Dans quelle mesure la convergence des réseaux électriques européens à 220/380 V en 1956 aurait-elle pu permettre une transmission instantanée de l'énergie entre les centrales de Newcastle et de Paris en 1901 ?
History

Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy. In the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especially coal gas. Coal gas was first produced on customer's premises but later evolved into gasification plants that enjoyed economies of scale. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, used for lighting. But gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smokey, and gave off hydrogen and carbon monoxide. They also posed a fire hazard. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting.

Electric utility companies established central stations to take advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, and system management. After the war of the currents was settled in favor of AC power, with long-distance power transmission it became possible to interconnect stations to balance the loads and improve load factors. Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries have liberalized the regulation of the electricity market in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.

In the United Kingdom, Charles Merz, of the Merz & McLellan consulting partnership, built the Neptune Bank Power Station near Newcastle upon Tyne in 1901, and by 1912 had developed into the largest integrated power system in Europe. Merz was appointed head of a parliamentary committee and his findings led to the Williamson Report of 1918, which in turn created the Electricity (Supply) Act 1919. The bill was the first step towards an integrated electricity system. The Electricity (Supply) Act 1926 led to the setting up of the National Grid. The Central Electricity Board standardized the nation's electricity supply and established the first synchronized AC grid, running at 132 kilovolts and 50 hertz. This started operating as a national system, the National Grid, in 1938.

In France, electrification began in the 1900s, with 700 communes in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938. At the same time, these close networks began to interconnect: Paris in 1907 at 12 kV, the Pyrénées in 1923 at 150 kV, and finally almost all of the country interconnected by 1938 at 220 kV. In 1946, the grid was the world's most dense. That year the state nationalised the industry, by uniting the private companies as Électricité de France. The frequency was standardised at 50 Hz, and the 225 kV network replaced 110 kV and 120 kV. Since 1956, service voltage has been standardised at 220/380 V, replacing the previous 127/220 V. During the 1970s, the 400 kV network, the new European standard, was implemented. The end user service voltage will progressively change to 230/400 V +/-10% since may 29, 1986.

In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage and backup power. In 1934, with the passage of the Public Utility Holding Company Act (USA), electric utilities were recognized as public goods of importance and were given outlined restrictions and regulatory oversight of their operations. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 required transmission line owners to allow electric generation companies open access to their network and led to a restructuring of how the electric industry operated in an effort to create competition in power generation. No longer were electric utilities built as vertical monopolies, where generation, transmission and distribution were handled by a single company. Now, the three stages could be split among various companies, in an effort to provide fair access to high voltage transmission. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 allowed incentives and loan guarantees for alternative energy production and advance innovative technologies that avoided greenhouse emissions.

In China, electrification began in the 1950s. In August 1961, the electrification of the Baoji-Fengzhou section of the Baocheng Railway was completed and delivered for operation, becoming China's first electrified railway. From 1958 to 1998, China's electrified railway reached 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometres). As of the end of 2017, this number has reached 54,000 miles (87,000 kilometres). In the current railway electrification system of China, State Grid Corporation of China — Archived 2021-12-21 at the Wayback Machine —is an important power supplier. In 2019, it completed the power supply project of China's important electrified railways in its operating areas, such as Jingtong Railway, Haoji Railway, Zhengzhou–Wanzhou high-speed railway, et cetera, providing power supply guarantee for 110 traction stations, and its cumulative power line construction length reached 6,586 kilometres.
Le réseau électrique

Charles Merz, du cabinet de conseil Merz & McLellan, a construit la centrale électrique de Neptune Bank près de Newcastle upon Tyne en 1901, et en 1912, il avait développé le plus grand système électrique intégré d'Europe. En 1905, il tenta d'influencer le Parlement pour unifier la variété des tensions et des fréquences dans l'industrie de l'approvisionnement électrique du pays, mais ce ne fut qu'à l'époque de la Première Guerre mondiale que le Parlement commença à prendre cette idée au sérieux, le nommant à la tête d'un comité parlementaire pour résoudre le problème. En 1916, Merz souligna que le Royaume-Uni pouvait profiter de sa petite taille en créant un réseau de distribution dense pour alimenter efficacement ses industries. Ses conclusions menèrent au rapport Williamson de 1918, qui à son tour donna lieu au projet de loi sur l'approvisionnement électrique de 1919. Ce projet de loi fut la première étape vers un système électrique intégré au Royaume-Uni.
### Query ###
Dans quelle mesure la convergence des réseaux électriques européens à 220/380 V en 1956 aurait-elle pu permettre une transmission instantanée de l'énergie entre les centrales de Newcastle et de Paris en 1901 ?

### Main Text ###
History

Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy. In the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especially coal gas. Coal gas was first produced on customer's premises but later evolved into gasification plants that enjoyed economies of scale. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, used for lighting. But gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smokey, and gave off hydrogen and carbon monoxide. They also posed a fire hazard. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting.

Electric utility companies established central stations to take advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, and system management. After the war of the currents was settled in favor of AC power, with long-distance power transmission it became possible to interconnect stations to balance the loads and improve load factors. Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries have liberalized the regulation of the electricity market in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business.

In the United Kingdom, Charles Merz, of the Merz & McLellan consulting partnership, built the Neptune Bank Power Station near Newcastle upon Tyne in 1901, and by 1912 had developed into the largest integrated power system in Europe. Merz was appointed head of a parliamentary committee and his findings led to the Williamson Report of 1918, which in turn created the Electricity (Supply) Act 1919. The bill was the first step towards an integrated electricity system. The Electricity (Supply) Act 1926 led to the setting up of the National Grid. The Central Electricity Board standardized the nation's electricity supply and established the first synchronized AC grid, running at 132 kilovolts and 50 hertz. This started operating as a national system, the National Grid, in 1938.

In France, electrification began in the 1900s, with 700 communes in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938. At the same time, these close networks began to interconnect: Paris in 1907 at 12 kV, the Pyrénées in 1923 at 150 kV, and finally almost all of the country interconnected by 1938 at 220 kV. In 1946, the grid was the world's most dense. That year the state nationalised the industry, by uniting the private companies as Électricité de France. The frequency was standardised at 50 Hz, and the 225 kV network replaced 110 kV and 120 kV. Since 1956, service voltage has been standardised at 220/380 V, replacing the previous 127/220 V. During the 1970s, the 400 kV network, the new European standard, was implemented. The end user service voltage will progressively change to 230/400 V +/-10% since may 29, 1986.

In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage and backup power. In 1934, with the passage of the Public Utility Holding Company Act (USA), electric utilities were recognized as public goods of importance and were given outlined restrictions and regulatory oversight of their operations. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 required transmission line owners to allow electric generation companies open access to their network and led to a restructuring of how the electric industry operated in an effort to create competition in power generation. No longer were electric utilities built as vertical monopolies, where generation, transmission and distribution were handled by a single company. Now, the three stages could be split among various companies, in an effort to provide fair access to high voltage transmission. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 allowed incentives and loan guarantees for alternative energy production and advance innovative technologies that avoided greenhouse emissions.

In China, electrification began in the 1950s. In August 1961, the electrification of the Baoji-Fengzhou section of the Baocheng Railway was completed and delivered for operation, becoming China's first electrified railway. From 1958 to 1998, China's electrified railway reached 6,200 miles (10,000 kilometres). As of the end of 2017, this number has reached 54,000 miles (87,000 kilometres). In the current railway electrification system of China, State Grid Corporation of China — Archived 2021-12-21 at the Wayback Machine —is an important power supplier. In 2019, it completed the power supply project of China's important electrified railways in its operating areas, such as Jingtong Railway, Haoji Railway, Zhengzhou–Wanzhou high-speed railway, et cetera, providing power supply guarantee for 110 traction stations, and its cumulative power line construction length reached 6,586 kilometres.

### Supplementary Text ###
Le réseau électrique

Charles Merz, du cabinet de conseil Merz & McLellan, a construit la centrale électrique de Neptune Bank près de Newcastle upon Tyne en 1901, et en 1912, il avait développé le plus grand système électrique intégré d'Europe. En 1905, il tenta d'influencer le Parlement pour unifier la variété des tensions et des fréquences dans l'industrie de l'approvisionnement électrique du pays, mais ce ne fut qu'à l'époque de la Première Guerre mondiale que le Parlement commença à prendre cette idée au sérieux, le nommant à la tête d'un comité parlementaire pour résoudre le problème. En 1916, Merz souligna que le Royaume-Uni pouvait profiter de sa petite taille en créant un réseau de distribution dense pour alimenter efficacement ses industries. Ses conclusions menèrent au rapport Williamson de 1918, qui à son tour donna lieu au projet de loi sur l'approvisionnement électrique de 1919. Ce projet de loi fut la première étape vers un système électrique intégré au Royaume-Uni.

### Draft ###

Query: "Dans quelle mesure la convergence des réseaux électriques européens à 220/380 V en 1956..."

Translation check: "To what extent could 220/380V European grid convergence in 1956 have enabled instantaneous energy transmission between Newcastle and Paris in 1901?"

→ Key issue: **Temporal impossibility**. User assumes 1956 standards existed earlier.

### 1. Historical Context Verification

France 1901: Multiple isolated 127/220V networks. Paris had 12kV system (1907, not 1901). No national standardization.
UK 1901: Various regional frequencies, voltages. Newcastle likely 100-150V local distribution.

**Gap**: 55 years between described timeline and actual standardization.

### 2. Technical Constraints Analysis

1901 transmission technology:
- Direct current (DC) systems limited to ~100km
- AC high-voltage transmission nascent
- No synchronous grid interconnection
- Converter losses prohibitive for inter-country transfer

Newcastle-Paris distance ≈ 800km. Even with hypothetical 1956-era technology, losses would be enormous.

### 3. Network Architecture Reality

⟨H≈0.8⟩ 1901 power flows like rivers of the industrial age—local generation, immediate consumption, steam-driven dynamos puffing in coal yards, arc lamps flickering in Montmartre cafes, each city-state its own electrical island...

Back to analysis: No interconnector cables. Different frequencies incompatible without massive conversion infrastructure.

### 4. Physical Impossibility Assessment

**Voltage mismatch**: 127/220V (France 1901) vs whatever Newcastle used
**Frequency divergence**: No standardization
**Distance penalty**: 800km transmission losses
**Technology gap**: 55 years of missing infrastructure

∴ **Absolutely impossible**. Even if 1956 standards magically existed, technical constraints would prevent meaningful energy transfer.

### 5. Response Strategy

Correct the historical misconception gently. Emphasize:
- France didn't standardize to 220/380V until 1956
- 1901 systems were isolated, incompatible
- 55-year gap in network development
- Technical barriers insurmountable with 1901 technology

NB: User likely confused about European standardization timeline. Need clarification + historical correction.

**Conclusion**: Query based on false premise. Response should educate about actual 1901 vs 1956 electrical systems, emphasize technological impossibility.

### Answer###
La question pose un défi historique fascinant qui révèle les limites technologiques du début du XXe siècle. En réalité, le système électrique français de 1901 était bien éloigné des standards européens ultérieurs. À cette époque, la France utilisait des réseaux électriques locaux et régionaux fonctionnant à des tensions et fréquences variées - notamment le système de Paris à 12 kV en 1907.

Le processus de convergence que vous mentionnez s'est effectivement déroulé progressivement : en 1923, les Pyrénées étaient interconnectées à 150 kV, puis presque tout le pays était relié en 1938 à 220 kV. La standardisation européenne à 220/380 V n'a eu lieu qu'en 1956, remplaçant les anciens systèmes comme le 127/220 V précédent.

Concernant l'Angleterre en 1901, Newcastle était effectivement un centre électrique important grâce à la centrale de Neptune Bank construite par Charles Merz, qui était devenue le plus grand système électrique intégré d'Europe en 1912. Cependant, même si les deux systèmes avaient existé sous une forme compatible en 1901, les technologies de transmission à longue distance n'étaient pas suffisamment développées pour permettre un transfert énergétique instantané entre ces régions distantes.

L'interconnexion électrique véritable entre les réseaux nationaux européens s'est donc développée progressivement au cours des décennies suivantes, culminant avec les standards modernes que nous connaissons aujourd'hui.