavy cannabis use during adolescence and early adulthood causing the greatest amount of damage.[12]
Meditation has been shown to change grey matter structure.[13][14][15][16][17]
Habitual playing of action video games has been reported to promote a reduction in grey matter.[18][19]
It has been shown that pregnancy renders substantial changes in brain structure, primarily reductions in gray matter volume in regions subserving social cognition. The gray matter reductions endured for at least 2 years post-pregnancy. [20]
History[edit]
Etymology[edit]
In the current edition[21] of the official Latin nomenclature, Terminologia Anatomica, substantia grisea is used for English grey matter. The adjective grisea for grey is however not attested in classical Latin.[22] The adjective grisea is derived from the French word for grey, gris.[22] Alternative designations like substantia cana [23] and substantia cinerea [24] are being used alternatively. The adjective cana, attested in classical Latin,[25] can mean grey,[22] or greyish white.[26] The classical Latin cinerea means ash-coloured.[25]
Additional images[edit]
Human brain right dissected lateral view
Schematic representation of the chief ganglionic categories (I to V).
See also[edit]
Grey matter heterotopia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Purves, Dale; George J. Augustine; David Fitzpatrick; William C. Hall; Anthony-Samuel LaMantia; James O. McNamara; Leonard E. White (2008). Neuroscience (4th ed.). Sinauer Associates. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-87893-697-7.
Jump up ^ Kolb & Whishaw: Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (2003) page 49
Jump up ^ Sowell, E. R.; Thompson, P. M.; Tessner, K. D.; Toga, A. W. (2001). "Mapping continued brain growth and gray matter density reduction in dorsal frontal cortex: Inverse relationships during postadolescent brain maturation". The Journal of Neuroscience. 21 (22): 8819–29. PMID 11698594.
Jump up ^ Miller, A. K. H.; Alston, R. L.; Corsellis, J. A. N. (1980). "Variation with Age in the Volumes of Grey and White Matter in the Cerebral Hemispheres of Man: Measurements with an Image Analyser". Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology. 6 (2): 119–32. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2990.1980.tb00283.x. PMID 7374914.
Jump up ^ Yang, Xun; Tian, Fangfang; Zhang, Handi; Zeng, Jianguang; Chen, Taolin; Wang, Song; Jia, Zhiyun; Gong, Qiyong (2016). "Cortical and subcortical gray matter shrinkage in alcohol-use disorders: A voxel-based meta-analysis". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 66: 92–103. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.034. PMID 27108216.
Jump up ^ Xiao, Peirong; Dai, Zhenyu; Zhong, Jianguo; Zhu, Yingling; Shi, Haicun; Pan, Pinglei (2015). "Regional gray matter deficits in alcohol dependence: A meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 153: 22–8. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.030. PMID 26072220.
Jump up ^ Thayer, Rachel E.; YorkWilliams, Sophie; Karoly, Hollis C.; Sabbineni, Amithrupa; Ewing, Sarah Feldstein; Bryan, Angela D.; Hutchison, Kent E. "Structural Neuroimaging Correlates of Alcohol and Cannabis Use in Adolescents and Adults". Addiction: n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/add.13923. ISSN 1360-0443.
Jump up ^ Lorenzetti, Valentina; Lubman, Dan I.; Whittle, Sarah; Solowij, Nadia; Yücel, Murat (September 2010). "Structural MRI findings in long-term cannabis users: what do we know?". Substance Use & Misuse. 45 (11): 1787–1808. doi:10.3109/10826084.2010.482443. ISSN 1532-2491. PMID 20590400.
Jump up ^ Matochik, John A.; Eldreth, Dana A.; Cadet, Jean-Lud; Bolla, Karen I. (2005-01-07). "Altered brain tissue composition in heavy marijuana users". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 77 (1): 23–30. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.06.011. ISSN 0376-8716. PMID 15607838.
Jump up ^ Yücel, Murat; Solowij, Nadia; Respondek, Colleen; Whittle, Sarah; Fornito, Alex; Pantelis, Christos; Lubman, Dan I. (June 2008). "Regional brain abnormalities associated with long-term heavy cannabis use". Archives of General Psychiatry. 65 (6): 694–701. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.6.694. ISSN 1538-3636. PMID 18519827.
Jump up ^ Jakabek, David; Yücel, Murat; Lorenzetti, Valentina; Solowij, Nadia (October 2016). "An MRI study of white matter tract integrity in regular cannabis users: effects of cannabis use and age". Psychopharmacology. 233 (19-20): 3627–3637. doi:10.1007/s00213-016-4398-3. ISSN 1432-2072. PMID 27503373.
Jump up ^ Becker, Mary P.; Collins, Paul F.; Lim, Kelvin O.; Muetzel, R. L.; Luciana, M. (December 2015). "Longitudinal changes in white matter microstructure after heavy cannabis use". Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. 16: 23–35. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.10.004. ISSN 1878-9307. PMC 4691379  . PMID 26602958.
Jump up ^ Black, David S.; Kurth, Florian; Luders, Eileen; Wu, Brian (2014). "Brain Gray Matter Changes Associated with Mindfulness Meditation in Older Adults: An Exploratory Pilot Study using Voxelbased Morphometry". Neuro. 1 (1): 23–26. doi:10.17140/NOJ-1-106. PMC 4306280  . PMID 25632405.
Jump up ^ Hölzel, Britta K.; Carmody, James; Vangel, Mark; Congleton, Christina; Yerramsetti, Sita M.; Gard, Tim; Lazar, Sara W. (2011). "Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density". Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 191 (1): 36–43. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2010.08.006. PMC 3004979  . PMID 21071182.
Jump up ^ Kurth, Florian; MacKenzie-Graham, Allan; Toga, Arthur W.; Luders, Eileen (2015). "Shifting brain asymmetry: the link between meditation and structural lateralization". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 10 (1): 55–61. doi:10.1093/scan/nsu029. PMC 4994843  . PMID 24643652.
Jump up ^ Fox, Kieran C.R.; Nijeboer, Savannah; Dixon, Matthew L.; Floman, James L.; Ellamil, Melissa; Rumak, Samuel P.; Sedlmeier, Peter; Christoff, Kalina (2014). "Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 43: 48–73. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.03.016. PMID 24705269.
Jump up ^ Hölzel, Britta K.; Carmody, James; Evans, Karleyton C.; Hoge, Elizabeth A.; Dusek, Jeffery A.; Morgan, Lucas; Pitman, Roger K.; Lazar, Sara W. (2010). "Stress reduction correlates with structural changes in the amygdala". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 5 (1): 11–7. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp034. PMC 2840837  . PMID 19776221.
Jump up ^ https://www.news-medical.net/news/20170808/Habitual-players-of-action-video-games-have-less-grey-matter-in-their-brain-study-reveals.aspx
Jump up ^ http://nouvelles.umontreal.ca/en/article/2017/08/07/playing-action-video-games-can-actually-harm-your-brain/
Jump up ^ Hoekzema, Elseline; Barba-Müller, Erika; Pozzobon, Cristina; Picado, Marisol; Lucco, Florencio; García-García, David; Soliva, Juan Carlos; Tobeña, Adolf; Desco, Manuel; Crone, Eveline A.; Ballesteros, Agustín; Carmona, Susanna; Vilarroya, Oscar (2016). "Pregnancy leads to long-lasting changes in human brain structure". Nature Neuroscience. 20: 287. doi:10.1038/nn.4458. PMID 27991897.
Jump up ^ Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) (1998). Terminologia Anatomica. Stuttgart: Thieme
^ Jump up to: a b c Triepel, H. (1910). Die anatomischen Namen. Ihre Ableitung und Aussprache. Mit einem Anhang: Biographische Notizen.(Dritte Auflage). Wiesbaden: Verlag J.F. Bergmann.
Jump up ^ Triepel, H. (1910). Nomina Anatomica. Mit Unterstützung von Fachphilologen. Wiesbaden: Verlag J.F. Bergmann.
Jump up ^ Schreger, C.H.Th.(1805). Synonymia anatomica. Synonymik der anatomischen Nomenclatur. Fürth: im Bureau für Literatur.
^ Jump up to: a b Lewis, C.T. & Short, C. (1879). A Latin dictionary founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Jump up ^ Stearn, W.T. (1983). Botanical Latin. History, grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary. (3rd edition). Newton Abbot London: David Charles.
External links[edit]
Why Gray Matter is Gray
[show]
v
t
e
Nervous tissue
CNS
Tissue Types
Grey matter
White matter
Projection fibers
Association fiber
Commissural fiber
Lemniscus
Funiculus
Fasciculus
Nerve tract
Decussation
Commissure
Neuropil
Meninges
Cell Types
Neuronal
Pyramidal
Purkinje
Granule
Glial
insulating:
Myelination: Oligodendrocyte
other
Astrocyte
Radial glial cell
Ependymal cells
Tanycyte
Microglia
PNS
General
Dorsal
Root
Ganglion
Ramus
Ventral
Root
Ramus
Ramus communicans
Gray
White
Autonomic ganglion (Preganglionic nerve fibers
Postganglionic nerve fibers)
Connective tissues
Epineurium
Perineurium
Endoneurium
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Neuroglia
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Node of Ranvier
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nerve fibers
Parts
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Axon
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Axoplasm
Axolemma
Neurofibril/neurofilament
Dendrite
Nissl body
Dendritic spine
Apical dendrite/Basal dendrite
Types
Bipolar
Unipolar
Pseudounipolar
Multipolar
Interneuron
Renshaw
Afferent nerve fiber/
Sensory neuron
GSA
GVA
SSA
SVA
fibers
Ia or Aα
Ib or Golgi or Aα
II or Aβ and Aγ
III or Aδ or fast pain
IV or C or slow pain
Efferent nerve fiber/
Motor neuron
GSE
GVE
SVE
Upper motor neuron
Lower motor neuron
α motorneuron
β motorneuron
γ motorneuron
Termination
Synapse
Electrical synapse/Gap junction
Chemical synapse
Synaptic vesicle
Active zone
Postsynaptic density
Autapse
Ribbon synapse
Neuromuscular junction
Sensory receptors
Meissner's corpuscle
Merkel nerve ending
Pacinian corpuscle
Ruffini ending
Muscle spindle
Free nerve ending
Nociceptor
Olfactory receptor neuron
Photoreceptor cell
Hair cell
Taste bud
[show]
v
t
e
The spinal cord
General features
Cervical enlargement
Lumbar enlargement
Conus medullaris
Filum terminale
Cauda equina
Meninges
Grey matter
Posterior grey column
Marginal nucleus
Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando
Nucleus proprius
Spinal lamina V
Spinal lamina VI
Lateral grey column
Intermediolateral nucleus
Posterior thoracic nucleus
Anterior grey column
Interneuron
Alpha motor neuron
Onuf's nucleus
Gamma motor neuron
Other
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Central gelatinous substance
Gray commissure
Central canal
Terminal ventricle
White matter
Sensory
Posterior
Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway:
Gracile
Cuneate
Lateral:
Spinocerebellar
dorsal
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Spinothalamic
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anterior
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Spinotectal
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Anterior
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Tectospinal
Both
Anterior white commissure
External features
Ventral
Anterior median fissure
Anterolateral sulcus
Dorsal
Posterior median sulcus
Posterolateral sulcus
[show]
v
t
e
Anatomy of the cerebral cortex of the human brain
Frontal lobe
Superolateral
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
4
6
8
Middle frontal gyrus
9
10
46
Inferior frontal gyrus: 11
47-Pars orbitalis
Broca's area
44-Pars opercularis
45-Pars triangularis
Superior frontal sulcus
Inferior frontal sulcus
Precentral
Precentral gyrus
Precentral sulcus
Medial/inferior
Prefrontal
Superior frontal gyrus
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6
Medial frontal gyrus
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9
Paraterminal gyrus/Paraolfactory area
12
Straight gyrus
11
Orbital gyri/Orbitofrontal cortex
10
11
12
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
10
Subcallosal area
25
Olfactory sulcus
Orbital sulcus
Precentral
Paracentral lobule
4
Paracentral sulcus
Both
Primary motor cortex
4
Premotor cortex
6
Supplementary motor area
6
Supplementary eye field
6
Frontal eye fields
8
Parietal lobe
Superolateral
Superior parietal lobule
5
7
Inferior parietal lobule
40-Supramarginal gyrus
39-Angular gyrus
Parietal operculum
43
Intraparietal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Paracentral lobule
1
2
3
5
Precuneus
7
Marginal sulcus
Both
Postcentral gyrus/Primary somatosensory cortex
1
2
3
Secondary somatosensory cortex
5
Posterior parietal cortex
7
Occipital lobe
Superolateral
Occipital pole of cerebrum
Lateral occipital gyrus
18
19
Lunate sulcus
Transverse occipital sulcus
Medial/inferior
Visual cortex
17
Cuneus
Lingual gyrus
Calcarine sulcus
Temporal lobe
Superolateral
Transverse temporal gyrus/Auditory cortex
41
42
Superior temporal gyrus
38
22/Wernicke's area
Middle temporal gyrus
21
Superior temporal sulcus
Medial/inferior
Fusiform gyrus
37
Medial temporal lobe
27
28
34
35
36
Inferior temporal gyrus
20
Inferior temporal sulcus
Interlobar
sulci/fissures
Superolateral
Central (frontal+parietal)
Lateral (frontal+parietal+temporal)
Parieto-occipital
Preoccipital notch
Medial/inferior
Longitudinal fissure
Cingulate (frontal+cingulate)
Collateral (temporal+occipital)
Callosal sulcus
Limbic lobe
Parahippocampal gyrus
anterior
Entorhinal cortex
Perirhinal cortex
Postrhinal cortex
Posterior parahippocampal gyrus
Prepyriform area
Cingulate cortex/gyrus
Subgenual area
25
Anterior cingulate
24
32
33
Posterior cingulate
23
31
Isthmus of cingulate gyrus: Retrosplenial cortex
26
29
30
Hippocampal formation
Hippocampal sulcus
Fimbria of hippocampus
Dentate gyrus
Rhinal sulcus
Other
Supracallosal gyrus
Uncus
Amygdala
Insular cortex
Insular cortex
General
Operculum
Poles of cerebral hemispheres
Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri.
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text:
Soul Plane
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Soul Plane
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Jessy Terrero
Produced by
David Scott Rubin
Jessy Terrero
Written by
Chuck Wilson
Bo Zenga
Starring
Tom Arnold
Kevin Hart
Method Man
Snoop Dogg
Music by
RZA
Christopher Lennertz (Uncredited)
Cinematography
Jonathan Sela
Edited by
Michael R. Miller
Production
company
Boz Productions
Turbo Productions
Distributed by
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
Release date
May 28, 2004 (2004-05-28)
Running time
86 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$16 million[2]
Box office
$14.8 million[2]
Soul Plane is a 2004 American comedy film directed by Jessy Terrero, written by Bo Zenga and starring Tom Arnold, Kevin Hart, Method Man and Snoop Dogg. Supporting actors include Mo'Nique, Loni Love, K.D. Aubert, D.L. Hughley, Godfrey and Sofia Vergara.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Release
3.1 Box office
3.2 Critical reception
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
Nashawn Wade (Kevin Hart) has a horrible experience with a typical airline: his dog Dre was classified as a checked baggage instead of a carry-on, he eats a horrible airline meal, his buttocks gets stuck in the toilet during turbulence, and Nashawn's dog is sucked through a jet engine (after a stewardess accidentally opens the cargo door). In response, he sues the airline and is awarded $100,000,000 by the jury. He decides to use the money to start his own airline, called N.W.A. (Nashawn Wade Airlines), whose acronym and logo are a pop culture reference to rap group N.W.A. The airline specifically caters to African Americans and hip hop culture. The terminal at the airport is called the Malcolm X terminal, the plane is a heavily modified Boeing 747SP, customized with low-rider hydraulics, spinners, blended winglets to compensate for the drag from the decorations, and a dance club. The safety video is also a spoof of the Destiny's Child song "Survivor".
After taking off from Los Angeles International Airport, Nashawn must deal with a multitude of problems, starting with his acrophobic captain, Captain Mack (Snoop Dogg). At a cruising altitude of Flight Level 330, it is revealed that he has never left the ground because he learned to fly on computer simulators in prison. Meanwhile, his cousin Muggsey (Method Man), sets up a miniature casino and strip joint in one of the areas of the plane (as seen in the workprint and unrated versions of the film), and Nashawn's ex-girlfriend is on board and less than happy to see him. Meanwhile, the Hunkee family, the only caucasian passengers on board, must also deal with their own problems; Elvis Hunkee's (Tom Arnold) daughter is turning eighteen and plans to use her newfound freedom by drinking and having sex, his son has transformed from an exact duplicate of him to a stereotypical wigger, and his wife has found a new interest in black men after viewing pictures in a pornographic magazine.
The pilot seemingly dies after eating mushrooms that the co-pilot, First Officer Gaemon (Godfrey), uses to soothe his genital crabs. Nashawn attempts to contact Gaemon, who is incapacitated after slipping near a hot tub, forcing Nashawn to attempt to land the plane himself. Nashawn lands the plane safely, using the airplane stewardess' (Sofía Vergara) flight knowledge which she learned while having sex in the cockpit with the pilot on another plane. The plane lands in the middle of Central Park instead of John F. Kennedy International Airport, and the spinners are stolen from the plane. Nashawn reconciles with his ex-girlfriend after earlier revealing to her that he only broke up with her so she would not give up her college opportunities for him.
The movie ends with Nashawn telling the audience the fate of his crew. He claims that he and his ex-girlfriend are back together taking their relationship slow this time around, his cousin Muggsey has started a strip club and gambling casino located in another airplane similar to the club in Nashawn's plane, Elvis Hunkee has begun a sexual relationship with one of the abrasive airline security guards (Mo'Nique), and Elvis Hunkee's son has become a major music video director but has disappeared shortly after filming a Michael Jackson video. The pilot later wakes up with both his chain and clothing stolen.
Cast[edit]
Kevin Hart as Nashawn Wade
Snoop Dogg as Captain Antoine Mack
Tom Arnold as Elvis Hunkee
Method Man as Muggsy
K. D. Aubert as Giselle
Godfrey as Leslie Gaemon
Brian Hooks as D.J.
Arielle Kebbel as Heather Hunkee
Loni Love as Shaniece
Mo'Nique as Jamiqua
Sofía Vergara as Blanca
Missi Pyle as Barbara Hunkee
Sommore as Cherry
Ryan Pinkston as Billy Hunkee
Gary Anthony Williams as Flame
John Witherspoon as Blind Man
Cynthia Pinot as Hardrock girl
Angell Conwell as Tamika
Roberto Roman as Passenger
Terry Crews as Bouncer
Richard T. Jones as False Denzel
Lil Jon as himself
Ying Yang Twins as themselves
Karl Malone as himself
Release[edit]
Box office[edit]
Soul Plane opened on May 28, 2004 in 1,566 theaters. In its opening weekend, the film made $5,648,486 in the domestic box office, ranking number five behind Shrek 2, The Day After Tomorrow, Troy, and Raising Helen.[3] At the end of its run, the film grossed $14,190,750 domestically and $631,596 overseas for a worldwide total of $14,822,346.[2]
In an interview on the podcast WTF with Marc Maron, Hart said that part of the reason for the poor box office turnout was due to bootlegging, which had apparently begun three months before the film was released in theaters. He explained, "on the street, [Soul Plane] made 40 million dollars". Hart told Marc Maron that during a premiere, fans were coming up to him asking him to sign copies of the bootleg. Hart does, however, credit Soul Plane for making him popular enough to start touring around the country.[4]
Critical reception[edit]
The film received negative reviews from critics. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave it an 18% from a total of 99 reviews with a consensus stating, "A raunchy sendup of Airplane! that never really takes off."[5] On Metacritic, the film has a 33/100 rating based on 26 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[6] Stephen Holden of The New York Times says in his review: "This hectic farce, which pushes every envelope, is so broad and relentlessly raunchy that it makes a spoof like Airplane seem as demure as a vintage drawing-room comedy."[7]
In late 2014, the film appeared on Empire magazine's users-voted list of "The 50 Worst Movies Ever", ranking number 47. Its given reason for being listed states: "This was billed as an "urban" take on Airplane! That's a bad idea to begin with: like Scary Movie, parodies of a parody are on to a loser from the start. But with the addition of crude racial stereotyping (of all races) and a fatal lack of funny, this goes from bad to worst. If more voters had seen it, this would be in the top ten."[8]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "SOUL PLANE (18)". British Board of Film Classification. July 22, 2004. Retrieved March 3, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Soul Plane (2004)". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. August 6, 2004. Retrieved March 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for May 28-30, 2004". Box Office Mojo. Internet Movie Database. May 29, 2004. Retrieved March 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ "WTF with Marc Maron Podcast: Episode 272 - Kevin Hart". Wtfpod.libsyn.com. April 19, 2012. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Soul Plane". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster.
Jump up ^ "Soul Plane". Metacritic. CBS Interactive.
Jump up ^ "Movie Review - Soul Plane". The New York Times. May 28, 2004. Retrieved March 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The 50 Worst Movies Ever - 47. Soul Plane". Empire. Bauer. December 11, 2014. Retrieved March 3, 2015.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Soul Plane
Soul Plane on IMDb
Soul Plane at Box Office Mojo
Soul Plane at Rotten Tomatoes
Soul Plane at Metacritic
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soul_Plane&oldid=834316120"
Categories:
2004 films
English-language films
2000s comedy films
American films
American comedy films
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